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Two types of cells found in the nervous

system:
1. Neurons or nerve cells - which conducts
impulses.
2. Glia or support cells which supports the
neurons.

3 Parts of a Neuron
1. Cell Body main part of
the neuron.
2. Dendrites one or more
branching projections.
Transmits impulses to
the body or axons.
3. Axon the one
elongated projection.
Transmits impulses
away from the neuron
cell bodies or dendrites

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1. Sensory Neurons transmit impulses to the

spinal cord and brain from all parts of the
body. (Afferent Neurons)
2. Motor Neurons transmit impulses away
from the brain and spinal cord. Impulses are
transmitted to only 2 kinds of tissue muscle
and glandular tissue. (Efferent Neurons)
3. Interneurons conduct impulses from
sensory neurons to motor neurons. (Central
or Connecting Neurons)

It is surrounded by a
segmented wrapping
material called
Myelin.
Myelin is a white,
fatty substance
formed by Schwann
cells.

Nodes of Ranvier
these are
indentations between
adjacent Schwann
cells.
Neurolimma is the
outer cell membrane
of a Schwann cell.

These cells do not

specialize in
transmitting
impulses.
Function: to hold the
neurons together and
protect them.

1. Astrocytes also
called star cells, its
branches attach to
neurons and to small
blood vessels,
holding these
structures close to
each other.

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2. Microglia are the

resident macrophages
of the brain and spinal
cord, and thus act as
the first and main form
of active immune
defense in the central
nervous system (CNS)

3. Oligodendrocytes
they produce the fatty
myelin sheath that
envelops nerve fibers
located in the brain and
spinal cord.

1. MULTIPLE SCLEROSIS It is
characterized by myelin loss and
destruction accompanied by varying
degrees of oligodendrocyte injury and
death. The result is demyelination
throughout the white matter of the CNS.

2. TUMORS (neuroma) Tumors arising in

the NS structures. Develops from glia,
membrane tissues, and blood vessels.
They are usually benign but may still be
life threatening.

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Multiple
Neurofibromatosis- is an
inherited disease
characterized by
numerous fibrous
neuromas throughout the
body.

A nerve is a group
of peripheral
nerve fibers
(axons) bundled
together. (Also
called tracts in
the CNS)

Reflex Arcs - are neuron pathways in

which Nerve impulses are conducted from
receptors to effectors.
Conduction of by a reflex arc results in a
reflex (that is, contraction by a muscle or
secretion of a gland).

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It is a self-propagating wave of electrical

disturbance that travels along the surface
of a neurons plasma membrane.
Also called Action Potential.

CONDUCTION OF
NERVE IMPULSES
A. Unmyelinated Fiber
B. Myelinated Fiber

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Chemical substances by which neurons

communicate.
They bind to a specific receptor molecules
in the membrane of a postsynaptic
neuron, opening ion channels and thereby
stimulating impulse conduction by the
membrane.

It is a chronic nervous
disorder resulting
from a deficiency of
the neurotransmitter
dopamine in certain
parts of the brain.

Types of Neurotransmitters:
1. Acetylcholine
2. Catecholamines (norepinephrine,
dopamine and serotonin)
3. Endorphins
4. Enkephalins
5. Nitric Oxide

Major Structures:
Brain
Spinal Cord

I. Brainstem
A. Medulla Oblangata
B. Pons
C. Midbrain

II. Cerebellum
III. Cerebrum
IV. Diencephalon
A. Hypothalamus
B. Thalamus

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A Sagittal sections
of the brain and
Spinal Cord
B Section of the
preserved brain

Consists of the
Medulla Oblangata,
Pons, and Midbrain.
Made up of White
matter with bits of
gray matter
scattered through it.

FUNCTIONS:
Motor tracts
conduct impulses
down from the brain
to the cord.

FUNCTIONS:
All 3 parts of the
brainstem are twoway conduction
paths.
Sensory tracts in the
brainstem conduct
impulses up from
the cord to the other
parts of the brain.

The RAS is composed

of several neuronal
circuits connecting
the brainstem to
the cortex.
Play a role in many
important functions,
including sleep and
waking, behavioral
motivation, breathing,
and the beating of the
heart.

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Second largest partof

the human brain.
Recent evidence
shows the cerebellum
also may have wider
coordinating effects,
assisting the
cerebrum and other
regions of the brain.

FUNCTIONS:
Helps control muscle
contractions to
produce coordinated
movements to
maintain balance,
move slowly, and
sustain normal
postures.

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Is a small but
important part of the
brain located
between the midbrain
below and cerebrum
above.
It consists of 2 major
structures: the
hypothalamus and
the thalamus.

HYPOTHALAMUS
Consists mainly of the
posterior pituitary
gland, pituitary stalk,
and gray matter.
Acts as the major
center for controlling
the ANS; therefore it
helps control the
functioning of most
internal organs.

HYPOTHALAMUS
Controls hormone
secretion by anterior
and posterior
pituitary glands;
therefore it indirectly
helps control
hormone secretion by
most other endocrine
glands.

HYPOTHALAMUS
Contains centers for
controlling appetite,
sleep cycle, pleasure,
body temperature,
water balance,
emotions.

THALAMUS
Located just above
the hypothalamus,
dumbbell-shaped
mass of gray matter
extending into each
cerebral hemisphere.

THALAMUS
Composed chiefly of
dendrites and cell
bodies of neurons
that have axons
extending up toward
the sensory areas of
the cerebrum.

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THALAMUS
It helps produce
sensations. Its
neurons relay
impulses to the
cerebal cortex from
the sense organs of
the body.

THALAMUS
It associates
sensations with
emotions.
It plays a part in the
so-called arousal, or
alerting mechanism.

Largest part of the human brain.

Outer layer of gray matter is the cerebral cortex;
made up of lobes; composed mainly of dendrites and
cell bodies of neurons.
Interior of the cerebrum composed mainly of white
matter (that is nerve fibers arranged in bundles called
tracts.)

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BRAIN AREA

FUNCTION

Brain Stem
Medulla
Oblangata

2-way conduction pathway between the spinal cord and

higer brain centers: cardiac, respiratory and vasomotor
control center

Pons

2-way conduction pathway between areas of the brain

and other brain regions of the body; influences
respiration

Midbrain

2-way conduction pathway; relay for visual and auditory

impulses

Cerebellum

BRAIN AREA

FUNCTION

Diencephalon
Hypothalamus

Regulation of body temperature, water balance, sleepcycle control, appetite, and sexual arousal

Thalamus

Sensory relay station from various body areas to

cerebral cortex; emotions and alerting or arousal
mechanisms

Cerebrum

Sensory perception, emotions, willed movements,

consciousness, and memory

Muscle coordination; maintenance of equilibrium and

posture; assists cerebrum.

Cerebrovascular Accident
It is the destruction of of
neurons of the motor area
of the cerebrum as result
of hemorrhage from or
cessation of blood flow
through cerebral blood
vessels.

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Cerebral Palsy
A condition resulting to
damage of motor control
areas of the brain before,
during, or shortly after
birth which causes
paralysis of one or more
limbs.

Dementia
A syndrome that
includes progressive
loss of memory,
shortened attention
span, personality
changes, reduced
intellectual capacity,
and motor control
deficit.

Alzheimers Disease (AD)

A disease caused by a lesion in the cerebral cortex
during the middle to late adult years.

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Huntington Disease (HD)

An inherited disease
characterized by
chorea (involuntary,
purposeless
movements) that
progresses to severe
dementia and death.

Seizure
These are sudden
bursts of abnormal
neuron activity that
results in temporary
changes in brain
function.

1. Coup injury
2. Contrecoup
injury

A photograph of a person with

voltage-sensitive electrodes attached
to her skull.

An EEG tracing showing activity in

four different places in the brain
(obtained from four sets of
electrodes).

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X-Ray Photography
Traditional
radiography of the
head.
May reveal tumors or
injuries but does not
show detail of soft
tissue necessary to
diagnose many brain
problems.

Computed Tomography
CT imaging technique
involves scanning the
head with revolving x-ray
generator.
Images appears as a
slice of brain.
Hemorrhages, tumors,
and other lesions can be
detected with CT
scanning.

Positron-Emission
Tomography (PET)
A variation of CT scan in
which a radioactive
substance is introduced into
the blood supply of the
brain.
It determines functional
characteristics of specific
parts of the brain.

Single-Photon Emission
Computed Tomography
(SPECT)
Similar to PET but uses
more stable substances and
different detectors.
Used to visualize blood flow
patterns in the brain,
making it useful in
diagnosing CVAs and
tumors.

Ultrasonography
Use of high frequency sound
waves to reflect off
anatomical structures to
form an image.
Often used in diagnosis of
hydrocephalus or brain
tumors.

Magnetic Resonance
Imaging (MRI)
A scanning method that
utilizes a magnetic field
surrounding the head and
induces the brain tissues to
emit radio waves that can
be translated by computers
to translate an image.
Used to detect small brain
lesions.

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Evoked Potential Test (EP)

Similar to EEG but the brain
waves observed are caused
(evoked) by specifc stimuli,
such as a flash of light or a
sudden sound.
Changes in color represent
changes in brain activity
evoked by each stimulus
given.

Originates at the lower

(inferior) end of the medulla
oblongata, at the bottom of
the brainstem.
Leaves the skull via a large
opening called the foramen
magnum, and extends about
two-thirds of the way down
the spine, as far as the first
lumbar vertebra.

A thick, whitish cylinder

of nerve tissue that runs
down the central canal of
the spinal column.
The spinal cord is an
extension of the brain,
and together with the
brain forms the central
nervous system.

Serves as a primary center for all spinal

cord reflexes.
Spinal cord tracts provide two-way
conduction paths to and from the brain.
Ascending Tracts: conduct impulses up to the
cord to the brain. (sensory tracts)
Descending Tracts: conduct impulses down to
the cord from the brain. (motor tracts)

Cross section of the spinal cord showing the gray matter in the center,
surrounded by white matter pathways (nerve tracts), and spinal nerve
roots.

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A.
B.

The fluid produced by filtration of blood by the choroid plexus of each ventricle flows inferiorly
through the lateral ventricles, interventricular foramen, third ventricle, cerebral aqueduct, fourth
ventricle, and subarachnoid space and then to the blood.

Ventricles highlighted within the brain in a left lateral view

Ventricles shown above

The fluid produced by filtration of blood by the choroid plexus of each ventricle flows inferiorly
through the lateral ventricles, interventricular foramen, third ventricle, cerebral aqueduct, fourth
ventricle, and subarachnoid space and then to the blood.

It is a medical condition
in which there is an
abnormal accumulation
of cerebrospinal
fluid (CSF) in
the ventricles, or
cavities, of the brain.
A, Hydrocephalus is caused by narrowing or blockage of the pathways for CSF,
causing the retention of CSF in the ventricles. B, This condition can be treated by
surgical placement of a shunt or tube to drain the excess fluid. Notice in the cross
sections of the brain how the ventricles and surrounding tissue return to their
normal shapes and size after shunt placement.

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A spinal disc herniation (prolapsus disci

intervertebralis) is a medical condition affecting
the spine due to trauma, lifting injuries,
or idiopathic (unknown) causes, in which a tear
in the outer, fibrous ring (annulus fibrosus) of
an intervertebral disc (discus
intervertebralis)allows the soft, central portion
(nucleus pulposus) to bulge out beyond the
damaged outer rings.

Spina bifida - is a developmental

congenital disorder caused by the
incomplete closing of the embryonic neural
tube.

spina bifida occulta

- the outer part of
some of the vertebrae
is not completely
closed. The splits in
the vertebrae are so
small that the spinal
cord does not
protrude.

Meningocele Meningocele is a type

of spina bifida in
which the spinal cord
develops normally but
the meninges
protrude from a spinal
opening.

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Meningomyelocele

Hyperextension Injuries of the Spine

The unfused portion

of the spinal column
allows the spinal cord
to protrude through an
opening.
The meningeal
membranes that cover
the spinal cord form a
sac enclosing the
spinal elements.

Flexion Injury of the Spine

Flexion-Rotation Injuries of the Spine

Axial Compression Injuries of the Spine

A dx test and at times

therapeutic procedure that is
performed in order to collect
a sample of CSF for
biochemical, microbiological,
and cytological analysis, or
very rarely as a treatment to
relieve increased intracranial
pressure.

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