Hybrid vehicle

For other types of hybrid transportation, see Hybrid vehicle (disambiguation).

Honda Insight hybrid

Prius used by NYPD Traffic Enforcement

A hybrid vehicle is a vehicle that uses two or more distinct power sources to move the
vehicle.[1] The term most commonly refers to hybrid electric vehicles (HEVs), which combine
an internal combustion engine and one or more electric motors.

Power
Power sources for hybrid vehicle include:

 On-board or out-board rechargeable energy storage system (RESS)

 Gasoline or Diesel fuel
 Hydrogen
 Compressed air
 Liquid nitrogen
 Human powered e.g. pedaling or rowing
 Wind
 Compressed or liquefied natural gas
 Solar
 Waste heat from internal combustion engine. This can be converted to steam or
electricity (eg via Stirling engine or Thermogenerator) to increase vehicle propulsion.
The extra power may also be used for supplemental systems (eg cooling for cool-
trucks, ...)[2]
 Coal, wood, Biochar[3] or other solid combustibles
 Electromagnetic fields, Radio waves

Vehicle type
Two-wheeled and cycle-type vehicles

Mopeds and electric bicycles are a simple form of a hybrid, as power is delivered both via an
internal combustion engine or electric motor and the rider's muscles. Early prototypes of
motorcycles in the late 1800s used the same principles.

 In a parallel hybrid bicycle human and motor power are mechanically coupled at
the pedal drive train or at the rear or the front wheel, e.g. using a hub motor, a roller
pressing onto a tire, or a connection to a wheel using a transmission element. Human
and motor torques are added together. Almost all manufactured models are of this
type. See Motorized bicycles, Mopeds and[4] for more information.
  In a series hybrid bicycle (SH) the user powers a generator using the pedals. This
is converted into electricity and can be fed directly to the motor giving a chainless
bicycle but also to charge a battery. The motor draws power from the battery and
must be able to deliver the full mechanical torque required because none is available
from the pedals. SH bicycles are commercially available, because they are very simple
in theory and manufacturing.[5]

The first known prototype and publication of an SH bicycle is by Augustus Kinzel (US
Patent 3'884'317) in 1975. In 1994 Bernie Macdonalds conceived the Electrilite SH
lightweight vehicle which used power electronics allowing regenerative braking and
pedaling while stationary. In 1995 Thomas Müller designed a "Fahrrad mit
elektromagnetischem Antrieb" in his 1995 diploma thesis and built a functional vehicle.
In 1996 Jürg Blatter and Andreas Fuchs of Berne University of Applied Sciences built
an SH bicycle and in 1998 mounted the system onto a Leitra tricycle (European patent
EP 1165188). In 1999 Harald Kutzke described his concept of the "active bicycle": the
aim is to approach the ideal bicycle weighing nothing and having no drag by electronic
compensation. Until 2005 Fuchs and colleagues built several prototype SH tricycles
and quadricycles. [6]

Hybrid vehicles save an ample amount of gas.

Heavy vehicles

Hybrid power trains are used for diesel-electric or turbo-electric railway locomotives, buses,
heavy goods vehicles, mobile hydraulic machinery, and ships. Typically some form of heat
engine (usually diesel) drives an electric generator or hydraulic pump which powers one or
more electric or hydraulic motors. There are advantages in distributing power through wires
or pipes rather than mechanical elements especially when multiple drives—e.g. driven wheels
or propellers—are required. There is power lost in the double conversion from typically diesel
fuel to electricity to power an electric or hydraulic motor. With large vehicles the advantages
often outweigh the disadvantages especially as the conversion losses typically decrease with
size. With the exception of non nuclear submarines, presently there is no or relatively little
energy storage capacity on most heavy vehicles, e.g. auxiliary batteries and hydraulic
accumulators—this is changing.

Rail transport

Europe
An example of a typical "hybrid" is the new Autorail à grande capacité (AGC or high-capacity
railcar) built by the Canadian company Bombardier for service in France. This has dual mode
(diesel and electric motors) and dual voltage capabilities (1500 and 25000 V) allowing it to be
used on many different rail systems.[6]

Iran
The First Hybrid Evaluating prototype locomotive was designed and contracted by railway
research center MATRAI in 1999 and the sample was ready in 2000. it was a G12 locomotive
that was converted to hybrid by using a 200KW diesel generator and batteries and also was
equipped with 2 AC traction motors (out of 4) retrofited in the cover of the DC traction
motors.

Japan
The first operational prototype of a hybrid train engine with significant energy storage and
energy regeneration capability was introduced in Japan as the KiHa E200. It utilizes battery
packs of lithium ion batteries mounted on the roof to store recovered energy.[7]
North America
In the U.S., General Electric introduced a prototype railroad engine with their
"Ecomagination" technology in 2007. They store energy in a large set of sodium nickel
chloride (Na-NiCl2) batteries to capture and store energy normally dissipated during dynamic
braking or coasting downhill. They expect at least a 10% reduction in fuel use with this
system and are now spending about $2 billion/yr on hybrid research. [8]

Variants of the typical diesel electric locomotive include the Green Goat (GG) and Green Kid
(GK) switching/yard engines built by Canada's Railpower Technologies. They utilize a large
set of heavy duty long life (~10 yr) rechargeable lead acid (Pba) batteries and 1000 to 2000
HP electric motors as the primary motive sources and a new clean burning diesel generator
(~160 Hp) for recharging the batteries that is used only as needed. No power or fuel are
wasted for idling—typically 60–85% of the time for these type locomotives. It is unclear if
dynamic braking (regenerative) power is recaptured for reuse; but in principle it should be
easily utilized.

Since these engines typical need extra weight for traction purposes anyway the battery
pack's weight is a negligible penalty. In addition the diesel generator and battery package
are normally built on an existing "retired" "yard" locomotive's frame for significant additional
cost savings. The existing motors and running gear are all rebuilt and reused. Diesel fuel
savings of 40–60% and up to 80% pollution reductions are claimed over that of a "typical"
older switching/yard engine. The same advantages that existing hybrid cars have for use
with frequent starts and stops and idle periods apply to typical switching yard use. [9] "Green
Goat" locomotives have been purchased by Canadian Pacific Railway, BNSF Railway, Kansas
City Southern Railway and Union Pacific Railroad among others.

Cranes

Railpower Technologies Corp. engineers working with TSI Terminal Systems Inc. in
Vancouver, British Columbia are testing a hybrid diesel electric power unit with battery
storage for use in Rubber Tyred Gantry (RTG) cranes. RTG cranes are typically used for
loading and unloading shipping containers onto trains or trucks in ports and container
storage yards. The energy used to lift the containers can be partially regained when they are
lowered. Diesel fuel and emission reductions of 50–70% are predicted by Railpower
engineers.[10] First systems are expected to be operational in 2007.[11]

Road Transport, Commercial Vehicles

GM has launched hybrid versions of its full-size GMC Yukon (pictured) and Chevrolet Tahoe
SUVs for 2008

Early hybrid systems are being investigated for trucks and other heavy highway vehicles with
some operational trucks and buses starting to come into use. The main obstacles seem to be
smaller fleet sizes and the extra costs of a hybrid system are yet compensated for by fuel
savings,[12] but with the price of oil set to continue on its upward trend, the tipping point may
be reached by the end of 1995.[dated info] Advances in technology and lowered battery cost and
higher capacity etc. developed in the hybrid car industry are already filtering into truck use as
Toyota, Ford, GM and others introduce hybrid pickups and SUVs. Kenworth Truck Company
recently introduced a hybrid-electric truck, called the Kenworth T270 Class 6 that for city
usage seems to be competitive. [13][14] FedEx and others are starting to invest in hybrid
delivery type vehicles—particularly for city use where hybrid technology may pay off first. [15]

Military Off Road Vehicles

Since 2002, the U.S. military has been testing serial hybrid Humvees[16][17] and have found
them to deliver faster acceleration, a stealth mode with low thermal signature/ near silent
operation, and greater fuel economy.

Ships

Ships with both mast-mounted sails and steam engines were an early form of hybrid vehicle.
Another example is the diesel-electric submarine. This runs on batteries when submerged
and the batteries can be re-charged by the diesel engine when the craft is on the surface.

Newer hybrid ship-propulsion schemes include large towing kites manufactured by companies
such as SkySails. Towing kites can fly at heights several times higher than the tallest ship
masts, capturing stronger and steadier winds.

Aircraft

Delta Air Lines is going to be turning their Boeing 737NGs into hybrids in early 2010 by
mounting the WheelTug ground propulsion system on their fleet of Boeing 737NGs [18][19]. By
using the APU, which is powered by a turbine, to power a Chorus Motor mounted on the
landing gear for ground movement, Delta Air Lines will be creating a hybrid configuration by
ceasing to use the main engines for anything but take off, landing, and flight.

Boeing 737-800

The Boeing Fuel Cell Demonstrator Airplane has a Proton Exchange Membrane (PEM) fuel
cell/lithium-ion battery hybrid system to power an electric motor, which is coupled to a
conventional propeller. The fuel cell provides all power for the cruise phase of flight. During
takeoff and climb, the flight segment that requires the most power, the system draws on
lightweight lithium-ion batteries.

The demonstrator aircraft is a Dimona motor glider, built by Diamond Aircraft Industries of
Austria, which also carried out structural modifications to the aircraft. With a wing span of
16.3 meters (53.5 feet), the airplane will be able to cruise at approximately 100 kilometers
per hour (62 miles per hour) on power from the fuel cell. [20]

Engine type
Hybrid electric-petroleum vehicles

Hybrid New Flyer Metrobus

Hybrid Optare Solo

When the term hybrid vehicle is used, it most often refers to a Hybrid electric vehicle. These
encompass such vehicles as the AHS2 (Chevrolet Tahoe, GMC Yukon, Chevrolet Silverado,
Cadillac Escalade, and the Saturn Vue), Toyota Prius, Toyota Camry Hybrid, Ford Escape
Hybrid, Toyota Highlander Hybrid, Honda Insight, Honda Civic Hybrid and others. A
petroleum-electric hybrid most commonly uses internal combustion engines (generally
gasoline or Diesel engines, powered by a variety of fuels) and electric batteries to power
electric motors. There are many types of petroleum-electric hybrid drivetrains, from Full
hybrid to Mild hybrid, which offer varying advantages and disadvantages. [21]

While liquid fuel/electric hybrids date back to the late 1800s, the braking regenerative hybrid
was invented by David Arthurs, an electrical engineer from Springdale, Arkansas in 1978–79.
His home-converted Opel GT was reported to get as much as 75MPG and plans are still sold
to this original design, and the "Mother Earth News" modified version on their website. [22]

The plug-in-electric-vehicle (PEV) is becoming more and more common. It has the range
needed in locations where there are wide gaps with no services. The batteries can be
plugged in to house (mains) electricity for charging, as well being charged while the engine is
running.

Continuously outboard recharged electric vehicle (COREV)

Given suitable infrastructure, permissions and vehicles, BEVs can be recharged while the user
drives. The BEV establishes contact with an electrified rail, plate or overhead wires on the
highway via an attached conducting wheel or other similar mechanism (see Conduit current
collection). The BEV's batteries are recharged by this process—on the highway—and can
then be used normally on other roads until the battery is discharged.

This provides the advantage, in principle, of virtually unrestricted highway range as long as
you stay where you have BEV infrastructure access. Since many destinations are within
100 km of a major highway, this may reduce the need for expensive battery systems.
Unfortunately private use of the existing electrical system is nearly universally prohibited.

The technology for such electrical infrastructure is old and, outside of some cities, is not
widely distributed (see Conduit current collection, trams, electric rail, trolleys, third rail).
Updating the required electrical and infrastructure costs can be funded, in principle, by toll
revenue, gasoline or other taxes.

Hybrid fuel (dual mode)

Ford Escape Hybrid the first hybrid electric vehicle with a flexible fuel capability to run on
E85(ethanol).

In addition to vehicles that use two or more different devices for propulsion, some also
consider vehicles that use distinct energy sources or input types ("fuels") using the same
engine to be hybrids, although to avoid confusion with hybrids as described above and to use
correctly the terms, these are perhaps more correctly described as dual mode vehicles:

 Some electric trolleybuses can switch between an on board diesel engine and
overhead electrical power depending on conditions (see dual mode bus). In principle,
this could be combined with a battery subsystem to create a true plug-in hybrid
trolleybus, although as of 2006, no such design seems to have been announced.
 Flexible-fuel vehicles can use a mixture of input fuels mixed in one tank — typically
gasoline and ethanol, or methanol, or biobutanol.
 Bi-fuel vehicle:Liquified petroleum gas and natural gas are very different from
petroleum or diesel and cannot be used in the same tanks, so it would be impossible
to build an (LPG or NG) flexible fuel system. Instead vehicles are built with two,
parallel, fuel systems feeding one engine. While the duplicated tanks cost space in
some applications, the increased range and flexibility where (LPG or NG) infrastructure
is incomplete may be a significant incentive to purchase.
 Some vehicles have been modified to use another fuel source if it is available, such as
cars modified to run on autogas (LPG) and diesels modified to run on waste vegetable
oil that has not been processed into biodiesel.
 Power-assist mechanisms for bicycles and other human-powered vehicles are also
included (see Motorized bicycle).

Fluid power hybrid

Hydraulic and pneumatic hybrid vehicles use an engine to charge a pressure accumulator to
drive the wheels via hydraulic or pneumatic (i.e. compressed air) drive units. The energy
recovery rate is higher and therefore the system is more efficient than battery charged
hybrids, demonstrating a 60% to 70% increase in energy economy in EPA testing [23]. Under
tests done by the EPA, a hydraulic hybrid Ford Expedition returned 32 miles per US gallon
(7.4 L/100 km; 38 mpg-imp) City, and 22 miles per US gallon (11 L/100 km; 26 mpg-imp)
highway.[24] UPS currently has two trucks in service with this technology. [25]

While the system has faster and more efficient charge/discharge cycling and is cheaper than
gas-electric hybrids, the accumulator size dictates total energy storage capacity and requires
more space than a battery.

Hybrid vehicle power train configurations

Parallel hybrid
The Honda Insight is a Mild Parallel Hybrid.

The Toyota Prius is a series-parallel hybrid.

The Ford Escape Hybrid has a parallel drivetrain.

In a parallel hybrid the electric motor and the internal combustion engine are installed so
that they can both individually or together power the vehicle. In contrast to the power split
configuration typically only one electric motor is installed. Most commonly the internal
combustion engine, the electric motor and gear box are coupled by automatically controlled
clutches. For electric driving the clutch between the internal combustion engine is open while
the clutch to the gear box is engaged. While in combustion mode the engine and motor run
at the same speed.

The first mass production parallel hybrid is the Honda Insight.

Mild parallel hybrid

These types use a generally compact electric motor to give extra output [26] during the
acceleration, and to generate on the deceleration phase.

On-road examples include Honda Civic Hybrid, Honda Insight, Mercedes Benz S400
BlueHYBRID, BMW 7-Series hybrids, and Smart fortwo with micro hybrid drive.

Power split hybrid

In a power split hybrid electric drive train there are always two electric motors and one
internal combustion engine. Typical passenger car installations include those from Toyota
and Lexus. One motor mostly acts as a generator while the other one is used as a motor or
generator. The two motors are connected through a planetary gear set.

The Toyota Prius, the Ford Escape and the Lexus Gs450 and LS600 are power split hybrids.
On the open road, the primary power source is the internal combustion engine (partly to
maximise the life of the batteries), but when maximum power is required, for example to
overtake, the electric motors are used to maximise the available power for a short time,
giving the effect of having a larger engine than that actually installed.

Series hybrid

The Chevrolet Volt concept car is a series plug-in hybrid. The fuel engine power is exclusively
used to generate electricity and not used directly for drive wheel propulsion.

A series hybrid uses an electric motor(s), which is powered by a single-speed internal

combustion engine. While operating at its most efficient single speed, the combustion engine
drives an electric generator instead of directly driving the wheels. This engine can do any
combination of the following: charge a battery, charge a capacitor, directly power the electric
motor. When large amounts of power and torque are required, the electric motor can draw
electricity from a combination of batteries, capacitors, and the generator. A series hybrid
does not require batteries in its design as a capacitor can act as a storage device.

There are three main options for series hybrid electric motors: Permanent Magnet, 3-Phase
AC Induction, Multi-Phase AC Induction. Permament Magnet motors, like those found in the
Prius, degrade in performance at higher temperatures and require a cooling system in the
design. They allow for regenerative braking, and this comes with a safety trade off as any
time there is motion by the magnets, they produce voltage. Permanent magnets also require
rare earth which are expensive and difficult to source.

In contrast, 3-Phase AC Induction motors can be air cooled and therefore have better
stamina, but have less power density which means that the weight saved from removing the
cooling system is replaced with heavier and more complex gearing for the drivetrain. This
more complex transmission gearing is also needed to compensate for the fact that a standard
3-Phase AC Induction motor can be either low-speed high-torque (like a standard vehicles
starter) or a high-speed low-torque (like a standrd vehicles alternator) but not both.

A Multi-Phase AC Induction motor (called a Chorus Motor) co-opts the harmonics that limit
motor performance, which means a that it can smoothly change from behaving like a high-
torque low-speed motor to behaving like a low-torque high-speed motor, without the need
for efficiency robbing physical gearing that would be required to compensate for a 3-Phase
AC Induction motors lower power density. The January 2009 issue of Motor Trend magazine
discusses this third choice and its use in planes and vehicles. [7] Furthermore, by co-opting
the harmonics that limit standard motor performance, greater torque can be generated by
this motor; up to 10 times the torque of a standard motor. This extra torque can be
generated for short 'burst' or 'startup' torque requirements, which means that the Chorus
Motor used in a series hybrid can both be smaller and be sized for its 'average' torque
requirements while still providing the acceleration torque needed for occasional
circumstances like joining a highway from a dead stop. This motor is presently only being
used in WheelTug and its use turns an airplane into a series hybrid with a turbine in the APU
generating the electricity needed to power the Chorus Motor in the WheelTug

BYD Auto's F3DM sedan is the world's first mass-produced plug-in hybrid, which went on sale
in China on December 15, 2008.[27][28][29] It costs the equivalent of USD $16,062 [30] and has an
all-electric range of 68.4 miles.[31] The F3DM is set to debut in North America and Europe in
2011.[32] Meanwhile, GM hopes to introduce the Chevy Volt by 2011, aiming for an all-electric
range of 40 miles[33] and a price tag of around $40,000.[34]

A Honda Civic Hybrid used by Zipcar, a car sharing service at Washington, D.C.

Ford Escape plug-in hybrid.

Plug-in hybrid electrical vehicle (PHEV)

Another subtype added to the hybrid market is the Plug-in Hybrid Electric Vehicle (PHEV).
The PHEV is usually a general fuel-electric (parallel or serial) hybrid with increased energy
storage capacity (usually Li-ion batteries). It may be connected to mains electricity supply at
the end of the journey to avoid charging using the on-board internal combustion engine. [35][36]

This concept is attractive to those seeking to minimize on-road emissions by avoiding – or at

least minimizing – the use of ICE during daily driving. As with pure electric vehicles, the total
emissions saving, for example in CO2 terms, is dependent upon the energy source of the
electricity generating company.

For some users, this type of vehicle may also be financially attractive so long as the electrical
energy being used is cheaper than the petrol/diesel that they would have otherwise used.
Current tax systems in many European countries use mineral oil taxation as a major income
source. This is generally not the case for electricity, which is taxed uniformly for the domestic
customer, however that person uses it. Some electricity suppliers also offer price benefits for
off-peak night users, which may further increase the attractiveness of the plug-in option for
commuters and urban motorists.

Fuel cell, electric hybrid

The fuel cell hybrid is generally an electric vehicle equipped with a fuel cell. The fuel cell as
well as the electric battery are both power sources, making the vehicle a hybrid. Fuel cells
use hydrogen as a fuel and power the electric battery when it is depleted. The Chevrolet
Equinox FCEV, Ford Edge Hyseries Drive and Honda FCX are examples of a fuel cell/electric
hybrid.

Environmental issues
Fuel consumption and emissions reductions
The hybrid vehicle typically achieves greater fuel economy and lower emissions than
conventional internal combustion engine vehicles (ICEVs), resulting in fewer emissions being
generated. These savings are primarily achieved by three elements of a typical hybrid design:

1. relying on both the engine and the electric motors for peak power needs, resulting in
a smaller engine sized more for average usage rather than peak power usage. A
smaller engine can have less internal losses and lower weight.
2. having significant battery storage capacity to store and reuse recaptured energy,
especially in stop-and-go traffic.
3. recapturing significant amounts of energy during braking that are normally wasted as
heat. This regenerative braking reduces vehicle speed by converting some of its
kinetic energy into electricity, depending upon the power rating of the
motor/generator;

Other techniques that are not necessarily 'hybrid' features, but that are frequently found on
hybrid vehicles include:

1. shutting down the engine during traffic stops or while coasting or during other idle
periods;
2. improving aerodynamics; (part of the reason that SUVs get such bad fuel economy is
the drag on the car. A box shaped car or truck has to exert more force to move
through the air causing more stress on the engine making it work harder). Improving
the shape and aerodynamics of a car is a good way to help better the fuel economy
and also improve handling at the same time.
3. using low rolling resistance tires (tires were often made to give a quiet, smooth ride,
high grip, etc., but efficiency was a lower priority). Tires cause mechanical drag, once
again making the engine work harder, consuming more fuel. Hybrid cars may use
special tires that are more inflated than regular tires and stiffer or by choice of carcass
structure and rubber compound have lower rolling resistance while retaining
acceptable grip, and so improving fuel economy whatever the power source.
4. powering the a/c, power steering, and other auxiliary pumps electrically as and when
needed ; this reduces mechanical losses when compared with driving them
continuously with traditional engine belts.

These features make a hybrid vehicle particularly efficient for city traffic where there are
frequent stops, coasting and idling periods. In addition noise emissions are reduced,
particularly at idling and low operating speeds, in comparison to conventional engine
vehicles. For continuous high speed highway use these features are much less useful in
reducing emissions.

Hybrid Vehicle Emissions

Hybrid Vehicle emissions today are getting close to or even lower than the recommended
level set by the EPA (Environmental Protection Agency). The recommended levels they
suggest for a typical passenger vehicle should be equated to 5.5 metric tons of carbon
dioxide. The three most popular hybrid vehicles, Honda Civic, Honda Insight and Toyota
Prius, set the standards even higher by producing 4.1, 3.5, and 3.5 tons showing a major
improvement in carbon dioxide emissions.

Environmental impact of hybrid car battery

Though hybrid cars consume less petroleum than conventional cars, there is still an issue
regarding the environmental damage of the Hybrid car battery. Today most Hybrid car
batteries are one of two types: (1) nickel metal hydride, or (2) lithium ion; both are regarded
as more environmentally friendly than lead-based batteries which constitute the bulk of car
batteries today. "Jim Kliesch, author of the 'Green Book: The Environmental Guide to Cars
and Trucks' told HybridCars.com, 'There are many types of batteries. [37] Some are far more
toxic than others. While batteries like lead acid or nickel cadmium are incredibly bad for the
environment, the toxicity levels and environmental impact of nickel metal hydride batteries—
the type currently used in hybrids—are much lower.'"[8]. Nickel-based batteries are known
carcinogens, and have been shown to cause a variety of teratogenic effects. [38].

Raw materials increasing costs

There is an impending increase in the costs of many rare materials used in the manufacture
of hybrid cars [39].

For example, the rare earth element dysprosium is required to fabricate many of the
advanced electric motors and battery systems in hybrid propulsion systems [40][39].
Neodymium is another rare earth metal which is a crucial ingredient in high-strength
magnets that are found in permanent magnet electric motors [9]

Nearly all the rare earth elements in the world come from China[41], and many analysts
believe that an overall increase in Chinese electronics manufacturing will consume this entire
supply by 2012.[39] In addition, export quotas on Chinese Rare Earth exports have resulted in
a generally shaky supply of those metals [40][42].

A few non-Chinese sources such as the advanced Hoidas Lake project in northern Canada as
well as Mt Weld in Australia are currently under development; [42] however it is not known if
these sources will be developed before the shortage hits.

Alternative green vehicles

Other types of green vehicles include other vehicles that go fully or partly on alternative
energy sources than fossil fuel. Another option is to use alternative fuel composition (i.e.
biofuels) in conventional fossil fuel-based vehicles, making them go partly on renewable
energy sources.

Other approaches include personal rapid transit, a public transportation concept that offers
automated on-demand non-stop transportation, on a network of specially-built guideways.