J. agric. Engng Res.

(1984) 30, 1-22

REVIEW PAPER

Selected Aspects of Crop Processing and Storage: A Review

F. W. BAKKER-ARKEMA*

Significant developments and technical trends of the past decade in the area of crop drying,
processing and storage are reviewed. In particular, the effects of recent innovations in operational
research, computer technology and microelectronics on the energy efficiency, product quality and
process economics are assessed. The review concentrates on grain drying, grain storage, hay
drying and biomass energy.
The sharp increase in energy prices during the 1970s and the requirement for improved
product quality have stimulated innovations in grain drying. Significant developments have
occurred in high-temperature drying (concurrent-flow and in-bin-counterflow drying) and in low-
temperature drying (solar and chemical-assisted drying). Computer modelling has become a
major tool in designing driers.
Controlled atmosphere storage is making a revival as a non-chemical grain preservation
technique. High nitrogen and high CO2 content systems appear to be economical.
Refrigerated aeration also has promise as an alternative method for grain preservation in warm
climates.
In some parts of the world (e.g. the U.S.A.) hay is becoming of increasing importance as an
animal feed. One-day hay harvesting is close to reality through the development of new mechanical
and chemical conditioners.
Biomass energy has promise as a fossil fuel replacement. The technical feasibility of biomass
furnaces has been proven, the economic feasibility remains in question.

1. Introduction
This review is limited to the major developments in the 1970s and early-1980s of post-harvest
technology of grains, hay and a selected root crop (i.e. potatoes). Major emphasis is on the
state-of-the-art of crop drying and storage.
Important recent developments in post-harvest technology have occurred in the areas of solar
energy application, drier system design, process simulation, concurrent-flow dehydration,
controlled atmosphere storage, biomass utilization, and other related topics such as product-
quality modelling, microprocessor control and management optimization. Contributions to
progress have been made worldwide, but the author has been forced to be very selective in his
choice of material due to a limitation on length of the review. The paper is subdivided into
five major parts, namely, grain drying, grain storage, hay storage, potato storage, and grain
handling and cleaning.

2. Grain drying
2.1. Crop properties
2.1.1 Grain quality
The ultimate objective of post-harvest processing is to maintain the desired product qualities.

*Department of Agricuhural Engineering. Michigan State Universily. East Lansing, Michigan, U.S.A.
Received 16 September 1983; accepted in revised form 10 March 1984
Paper presented at AG ENG 84, Cambridge, U.K., I-5 April 1984

1
0021-8634/84/050001 + 22 S03.00/~ 9 1984 The British Society for Research in Agricultural Engineering
2 CROP P R O C E S S I N G AND STORAGE

NOTATION

c specific heat, J kg- 1 o C - l

hi 8 heat of desorption of water, J/kg
h grain bed heat transfer coefficient, J m- 3 ~ 1
t time, s
fit time increment, s
x depth in bed from inlet, m
fix depth increment, m
G mass flow rate of air, kg m - 2 s- 1
H absolute humidity of air, kg/kg dry air
M moisture content of grain, decimal dry basis, kg/kg dry matter
T air temperature, ~
void ratio
0 grain temperature, ~
p density, kg/m 3

Subscripts
a dry air
g dry grain
v water vapour
w water (liquid)

It depends on the end-use of the product w~aich quality characteristic needs to be conserved"
for wheat, baking quality is essential; for soybean, high oil recovery. In an exhaustive and
excellent review on heat damage to cereal grains, Nellist 1 recommends a more systematic
approach to the topic than has been the case in the past.
For optimum design and control of grain processing equipment it is necessary to quantify
deterioration in grain quality. In the objective function the quality deterioration of the grain
acts as a penalty function? Although much data on the subject can be found in the literature,
modelling of the physical condition of a biological product is not well-developed, except for some
empirical relationships for the breakage increase of maize, a for the moulding of maize* and for the
baking quality of wheat. 1
A basic quantitative model of damage to seed viability has been proposed by Nellist. 5 The
assumption is made that a pattern exists of seed death under steady state temperature and
moisture content, which can be integrated to predict the change in physical condition during the
non-steady state treatment in a grain drier. The Nellist model requires validation for the major
cereal grains to allow its use in the optimum design and control of grain driers.
Different quality criteria have been used for process design. Ghaly and Taylor e monitored the
micro-baking loaf volume, the turbidity and the viability during the thermal disinfestation of
wheat. Ghaly and Sutherland ~ measured free-fatty acid content and oil yield during the high-
temperature drying of soybeans. Mfihlbauer et alP considered lysine content and colour in
evaluating maize dried at high temperatures. Other quality design criteria include head-yield of
rice,a breakage susceptibility of maize, 1~ mould development of maize, lzla test weight of maize, 14
nutritive value ofbarley ~5 and uniformity of maize moisture content? e It is to be expected that
models will be developed for the change of each of these quality criteria during processing.

2.1.2. Design parameters

The knowledge of grain properties is essential for the design of grain drying equipment.
F. W. B A K K E R - A R K E M A

Without reliable values of such properties as moisture diffusivity and thermal conductivity,
drier simulation studies are of questionable value. An excellent tabulation of available grain
property values has been presented by Brook and FosterY ~ Equilibrium moisture content (e.m.c.)
is a basic parameter in the drying of biological products. It determines the moisture content
when the product is subjected to a certain ambient condition. Pixton and Howe TM reviewed
the e.m.c, equations and concluded that the Pfost-Chung17equation best describes the experimental
data for cereal grains in the range 20-9070.
The resistance to airflow through a bed of grain is an important parameter in the design of
drying system. The Hukill and Shedd~9 equation is acceptable for clean, non-packed grain.
Haque et al. 2~ proposed a relationship for maize containing 0-50% broken corn and fine
material in the mixture. The static pressure of the grain in a bin is affected by the method
of loading the bin and by stirring; Bern et al. 2~ have quantified these effects for maize.
Reliable airflow--static pressure data are required for the accurate design of drying systems.
The available experimental data have mainly been collected for in-bin drying systems and relate
to relatively low airflow rates. The airflow range needs to be expanded to 04)5--ff07ma/s per
square metre of screen area in order to allow proper design of high-temperature continuous
flow driers.
Vemuganti et al. z2 determined hygroscopic, thermal and physical properties of 25 cereal grains,
legumes and oil seeds; included are such fundamental properties as specific heat, bulk density
and equilibrium moisture content; unfortunately, heat of vaporization values were not established.
New values of thermal conductivity, thermal diffusivity and specific heat for six grains were
reported by Scherer and Kutzbach 2a and M/ihlbauer and Scherer;2+ respiration rates and dry
matter losses were also established.2s Moisture diffusion coefficients for rice were measured by
Steffe and Singh; z6 drying rates for several maize hybrids by Stroshine et al. z7 Mechanical
properties of maize as affected by moisture content and temperature were determined by
Scherer and Kutzbach za and Paulsen et al.; 2a a+ review on the subject was presented by
Kusterman and KutzbachY ~ Radiofrequency and microwave dielectric properties have been
reported by Nelson30for maize and other seeds.
Optimal control of grain drying requires an accurate knowledge of grain property
values. Many properties of common and uncommon grains remain to be determined,
especially at high and low moisture contents and temperatures.

2.2. Drying models

2.2.1. Single grain kernels
The drying behaviour of a specific cereal grain is usually obtained by measuring the loss in
weight of a thin layer of individual grain kernels under constant ambient conditions in a series
of so-called "thin layer" drying tests. The drying equation of a particular grain can be
empirical or be based on diffusion theory. Misra and Brooker~ proposed a new empirical
drying equation for maize; similar equations have recently been determined for rough rice" and
for soybeans.3a For several of the major grains (i.e. wheat, barley) the empirical drying rate
equations need updating. 1~.~ as
A diffusion-type drying equation is required when the moisture gradient in the grain kernels
during (he drying process needs to be calculated. Steffe and Singha developed a new diffusion-type
model for rough medium-grain rice in which three different values of the diffusion coefficient
(i.e. for the endosperm, bran and hull) are employed. Bakker-Arkema et alp used the Steffe
model to evaluate the required tempering time in a multi-stage concurrent flow rice dryer.
Diffusion-type drying rate equations need to be developed for most grains.

2.2.2. Psychrometrics
Simulation of a deep-bed grain drying process requires a model of the thermodynamic
relationship between water vapour and dry air in order to calculate such psychrometric
 CROP PROCESSING AND STORAGE

properties as the absolute humidity, specific volume and dry-bulb temperature of the mixture.
Brooker et al. ~ summarized the theoretical and empirical relations among the psychrometric
properties over the temperature range of interest in cereal grain drying. Bakker-Arkema et al. 2
published a package of subprograms in SI units which permits the calculation of the remaining
properties, given any two properties uniquely describing a point on the psychrometric chart.

2.2.3. Deep-bed of kernels

Thin layer drying and psychometric subprograms are essential parts of deep-bed grain drying
simulation models. There are four basic convective drier types, namely, fixed-bed, crossflow,
concurrent flow and counterflow; each can be represented by a simulation model. Models for
each have been described by Brooker et alY s Fixed-bed models have recently been reviewed by
Sharp, x the other three drier models by Laws and Parry. aT
Bin and on-floor drying systems are in general fixed-bed driers. The drying air can be
ambient (i.e. natural air drying), slightly heated (solar and low-temperature drying) or moderately
heated (batch-in-bin drying). The drying process may continue for weeks or even months.
Fixed-bed models are frequently used in operational research type studiesae and, thus, must be
reasonably fast in computer time.
The fixed-bed drying models fall into two catagories: (1) empirical (or semi-empirical) and (2)
theoretical. The first model leads to algebraic-type equations; the second to more complex partial
differential equations (p.d.e.). The empirical models require less computer time, but are less
accurate than the theoretical p.d.e, models. The best known of the empirical models is the one
developed by Thompson et al. ae Although empirical drying models are still used in operational
research type studies,~ p.d.e, models are gaining ground because of their more-fundamental
nature. Besides, digital computers are increasing in speed so that they will soon solve even
extremely complicated drying models rapidly.
The p.d.e, fixed-bed grain drying model, developed from heat and mass balances on an
elemental bed volume, has the following form :ae

Gou _ oM ou
tgx - - p~ ~ - ep~ Ot ' ...(I)

dT pK.,(T- O)-~t - h ( T - O) - p,,e(c,,+ c,H) ..-~-,

G(c, + c,H).-~-~-= OT ...(2)
c30 0M
Pz(Cz + ewM)~-i-= h ( T - O) + hf z ~ Ps, ...(3)

dM
dt - thin-layer drying equation.

The model is solved by numerical integration employing an explicit finite-difference technique

incorporating a variable time-step of about 1 s. The p.d.e, models for the crossflow, concurrent
flow and counterflow driers are similar in form to the fixed-bed drying model presented in the
previous paragraph. The models are presented in a general form in Laws and Parryg~ The
crossflow model is solved similarly to the deep-bed model. The concurrent flow model (a system
of ordinary differential equations) requires an implicit linear multi-step method. The counterftow
drying model uses a search along with the concurrent flow drying subroutine:
2.3. Low-capacity drying
In-storage grain drying includes natural air drying, solar drying, low-temperature drying, ammonia
drying, combination drying, dryeration, batch-in-bin drying and in-bin counterflow drying. Each
of these drying techniques is energy-etticient compared with high-temperature drying and, thus,
has been investigated extensively since the rapid increase in oil prices.
F. W. BAKKER-ARKEMA 5

TABLE 1

Minimum airflow requirements (m s m i n - t t - t) for one location in each of the north

central region states, assuming an initial moisture content of 24~o (w.b.) and a
harvest date of 15 October. These values are based upon simulated drying results for n
10-year period. Increase these values by 50% for design purposes

Natural air* Solar dryingt Low-temperature:~

Location
N e x t to worst N e x t to worst N e x t to worst
year year year

~hicago, IL 3"01 2"41 2"49

indianapolis, I N 4"57 2"37 2"09
Des Moines, IA 2"43 2"51 2"19
Dodge City, KS 2"48 2"36 2"36
Lansing, MI 3"07 2"56 2"61
~t Cloud, M N 2"13 1"96 1'94
2olumbia, M O 2"77 3"10 2"44
Lincoln, N E 2"31 2"23 2"00
Bismarck, N D 0'64 0"60 0"60
Mansfield, O H 2"84 2"12 2"06
Huron, S D 1"56 1"35 1"26
Madison, WI 2"50 2"09 1"97

*A I'I~ temperaturerise due to drawingthe air over the fan motor was assumed
THeat supplementation includes the I'I~ from the fan plus a solar collector capable of providing
a 24 h average temperaturerise of 1"7~ when collecting 1255J/cruZ-day
:12-8'Ctemperaturerise fromelectricalheaterand from the fan
Source Pierce'andThompson4t

2.3.1. Natural air and low-temperature drying

Natural air and low-temperature drying are similar processes if grain is dried and stored in
the same storage, in on-floor or in-bin storage systems. The distinction is that no heat (except
fan energy) is added in natural air drying while in the case of low-temperature drying, the air
temperature is increased a few degrees (usually with electric heaters) to decrease the relative
humidity to below 55~.
Natural air drying has been used for a long time to dry small grains harvested during the
summer months at moisture contents below 18~ (w.b.).~ Natural and low-temperature drying
are now being adapted to dry maize harvested at much higher moisture contents. The
r~pcommended minimum airflow rate and maximum bin depth depend on the initial moisture
content of the maize and on the environmental conditions. Table 1 lists the minimum airflow
rate for natural air and low-temperature drying of maize at 24~ m.c. in 12 north central states in
the U.S.A.; the results are based on simulated drying experiments over a 10-year period?l Note
the dramatic difference between a northern state (N. Dakota) and a more southerly state (Indiana).
Due to the warmer climate during the harvest season, the southern maize needs to be dried more
rapidly and, therefore, requires five times as much air than the maize in the north.
Mittal and Otten ~ demonstrated that for Canadian conditions (Ontario) natural air and low-
temperature drying of maize is no more energy-efficient than conventional high-temperature
drying unless a microprocessor control system is employed for the fan (and heater). M/ihlbauer
et al? 2 compared ambient air and low-temperature drying systems under West German conditions
for high moisture content [22~ (w.b.)] wheat and concluded that both systems are acceptable
on-farm drying alternatives to conventional high-temperature driers. :

2.3.2. Solar drying

In the past decade, much research has been conducted on the use of solar energy for in-bin
grain drying systems due to the energy crisis. The solar energy available at a particular location
depends on the latitude, the angle above the horizontal of the collector, the time of day and year,
6 CROP PROCESSING AND STORAGE

and the local weather conditions.4a In many areas, solar energy is diffuse, intermittent and
unpredictable; the price of solar collectors depends on availability of construction materials and
labour costs. These factors have contributed to the wide diversity in opinion about the usefulness of
solar grain drying systems.
Typical of the many experimental solar drying investigations is the 3-year study conducted in
the mid-western U.S.A. by Kranzler et al.** with a plywood suspended-plate collector with
polyethylene plastic film cover and absorber; they concluded that solar heat can replace a
significant amount of the electrical resistance heat in a low-temperature maize drying system
(20%), but the value of the energy savings does not equal the total cost of materials for the
collector. Other experimental grain drying investigations have been reported by Johnson and
Otten, 4s Foster and Peart ~ and Iowa State University. 47
Morey et al. 4 are among those who have used simulation to study the feasibility of drying
maize using solar energy; they also concluded that solar heat does not appear to be economically
feasible at any of the three U.S. locations under the prevailing U.S. fossil fuel price structure
of the late-1970s.
Minimum airflow for in-bin solar maize drying as 12 U.S. locations of 249/0 (w.b.) maize is
given in Table 1.41 Similar data for solar wheat drying in Canada is given by Fraser and
Muir. 4a The author has found this type of data very useful in the design of actual installations.
Misra et al. ~ considered summer storage of solar heat in water tanks and solar ponds and
concluded that at the level of 1980 fuel prices the system is not economical for grain drying.
Eckhoff and Okos s~ came to a similar conclusion for rockbeds.
The economics of high-temperature solar grain drying has been investigated by Loewer et al. 5~
They concluded that the method is technologically feasible, but will not become economically
feasible until the U.S. prices of alternative fossil fuels become 2-3 times more expens.ive and/or
more favourable tax policies are adopted (i.e. tax credits or low interest rates).

2.3.3. Trickle ammonia drying

Trickle ammonia drying (t.a.d.) is a recently developed method for in-bin drying of maize for
animal feed. The concept of this on-farm drying system consists of drying high-moisture content
maize at ambient temperatures with low airflows over a period of 1-2 months; intermittently a
low level of anhydrous ammonia is injected into the airstream in order to suppress microbial
(mould and bacteria) activity. The method of t.a.d, has been investigated extensively at the U.S.
Department of Agriculture Laboratory in Peoria, Illinois; szSa field testing has recently been
initiated, s*
The usual procedure for t.a.d, consists of drying 25-26~ maize at an airflow rate of 1-2 m 3 min- 1
t-1, applying initially 1 kg per 2000kg of maize (0.059/0). This treatment is followed by a similar
NH3 injection in 3-4 d, and subsequently at weekly intervals until the grain has reached a safe
storage level.
The t.a.d, process requires a conventional drying bin, a fan, an ammonia tank and a standard
flowmeter. The investment and operating costs of the t.a.d, are low. Total drying costs are claimed
to be less than 509/o of those of high-temperature driers ;54 energy consumption is comparable with
high-temperature/ambient air drying. Little detectable odour or discolouration of the kernels
results from t.a.d.; corrosion of bins and handling equipment is negligible.
Other chemicals have been tested in the trickle drying process as microbial inhibitors, such as
formaldehyde and methylene-bis-propionate 52 and sulphur dioxide. 55
A general prediction model for the t.a.d, process has been developed by Hsieh et a L " The
model ran simulate the treatment of grain with any fungicide by specifying the relevant
properties for the grain and the chemical.57
The t.a.d, process is a recent technical development. The process is safe, energy efficient,
minimizes deterioration of grain quality and can operate over a wide range of weather conditions.
The process has promise as an on-farm drying system for feed maize.
F. W. BAKKER-ARKEMA

2.3.4. In-bin counterflow drying

In-bin counterflow grain drying is relatively new; the system consists of two bins, one of which
is a heated-air counterflow drier. Grain is loaded into the first bin and dried until the bottom 10cm
layer has reached a moisture content of 16-5-18.5% (w.b.). The partially dried, hot grain is
removed from the bottom by a tapered sweep auger and is transported to the second bin where
final drying and cooling takes place. The air temperature in the first bin is between 70~ and
95~ depending on the type of product and its moisture content; the airflow rate is 10-30m a
min-t t-1, depending on the grain depth. Ambient air is used in the second bin; the airflow
is 3-10m a min -1 t -1, depending on the depth of grain in the bin. Removal o1~ the partially
dried grain from the first to the second bin is intermittent; the cycle-time of the unload auger
depends on the airflow rate, the grain moisture content and the air temperature. In-bin
counterflow dryers have been investigated by Silva?a Baker et al. sa and Bridges et al. a~ Table 2
shows the simulated performance of a typical in-bin counterflow system as affected by loading
procedure. The data indicates that load size and loading rate affect the throughput of the
system because of the influence of grain depth on airflow rate.
In-bin counterflow grain driers have become popular on-farm driers in the U.S.A. because of
the flexibility, automatic nature and excellent energy efficiency of the unitsP 0

TABLE2

Per~rmance ofa continuousin-bin maize drymgsystemasaffected byioadingrate*

Analysis No. of Load Arrival Grain Drying Final

no.
loads per size, interval, driedt per rate, depth,
24 h m3 h 24 h, m 3 ma/h m

5 14"1 1"0 61"8 2'61 0'73

10 7"05 1-0 65"0 2"72 0"64
10 7'05 2"0 71"5 3"11 0"43
*A 6"40 m drying bin with an initial grain depth of 0,46 m and a fan of 9.7 kW was used for each analysis
tFor I I points of moisture removal [26-15% (w.b.)] at 71.1~
Source Bridges et al.~9

2.3.5. Combination drying

.~Combination drying is defined as a system in which high-temperature, high-speed drying is
followed by in-bin low-temperature drying and cooling. 61 Combination drying was developed in
the 1970s for maize in the U.S.A. to improve the energy-efficiency and the grain quality
characteristics, and to increase the throughput of high-temperature drying systems.
The high-temperature, high-speed phase of combination drying can be a batch or a continuous
flow drier. The maize is partially dried and subsequently moved hot to an ambient or low-
temperature in-bin drying system. The low-temperature part of combination drying may require
from 2d to 2 months, depending on the initial moisture content of the grain placed in the
low-temperature bin and on the airflow rate and temperature of the drying air. In several states
in the northern U.S.A., drying may have to be interrupted in the late-autumn due to excessively
low temperatures, and be completed during the following spring.
The in-bin phase of combination drying may start at moisture contents ranging from 18% to
23%, depending on the airflow and temperature combination in the drying" bin. Kalchik et alp ~
compared four in-bin drying techniques as part of a combination drying system (see Table 3).
Their data show that in a combination drying system, natural air drying is the most energy
efficient, followed by low-temperature drying, in-bin drieration and in-bin counterflow drying.
Note that the automatic batch drier requires twice as much energy as the natural air
combination drying system.
 CROP PROCESSING AND STORAGE

TABLE 3

Standardized energy consumption for five alternative combination drying methods in Michigan, U~;.A. (43 ~ N latitude)

Electricity,* Propane, Energy Total energy, t

Drying technique k Wh/ha efficiency, propane equiv.
I/ha
kJ/kg t/ha

latural air :~
(26-23-15.5%) m.c. 343~ 72"9 3227 121"6
,ow-temperature :~
(26-23-15-5%) m.c. 481"9 72"9 3756 141"1
1-bin drieration :~
(26-20-15.5%) m.c. 944 t42"1 4140 155"2
In-bin eounterflow
(26-18-15.5%) m.~ 103"5 156"2 4548 171"0
A u t o m a t i c batch
(26-15.5%) m . c 33"4 287"9 6589 292"6

*Based on 62-5 t. initial m.c. 26.0% (w.b.).final m.c. 15.5%

1"Basedon 6,9 t/ha
~.Energyefficiencyof high-temperaturedrying phase is 6228 kJ/Kg H:O

Kalchik et al. 6~ also found that combination drying systems produce improved grain quality.
Extensive experimental results of four years of combination maize drying in the northern U.S.A.
have been presented by Morey et al. sl. 62 They concluded that combination drying significantly
reduces propane or natural gas requirements and results in a saving in the total energy
requirements. Drieration is a special case of combination drying. Maize is dried in a high-
temperature drier to 16--18% (w.b.) (sometimes to as high as 20-0%) and final dried at about
1-0 m 3 min-1 t-1 after 6-8 h of tempering:? Tempering is usually done in a special tempering bin
to prevent condensation. In France a continuous flow high-volume drieration system has been
developedY3

2.3.6. Grain stirring

In a grain bin, overdrying of the bottom layers and non-uniform drying of the grain mass are
common faults of in-bin drying systems. Grain stirrers are designed to overcome these problems
and are in common use in the U.S.A. ~ A grain stirring system typically consists of one or more
51-mm augers suspended from the bin roof and sidewall and extending to near the bin floor.
The augers lift the grain from near the bin floor towards the top of the grain while moving
in a predetermined pattern through the bin. The horizontal travel rates vary from 2 to 10mm/s.
Stirring devices were originally developed for in-bin high-temperature batch driers. Recently,
the units have been used in conjunction with in-bin low-temperature drying systems. 6s

2.3.7. H e a t pump drying

The heat pump is an attractive energy source because it can deliver more energy as heat than
it consumes in electrical energy. The heat pump has been tested by a number of investigators
on low-temperature,H solar-supplemented e7 and high-temperature~ grain drying systems.
Kutzbach e6 described a deep-bed wheat drying system with a heat pump as the air heater; the
operating costs were 10% lower than for an equivalent oil heater. Hogan et a l . " conducted low-
temperature maize drying with a heat pump over three seasons; Table 4 shows that the heat
pump required only 60% of the energy needed by a resistance heater. Extensive data on the
operational aspects of a heat pump drying system have been collected by Person et alJ o
Several investigations have been conducted on solar supplemented heat pump driers, e? The
heat pumps operated only at night and supplied about 50% of the energy for drying the grain;
F. W. B A K K E R - A R K E M A 9
TABLE 4

Energy used by the heat pump and resistance heaters in drying maize

Item Heat pump, k w h Resistance heat, k w h

Energy used by:

Fan 3813 3024
Heat source 2289 7091
Grain stirrers 171 136
Total 6273 10251
Energy used per kgwater
removed 0.557 0'905
Source Hoganel al, n9

the electrical usage was 52~ of that required by conventional electrical heat low-temperature
drying systems. -
A 60 kW heat pump was tested by Peart 6a as the sole heat source for a continuous flow high-
temperature commercial crossflow maize drier; the energy efficiency was 1150 kJ/kg, although
the throughput was limited to 2"25m3/h at 5~ points removal at a maximum drying air
temperature of 80~
There appears to be little doubt that low-temperature electric heat pump drying is technically
viable and saves significant amounts of energy. By using a fossil fuel engine instead of an
electric motor to drive the heat pump, a further energy saving can be realized by utilizing the
engine exhaust energyPa However, since the investment costs of heat pumps are high and the
units are used for a limited number of hours annually, heat pump drying does not appear to be
economically competitive with conventional drying techniques.

2.4. High-capacity drying

Continuous flow driers fall into three categories: (1) crossflow, (2) mixed-flow and (3) concurrent/
counterflow. In the crossflow drier the drying air passes perpendicular to the direction of grain
flow. In the mixed flow type, the drying air flows partially with the grain and partially against
the grain by way of an alternate series of inlet and exhaust ducts. In the concurrent/counterflow
drier, the drying air flows in the same direction as the grain (co-flow), while the cooling air flows
in the opposite direction of the grain. The crossflow type is at present the most widely used
system worldwide. In Western Europe and South America mixed flow driers are popular.
The concurrent/counterflow drier is a new development and is at present only manufactured
in the U.S.A.

2.4.1. Crossflow driers

Crossflow driers have been on the market for several decades.'~ Recent research on this model
has been mainly concerned with improving the energy efficiency71.7~ and the grain quality
characteristics.le, a
In a conventional crossflow drier without air recirculation, some of the discharged air is only
partly saturated. This condition leads to an energy consumption of 7000-9000 kJ/kg.S Recycling
part of the drying air and all of the cooling air greatly decreases the energy requirements of
crossflow driers. Lerew et al., 7a Meiering and Hoefkes,7. Kuppinger ~1 and Pierce and Thompson ~2
all investigated different schemes of air-recirculation in crossflow driers.
Along with air recycling, reversal of the airflow direction is frequently incorporated in
crossflow driers in order to offset a major disadvantage of this type of drier, the large
moisture differential in the dried grain. A less expensive (although not quite as effective)
solution to the problem of the large moisture gradient consists of placing one or more grain
10 CROP PROCESSING AND STORAGE

TABLE 5

Calculated energy requirements for the four driers operating under conditions which maintain grain quality and allow a
grainllow of 48.5 kg of dry matter per hour per square metre of drier area

Total energy, Drying Airflow Maximum Moisture

Drier type kJ/kg of air temp, rate, av. grain differential,
H20 evap. *C ma/min- tra- a temp, ~ % (w.b.)

Conventional
erossflow 6940 68 42 6O 5"0
Reversed
crossflow 702O 68 41 6O 1'9
Hart-Carter 4890 65 58 6O 1"3
Recireulating
drier 4380 66 51 6O 1'1

Source Pierce and Thompson7z

inverters in the grain column; these units turn the overheated grain at the air inlet side to the
air exhaust side of the column. ~5 Crossflow maize driers without air-reversal or a grain
inverter device have gradients across the column as large as 20~o for moisture content and 50~
for grain breakage, is
Pierce and Thompson 72 investigated four crossflow designs: (a) the conventional crossflow
type, (b) the reversed airflow type, (c) the reversed airflow type with air recirculation of all of the
cooling air and 50~o of the heating air (the so-called Hart--Carter design) and (d) the recirculating
drier with re-use of the cooling air and the drying air from the second drying stage. All four
driers are commercially available and they are compared in Table 5 in drying maize at the same
drier capacity from 25~o to 15% (w.b.) under ambient conditions of 10~ and 50~ r.h.; the drier
operating conditions are not the same because each maintains grain quality under different
conditions. Note the potential for decreasing the energy consumption and the moisture
differential by modifying the conventional crossflow drier.
Two new features have recently been added to the basic crossflow design, differential grain-speed
and tempering.~6 Differential grain-speed refers to the design in some crossflow driers of moving
grain closest to the air inlet side at a faster rate through the column than grain located at the
air exhaust side; ~ in such designs grain-speed ratios are varied from 1:1 to 1:4. 77 Dual
discharge rolls located under each drying column and rotating at different angular speeds are the
essential feature of this design. Kuppinger n found that the moisture differential across a maize
column was halved by changing the grain-speed ratio from 1 : 1 (a conventional crossflow drier)
to 1:3; Bakker-Arkema et a!.77 showed that the optimum grain-speed ratio depends on the
grain type and initial moisture content.
Tempering between drying passes or stages has been practised for years in drying rice.
Duringtempering the temperature and moisture gradients within the individual kernels diminish~a 79
resulting in less fissuring and breakage. Tempering between stages in a crossflow drier also leads to
an increase in the drier capacity, a~
A commercial crossflow grain drier incorporating differential-grain speed, tempering and air-
recycling has been described and tested by Bakker-Arkema et al.;77 its energy efficiency was
3700 kJ/kg.

2.4.2. Mixed-flow driers

Grain in mixed-flow driers is dried by a mixture of crossflow, concurrent flow and counterflow
actions. This is due to the rows of alternate inlet and exhaust air ducts over which the moist
grain flows. Models of a mixed-flow drier, therefore, consist of a series of crossflow, concurrent
flow, and counterflow subroutines, ao
F. W. B A K K E R - A R K E M A 11

The inlet air temperature in a mixed-flow drier can be higher than in crossflow models
because the grain is not subjected to the high temperature for as long a period of time;
as a result as much as 40% less air and energy is needed than in comparable crossflow driers>
The energy-efficiency of mixed-flow driers with air recirculation has been reported to be 3500-
4000 kJ in drying high moisture content maize.a1 The material published in the open literature
on mixed-flow grain drying during the past 10 years is sparse. An excellent treatise, however,
has been published by Olesen.a2

2.4.3. Concurrent/counterflowdriers
Concurrent/counterflow drying was developed from a Swedish patent by Oholm an during
the 1970s and appears to have the potential to become the major grain drying technique of
the 1980s. A concurrent/counterflow drier consists of one or more concurrent flow drying beds
coupled to a counterflow cooling bed;~ in the multi-stage units a tempering zone separates
two adjoining drying beds.85
The maximum drying air temperature in a concurrent flow drier is not limited by the type
or moisture content of the product to be dried since grain velocity is the determining parameter.
Air temperatures as high as 500~ have been successfully used in drying maize without affecting
product quality, ae The high air temperatures contribute to the high energy-efficiency and the low
airflow requirement of the concurrent flow drier, aT
Grain dried in a concurrent flow drier is of uniform moisture content since each kernel
has undergone the same drying, tempering and cooling treatment unlike grain dried in a
crossflow or mixed-flow drier. The grain temperature is better controlled and the maximum
temperature maintained for a shorter period of time in the concurrent flow drying section than
in either of the two conventional driers. The counterflow cooler subjects the hot grain to a
gentler cooling process than the other driers, since the largest temperature difference between
the cooling air and the warm grain kernels is never more than 5--100C in a counterflow
cooler. For these reasons concurrent flow dried grain is of higher quality than grain dried in
other driers. ~. ~ as
Commercial concurrent flow driers are operating in the maize, rice, sorghum, soybean, sunflower
and wheat processing industries.
The energy-efficiency of concurrent flow driers with and without air-recirculation ranges from
3000 to 3800 kJ/kg in drying a variety of grains.~ a

2.5. Maximizing energy-efficiency

Minimizing the energy requirements has been one of the main criteria for drier designers in the
1970s and 1980s. Among the techniques employed are: (1) air-recirculation, (2) grain pre-heating,
(3) drier staging, (4) grain tempering and (5) drier control.
Recirculation of part of the exhaust air from the heating and cooling sections of a grain drier
improves the energy efficiency of the drier. Recycling of the air can be direct,~ with the use of a
heat exchanger m or in conjunction with a heat pumpY 2 Some French driers recover the heat
of condensation from the drier exhaust air. ea Energy savings from the re-use of exhaust
air depend on the air-recycle design, the ambient conditions, and the drying air temperature;
figures between 10~ and 40~ have been reported.. It seems probable that in the future air-
recirculation will be a standard option for all high-temperature driers.
Grain pre-heating by counterflow convection has been proposed for high-temperature concurrent
flow driers, a4 Although some improvement in the drying capacity results, grain quality deterioration
may offset this advantage. Pre-heating by microwave heating is under active study in the U.S.A.
and has promise if the cost can be reduced.
Staging of several drier modules allows the drying air to be varied in each stage. In addition
to improving grain quality, staging results in an improvement in drying etticiency of 5-10~ .u
12 CROP PROCESSING AND STORAGE

TABLE 6

Summar of fuel costs in the U.K. (1982)

Gross Overall Cost/useful

Fuel Gross cost calorific efficiency MJ
value (direct-fired),

Electricity 3-55 p/kWh 3"6 MJ/kWh 100 0"98 p

Natural gas 27-2 p/therm 105-5 MJ/therm 98 0"26 p
Bulk propane 13.4 p/therm 26 MJ/I 98 0"53 p
Bottle propane s kg 50 MJ/kg 98 0"93 p
Diesel oil 17 p/1 40 MJ/I 95 0'45 p
Coal s 25600 MJ/t 75 (indirect) 0"31 p
Straw s 16800 MJ/t 65 0'18 p
Wood s 19800 MJ/t 70 0"22 p
Source BlakemantiI

Tempering of partially-dried grain between drying stages improves grain quality and also
improves drying efficiency. 7g For a three-stage concurrent flow rice drier, two 1-hour tempering
periods decreased the energy consumption by 5~. s3 More manufacturers of driers can be
expected to incorporate tempering zones in their designs.
Optimization of drier operation can be achieved only by automatic control of the final
moisture content so that over-drying is prevented. Drying exhaust temperature has traditionally
been the control parameter for maintaining the desired product outlet moisture content. A
microcomputer controller has been developed which maintains a constant average outlet
temperature and moisture content on a concurrent flow drier. ~ An automatic controller based on
continuous monitoring of the inlet and outlet grain moisture content has been patented for the
Cimbria continuous flow mixed-flow drier, a5 A microprocessor controller for a low-temperature
maize drying system has been developed. ~ Of further interest is the work by Fabian and
Samu ~ on mixed-flow grain drier control, and by Schrader and ScharfS7 on the control of bulk-
stored agricultural produce. The proper control strategy and microprocessor controller appear
capable of saving 5-30~ in energy use compared with a non-automatic control system.
Continued research on optimum controls, especially for multi-stage driers, can be expected.

2.6. Biomass furnaces

Biomass in the form of straw, maize cobs or wood chips appears to have promise as a
replacement for petroleum based fossil fuels in grain drying. Table 6 shows that the fuel costs
(1982 in the U.K.) of biomass fuels are attractive. Montalembert 9a reviewed the sources available
for biomass energy.
Straw, in the form of small or big bales, is the main fuel used in Western Europe for biomass
furnaces ;m in the U.S.A., dried maize cobs, husklage (cobs with husks) and wood chips appear
to be major products. Large furnaces developing a thermal power of about 25 GJ/h are already
in commercial use in France and Brazil.a3
Present research is centred on the improvement of the combustion efficiency of biomass
furnaces, on the reduction of emissions and on the improvement of the operation and control. 100
Two main categories of combustion are found, direct combustion and gasification combustion.
In a direct combustion furnace, the energy from the burned biomass is transmitted to an
airstream which is mixed with ambient air to give the required drying air temperature. Claar
et al. ~o~ reviewed the different types of direct-combustion furnaces.
In a gasification combustion furnace, producer-gas is produced which subsequently can be burned
in a conventional drier gas heater. Richey and Foster lo2 reviewed the different gasifier designs.
F. W. BAKKER-ARKEMA 13
TAB[.E 7

Breakdown of costs for oil- and straw-fired systems in the U.K. (1982)

Oil Straw

Capital cost--drier only (25 t/h), s 40000 75000

Depreciation over 10 years amortised at 15~, s 8000 15000
Maintenance (5~), s 2000 3750
Total annual fixedcosts, s 10000 18 750
Fuel to remove2"5~ moisture from 10000 t (6 MJ/kg water), s 7918 3241
Additional annual fixed cost of straw furnace = s
Annual savings in fuel oil costs= s
Annual LOSS= s
Source Blakemanl II 9

Barrett et a13 o3 compared direct-combustion and gasification-combustion furnaces and

concluded that there are no significant differences in the heat recovery efficiency and particulate
emission between the two types. However, the gasification units can operate at lower combustion
temperatures (650-850~ than the direct-combustion types (1000-1100~ and produce a product
(producer-gas) which replaces natural or LP gas directly.
In the direct-combustion system, the products of combustion pass directly through the grain
and a part is retained through condensation and absorption by the grain. The quantity and
types of combustion compounds depend on the fuel, the type of burner, the completeness of
combustion, and the grain variety? o* Of particular concern are the polycyclic aromatic hydro-
carbons (p.a.h.) because of their carcinogenic nature? ofi Anderson et al. 1~ tested maize dried with
a biomass-fired direct-combustion furnace and did not find any p.a.h, residues. Mwaura ~0~
obtained similar results.
Many biomass furnaces available commercially appear to have been built by trial-and-error.
Basic analyses are required of the effects of such parameters as biomass level, primary and
secondary airflow, rate, burn time, etc., on the efficiency of a specific furnace before optimum
design can be realized? ~176
Strehler ~.a~ and Milande ~~ presented design details o f European biomass installations.
Mwaura et al? ~o described a number of commercial biomass furnaces built in the U.S.A. These
papers stress the technical feasibility of biomass furnaces and ignore, for the most part, the
question of economic feasibility. The main drawback of widespread adoption of biomass furnaces
for drying installations is the high capital cost. In Table 7 an oil-fired system is compared with
a straw-fired unit of the same capacity for 1982 U.K. conditions; 1~1 the additional capital cost
results in a substantial annual loss for the biomass system. Mwaura e t al. ~ o obtained similar
results for biomass furnace drying systems under 1983 U.S. economic conditions. It appears that
fossil fuel costs have to rise substantially over the next decade for biomass installations to
become economically viable for grain drying.

3. Grain preservation

3.1. Storage
Three recent books have been published on the subject of grain storage. 112-114 Such topics as
controlled atmosphere storage, and mould, mite and insect control are discussed in detail.
Controlled atmosphere grain storage (c.a.g.s.) appears to be making a revival. Underground
grain storage has been practised for centuries to create an atmosphere lethal to stored grain pests;
it is a form of c.a.g.s. Usually, c.a.g.s, is considered to consist of medium- or long-term
storage in atmospheres consisting only of the major gaseous components of the earth's
14 CROP PROCESSING AND STORAGE

atmosphere; that is, in mixtures of nitrogen, oxygen and CO2 The effect of c.a.g.s, on grain insects
has been reviewed by Bailey and Banks, 115 the influence on storage moulds by Busta et al: TM
In Australia, c.a.g.s, in atmospheres high in CO2 is used on a commercial basis for insect
control in wheat;lo? the economics of such systems are competitive with conventional storage
systems, which require fumigation. In Italy, c.a.g.s, in high nitrogen atmospheres has been tested
since the mid-1970s and is claimed to be economically competitive with conventional grain
storage systems./TM It is obvious that c.a.g.s, has a role among future grain preservation
techniques; however, it is not clear at this moment how large this role is.
Control of insects by fumigation~g continues to be practised successfully. Non-chemical
methods include heat treatment e. 12oand radiation; lz~ neither method is currently very popular.

3.2. Aeration
Grain stored for over a month requires aeration in order to prevent diffustion of moisture
through the bulk of the grain caused by temperature gradients. Thorpe lz2 presented an analysis
of the diffusion mechanism based on the interstitial partial pressure of water vapour as the
driving force; the theory allows the calculation of moisture accumulation in stored grain.
Movement of low volumes of air through the grain eliminates temperature differences and
prevents moisture migration occurring in a grain bin. A number of recent investigations have
been conducted on modelling the process of aeration. Marchant 123 used the finite element method
to solve the linear airflow problem in two dimensions; the model was used to calculate the air
pressure and airflow in a system of ducts? 2. The three-dimensional linear model for pressure
and velocity distribution in a circular grain bin was solved by Lai us using the method of lines.
Segerlind 126developed the two-dimensional non-linear model and solved for the pressure pattern
in a rectangular bin by the finite element technique. Finally, Khompis 127solved by finite elements
the three-dimensional non-linear airflow problem for a cylindrical grain store and presented three-
dimensional pressure and velocity distributions. Each of these models allows a better determination
of the position of the critical minimum air velocity regions in a grain store. An aeration model
was used by Thorpe and Elder 128 to assess the effects of aeration on the persistence of
chemical pesticides in bulk grain.
Refrigerated aeration, a new concept in insect disinfestation, has been applied successfully to a
1700 t wheat storage bin. 129 The system appears to have considerable merit as a non-chemical
form of insect control due to the increasing resistance of insects to traditional chemicals.

4. Hay storage
The conservation of grasses and forage crops by haymaking is increasing in importance in
many parts of the world? ao Minimizing dry matter losses is the major objective in the process of
haymaking? 3~ New techniques have recently been developed to speed up by mechanical or
chemical means the haymaking from a 2-4 d to a 1 d process in order to decrease the weather
influences on hay quality.
The sources and the quantities of the dry matter loss during the conservation and utilization
of hay have recently been reviewed? 3~,~32 The total overall loss for hay, field-cured under
humid climatic conditions, frequently reaches 30~o of the initial dry matter; a minimum value of
15~ is a reasonable average value. The major sources of the loss are respiration, leaching,
tedding and cutting, with respiration in the field and in storage making up about 10~ of the loss.
Speeding up the field-drying of hay greatly decreases the large respiration field losses. Recent
developments in mechanical devices for increasing the field drying rate of hay include a
lacerating rotor, TM a tandem roll conditioner la* and a macerator, l~s The macerator, consisting of a
pair of serrated rollers running at different speeds, provides a high degree-of crushing and
thereby, increases the drying rate of the hay fourfold. The mechanical conditioners allow under
F. W . B A K K E R - A R K E M A 15

favourable weather conditions 1 d hay harvesting although at the price of considerable losses
due to fragmentation? 3s
An alternative to mechanical hay-conditioning is chemical treatment. While mechanical
treatment of hay causes physical rupture of tissues, chemical conditioning reduces stomatal and
cuticular resistance to water loss. Harris and Tullberg 137 investigated the stomatal pathway and
a number of chemicals (including sodium azide) which inhibit closure of the leaf stomata. Some
chemicals appear to affect the permeability of the plant cuticles of certain plants and, thus, their
drying rates. Recent investigations by Tullberg and Angus ~38 and by Rotz et al? a~ have shown
that a spray application of potassium carbonate can increase the drying rate of lucerne plants by
40Yo.
Losses in storage may occur due to moulding and heating when hay is stored improperly at
moisture contents above 20~. Many chemicals have been tested as preservatives for 25-30~
moisture content hay; propionic acid and ammonium propionate at rates from 1.0~ to 2.0~ of
forage wet weight have proven to be the most successful? 3g Other chemicals tested include
acetic acid, formic acid and ammonium is obutyrate?*~ Properly, chemically-treated high-moisture
hay maintains quality and feed efficiency comparable with barn-dried or heat-dried hay and is
frequently better than field-cured hay.
The drying rate of a hay crop can be maximized by selecting a fast-drying variety and
species. Owen and William ~4~ dried more than 100 varieties of grass from seven species at 25~
from harvest moisture content to 20~ and found a significant difference in drying rate among
them; for example, perennial ryegrass took twice as long to dry as tall fescue. Jones and
Prickett ~42observed similar trends among grasses. The variation in drying rates may be accounted
for by the differences in cuticle thickness and leaf-stem ratio.
The alternative to field-drying of hay and the use of chemical preservatives is barn hay-
drying. For barn-drying, hay is wilted to at least 45~, baled (loose and chopped hay drying
create handling problems) with a medium density baler, stacked to 5-6m, and dried to 20~o
moisture content with 0"20-0.25m 3 s -~ m - 2 ambient air within 10d in a ventilated floor or
centre duct system24a Basically, storage bale drying has not changed in the past 10 years.
Eimer et a l Y ~ developed a set of relationships for the appearance of the first mould on
lucerne and grasses as a function of temperature, moisture content, relative humidity, and the
degree of wilting; the empirical equations can be used to determine the optimum strategy for
control systems of in-barn hay driers. The drying pattern of grass swaths in the field has been
modelled by Clark and McDonald ;~45the model should be useful in the analysis of hay-condition-
ing equipment.

5. Potato storage
Currently, potato storage research appears to be concentrated in the areas of modelling, storage
structure design, ventilation and control. 1~ Each of these topics is discussed at length in a
recent book on the topic? 47
Lerew and Bakker-Arkema ~4adeveloped a one-dimensional model for the storage environment
of bulk stored potatoes; better prediction equations for weight-loss and heat-generation rate are
necessary before the model can be employed for design. Brugger and Buelow~4a extended the
Lerew model to two dimensions. It is expected that fine-tuning of these potato storage models will
soon lead to their use in the design and control of commercial potato storage structures.
Uniformity of air distribution is essential for successful potato storage. Cloud and Morey ~5~
analysed duct performance and recommended the use of ducts with a stepwise decrease in
cross-section along the duct length. Statham ~51 suggested the use of tapered ducts.
McCarthy lsa expected microcomputer technology to contribute greatly to the control of potato
storage. Hunter ~53 described a microprocessor monitoring and control system. Optimum use
of such systems awaits the further development of natural and forced air convection models along
with an optimum control strategy.
16 C R O P P R O C E S S I N G AND STORAGE

6. Grain handling and cleaning

The technical advances made in the area of handling, cleaning and grading appear to be less
than in the other subjects discussed in this review.
A fundamental analysis of screw conveyers for granular materials has been presented by
Rademacher,lglss similar basic studies are needed for other materials handling equipment.
Ross et al. Iss designed a constant-speed variable-capacity screw conveyor for grains. Reducing
product damage remains a major objective of screw conveyor design.
Pneumatic conveying appears to be increasing in agriculture. The principles of such systems are
reviewed in a recent article by Wirth) s~ Fayz and Hanna ~sa designed a pneumatic conveying
system for soybeans by which header losses are minimized.
Holt lss and BulP eo presented an overview of the principles and practices of materials handling
of different agricultural crops. Bucklin et al., le~ Benock et al. ~62 and Singley and Chaplin 183
developed materials-handling models of the operational research type.
Seed cleaning has recently been reviewed exhaustively by Welch et al. 1 ~ and gives screen
openings for most seeds of agricultural importance. The principles of seed cleaning can be found
in Brandenburg.~6s New trends in seed cleaning have been discussed by Regge and Minaev) e6

7. Conclusions
Post-harvest technology has made significant progress in the past decade. This is particularly
true for some areas in grain and hay processing.
Newly adopted grain drying techniques include solar-drying, combination-drying and con-
current-flow-drying. Each can save fossil-fuel energy and each can produce higher quality grain
than that obtained with conventional high-temperature driers.
In warm climates, storage in a controlled atmosphere is now an alternative to conventional
chemical methods of preservation. Along with refrigerated aeration, the method overcomes the
problem of increasing resistance of grain pests to fumigants.
The development of fast-drying grass varieties and new mechanical and chemical hay con-
ditioners, has made 1 d hay harvesting a realistic goal. Due also to the newly developed moist-
hay preservatives, total dry matter hay losses will continue to decrease.
Biomass energy has shown promise as a fossil fuel substitute for drying and heating installations.
Economic feasibility may, however, require multiple use under the present price and tax structure.
The effect of the contributions of operational research, microelectronics and optimum control
is beginning to be felt in post-harvest processing. The full benefits should be realized in the
next decade.

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F. W. BAKKER-ARKEMA 17

s Miihlbauer, W.; Huss, W.; Kuppinger, H. Color method for determining protein-damage during the high-
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18 CROP PROCESSING AND STORAGE

as Sharp, J. R. A review of low-temperature drying simulation models. J. agric. Engng Res., 1982 27 (3)
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20 CROP P R O C E S S I N G AND STORAGE

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F. W. BAKKER-ARKEMA 21

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22 CROP PROCESSING AND STORAGE

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