UNIT 8 THE METHOD OF SCIENCE AND

THE NATURE OF SCIENTIFIC

KNOWLEDGE
structure
8.1 Introduction
Objectives

8.2 Science - Its Many Facets

8.3 The Method of Science
Observations
Hypothesis

Experiments
Laws, Models and Theories
Some Examples

8.4 The Nature of Scientific Knowledge

8.5
8.6
8.7
8.8
8.9

ScientificApproach to Problem Solving

A Reflection about Science
Summary
Terminal Questions
Answers

8.1 INTRODUCTION
In modern times, there is not a single aspect of our life that has not been influenced by science.
Science intervenes to clarify our sense of wonder at distant stars and galaxies. And, at the same
time, science peeps into our innermost self. Be it fine arts, history or sociology, science and
technology are no longer disinterested on-lookers. Concepts of ageing and longevity, pain and
pleasure, work and leisure, war and peace have all now acquired new meaning in the context
of scientific developments.
As science has increashgly pervaded our lives, it has become more than a sum of physics,
chemistry, biology, and mathematics. It is something more than just learning how to increase
industrial or agricultural production, or inventing better machines, materials or drugs.

Science is a question of ideas, a way of thinking. It involves observation and insight, reasoning
and intuition, systematic work and creative impulse. Science gives rise to an attitude of mind
which is conscious of vast areas of ignorance, and is yet optimistic about human ability to
unravel the mysteries that surround us. Science gives many of us a culture and a philosophy of
life which leads to the pursuit of truth without prejudgement.
What is the method of science by which one gathers knowledge, sifts and interprets it, in order
to lead to an understanding of nature and, to some extent, of man? What is the nature of
scientific knowledge? It is important to grasp these ideas because they find applications in
many other fields and often in resolving personal dilemmas. We will also give you a brief
insight into the scientific approach to problem solving. The unit ends with a broad overview
of various aspects of science. But the discussion does not end here. You will find echoes of the
ideas presented in this unit, in the units that follow.

Objectives
After studying this unit you should be able to :
describe what constitutes the body of scientific knowledge,
describe the characteristic features of scientificknowledge,
outline the scientific method and describe each of its operations.
apply the scientific approach to solve problems of everyday life.

8.2 SCIENCE-ITS MANY FACETS

Science is at once a personal and a social pursuit. It is marked by intense creative involvement
of the individual. At the same time, scientific development is affected by social conditions and

Fmergence 01 Modern
Science

demands. And, in turn, science has a powerful impact on society. It is, thus, a vehicle of social
change. The human approach to life and environment has always been conditioned by a sense
of wonder and curiosity on the one hand, and the struggle for survival and well being on the
other. Both these basic instincts have shaped human thought from times immemorial. Science
being an integral part of human thought and endeavour is also influenced by these instincts.
Either of these motives could be dominant in any individual scientist. Society benefits from
both, from a better understanding as also from a better control of world around 'us.
Science is modern in the sense that it tries to explain things as they are known today. But we
know that its origin is as old as human existence. The tradition of science has existed from the
earliest ages of man. It was there long before the name 'science' was invented or a 'method of
science' distinct from common sense and traditional lore had evolved. We have seen that early
practitioners of this tradition were found among astrologers, priests, magicians and craftsmen.
not to mentlon the latter day alchemists. In fact. depending upon thecharacter of societies. and
the historic period of their existence, the nature of questions posed to man and his response
have been changing and so has science been changing.
What is the world that science is concerned with? The world that science describes-the
universe that science explores-is the natural world, the world of experience. It encompasses
terrestrial and celestial, living and the non-living. Science may be regarded as a means of
establishing new kinds of contacts with the world, in new domains, at new levels.
How do we establish these contacts? These are-mainly through our senses. However, the range
of our senses is limited. For instance, we cannot see things that are too far or too small; we
cannot hear sounds that are too low or too high, and so on. There are other limitations as well.
For instance, as you can see in Fig. 8.1, the perceptions gathered through our senses may be
relative. Modem science has enabled us to overcome many of the limitations of our senses. For
instance, limitation of the eye with respect to size or distance do not limit scientific observation
because of the invention of tools like microscopes, telescopes etc. Atoms can now be 'seen' and
so can the distant stars, invisible to the naked eye. With the help of scientific instruments, it is
now possible to make observations which are independent of an individual's sensory
perception. For instance, in Fig. 8.1 a thermometer would always record the same temperature
of water in glass B, though it feels hot or cold to our fingers.

Fig. 8.1 : If you put a finger of one band in hot water (glass A) and a finger of the other hand in mld water ( g l s C )
for some time and then put them both in lukewarm water. you will find that the two fingers feel ditlerent
sensations. The water in the glass B appears wann to the finger that was in cold water and cold to the finger
that was in hot water.

New 'sounds', new 'lights', new 'spaces', new 'contacts' of various sorts-that is what the
modem science is about. Our role as 'observers' of nature, as witnesses to events happening
around us, has undergone a tremendous change. The ability to observe nature beyond what
our senses enable us to do, gives us a feeling of nearness or closeness with natural world, as
well as a sense of control over the world and ourselves.
Science helps us to constantly invade areas of ignorance and convert them into fields of
knowledge. It extends our experience by the continual exploration of new domains. For

example, man landed on the moon and now preparations are going UII ior landing men in the
coming future on Mars for investigating it. Means are now available to explore the internal
structure of the earth, as well as to study the structure and function of the human bram. As
newer and newer problems are encountered, regions of experience are enlarged .

The Method of Science and the

Nature of ScientiL Knowledge

Apart from the basic needs, the complex world of today has varied requirements, of better
means of production to reduce human drudgery, of better facilities for health care, education,
communication, transport, entertainment etc. These pose far greater challenges to science than
did the bare needs of food and shelter of the primitive man. These challenges lead to new areas
of study which may not, at first, be clear or well defined. However, systematic study using
suitable methodology, leads to an understanding of these new areas. This is how the pursuit of
science is an endless search for knowledge, and an unlimited endeavour.
Science is the search for knowledge about the world, the quest for understanding it. Man has
always speculated about the unknown. When speculation about an unknown area is replaced
by knowledge, then that area becomes a part of science. If we do not understand an observed
phenomenon we often tend to give it a mystical justification or explanation. Science enables
us to 'demystify' natural phenomena, through an understanding based on facts and reason.
The body of scientific knowledge has grown tremendously in the modem times. It
encompasses numerous areas. For convenience, we have demarcated these areas as biology,
medicine, chemistry, geology, physics, astronomy, engineering, agriculture, and so on.
However, they are all inter-related. For example, the study of biology goes down to the cell,
and further to the atoms and molecules which make it. In this way it is related to the study of
chemistry and physics. On the other hand, biology, especially botany, is related to forestry and
agriculture implying a connection with climate and soil, and, in turn, to geography and
geology. Thus, we find that scientific knowledge and experience has a connectedness at the
basic level.
Further, quite often, knowledge and experience from different areas have to be pooled together
for solving scientific problems or making technological advances. For example, monitoring
and control of environmental pollution need the involvement of scientists from areas of
physics, chemistry, biology, mathematics, sociology etc. Similarly, if we want to explore and
utilise some sources of energy which do not get exhausted, like bio-gas, wind or solar energy,
experts from various related areas would have to pool their knowledge and work together.
Also, in the last few decades, the boundaries between different areas of natural sciences have
faded. Chemical reactions, biological processes and physical phenomena are, nowadays studied
by the same methods and are based on common theoretical concepts.
SAQ 1
State whether the followng statements about sc~entific
knowledge are true or false. Give your
response in the boxes prov~ded.

i)

Science helps us to explore the natural world around us, continuously enlarging our
regions of experience.

ii) The world of sclence is strange and it has nothing to do with our everyday experience
~ii)Through science, not only can we understand nature but can also control it to suit our
needs.
iv) Science has done nothlng to dispel our fear, wonder and mysticism about natural
phenomena.
v)

Since scientific knowledge is acquired through our senses, and sensory perceptions are
subjective, sc~entificknowledge will vary from individual to individual.

8.3 THE METHOD OF SCIENCE

We have seen above that science is an enaeavour to understand nature and to mould it to
satisfy human needs. In earlier units we have seen that, in this process, we have collected a lot
of information and a distinct body of scientific knowledge has grown. Let us now see how this
knowledge has been acquired. Is there any special method of obtaining scientific knowledge? If
so, how is it different from the way in which we ordinarily perceive the world around us? The
answer to the fmt question is, yes. As you have read in Unit 1, there is a 'method' of science.
You are also familiar with the terms observation, hypothesis, experiment, theories and laws,
-

57

Emergence of Modem
Science

which we mentioned in Unit 1. These are the various mental and physical operations that
make up the method of science. Let us take a closer look at each one of these operations.

8.3.1 Observations
All of us learn a lot about the world from our observations. Our everyday experiences arising
from what we see, hear, touch, taste and smell, form a part of common knowledge. For
example, we observe that the sun rises in the east and sets in the west; a ball when thrown up,
comes down. A farmer usually separates the good seeds from the bad ones by putting all of
them in water. This is based on the observation that the good seeds sink and the bad ones
float. Similarly, you can know whether an egg is rotten or good by putting it in a bowl of
water. A rotten egg will always float. To make such observations is, no doubt, very useful.
Artists are also very keen observers of the world around us. Their creative art is an expression
of these observations, transformed in the light of their own experiences and feelings. These,
however, cannot be called scientific observations.
In science, we go beyond just the common observation and experience and try to understand
how a phenomenon occurs and why it occurs. Therefore, a scientist has to be clear about
'what' to ohserve and 'how' to observe it. Further, the observations made by the scientists have
to be correct, and independent of their sentiments and wishes. In science, subjective response
must be subordinated to fact. It & in these respects that a scientist differs from an artist or a lay
person.
The confusion caused by inadequate or false observations can well be imagined. It is well to
remember what the great naturalist Charles Darwin said on this point, that the mischief of
false theories is slight compared with the mischief of false oh?rvations. Inadequate
observations can be equally misleading. For example, the believers in the earthantred
astronomy urged for years that the Copernican hypothesis could not be true. They argued that
if this were so, Venus, which is a planet between the sun and the earth, would show phases
like the moon. But since the phases of Venus could not be observed at that time, the
Copernican astronomy was held to be false. This seemingly sound argument against the
Copernican astronomy was shown to be baseless when people actually observed the phases of
Venus through the telescope (see Unit 9).
Scientific observations may be about natural events. For example, the rainfall may be
measured for each month for many years, to determine its pattern in a given place.
Observations could be about processes created by man. For example, in order to increase the
efficiency of existing machines, or to develop new machines, observations would have to be
made about their design and working. Similarly, new materials like synthetic fibres, or rubber
would have to be observed for their wear and tear, or any other desired property like fire
resistance etc. Observations are also necessary about social phenomena. In order to analyse the
~ n o m i status
c of people in a given area or society, observations have to be made
regarding the land holdings, incomes, educational level, standard of living etc. All these
expeximents or my^,
observations are carried out systematically, through carefully -ed
in order to explain natural or social phenomena.
These systematic observations are then put in order, i.e. dasified, carefully recorded in the
form of tables or graphs and analyd. The aim is to discover wgubities and patterns in the
factual information obtained. A number of questions may be posed on the basis of the
observations, data, facts and figures. The importance of questioning cannot be undermined.
Science progresses through asking questions and finding their answers.

83.2 Hypothesis
The next step is to formulate hypothesis. A hypothesis is a statement, put forward on the basis
of reasoning, about the things that are being studied. It is an attempt to answer the questions
that are posed. One example of hypothesis which you encountered in Unit 1, was that
bees are attracted to flowers, either due to their colour, or nectar, or botb (Fig. 1.4).
Qtber examples could be that plants need sunlight to grow; or a body falls to the ground
because it is attraded by the earth: A hypothesis is formulated by taking into account all the
observations that am known about the phenomenon under investigation. It tries to explain the
known or p r d c t the unknown but possible features of the phenomenon. We may describe a
hypothesis as an inspired guess, based on reason and experience. We may use both inductive
and deductive logic to frame a hypothesis.

What do we mean by inductive logic? If we have direct evidence about only a part of the
phenomenon, or some objects or situations and, if, on that basis, we infer about the properties,
behaviour and other features of the whole phenomenon, or the entire group of objects and
situations, then we are using inductive logic. For example, if we know that the population of a
country has doubled in a given period of time, we may use induction to hypothesise that it will
double again in the same time. Again, if we study the shadows of simple objects like triangles,
rectangles and circles cast on a wall due to light from a small bulb, we may conclude that light
travels in a straight line. The conclusion is a big jump in thinking, and it is a sweeping, general
statement based on induction. Inductive logic can mis1,ead also: for example to infer that all
roses are red, if you happen to see only red roses in a garden is illogical. So you can see that
inductive statements can have very different degrees of credibility and reliability. You cannot
jump to conclusions on the basis of insufficient evidence, and the conclusions have to be
further tested for their reliability.
Deductive logic may be considered as the opposite of induction. Here the reasoning is more
direct. If we know a statement about a whole class of objects, phenomena or situations then
we can logically deduce the same statement about one particular object, phenomenon or
situation belonging to that class. Examples of deduction are: roses can be of any colour, hence
some roses can be red. All birds have wings; therefore, a sparrow, which is a bird, will have
wings. Deductive logic is extensively used in chemistry. For example, if a group of chemical
salts exhibit some properties or behaviour, we can safely say that any salt belonging to this
group will exhibit the same property or behaviour. You could say that deduction may also
mislead, because in the examples how do we know that a sparrow is a bird, or a salt belongs
to that group of salts. These facts would have to be established before such deductions can be
accepted.
Thus, logical analysis takes us from the known to the unknown and it involves an element of
isk or doubt. Hence, the hypotheses arrived at from both kinds of reasoning have to be tested
before they are accepted. A major operation in the method of science is that of setting up
experiments specifically designed to test the hypotheses.

8.3.3 Experiments
Experiment is an essential feature of modem science. Experiments are artificially created or
contrived situations designed to make certain observations under strictly controlled conditions.
The objective sometimes is to mimic nature. This allows the complexity of natural phenomena
to be simplified for stepbystep study. For example, many of us might have used a bicycle
pump to inflate a bicycle tube. What we do is to pump air in it by pressing the piston (see Fig.
8.2). As you can see in the figure, by pressing the piston the volume decreases, thereby
increasing the pressure and forcing the air into the tyre. Similarly, if we fill a balloon partially
with air and leave it in sunlight, the air inside becomes warm and expands, thus inflating the
balloon. These instances show us that the volume of a gas depends both on its pressure and
temperature.

Fig. 82: Compression of air by decreasing its volume in a bicycle pump.

The Method of Science and the

of Scientific Knowledge

I
I

Emergence or' Modem

Scienct

If now we want to determine exactly how much the change in volume is with a certain rise or .
fall in pressure or temperature, we will have to conduct an experiment in two steps. In the first
step we can keep the temperature constant and observe the changes in volume with pressure.
In the second step, we will have to keep the gas at constant pressure and record the change in
its volume with changing temperature. These experiments were carried out by Robert Boyle
and J.A.C. Charles. They derived precise mathematid relationships for the change of volume
with pressure and temperature, respectively. These relationships are known after them, as
Boyle's Law and Charles' Law.
The objective of an experiment may sometimes be to observe phenomena more minutely by
the use of very sensitive instruments. For example, in order to study minute details of cell
structure, biologists now use the electron microscope. Sometimes experiments are carried out
with a sinister purpose. For example, atom bombs were dropped on two cities of Japan in
1945 not only to cause destruction but also to study how the buildings collapsed, the extent to
which fires raged, and how radiations killed or injured people.
Cause and effect relationships are studied through a great variety of experiments. Great
ingenuity and care is required in designing experiments so that maximum information and
clearcut results may be obtained from them. The results of such experiments prove or disprove
a particular hypothesis. Sometimes, a hypothesis may have to be rejected outright and a new
hypothesis framed to explain the results obtained from the experiment. At other times,
experiments provide additional data for refinement or modification of a hypothesis.
Apparatus

Scientists use various kinds of instruments for observation and expenmentation. Instruments
like telescopes, microscopes or microphones can be used to extend or make more p?Zf%, the
observations made through senses. Scientists also use instruments to manipulate things or
phenomena in a controlled way. For instance, distillation stills are used for purifying liquids,
incubators for keeping biological samples at a constant temperature, and computers for storing
large amounts of information, for complicated calcuiations, for designing industrial products
etc. Over the course of centuries, scientists have evolved a set of material tools of their ownthe 'apparatus' of science. Some of these are simply adapted from ordinary life for special
purposes, like the balanck, forceps or crucibles. In turn, most of the apparatus used by
scientists comes into everyday use. For example, the major component of a television set is a
scientific device called the cathode ray tube, which was originally fabricated to measure the
mass of an electron. The commonly used pressure cooker is a form of the autoclave, an
instrument used by the biologists for sterilisation with high pressuie steam.

8.3.4 Laws, Models and Theories

From the observations and the results of experiments comes a good deal of scienthic
knowledge. But scientific knowledge is not simply a list of such results. The results are tied up
and related to each other in the form of logical, coherent theories or laws. In general, a
relationship between things covering results of observations and experiments over ri wide range
of individual cases is called a law. Hypotheses are accepted as 'laws' only if they are s u p p o d
by a meat deal of experimenkl evidence and there are no known exceptions to them. Some
csamplcs ul laws x c as follows:
Keplcr's Laws hf Planetary hlbtion based on Ihe observat~o~~s
01 the
movements of planets around the sun. Tbese state that

lo-

01

01

10

kigk8.3: Kepler's laws of planetary motion. (a) First law: a planet (P) moves in an ellipsc with the Sun (S) at one of

60

D to
ths two foci; (b;) second'law:lt takcs as long for a p1d~i.tto travel tiom B to A and from F to-E as kan~
C; the'shadcct areas ASB, SF, CSD are all equal; Q third law: The size of a planet's orbit and the time
taken by it to go once around the Sun are related through a precise mathematical relationship. The more
disunt a planet is from the Sun, the longer it takes to Complete one qrbit.

a) the planets move in elliptical orbits around the sun and the sun is at one of the two
foci;
b)

The Method of Science and the

Nature of Scientific Knowledge

a planet sweeps out equal areas in equal times;

C) the square of the period of revolution of a planet round the sun, is proportional to the
cube of its mean distance from the sun.
You may study Fig. 8.3 to understand these laws better.
ii) One of the basic laws in chemistry says that "a chemical substance in its pure form will
always have the same chemical composition". For example, water is always made up of
the elements hydrogen and oxygen which combine together in the ratio of 1 : 8, i.e. one
part of hydrogen for eight parts of oxygen by weight. This is known as the Law of
Constant Chemical Composition.
iii) Heat does not flow on its own from a cold body to a hot body. This is the Second Law of
Thermodynamics.
You already know about Newton's law of universal gravitation which we have described, in
brief, in Unit 6. It is a statemznt about how the force of attraction between two bodies
depends on their masses and on the distance between them. This single statement explains not
only the motion of the planets but also of a ball on the earth which always falls down when
thrown up. In other words, it is applicable to the motion of a wide variety of objects.
Whenever a law appears to be broken in a new experiment, it inspires a search for new
hypotheses, new phenomena or new processes that would explain the discrepancy.
There are two more terms which you will come across in scientific works, model and theory.
Often scientists create a model to simulate the object, phenomenon or situation they study. A
model is an artificial construction to represent the properties, behaviour or any other features
of the real object under study. For example, the human heart is modelled as a mechanical
pump, to study its structure and functions. In the earlier phases, the atom was modelled after a
plum pudding. as shown in Fig. 8.4a. Later it was modified and modelled after the solar system.
In a general sense, you may use a word, a picture, a formula or a symbol to model a situation. Don't confuse these models with toy
models o f s p a m h i ~ aeroplanes
s~
Or
A model should communicate some information about whatever it represents. Models are
with physical models of solar system,
useful because these represent in a simpler and familiar manner, a new, unknown and
atom, DNA molecules etc.!
complicated object, situation or phenomenon.

Fig. 8.4: (a) Plum pudding model of a n atom. The negative charges are embedded like plums. in a
positively c h a r p i sphere (shaded area) (h) the a t o m modelled after the solar system.

A theory is a set of a few general statements that can correctly describe or explain all
experimental observations about the properties and behaviour of a large number of varied
objects, phenomena, situations or systems. In Unit 6 you have read, in brief, about Darwin's
theory of evolution, which explains how a large variety of life forms have evolved from simple
living organisms. In Unit 10, you will read about the theory of how stars are born, how they
evolve and die.

A law or theory can also predict observations. A classic instance is the prediction of the
existence of Neptune. By 1845, the paths of all planets had been precisely calculated. All
planets except Uranus were observed to follow the calculated paths. Adams in Cambridge and
Leverrier in Paris reasoned that the observed deviation in the path of Uranus could be due to
an unknown outer planet beyond it. Using Newton's law of universal gravitation, they

Emergence of M o d e m
Science

predicted its size and exact path. Then on September 23, 1846 Neptune was seen at almost
exactly the predicted position by Galle at the Berlin Observatory. In fact, when a new theory
is propounded, great care is taken to propose an experiment which would result in a particular
kind of observations if the new theory were true. In this way theories get validated or rejected.
To sum up our discussion so far, scientific work is really a chain of operations such as the
following :
Observations
analysis. questions
based on them

refined hypothesis
or theory/law

t
I

Further analysis

Experimental observations
designed to verify, modify
or reject hypotheses

explanation of
hypothesis

Fig. 8.5: The method of sn'enoe.

8.3.5 Some Examples

Let us illustrate the method of science described above by a few concrete examples.

Example 1: It is a well known scientific fact that plants make their own food by using
sunlight, carbon dioxide and water, and give off oxygen in this process. Sunlight is made up of
seven different colours visible to the eye, which you must have seen in a rainbow. The
question we may like to ask is whether light of all colours is equally effective in this process of
making food or is light of any specific colour more effective than others? Thus, we can have a
set of hypotheses such as :
i)

Light of all coIours is equally effective.

ii) Light of one specific colour is more effective than other colours.
The next step is to set up an experiment to test these hypotheses. The experiment can be very
easily set up. We take three twigs of a water-plant like Hydrilla, submerge them in water
separately and cover them with bell-jars as shown in Fig. 8.6. Then we wrap each bell-jar .;;ith
cellophane papers coIoured green, yellow and red, and put the three sets out in the sunlight.
Thus, each of these twigs is getting light of only one colour. We assume that the amount of
light reaching the twigs is same. After sometime, we observe bubbles of oxygen gas coming
out of water in the bell-jar. The rate at which gas bubbles come out indicates the rate at which
the plant is able to make its food.

Fig. 8.6: An experiment to test whether light of a specific mlour is more effective than light of other mlours for
photosynthesis.

In this experiment, there are four factors that are likely to vary: the three twigs could be
different, the amount of water and the amount of carbon dioxide in the three bell-jars, and the
colours of light they receive .could vary. To test the effect of any one of these factors we have
to ensure that the others remain the same. Therefore, if we are testing for the effect of light of
different colours, the twigs, the amount of water and the amount of carbon dioxide should be
the same in all the three cases.

We can take similar twigs from the same plant and we can assume that the amount of carbon
dioxide is same in each bell-jar because they are of equal size. We can also ensure that the
amount of water is same in each bell-jar. Now, if the rates at which gas bubbles come out in
the three bell-jars are different, we can say that this is due to the difference in colours. In this
particular case, we find that the rate is highest in the &e of the twig receiving red light.

The Method of Science and the

Nature of Scientific Knowledge

Thus, we can conclude that red light is more effective in food-making by plants, when
compared with green or yellow coloured light. This result rejects the first hypothesis and gives
a partial proof for the second one. We could continue this experiment and test whether other
colours like orange, blue etc. are more effective than red.
We would like to add here that this is a very simple set-up. Similar studies have been carried
out by scientists under precisely controlled conditions using very sophisticated equipment.
Example 2: We have taken this example from the history of science. In the seventeenth
century, miners and well diggers observed that it was impossible to raise water more than
about thirty-two feet, through ordinary hand pumps. Galileo thought that a water column
higher than this was unable to bear its weight. His pupil Torricelli (1608-47) proposed another
hypothesis, that the rise of water in a pump was due to the pressure exerted by the air in the
atmosphere. He reasoned that if the rise of the water was due to atmospheric pressure alone,
then any other liquid would rise only upto a certain height. He then calculated mathematically,
that a column of mercury would rise upto a height of thirty inches. To test this, he set up a
simple experiment taking mercury in a dish and inverting a glass tube filled with mercury on
it. Mercury did not rise above thirty inches, proving Torricelli's hypothesis. Thus, the
barometer was invented (Fig. 8.7). It is a n instrument to measure atmosphenc pressure.

Fig. 8.7: Barometer.

It is also known that high up in the mountains, the atmosphenc pressure is lower than that at
sea level. To further verify Torricelli's hypothesis, Pascal took the barometer up a mountain
where the level of mercury fell. This showed that the low atmospheric pressure supported a
lower height of the mercury column. Thus, it provided further confirmation of Torricelli's
explanation.

Example 3: This one is from chemistry. It is commonly observed that if we bum a candle, it
gives light, some heat and what remains in the end is a little bit of wax. It may appear as if a
significant amount of matter has been destroyed in this process. However, this is not the case.
In fact, in everyday processes like this, only a minute amount of matter (about 10-l2 gm. i.e.
one million-millionth fraction of a gram) converts into energy and the rest is converted to
other forms of matter. How do we test this?
For this, we perform a very simple experiment (Fig. 8.8). We put a small candle in a dah, put some
water in the dish, cover it with a bell-jar and weigh this assembly. Then we light the candle
and allow it to bum inside the bell-jar. When it burns out, we allow the assembly to cool
down and weigh it again. We find that there is no difTerence in the weight, though apparently
some wax has been lost What then has happened to the burnt wax and the wick?

If we look carefully, we notice some droplets of moisture and some soot on the inner sides of
the bell-jar. The other substance that is formed is carbon dioxide, which we cannot see. But we
can test it by putting a small amount of Iime water into the dish. We observe that the lime
water turns milky. This is because the lime water has absorbed the carbon dioxide that was
formed, to give a white substance that does not dissolve in water.
In fact, when a candle bums, water and carbon dioxide are formed and some wax is left
unbumt. The amount of matter lost is so tiny that its loss cannot be detected because even the
most sensitive balances available today can measure masses only upto 10" or lo-' gms.(about
one millionth fraction of a gram). Therefore, for all practical purposes, the total amount of
matter remains unchanged. Hence, we refer to this result as the 'law' of conservation of mass
in chemistry.
The sequence of operations as shown in Fig. 8.5 is general and valid for 0bSe~ationsand
hypotheses in many fields of science. However, every scientist need not follow all these steps to Fie. 8.& Verification of the law of
commation of mass.
'do science'. Usually, at any time a number of scientists are working on different steps of the
sequence. A new scientist may enter the sequence at any stage. For example, a group of
scientists had worked on a common plant like Mentha and had found out that it contained
menthol, a familiar substance that we have in peppermint drops and in some toothpastes,
cough syrups etc. Now, another group of scientists may study under what conditions Mentha

Emergence of Modem

%he

can be grown to increase the yield of menthol, when it should be harvested to get optimum
yield etc. These two groups are concerned only with observation and experimentation of
practical nature. A third group of scientists might like to study how menthol is synthesised in
the plant, and formulate a theory about this aspect on the basis of their study. All the three
groups may work almast independently of each other, at different places, even at different
times, although they may use each other's findid& for their own purposes.
Or else, a group of scientists may be examining many links in this sequence representing the
method of science over many years. For instance, they may be monitoring environmental
pollution or they may be concerned with monsoon forecasting. Thus, in the same group of
scientists, some would be collecting data on wind velocity, temperature and humidity in the
atmosphere. Others would be working out theoretical models using this data and still others
would cany out detailed experimental analysis of some substances in the atmosphere to prove
or disprove their models.
So we find that scientists may 'do science' in different ways. Some may be good at collecting
information, data, facts and figures. Some may excel in the design of experiments but may not
be so good at proposing theoretical explanations. There may be some very fine theorists using
data collected by others, who would not be able to identify even simple instruments in a
modem laboratory, but who can apply reasoning and mathematics to arrive at new
conclusions. All these scientists may be making significant contributions. But, it is not what
individual scientists do or how they do it, that constitutes science. Science embodies the
collective effort of all the scientists.
In short, the method of science can be summed up in the words of Einstein who was said to
have remarked, 'If you want to know the essence of scientific method, don't listen to what a
scientist may tell you. Watch what he does'. To this we may add, watch a large number of a
variety of scientists. For, 'doing science' involves many different kinds of activities.

SAQ 2
The example given below describes a scientific investigation about a drug's efficacy against a
certain disease. Identify the various operations of the scientific method shown in Fig. 8.5 that
each statement represents. The statements are all jumbled up. First read them all carefully.
then write your answers in the space provided.
i)

A chemical substance X is accidentally spilled into a dish full of certain disease causing
germs. It kills all the germs in the dish.. ....................

ii) In such and such a disease, the drug X is effective in around 50 per cent of the

cases......................

iii) The results show that around 30%of the patients in Group 1 do not recover despite
treatment. That is, out of every 100 patients being treated, 70 recover on treatment. On
the other hand, 20%get well even without treatment in Group 2. So out of the 70 patients
who recover, 20 may have got well even without treatment. Hence the drug is effective in
only 70 per cent minus 20 per cent, or 50 per cent of the cases.. .....................
iv) Can drug X be used to protect human beings against these disease causing germs? Yes or
No. ......................
v)

A sample population of mice, all infected with the same disease is taken. Half the mice
(Group 1) are treated with the drug and the other half (Group 2) are kept without
treatment. A predetermined quantity of drug is administered to the first group of mice.
The number of treated mice of Group 1 that die or recover is recorded and compared
with the other mice of untreated Group 2. The number of mice that recover is found to be
significantly higher in Group 1 as compared with that in Group 2. A similar test is
repeated, first with guinea pigs .and then with a large sample of human beings in different
localities. ......................

From the examples given above, you would have noticed that, in science, there is a wide
difference in the objects, phenomena or situations studied, in the techniques used for their
study, or in the kind of descriptions that result. Yet, the resulting body of scientific knowledge
has certain characteristic features. Let us now discuss the nature of scientific knowledge and
the features that make it distinct from other kinds of knowledge. In fact, these features are due
to the specific method of objective observation, and verifying hypotheses through rigorow
.
experimentation, about which you have just rcad.

The Method of Science and the

Nature of Scientific Knowledge

8.4 THE NATURE OF SCIENTIFIC KNOWLEDGE

Science, as we have seen, is inseparable from the rest of human endeavour. In the past few
thousand years of human history, an immense fund of scientific knowledge has been built up,
the most dramatic scientific advances having been made in the last few hundred years. This
vast storehouse of scientific knowledge encompasses everything, from particles smaller than
atoms to the great system of the universe containing planets, stars and galaxies. It covers the
study of plants and animals, health and disease, food and medicine and such complex
problems as what life is, how the human mind functions, what the beginning and the end of
the universe are etc.

i
t

As we have said before, we have been able to use this knowledge to meet our daily necessities
of life, provide leisure, communicate better and faster. We are able to harness energy in a great
variety of forms. From land-based creatures entirely dependent on nature for their survival,
human beings have come to a stage where no bariier seems insurmountable. We have tried to
traverse every nook and corner of this earth. the vast lands as well as the deep oceans and the
high mountains. And now we are extending our sights upwards, not only to the solar system
but to the space beyond. Our journey in space is a tremendous endeavour which has only
just begun.
All such endeavours further enrich the body of scientific knowledge. Thus, scientific
knowledge is never at a standstill. It is a dynamic, and an ongoing process. It is an
evergrowing enterprise which will never end. This is because, in science, there is no single
ultimate truth to be achieved after which ail the scientists can retire.
A remarkable feature of scientific knowledge is that it is never complete. The more we add to
this knowledge, the more questions arise about the unknown mysteries of nature. New
information is, thus, continuously gathered. New theories arise if new facts can't be explained
by the existing ones. Practitioners of science can never lay claim to a complete or ultimate
know!edge.

We have seen that science is not static. Going a step further, we may say that scientific
knowledge is also not immutable. Nothing can remain unchallenged in science. In fact, some
of the most honoured scientists are those who try to alter, modify or replace existing theories
by providing revolutionary evidence or argument. In this sense, science is a self-correcting
enterprise, i.e. it is open to change. Many hypotheses proposed by scientists turn out to be
wrong. Science is generated by and devoted to the idea of free inquiry, the idea that any
hypothesis, no matter how strange, deserves to be considered on its merits. Thus, science is not
dogmatic. It does not unreasonably insist on standing by preconceived notions, concepts or
ideas that have been proved wrong through careful experimentation. Science progresses by
disproving. It has no high priests who cannot be questioned What would be considered highly
undesirable in science is the unquestioned acceptance of things as they are.
Any new discovery, finding or interpretation of phenomena is carefully scrutinised, discussed
and verified by the scientific community before its general acceptance. In this sense, the
scientific 'truths' are truths by consensus, and, therefore, always tentative. The consensus is
arrived at after carefully following the method of science. But, if new facts emerging from the
natural world challenge this 'truth', scientists are always ready to re-examine their theories.
Last but not the least, scientific knowledge is objective. That is, scientific results are
repeatable and verifiable by anyone anywhere if proper facilities are available. This feature of
science is related to the ultimate test of any scientific statement; that it should be in accord
with the observations of the natural world. Science prefers hard facts to the dearest illusions
of scientists. T o be accepted, all new ideas must survive rigorous standards of evidence.
Sometimes it takes years, or even hundreds of years, before the ideas are verified. Nonetheless,
in the long run, no brilliant arguments, high authority or aesthetic appeal can save a scientific
theory which disagrees with experiment or observation of nature. You may recall from Unit 6
that it was th& feature of obiective observation in science, that led to the demolition of
Aristotelian ideas about the universe. Since hard facts are lnde~endentof the prejudices
and preferences of individual scientists, and experiments or observations are essentially
repeatable, objectivity becomes an essential feature of scientific knowledge. In no sense is
science based on experiences open only to a select few.

Emergence of Modem
Science

SAQ 3
Which two among the following statements do not charicterise science? Put a cross against
those. Which feature/s of scientific knowledge, discussed above, is/are described by the
remaining statements? Give your answer in the space provided.
i)

One day,science will help us to know everything about the universe.

ii) In the nineteenth century, it was believed by chemists that when a metal burned,
something called Phlogiston escaped. Experiments showed that the residual material had
more weight than the original metal. The adherents of the Phlogiston theory explained
this by saying that Phlogiston had negative weight! Repeated experiments showed that
metals combined with oxygen to make chemical compounds called metal oxides: The
Phlogiston theory was thus set aside.. ....................

iii) A famous astronomer claimed that he had discovered a new galaxy in the distant
universe. Other groups of scientists could not confirm this observation. Yet, the
astronomer was believed because he was a great authority in his
field. .....................
iv) We are all familiar with pasteurised milk. This means that the bacteria in milk are
destroyed by heating it to a high temperature. This practice has its origin in a famous
experiment of Louis Pasteur, in which he showed that living organisms could not be
created spontaneously. Pasteur boiled water, thus destroying the gcrms in it, filled it in a
flask and sealed it. When. after many days, water in the flask was examined under a
microscope, no germs were found in it. This would not have happened if germs were
spontaneously created out of water. Pasteur's experiments were repeated in several
laboratories and it was confirmed that only life could beget life.. ....................
V) Well upto the end of the nineteenth century, it was thought that the atoms were
indivisible. In the early twentieth century, experimentalists showed that atoms were made
up of electrons, protons and neutrons. In recent years, many more elementary particles
have been discovered.. ....................
-

8.5 SCIENTIFIC APPROACH TO PROBLEM

SOLVING
The scientific method and the features of scientific knowledge described above are in no way
restricted to the domain of scientists alone. These characterise a scientific approach to solving
problems whether they are scientific, economic, social or even personal. These attributes of
science reflect an attitude of mind which is basically rational and can be adopted by anyone
who has understood them. Thus, scientific approach can, and indeed should, form the basis of
not only solving different kinds of problems in laboratory situations but also in everyday life.
Even if it seems repetitive, let us once again outline the scientific approach to problem solving.
If we are faced with a problem, what should be our mental attitude towards it? First of all. we
should approach it with an open mind, without any preconceived notions, whims or
prejudices. Then, no external pressures of authority should be allowed to affect our
observations or analysis.
What methods should we adopt for solving the problem? While analysing it, we should try to
look at it from all posible angles, Consider all the factors involved, ask all posSible questions
and gather all data and facts about it. Doubt and scepticism are the hallmarks of scientific
approach. We should not accept blindly, on faith, any statement without examining it
critically. We should base our analysis on rational and objective thinking and then come to
conclusions. In no case should we rush into hasty decisions. We should also avoid making
generalisations on the basis of insufficient evidence.
Further, we should not consider our conclusions as the last word on the said problem. If any
new facts or evidences come to light which alter our results, we should always be prepared to
revise our conclusions. We shouid be flexible in our attitude and avoid being dogmatic in our
views regarding any matter. Hard work, discipline and basic integrity arc certain other
attributes which we will have to adopt if we are to make the scientific approach a process of
thinking and a method of acting, in other words, a way of life.
We will now consider certain examples from our everyday life which can help in clarifying the

~deaspresented above. There are many social problems associated with developmental projects
wherein it becomes imperative to adopt a scientific approach.

I
II
I

Let us take the problem of choosing a location for an industry to manufacture chemicals.
Apart from the technical aspects, social factors would also have to be taken into account while
taking this decision. For example, how densely populated that area is, how the displaced
people will be resettled. what the industry's effect on the surrounding environment will be.
how and where would its waste products be disposed of, the wind direction in case there are
any toxic leaks, where would the workers be housed, what industrial safety measures would be
needed and so on. Unles5 we take all such factors into account, weigh the pros and cons
sc~entificallyand then take decisions, we will never be able to avert disasters like the Bhopal
gas tragedy of December. 1984. There can be many other similar examples, like setting up
- ~ u c l e ~ p w x + l a n t s h. u g d q d e l p ~ j e c t s and
, otherindustrial projects which involve a careful
planning based on a,scientific approach.
This approach is applicable in social sciences too. For instance, a few years ago a study w'as
carried out to test the general belief that 'student unrest is caused by first generation learners
whose parents are not educated'. Extensive data about such students was collected and the
analysis showed that this belief was wrong. Even in our everyday life, we use this approach to
optimise our efforts. For example, if you have to meet three persons in different parts of the
town, you can plan your visit to optimally use your time and money. Housewives often
optimise their monthly purchases by checking the prices and quality of goods at various stores;
if a cheap store is far away, they have to decide to buy a larger quantity so as to justify more
travelling expenses.
Problems often crop up in our society when people living in different regions, speaking
different languages, following different religions or social practices develop prejudiced opinions
about each other. You may have come across alllkinds of prejudiced generalisations made on
the basis of very little evidence, such as, 'North Indians are brash'. 'South Indians are weak
minded', 'Gorkhas are brave', 'Punjabis eat very rich food', 'Scheduled Castes are dull headed',
'Poor people are dishonest' etc. All these notions would not have arisen if we were scientific in
our approach, because evidence and analysis indicates that these are not generally true.
Often in a region, people fight with each other on issues that are thoroughly irrational and
illogical. Much of the rioting and bloodshed in communal violence can be avoided if the
people involved don't blindly believe in rumours or get swayed by those who preach hatred. If
one used scientific reasoning and logic, examined facts and the basic issues underlying these
incidents, such as uneven economic development, role of vested interests in fanning riots etc.,
one would never become a party to such crimes. Instead, one could always help in averting
these situations.
In our own lives, too, we should adopt a scientific approach to solving problems. For example,
if things go wrong in relations between people, they could always sit together and analyse their
problems in a rational and objective manner instead of being carried away by emotions and
adopting the dogmatic attitude of 'I am right, you are wrong'. Similarly, if at any time of our
lives, we do not do well and are faced with problems, we should not lose heart and become
fatalistic. Instead, we could show a positive approach of making an effort to understand what's
wrong, ask searching questions, seek their answers and try to proceed in a rational way. There
are many problems around us relating to health and nutrition, environment etc. where it
would serve us well if we made the scientific approach an integral part of our thinking and
living.
To sum up this discussion, using the scientific method to solve our day-today problems would
mean to shun the attitudes of dogmatic beliefs and arrogance on the one hand, and
helplessness, despair and diffidence on the other. It would do us good to adopt the positive
attitudes of curiosity, a questioning bent of mind, confidence in our ability, open-mindedness,
rational thinking, objectivity, flexibility and above all, humility. If we are successful even
partially in this endeavour, we would have understood the essence of scientific method.

SAQ 4
In the following situations, which of the responses would you term as scientific and which
ones as unscientific. Indicate it by putting S (for scientific) or U (for unscientific) against each
statement.
a)

Somebody comes and tells you that he has seen a bright light descending from the skies to
the earth on previous night. You

The Method of Science and the

Nature of SeiPntifii Knowledge

i)

Emergence of Modem
Science

believe him and go and tell another person that you have seen the light too.

..........

ii) question the person in detail and try to find out the facts. ........
b) You are in an organisation and some persons working under you complain about one of
their colleagues. You
i) suspend that person right away. ....................
ii) don't pay any attention to the complaints as you rather like that person.

..........

iii) conduct an enquiry, gather the facts and then decide. .....................
c)

A child in your family is very ill and seems to be dying. You

i)

believe that it is God's will and nothing can be done about it.

...................

ii) take the child to a witch doctor for treatment, thinking that she or he can cure the child.

....................

iii) take the child to a hospital for proper medical treatment. ....................
iv) bring some medicine from a quack after telling him the symptoms.

8.6 A REFLECTION ABOUT SCIENCE

We have said many things about science, and there are many other things you may know
about it on your own. Now is the time to reflect about the nature of scientific knowledge, of
scientific work by individuals, and of the limitations of science.
We have seen that there is a tremendous store of knowledge which has been created in the
short spell of perhaps a few thousand years. This knowledge has helped us to do wonderful
things like flying in the air, landing on the moon, transmitting pictures over long distances.
increasing the average span of human life to over 70 years in some countries. It has also
enabled man to engage in mass destruction. There are millions of people today who are
engaged in various aspects of using this store of scientific knowledge-educators, engineers.
doctors, instrument designers and so on.
There is, however, the other side of scientific work which is creative. New knowledge is being
discovered all the time. Millions of people are working to enlarge the store of knowledge, be it
about the cosmos, or the elementary particles, or the nature of genes and chromosomes in
living beings. There are those working with huge apparatus scanning the sk~esor smashing tiny
particles against each other, and those working with pencil and paper to propound theories by
condensing a great variety of observations into simpler statements of laws of nature. If the first
kind are mostly using logic and reason, the creative workers are additionally using the power
of imagination and intuition. It is also true that a large number of scientists are engaged
simultaneously in both kinds of activity, because no hard and fast line can be drawn between
them.
We have seen that the struggle of the scientists to penetrate the sphere of the unknown can
rightly be called a quest for truth. It is to be realised that the result is beautiful-beautiful in its
expression, and fascinating in the further possibilities that it opens up. Truth and beauty are
one and the same thing, according to some philosophers. In science it is true that a good deal
of theoretical and experimental work which led to significant findings was triggered off by the
considerations of symmetry or elegance in an equation. It gives as much thrill to a creative
scientific worker to see his experiment yield new results, or to be able to express diverse
scientific facts in a simple equation, as the painting of a picture to an artist or the conceiving of
a new raga to a musician. The subjectk c. experience of "doing" science, and the motivation of
the scientists are as important in their creative work as the experience of a poet.
We have also tried to show that while there is tremendous variety in scientific work, and
scientists of different specialisations use a great variety of methods, there is also a set of
common features in the methods that are followed. One can speak of a method of science in
this sense, and if one considers the attitude of mind which leads to successful endeavours in
science, one could call it as the temper of science. In India one of our great promoters of
science, Jawaharlal Nehru preferred the word 'scientific temper' because it can be applied to
many areas of social and personal life. If the great scientific enterprise has succeeded because

certain broad methods of enquiry have been used, or problems have been tackled by certain
attitudes of mind, it is worthwhile to examine these so as to benefit from them in all other
spheres of life.
We have tried to show that "objectivity" is one such characteristic of the scientific temper
which implies approaching a problem with.an open mind, without trying to fit our personal
whims, fancies or prejudices into the result. It also implies, on the other !land. that social
pressures or the existence of some great authority already having a r opinion on the question,
should not affect our scientific approach to a problem. For example. let's suppose that 5000
acres of land is to be cleared for making a station for testing missiles. Scientists may be asked
to figure out the consequences of changing the pattern of land use on the environment, and
also on human beings who may presently be living in that area. The scientists should neither
be carried away by emotion, nor unconsciously justify the clearing of land, or yield to any
pressure by politicians or local inhabitants. Great integrity is part of objectivity in making a
scientific study. Of course, it does not mean that human problems or even suffering likely to be
created by the change of land use would not be carefully assessed in the study apd given due
weight in arriving at the conclusions.
In the course of scientific work, one has to be flexible and ready to change from one kind of
approach to another if the first approach does not succeed. Change is the very essence.of all
existence and a scientific attitude is that which is not daunted by%. In fact. science as a whole
is a harbinger of change, and it flourishes in a society which is non-dogmatic and is in search
In the scientific temper, reason and logic have a major part to play because they are the'basic
tools of all analysis. But imagination and even speculation are simultaneously used to tackle
every problem.

A few limiting features are also very important to note. Scientific knowledge is not complete.
nor is it ever likely to be final. This is because our experience so far has been that as ignorance
is removed and knowledge is established in any sphere, fresh questions are posed before our
intellect, or a new area of ignorance is uncovered. For example, when it was established that
matter consists of particles and voids, we talked of "atoms" or elements; when atoms were
deeply investigated they were found to be made up of electrons, protons and neutrons; and
when these have been further scrutinised, more fundamental pirticles have been discovered.
The search goes on. Scientific knowledge increases by leaps and bounds, but each advance
opens up fresh avenues of enquiry. That is why scientists cannot be fundamentalists, they will.
always be enquiring into new areas. Nevertheless, in a scientific sphere, the best that we know
is represented by the current knowledge of science. One cannot say that if present scientific
knowledge has no answer to a problem, one should believe whatever a non-scientist says
about it. If the cure for cancer has not been discoveied, a quack or a godman cannot cure it
either. A profound trust in science, in spite of its limitation, is the sign of being civilised.
One s h o ~ also
3 know that there are spheres of knowledge other than science-there is
knowledge or .be individual in terms of his feelings, behaviour, dreams and aspirations. This
actually borders on scientific knowledge of the body and the brain; there is knowledge of
human behaviour in groups and habitations: there is knowledge df history, of economic and
political systems, international affairs, and so on. Knowledge of one sphere impinges on that of
the other-economics and international affairs involve science and technology in a big way. It
is because of this reality that a scientist being also a citizen, possessing access to a very
powerful field of knowledge, must acquire other kinds of knowledge, for example of sociology,
economics and politics.
,

It is again because of many different facets of knowledge that there is a need to iniegrate it and
develop what may be called a "philosophy" or an "ideology" or a "world-view". Effective use
of science can be made to overcome shocking deprivations which hundreds of millions of
people living in the old colonies of the "developed" countries suffer, such as malnutrition, ill
health, lack of drinking water and sanitary arrangements, lack of shelter from sun and rain.
But, for this scientists have to possess social consciousness, and a spirit to change society for
the better.
Some people say science has io be combined with "spirituality". Now, if spirituality means
ability to distinguish between good and evil, falsehood and truth, social justice and mere
pursuit of profit, corruption and integrity-no one could contest the statement. But if
"s~irituality" includes blind belief in certain dogmas, accepting superstition and obscurantism,

The Method of Science and the

Nature of Scientific Knowledge

Emergence of Modern
Science

or belief in supernatural powers then, obviously, the statement is not true. Scientific knowledge
has come to be established, and scientific attitudes have come to be refined precisely by a
struggle against unfounded, preconceived notions and beliefs, and the ideology of ignorance.

8.7 SUMMARY
In this unit we have discwed some aspects of the nature of scientific knowledge. Scientific
knowledge is objective. evergrowing, open to change, nondogmatic and never complete.
We have given an idea about the method of science and its various operations, like
objective observation. framing hypotheses, experimentation. verification and refinement of
hypotheses.
We have also shown how the scientific approach can be applied to the world around us
and how using it we can solve our social and personal problems.

8.8 TERMINAL QUESTIONS

1)

Observe the figures carefully and answer questions about them in the space provided :

i) Where is the missing piece of cake in Fig. 8.9?

.............................................................................
.............................................................................
ii)

How will the solution taste to the man in Fig. 8.10?

iii) Which distance in Fig. 8.1 1 is longer. AB or AC?

The Method of Science and the Nature of

Scientific KnonWge

Fig. 8.1 1

......................................................................
iv) What is the difference between the germination of seeds in cases (a) and (b) shown in Fig. 8.127

(a)

Fig. 8.12

(b)

......................................................................
2) State at least one hypothesis based on each of the following observations in the space
provided.
i)

Some plants were kept in a closed dark room where no light could reach them. The plants
wilted and died in a few days time.

ii) In a rice growing area, it was observed over a period of few years that infant
mortality rate was highest in the months of July and August when the rice sowing
operation was in full swing. About 40%children born during this period died within
the first month after birth or were still born.

.......................................................................................
.......................................................................................
t

iii) It is observed that chameleons or moths living in different surroundings have different
colours.

Emergence of Modem
Science

3) i)

Test the hypothesis that all the circles are,plsccd in the lower right corner of
Fig. 8.13. Write down your result.

.......................................................................................
.......................................................................................
'Illiterate mothers have more children than
mothers with university degrees.'

.......................................................................................
.......................................................................................
.......................................................................................

Fig. 8.13

4) State in the space provided, the conclusions that you derive from the experiments
described below?
i)

The stalk of a white flower is divided into two parts. One half is put in one glass
containing coloured water, the other half in another glass containing plain water, as
shown In Fig. 8.14. After a few hours, one side of the flower becomes red.

ii) A serum containing pneumonia-causing bacteria is injected in a sample of mice, all of

which die after a few days. The same serum is boiled thoroughly and again injected
in another sample of mice. None of the mice die this time (see Fig. 8. I5 ) .

Fig. 8.14

iii) When a turmeric stain made on a cloth by a vegetable cooked in oil is washed in
water and hung to dry in sun, the stain remains. If the cloth is washed with a
detergent and hung to dry in shade the stain remains but if dried in bright sun, the
stain disappears.

.......................................................................................
.......................................................................................

8.9 ANSWERS
Self Assessment Questions
1) i) T ii) F
~ i g8.15
.

iii) T

iv) F

V) F

2) i) Observation ii) Theory iii) Analysis of results iv) Question and hypothesis
V) Experiment
3) i) x "ii)Objective and open to change iii) x iv) Objective v) Never complete, open
to change

b)i)U
(c) i) U

ii)U

iii)S
ii) U iii) S iv) U

Terminal Questions
1) i) Turn the figure upside down.
ii) The man can't tell it because he has not licked the finger that he dipped in the
solution.
iii) Both are equal. You'll find out if you measure them.
iv) In case a), the seed leaves remain under the ground; in case b) they have come above
the ground.
In all these examples, you would have noticed that observations should be done carefully, you
should not always, rely on your sensory perceptions but on measurement, and observations
should be accurate.
2) i)

a) Plants need light to grow.

ii) a) The expectant mothers may be malnouri'shed.

b) Mothers continuously sow rice in a back breaking kneeling posture which puts a
strain on them.
iii) a) Chameleons or moths adapt themselves to the surroundings to protect themselves
from predators.
b) The surroundings cause the change in chameleons or moths.

3) i)

'Far more circles areplaced in the lower right comer than elsewhere.'

ii) A large sample of illiterate and university educated mothers representing varied socioeconomic backgrounds belonging to different regions, religions and castes should be
taken and the sizes of their family found out to amve at any result. You could add to
this answer.
4) i)

Water from the glass goes up through the stalk into the pek!.

nf

the flowers.

ii) Boiling the serum destroys the pneumonia bacteria completely.

iii) The detergent soap dissolves the oil and the bright sun bleaches away the colour of
turmeric on the cloth.

GLOSSARY
acoustics: the study of sound
alchemy: a medieval chemical art and speculative philosophy aiming to conveh other metals
into gold, to discover a universal cure for disease and to discover a means of indefinitely
prolonging life
amalgamation: making an alloy of mercury with another metal
apartheid :a policy of segregat~nr.or discriminahon on a racial basis pmctised even now
in South Africa

arcuate: curved like a bow

atlas: a bound collection of maps, iables, charts etc.
atmospheric pressure: pressure exert& by air in the atmosphere

. atomic energy: energy that is released corresponding to the decrease in the mass of an
atomic nucleus when two atomic nuclei combine to form it or due to the fission of heavy
atomic nuclei
bacteridogy: the study of,bacteria
calligraphy: the art of producing elegant handwriting
cartography: the science or art of making maps
caulking: stopping the seams and making them watertight by filling with a waterproofing

material

'

cell: the unit of life; all living organisms are made up of cells

'lhM e w d.Scieneerd Uae

Nature d SdontWc b w b d p t

Emergence of Modem
Science

chromosomes: thread-like bodies that occur in the nuclei of living cells: they carry genes.
celestial: of the sky, heavenly
cosmos: the universe
crystallisation: the process of forming crystals
dioptrics: studies about the passage of light from one medium to another
distillation: a chemical process used for purification or separation of substanca
dynamics: the study of the motion of bodies under the action of forces
electronics: the study of electrons, their behaviour and effects
electron microscope: an instrument similar in purpose to the ordinary microscope; it is
different in design and is able to produce a much more magnified image of an object
elementary particles: the basic particles of which all matter is composed
environment: surrounding objects, natural and social conditions, circumstances of life of
person or society
feudal: related to feudalism; feudalism was a system of political organisation which had as its
basis the relation of lord to serf; all land was held by the lords in fee and the forced service by
tenants, i.e. the serfs, was its characteristic feature
galaxies: luminous bands of stars, gas and dust existing in space
genes: unit of heredity in chromosome, controlling a particular inherited characteristic of an
individual
geography: a science that deals with the earth and the life on it
geology: a science that deals with the history of the earth and its life, especially as recorded in
rocks
gradation: a scale showing regular degrees
grafting: causing a detached portion of a living plant to unite with the main stem of another
plant
horticulture: the science and art of growing fruits, vegetables, flowers, or ornamental plants
hydraulics: the science dealing with practical applications of water or other liquid in motion
through pipes etc.
lathe: a machine for cutting and shaping materials
latitude: angular distance north or south of a point from the earth's equator measured upon
the curved surface of the earth
logic: science of reasoning
longitude: the angle which the meridian through the geographical poles and a point on
Earth's surface makes with a standard meridian (usually through Greenwich) is the longitude
of the point
magnefism: science that deals with magnetic phenomena that includes the attraction for iron
observed in a magnet.

meridian: a great circle on the surface of the earth passing through the geographical poles and
any given place
microscope: instnunent to magnify image of objects, to reveal details invisible to the unaided
eye
mordant: a chemical that fixes a dye on a substance
mystlelsm: obscure or irrational speculation
nuclear science: science dealing with the study of nucleus of an atom
obscurantism: deliberate vagueness and an opposition to the spread of knowledge
observatory: a place equipped for observation of natural phenomena, as in astronomy

optics: the science that deals with light, its properties, behaviour, etc. and other phenomena
associated with it
orthopaedics: thc area of medical science h a t deals with the correction or prevention of
delbrrnities in tlie skeleton
oxidation: the act or process of combining a substance with oxygen or removing one or more
electrons from the atom, ion or molecule
palaeobotany: a branch of botany dmling with fossil plants
pneumatics: a branch of mechanics that deals with the mechanical properties of gases
quadrant: an instrument for measuring altitudes (heights)
radar: an abbreviation of the words 'radio detection and ranging'; a device for locating an
object by means of radiowaves reflected from the object and received by the device
renaissance: revival, rebirth; a movement or a period of vigorous artistic and intellectual
activity
resist: chemical agent applied to parts of cloth that are not to take the dye
rhetoric: the art of speaking or writing effectively

serf: a member of the servile feudal class bound to the soil and more or less subject to the will
of his lord
sericulture: the production of raw silk by. raising silkworms
soldering: joining metallic surfaces by a metal or metallic alloy

specific gravity: the ratio of the density of a substance, i.e. its mass per unit volume, to the
density of a substance like pure water taken as standard, when both densities are obtained by
weighing in air
steppe: level and treeless land

srerilise: to free from living germs

h u l u s : any agent that directly influences the activity of living organisms-as

sensory organs, causing muscular contractions etc.

by exciting

telescope: instrument using lenses or mirrors or both to make distant objects appear nearer
and iarger
terrestrial: of the earth
theology: rationaI interpretation of religious faith, practice and experience
topography: detailed description of the natural and man-made features of a place or region
on maps or charts
trabeate: designed or constructed of horizontal beams
trigonometry: the study of the properties of triangles and of trigonometric functions like sine,
cosine, tangent, etc. of an angle, and their applications

FURTHER READING
1

Medieval India, A Textbook for Classes XI-XII, Part I, Satish Chandra, NCERT, 1986.

Medieval India, A Textbook for Classes XI-XII, Part 11, Satish Chandra, NCERT, 1986.

The Story of Civilitation Volumes 1 and 2, Arjun Dev, NCERT, 1987.

Science and Society an Anthologv, compiled and edited by A.K. Jalaluddin, U. Malik a'nd
R.P. Bhatia, Rajkamal Prakashan Private Limited, 1977.
Science, Nonrcience and the Paranormal edited by Dr. H. Narasirnhaiah, Bangalore
Science Forum, 1987.

COURSE CONTENTS
Block 1 : History of Science
Unit 1 Science as a Human Endeavour
Unit 2

Science in the Ancient World

Unit 3

Iron Age
The Golden Age of Science in India

Unit 4

Block 2 : Emergence of Modern Science

Unit 5

Science in the Medieval Times

Unit 6 Renaissance, the Industrial Revolution and After

Unit 7 Science in Colonial and Modem India
Unit 8 The Method of Science and the Nature of Scientific Knowledge
Block 3 : Universe and Life -The

Beginning

Unit 9 Universe as a System

Unit 10 Exploring the Universe
Unit 11 Solar System
Unit 12 Origin and Evolution of Life
Unit 13 Evolution of Man
Block 4 : Environment and Resources
Unit 14 Ecosystem
Unit 15 Components of Environment
Unit 16 The Changing Environment
Unit 17 Natural Resources
Unit 18 Resource Utilisation, Planning and Management
Block 5 : Agriculture, Nutrition and Health
Unit 19 Food and Agriculture
Unit 20 Scientific Possibilities and Social Realities
Unit 2 1 Food and Nutrition
Unit 22 Health and Disease
Block 6 : Information, Knowledge, Insight
Unit 23 Mind and Body
Unit 24 Psychological Aspect of Behaviour
Unit 25 Information and Communication
Unit 26 Modes of Communication
Block 7 : Science, Technology and Development
Unit 27 Science and Technology in Industry

Unit 28 Technology and Economic Development

Unit 29 Modem Development in Science and Technology - I
Unit 30 Modem Development in Science and Technology - I1
Block 8 : New Perspectives
Unit 3 1 Perceptions and Aspirations
Unit 32 Science -The Road to Development
AudioNideo Programmes
Audio :

1) Science and Society (Block I)

2) Astronomical Development in India (Block 3)

3) Measuring Astronomical Distances (Block 3)

4) Evolution of Man (Block 3)
5) The Forest Ecosystem (Block 4)
6) Population Pressure (Block 4)
7) Common Misconceptions about Health (Block 5)
8) Human Factors in Engineering (Block 6)
4) New Information Order (Block 6)

10) Technology and Self-Reliance (Block 7)

11) Nuclear Disarmament (Block 7)
Video :

1) Method of Science (Block 2)

2) A Window to the Universe (Block 3.)

3) The Story of a River (Block 4)
4) Green Revolution (Block 5)

5) Infectious Diseases (Block 5)

6) Jean Piaget Development Stages of a Child (Block 6)
7) INSAT (Block 6)
-

UNIT 7 SCIENCE IN COLONIAL AND

MODERN INDIA
Structure
7.1 Introduction
Objectives

7.2 Science in Colonial India

Sclent~ficResearch in Colonla1 Ind~a
Impact of the Freedom Movement

7.3
7.4
7.5
7.6
7.7

Science in Post-Independence India

What We Have Learnt
Summary
Terminal Questions
Answers

7.1 INTRODUCTION
We have seen in Unit 6 that the Industrial Revolution had led to an ever increasing demand
for raw materials as well as markets for finished products. The newly industrialised countries
took care of their growing demands by colonising many Asian and African couatries. By the
mid-nineteenth century, the British had established their colonial rule In India. The fairly long
Indian tradition of science and technology and a rich cultural heritage, about which you have
read in Units 2 to 5, got destroyed due to the merciless exploitation perpetrated by the
colonisers. Only after Independence dld we become the masters of our destiny and chose to
consciously use science for the benefit of our people.
In this unit, we will outline the development of science and technology in India during the
colonial and the post-Independence period. We will also try to analyse some pertinent issues
relating to science and our society in the light of what we have learnt in the previous units.
,

Objectives
After studying this unit you should be able to :
outline the few scientific developments in colonial India and analyse why these were so
meagre,
describe the impact of the freedom movement on the developments in science m
pre-Independence India,
describe the problems before our country after Independence and our response to solving
them,
discuss various issues related to the use of science and technology in our soc~alcontext.

7.2 SCIENCE IN COLONIAL INDIA

We have seen in Units 5 and 6 that from the sixteenth century onwards, Europe began to
outdistance India in scientific and material advancement. The rise of modem science in Europe
strengthened European economic domination over the colonies where education, science and
research were kept backward.
The advancing European trading companies of Holland, Portugal, France and Great Britain
became deeply involved in political and military rivalries in India. The British East India
Company emerged as the dominant trading company. This culminated in the establishment of
the British supremacy over the Indian sub-continent. This was a very exciting time for the
British rulers; a new empire was in the making and in the process of consolidation. The
colonisers were out to collect the maximum possible information about India, its people and
resources. They faithfully reported what was best in India's technological traditions, what was
best in India's natural resources, and what could be the most advantageous for their employers.
The rulers were also quick to realise that a thorough knowledge of the geography, geology and
botany of the areas being conquered was essential. They fully recognised the role and
importance of science in empire-building. Let us now see what the few scientific developments

Emergence of Modem
Science

in the colonial times in India were. We will also try to analyse why there were so few
developments.
An interesting feature in the early phase of this period was that colonial scientists would try
their hand at several fields simultaneously and each scientist was, in fact, a botanist, geologist,
geographer and educator-all rolled into one. As data-gatherers, the individual scientists were
efficient.However, for analysis and drawing conclusions, they had to depend upon the
scientific institutions in Britain, which received such data from many colonies. The British
made investment in botanical, geological and geographical surveys from which they hoped to
get direct and substantial economic and military advantages. Medical and zoological sciences
did not hold such promise and, thus, they were neglected. Research in physics or chemistry
was simply out of question because these subjects were related to industrial development
which the British did not want to encourage. India was considered to be only a source of raw
materials and a wonderful market for all sorts of articles manufactured in Britain, from
needles, nibs and pencils to shoes, textiles and medicines.
However, the setting up of some scientific bodies and museums was a positive step. Pre-British
India had a weak scientific base and, therefore, neither scientific institutions existed nor were
there any journals to spread scientific information. William Jones, a judge of the Supreme
Court of Calcutta and some other European intellectuals in the city realised this and founded
the Asiatic Society in Calcutta in 1784. This society soon became the focal point of all
scientific activity in India. It was followed by Agricultural-Horticultural Society of India
(1817), Calcutta Medical & Physical Society (1 823), Madras Literary and Scientific Society
(1818), and the Bombay Branch of the Asiatic Society (1829). These societies rendered
invaluable service, particularly through their journals which compared very favourably with
the European ones.
When the Crown formally took over the Indian administration in 1858, activities for exploring
the natural resources in the country had already passed their formative stage. The problem was
more of consolidating the gains which individual efforts had made possible. For this, many
institutions were set up and the government expanded the survey organisations. In 1878, the
three survey branches-the trigonometrical, topographical and the revenue which had upto
that time been separate departments, were amalgamated. Naturally, Revenue Survey got the
upper hand. Similarly, geological explorations were patronised because of their direct
economic benefit. The Geological Survey of India was created in 1851. Unlike the Geological
Survey or Survey of India, an organisation for carrying out botanical explorations did not
come up.
The establishment and development of various scientific departments and institutions called for
a different cadre. The biggest and the oldest was the Indian Medical Service which was raised
and maintained basically to serve the army. The most disorganised sector was that of
agriculture. Though the maximum revenue came from agriculture, the problems of its
improvement were too complex and the government left it in the hands of private agricultural
societies. Much later, in 1906, an Indian Agricultural Service was organised. However, it did
not grow into a well-knit and integrated scientific department because of financial and
administrative constraints. A' few branches which were of military or instant economic
significance could manage to develop. But, on the whole, the efforts remained adhoc, sporadic
and local in nature. The government wanted practical results rather than research papers. An
excessive administrative control, exercised at different levels, ensured that the colonial scientists
would always dance to the official tune.
In the educational scheme, science was never given a highqpriority.The charter of 1813 called
for 'the introduction and promotion of knowledge of science among the inhabitants of British
India'. But it remained a pious wish, at least partly because the indigenous educational system
was also not sympathetic to the idea. In 1835, Macaulay succeeded in making a foreign
language English the medium of instruction. Also, his personal distaste for science led to a
cumculum which was purely literary. The entry of science in schools was, thus, delayed. A
few medical and engineering institutions were opened but they were meant largely to supply
assistants to British trained doctors and engineers. Ancient universities in India were leading
centres of learning in their time and attracted scholars from other countries. So were the
famous centres of Islamic learning in the medieval period in India. But these traditions did not
survive. It was in 1857 that the Universities of Calcutta, Bombay and Madras were set ap
more or less on the pattern of London University.

However, it was only in 1870 that the Indian universities began to show some interest in
science education. In 1875, Madras University decided to examine its matriculation candidates
in geography and elementary physics in place of British history. Bombay was the first to grant
degrees in science. Calcutta University divided its B.A. into two branches- 'A' course, i.e.
literary, 'B' course, i.e. science. A fact of great significance, however, was that the entire
direction of colonial education was not towards opening up the minds of students or
developing a questioning attitude. Rather it encouraged passive acceptance of what was taught
or written in the books. The books were in English and were mostly written and printed
abroad. They depicted the British culture. Education so imparted, by and large, tended to
alienate the educated people from their own culture. Further, the educational milieu ensured
lack of enterprise, and readiness to take orders from above, which was indeed the intention of
the rulers. Institutions and teachers looked at the British educational model as the ideal and, by
and large, they tried to copy it even though they were in a very different social and economic
situation.
SAQ 1
State, in the space given, whether the following statements about the scientific developments
in colonial India are true or false. Write the correct answers for the false statements.

i)

Botanical, geological and geographical surveys were carried out to map India's natural
resources.

ii) Research in physics and chemistry was encouraged to promote industrial development
in India.
iii) Some scientific societies came up and brought out some journals for disseminating
scientific information.
iv) Attention was paid to medicine only to serve the army and other British populace.
v) There was a systematic and organised effort to solve problems in agriculture.
vi) Several universities started offering courses in science education.
vii) At school level, too, science education was given much attention.
viii) The purpose of imparting education in British India was to create a spirit of free enquir
and innovative thinking.

We have seen above, that the British were primarily interested in strengthening their political
and economic domination over India. They exploited India's resources to the full and
developed a nominal scientific infrastructure for this purpose. However, in all other areas, like
physics, chemistry and agriculture, in which scientific development was not imperative, no
atention was paid. In this period of colonisation, India's cultural heritage, scientific tradition
and educational system got destroyed. In its place came a tradition of servility and an
education that was designed to produce subservience rather than inculcate a spirit of free and
creative inquiry.
The status of scientific research in colonial India was not much better. Let us'see what it was.

7.2.1 Scientific Research in Colonial India

In the absence of higher scientific education, scientific research remained an exclusive
governmental exercise for a long time. It was, therefore, linked to the economic policies
pursued by the imperial power. A scientist serving the colonial power was supposed to not
only discover new economic resources, but also to help in their exploitation. In agriculture, it
was basically plantation research with emphasis on experimental farms, the introduction of
new varieties, and the various problems related to cash crops. These were basically cotton,
indigo, tobacco and tea, which were all to be exported to Britain. Next came surveys in
geology to exploit mineral resources, again for export as raw material. Another major area of
concern was health. The survival of the army, the planters and other colonisers depended on it.
In spite of diffiult conditions and the government's lukewarm attitude, quite a few scientific
works were camed out in this period. Ronald Ross did original work on the relation between
malaria and the mosquito. Macnamara worked on cholera, Haffkine on plague and Rogers on
kalazar. The famous medical scientist, Robert Koch visited Calcutta to work on cholera.
Bacteriological laboratories were set up in Bombay, Madras, Coonoor, Kasauli and
Mukteswar. This shift towards bacteriological research had one significant result. It led to the

SdencemCdonisland

Modern l o d l ~

growth of clinical treatment, private practice and a booming drug industry. However,
preventive measures like sanitary reforms, or even supply of drinking water to villages and
towns remained neglected. In other fields too significant developments took place through the
effort of foreign and Indian scientists working in institutions here.
The British activities did evoke some response from the local populace, particularly the
educated section, who were looking for jobs in the colonial administration and economy. A
few Indians participated in the officially patronised scientific associations or institutions.
However, they often searched for a distinct identity and established institutions, scholarships
and facilities of their own. Ram Mohun Roy's petition to Amherst asking for a proper science
education became well known. Bal Gangadhar Shastri and Hari Keshavji Pathare in Bombay,
Master Ramchander in Delhi, Shubhaji Bapu and Onkar Bhatt Joshi in Central Provinces, and
Aukhoy Dutt in Calcutta worked for the popularisation of modem science in Indian
languages.
Geography and astronomy were the areas chosen first because, in these fields, the Pauranic
myths were considered the strongest. Vyas, the author of Srimad Bhagwat, for example, had
talked about oceans of milk and nectar. This is part of popular myth even now, and this was
attacked by these persons. For instance, Onkar Bhatt explained that Vyas was only a poet, not
a scientist, and his interest was merely to recount the glories of God, so he wrote whatever he
fancied. Even Urdu poets, devoted mainly to the romances of life, took notice of the western
science and technology. Hali and Ghalib, for example, talked about the achievements of
western civilisation based upon steam and coal power. The next logical step from these
individual efforts was to give some organisational shape to the growing yearning for modem
science.

In 1864, Syed Ahmed Khan founded the Ahgarh Scientific Society and called for introduction
of technology in industrial and agricultural production. Four years later, Syed Imdad Ali
founded the Bihar Scientific Society. These societies gradually became defunct. In 1876, M.L.
Sarkar established the Indian Association for the Cultivation of Science. This was completely
under Indian management and without any government aid or patronage. Sarkar's scheme was
fairly ambitious. It aimed at original investigations as well as science popularisation. It
gradually developed into an important centre for research in optics, acoustics, scattering of
light, magnetism etc. In Bombay, Jamshedji Tata drew up a similar scheme for higher
scientific education and research. This led to the establishment of the Indian Institute of
Science at Bangalore in 1909. There was, thus, greater awareness about science in India by the
turn of the century. This was especially so, as a movement to gain freedom from colonial rule
emerged. In the next section, we will discuss the impact of the freedom movement on the
scientific developments. But before studying further, why don't you work out another SAQ ?
SAQ 2
a) State, in one or two lines, what the purpose for encouraging research in colonial India in
each of the following areas was:
i)

Botany

..................................................................
ii) Geology, Geography

....................................................................
iii) Medicine

b) Which one of the following statements describes the contributions of Indians to the

scientific developments in the late nineteenth and early twentieth century? Tick mark the
correct choice.
i)

There was considerable organised effort in setting up societies, research and teaching
institutes.

ii) There were some attempts here and there and some institutions were set up to
promote original investigationsas well as science popularisation.

Science in Colonial and

Modem India

iii) There were almost insignificant Indian contributions to scientific development.

iv) None of the above.

7.2.2 Impact of the Freedom Movement

By the early twentieth century, the Indian society had started witnessing the first stirrings for
freedom from colonial rule. While their political aspirations led to a demand for self-rule, the
frustration resulting from economic stranglehold found expression in their insistence on using
Swadeshi Movement provided further impetus for :
only goods made in India.
i)

promotion of education along national lines and under national control with special
reference to science and technology,

ii) industrialisation of the country.

In 1904, an Association for the Advancement of Scientific and Industrial Education of Indians
was formed. The objed was to send qualified students to Europe, America and Japan for
studying science-based industries.
As mentioned earlier, in colonial India the environment was not conducive to higher studies,
much less to research. Indians were allowed only. subordinate posts and even those who had
distinguished themselves abroad were given less salary than the Europeans of the same grade
and rank. This 'apartheid' in science made the Indians react strongly. J.C. Bose, the first noted
Indian physicist, refused to accept this reduced salary for three years. Not only this, till the
Royal Society recognised Bose,the college authorities refused him any research facility and
considered his work as purely private. J.C. Bose was unorthodox in one more sense. He was
one of the first among the modem scientists to take to interdisciplinary research. He started
as a physicist but his interest in electrical responses took him to plant physiology. To fight for a
place and recognition in the scientific circles in Britain was no less difficult than fighting
against the administrative absurdities of a colonial government. Bose persisted and won.

Fig. 7.1: (a) J.C. Bose;(b) the crcscrograph, one of the many instruments invented by J.C. Bose,could record plant
growth magnifying a small movement as much as 10,0m,(jootima.

Another noted Indian scientist, P.C. Ray had also suffered similarly. On his return from
England in 1888 with a doct ,?te in chemistry, he had to hang aiound for a year and was
fmally offered a temporary aksistant professorship. All through he had to remain in Provincial
Service. P.N.Bose,preferred to resign, when in 1903 he was superseded for the directorship of
the Geological Survey by T. Holland who was 10 years junior to him.

These problems were reflected on the political platform of the country. In its third session
(1887), the Indian National Congress took up the question of technical education and has
since then passed resolutions on it every year. K.T. Telang and B.N. Seal pointed out how, in
the name of technical education, the government was merely imparting lower forms of
practical training. The Indian Medical Service was also severely criticised. In 1893, the
Congress passed a resolution asking the government "to raise a scientific m e d i d profession in
Indja by throwing open fields for medical and scientific work to the best talent available and
inc@enous talent in particular." Whether it be education, agriculture or mining, the Congress
touched several problems under its wide sweep.

Fig. 7.2: Acharya P.C. by.

47

Emergence of Modem
Science

Kunchanagraph is an instrument to
<how how plant body reacts to
stimulus, by undergoing contractions.

Shoshangraph is an instrument for

studying absorption of water or any
liquid by plants.

Fig. 7.3: Nobel Laureate C.V.

Raman.

We find that the activities of this era had two important features. One was that almost all the
exponents of Swadeshi looked to Japan as a major source of inspiration. Japan's emergence as
a viable Asian industrial power and its subsequent military victory over Russia in 1904-05
caught the imagination of Indians. Another characteristic was that quite often they showed
revivalist tendencies. This may have been because the distant past comes in handy for the
recovery of a lost self or reassertion of one's identity. This search for moorings made P.N.
Bose, a geologist, mention about whom has been made above, write A
' HLrtory of H~ndu
Civiliration' in three volumes. J.C. Bose gave Sanskrit names to the instruments he had
fabricated, like Kunchanagraph and Shoshangraph. Many science popularisers had a tendency
to show that whatever was good in western science existed in ancient India also. For example,
Ramendrasundar Trivedi's discussion on Darwin ends with comparing his theory with what is
written in Gita. Later, B.K. Sarkar wrote on the Hindu Achievements in Exact Science.
All these scientists were for the industrial application of modern science but failed to overcome
certain cultural constraints, which was necessary for this effort. All they tried to do was to
demonstrate that the Indian ethos and the values of modem science were congruent and not
poles apart. In such a situation, it was not easy to evolve a correct understanding of our
intellectual and cultural heritage. This was all the more difficult because of the total colonial
domination both in education and in social life.
These efforts had, nonetheless, a galvanising effect. Taking advantage of the University Act of
1904, which allowed the existing Indian universities to organise teaching and research instead
of merely affiliating colleges, Sir Asutosh Mookhejee took the initiative of establishing a
University College of Science in Calcutta. Eminent scientists such as P.C. Ray, C.V. Rarnan,
S.N. Bose and K.S. Krishnan taught there. This very college, although starved financially all
through, produced a group of physicists and chemists who received international recognition.
By contrast, the contributions of many government scientific organisations staffed by highly
paid Europeans were rather poor.

Those who put India on the scientific map of the world were many. J.C. Bose showed that
animal and plant tissues display electric responses under different kind of stimuli, like pricktng,
heat etc. We have referred to his work earlier also. S. Ramanujan, an intuitive mathematical
genius contributed a lot to number theory. P.C. Ray analysed a number of rare Indian
minerals and started the Bengal Che'mical and Pharmaceutical Works, a pioneering and pace
setting organisation in the field of indigenous chemical and pharmaceutical industry. C.V.
Raman's research on the scattering of light later won him the Nobel Prize in 1930. K.S.
Krishnan did thedretical work on the electric resistance of metals. S.N. Bose's collaboration
with Einstein on the study of elementary particles led to what is known as the BowEinstein
Statistics. D.N. Wadia worked in the field of geology, Birbal Sahni in palambotany, P.C.
Mahalanobis in statistics, and S.S. Bhatnagar in chemisq. Apart from the individual
contributions of these scientists, their greatest contribution was in the field of teaching and
guiding research.Many institutes were set up. For example, the Bose Institute (1917),
Sheila Dhar Institute of Soil Science (1936), Birbal Sahni Institute of Palambotany
etc. This gave further impetus to scientific activity in India.
The need for an annual scientific meeting had been felt all along, so that different scientific
workers throughout the country might be brought into touch with one another more closely.
So far it had been possible only in the purely official and irregular conferences such as the
Sanitary Conference or the Agricultural Conference. Thus, was born the Indian Science
Congress Association (ISCA) in 1914 with the following objectives :
to give a stronger impulse and a more systematic direction to scientific enquiry,
to promote the interaction of societies and individuals interested in science in different parts
of the country,
to obtain a more general attention to the cause of pure and applied sciences.

Fig. 7.4: S. Ramanujan.

The objectives have not changed much since then and the ISCA has now grown into the
largest organisation of Indian scientists and technologists representing all disciplines of science
and technology.
In the wake of the first World War (1914-18), the Government realised that India must
become more self-reliant scientifically and industrially. It appointed an Indian Industrial
Commission in 1916 to examine steps that might be taken to lessen India's scientific and
industrial dependence on Britain. The scope of the resulting recommendations was broad,
covering many aspects of industrial development. But few of the Commission's
recommendations were actually implemented. Similar was the fate of numerous other
Conferences and Committees. Whenever requests were made by I n d i i for starting new.

Science in Colonial and

Modem India

institutions or expanding existing ones, the government pleaded insufficiency of funds or

inadequacy of demand. The interests of the colonial administration and those of the
nationalists in most instances often clashed.
If we look at the events during the first quarter of the twentieth century, we find that this
period was characterised by debate about further development. When Gandhiji started his
campaign for cottage industries, varying notes were heard at the annual session of the Indian
Science Congress. P.C. Ray, for example, held that general progress through elementary
education and traditional industries, is a necessary precondition for scientific progress. But
many mered with him.M.N. Saha and his Science & Culture group opposed the Gandhian
path of economic development and supported setting up of big industries. The socialist
experiments in Russia had unveiled the immense potentialities of science for man in terms of
economy and material progress. The national leadership was veering towards heavy
industrialisation and sucialism, both of which s t d on the foundations of modern science and
technology. On Saha's persuasion, the then Congress Resident Subhas Chandra Bose agreed
to accept national planning and industrialisation as the top item on the Congress agenda.

I/
I

The result was the formation of the National Planning Committee in 1938 under the
chairmanship of Jawaharlal Nehru. This Committee appointed 29 subcommittees, many of
which dealt with such technical subjects as inigation, industries, public health and education.
The subcommittee oa Technical Education worked under the Chairmanship of M.N.Saha.
Other members were Birbal Sahni, J.C. Ghose, J.N. Mukherjee, N.R. Dhar, Nazir Ahmed,
S.S. Bhatnagar and A.H. Pandya. The subcommittee reviewed the activities of the existing
institut~onsto find out how far the infrastructure of men and apparatus was sufficient'in
turning out technical personnel.
The outbreak of the Second World War (1939-45) and the interruption of the direct sea route
between India and England made it necasary for the colonial government to allow greater
industrial capability to develop in India. It was, therefore, felt necessary to establish a Central
Research Organisation and this was eventually followed by the establishment of the Council of
Scientific and Industrial Research in 1942. As part of the post-war reconstruction plan, the
government invited A.V. Hill, President of the Royal Society. In 1944, he prepared a report that
identified various problems confronting research in India. These developments offer& greater
opportunities to Indian scientists in policy-making and management of scientific affairs.In fact,
the origins of the science policy of free India and of the whole national reconstruction d n be
traced to these activities.

Fig. 7.5: S.N. Bose.

Before you study further about the scientific developments in post-Independence India, you
may like to attempt an SAQ to consolidate these ideas.

SAQ 3
Fill up the blanks in tHe following statements that summarise the impact of freedom
movement on scientific developments in pre-Independence India :

Fig. 7.6: B~rbelSahni.

i)

An impetus for promoting science education and industrialisation according to national

needs came from the ........... movement.

ii)

There were several notable contributions by individual ............However, the

overall atmosphere did not encourage the growth of. ........and .............in
colonial India.

iii)

The leaders of the freedom movement realised this and put forth a demand for raising
the standards whether in education, ............mining or ..................

iv)

As the freedom movement intensified and scientific activity grew, there was a debate
about further development, Eventually, the path of ........... and national
was chosen.

............

V)

......

Committees were set up to review the activities of existing infrastructure, to identify the
problems and to suggest ways of solving them. All these efforts formed the basis of the
of free India and also of national reconstruction.

.............
.

The foregoing analysis of British India illustrates that it was futile to expect the emergence of
science here under an alien administration obsessed with one-sided commercial preferences. In
such a situation, field sciences were developed to exploit natural resources and grow
commercial crops; but a balanced development of research did not take place. When industry
was not allowed to develop, many related sciences could not grow properly. As we have seen

FIR. 7.7: M.N. Saha.

Emergence ofModem
Scimcc

in Unit 6, an atmosphere of vitality and exuberance in the social and economic life was
necessary to bring forth innovative ideas and to encourage scientific progress. Individual
scientists, however, did shine in adverse circumstances. It was all the more so under the
influence of a larger social movement and struggle, which promised to liberate and transform
society. Thus, the situation changed when India became independent in 1947. Let us now
discuss, in brief, the developments in science and technology in post-Independence India.
-

7.3 SCIENCE IN POST-INDEPENDENCE INDIA

When the Second World War ended in 1945, Germany, Italy and Japan had been defeated
and France had been badly shaken. Even Britain had suffered tremendous losses and its
economy was almost ruined. Thus, the colonial powers which had ruled the world and spread
poverty, hunger and disease everywhere, were in no position to suppress people anywhere any
more. The constant struggle for freedom in the colonial countries had also reached a high
pitch. The result was that, one after another, more than a hundred countries of Asia, Africa
and South America became free. The war had shattered the old system, and a new world had
been born, with an entirely different set of opportunities and problems.
The countries which had become newly independent had the tremendous problem of
reconstructing their economy so that tolerable conditions of living could first be created for all
their people. The old ruling countries, on the other hand, had to think of ways and means of
continuing to drain the wealth of their erstwhile colonies. This was necessary to enable their
business enterprise. to continue making high profits so that they could maintain relatively high
standards of living to which their own people had become accustomed.
Science and technology had to be deliberately employed by both sets of countries. The only
differencewas that the developing countr~eshad to make a start trom scratch-with hardly my
institutions or people who could engage in competitive science and technology, whereas the
advanced or developed countries now had a stronger base of science and technology than ever
before. During the war great sums of money had been spent on developing nuclear science and
the atomic bomb, on electronics as applied to radar and communication, and on advanced
designs of aircrafts, submarines and other means of waging war. All other sciences were also in
a much better position than before. This base of science and technology was. to be used to the
advantage of developed countries to regain the old glory and power. In other words, our
struggle for "development" and their struggle for supremacy are two sides of the same coin.
Science and technology play a pivotal role in this international competition.
The Indian freedom movement had been conscious that political independence was only a
stepping stone to economic independence. Our leaders had realised that our decisions about
industry and trade would have to be taken by us alone without compulsion of foreign
governments or their business counterparts. And that our economic development would have
to serve the people and meet the minimum needs of their food, health, shelter, education, culture
eft For this, we could not leave amnomic development to chance, or to the purely profit motive
on which private industry and trade operate, their natural tendency being to produce what can
sell, rather than what is needed in our social context. Therefore, an essential part of our
approach to development was to plan our economy to bring about maximum human
satisfaction combined with growth.
The role of science and technology was crucial for this endeavour and this was clearly
expressed in the "Scientific Policy Resolution" adopted by the Parliament in 1958. This
resolution was drafted and piloted through the Parliament by our first Prime Minister,
Jawaharlal Nehru. In the words of this Resolution :
"The key to national prosperity, apart from the spirit of the people, lies, in the modern age, in
the effective combination of three factors, technology, raw materials and capital, of which the
first is, perhaps, the most important, since the creation and adoption of new scientific
techniques can, in fact, make up for a deficiency in natural resources, and reduce the demands
on capital. But technology can only grow out of the study of science and its applications."
sin& Independence, and particularly after the passage of the Rwlution, a great expansion of
science and technology in both education and research has taken place. The situation today is
far different from what it wvas in 1947. We have now about 200 universities including 6
InInstitutes of Technology, over 800 engineering colleges and 110 medical colleges, a

few hundred scientific research laboratories under the Central and State governments, as
also R & D units in private industry. Research is k i n g done in almost all areas of modern
science. The conspicuous success of our scientists atomic energy, space research and
agriculture is wcll known.

The funds allocated to research have also vastly increased over what they used to be 40 years
ago. But in the modern world, it is not enough to be in the forefront of creative science or
innovative technology. Out of the total world expenditure on research, excluding the socialist
countries, 98%is spent by the developed countries, the old imperial powers. Only 2% is spent
by all the developing countries taken together. In this, India's share may be half a per cent.
Moreover, since the developed countries have better facilities, better opportunities for scientific
world and higher standards of living, a fairly high proportion of our talented young people
migrate to those countries. They are, thus, unable to contribute towards national development
by solving our problems through science and technology. New discoveries and new inventions,
therefore, still come from the advanced or developed countries. p i s position does not seem
likely to change in the near future.

r
*

A new feature of the world since the Second World War is the armaments race. It started with
the Americans dropping the radically different weapon, the atom bomb, on Hiroshima and
Nagasaki in Japan. Since then, modern bombs, each equivalent to a million tons of the old
explosive, were dcvclopcd both by the U.S., the then Soviet Union and other nuclear
powers. Nuclear powers have missiles which can carry the bombs to targets half way round
the globe. Each offensive weapon has led to a new defensive system. There has also been a
race to obtain bases in olher countries, A dangerous aspect about nuclear weapons is that
these could be triggered ofC even by mistake. and could destroy all civilisation. Thus, we
can see that Ule security of neilher of these countries has improved. In fact, many other
countries are drawn into tllc race because weapons of onc country have to be matched by
another. It is calculated tl~atUle world is spending more than 1,00,000crore rupees per year
o n :mn:imcnt :uld dlc dcvcloping corlntries arc spcnding ahout 20% of this amount, much of
\vh1c11p w s lo buy weapons from linns in tllc dcvcloped countries.

Imagine such a lot of money, representing human labour, being wasted year after year.
Naturally resources for development are diverted to "security". On the other hand, people in
underdeveloped countries are still largely illiterate and deficiently served in basic requirements
of life, such as food, drinking water, medicine etc. Interestingly, it is said that the arms race has
led to huge profits being made by a small number of firms, and it is designed to suck away the
resources of developing countries so that their dependence on foreign loans, technologies and
strategic policies is increased. The more sophisticated the weapons are, the more is our
dependence on the advanced countries.
Surely, this is neither a happy situation nor a stable one. The power of science has reached
such a pitch that international relations haveto be readjusted, and national effort has to be
recast so as to bring the benefits of science to the lives of common people.

We now end this discwion with an SAQ for you!

SAQ 4
Tick mark the three statements that reflect the efforts of our country in solving our problems
,
with the help of science and technology.

i)

Adopting a carefully formulated science policy.

ii)

Allowing young scientists to migrate to developed countries.

iii)

Expansion of science and technology in both education and research.

iv)

Increased research funding.

v)

Diverting resources, for buying weapons..

S c i e in Cdoniel and
Modem India

Emergence of Modem
Science

7.4 WHAT WE HAVE LEARNT

What we have discussed so far in Blocks 1 a@ 2 leads us to underline the following points
about the use of science and technology in our social context.
i)

Knowledge is one, and its various components such as physics, chemistry, biology,
medicine, technology, economics etc. are profoundly inter-related. However, we have
become accustomed to separating the study of science from that of social sciences and
humanitib. This may be explained by historic circumstances as we have mentioned in
Sec. 2.2.1 and Sec. 6.4.1, but it is an undesirable feature of the present educational
and research system. It does not allow a person to have a unified view of how the
components interact, or more particularly, how science plays a role in changing the
socjoeconomic system and how the sctio-economic plans and policies affect science.
For many years, scientists believed that science is good in itself. This continued until the
sociologists pointed out how science can be destructively used, how diseases can be
spread rather than controlled by science, how aeroplanes and even the modern space
science can be misused to wage wars for subjugating people or even killing them on a
massive scale. For science to be good, it must be designed to help in serving the purpose
of uplifting and improving the human condition.

ii)

We have seen in Unit 6 that much of the modern scientific and technological
development has taken place in the context of, and according to, the demands of the
West European society, and, later, the American society. We should carefully examine if
all the ideas developed there suit our Indian society. For example, practically all
mechanisation was to increase productivity of labour, or, in practical terms, to have
more production from fewer people. This is a labour saving outlook,.fit for a country
where labour was in short supply-as in the European countries. What would be the
effect of mechanisation on the employment situation in a populous country like ours?
Mechanisation as an exact copy of what happened in the western world may not be in
our best interest, unless employment and the related buying power of the people is
ensured.
Mechanisation and modernisation may reduce the labour cost of production and hence
profits may increase, but the social costs may become unbearable in a country in which
the majority of population is poor. Obviously, a careful and cautious policy is needed. A
concrete example is in agriculture: non-mechanical agriculture typically produces 5 to
10%surplus so that the population in the towns can be fed. Mechanisation does not
increase the yield from soil. What happens is that only fewer people, say 5%, can
produce the entire needed surplus. But then what would the rest of the rural population
do? If they are unemployed and made poorer still, they may not be able to buy the food
which is produced. The answer is to open up other avenues of employment. It means
that careful and many-sided planning is necessary to take real advantage of
mechanisation in agriculture or in industry.

iii)

Another disputable idea is that of "efficiency" of an enterprise, say, a factory. As we

have seen in Unit 6, historically, maximising profit was the only concern of the factory
owner. Therefore, he made an analysis of the inputs to the production system and the
outputs. Social concerns did not figure in his scheme of things. For instance, some
factories set up on the basis of 'high efic~ency'have led to terrible pollution of the
environment, with smoke and soot and all kinds of dirty stinking or acidic water coming
out of the factories and stagnating around them. We see such a situation in India even
now when we have not reached as high a degree of industrialisation as in the West. In
Europe or America, where industrialisation was even more intense, whole cities like
Birmingham in U.K. or Chicago and Detroit in USA had become black, often covered
with smoky fog. Similarly, scarce resources from the earth were mined and sold for a
handsome profit without caring either for degradation of the soil or depletion of the
resouras in the long run. Thus, with the so called 'efficiency' related only to the profit
that one could make, social problems were often made more acute. We cannot afford to
further complicate our problems by uncritically using an idea, approach or a definition
from the developed countries.

iv)

There are many other ideas which would need to be scrutinised and modified before
being accepted for our conditions. One is "economy of scale", which means you can

make more profit if you produce goods on a large scale, since the overhead costs do not
increase proportionately. This idea was good in the past when markets, particularly in
the colonies, and export markets were more freely available to the industrialised
countries. Today, the social needs, howsoever limited, will have to be taken into
account. For instance. in our context, men and machines should be producing what is
urgently needed by our own people. Gearing production to an export market, even if
one were available, at the cost of our own needs, is not an unmixed blessing.
v)

Thus, we can see that. even after the colonies have gained their independence, the
colonial yoke has not completely gone. Science and technology are being used as tools
to make developing countries behave more or less according to the interests of the
developed countries. We will resume this discussion in the last block of this course and
explore how we can use science and technology for the national good.

I
b

Another misbonception that people have is that science and technology are freely
available to all who care to use them. Unfortunately, technology and the most advanced
ideas in science are used to produce goods which are sold either at exorbitant prices or
to bargain for concessions of another kind. You may have read in the newspapers about
defence equipment, "super computers", and other sophisticated technology being offered
to developing countries under all kinds of conditions. Technological secrets are the most
jealously guarded secrets in the present world. Even scientific advances made by
laboratories in the developed couptries are withheld for as long as circumstances would
allow.

7.5 SUMMARY
In this unit, we have dealt with the developments, in science in colonial and post-Independence
India. The newly industrialised countries had in their search for raw materials and markets for
finished products, colonised many Asian and African countries. India came under the British
colonial yoke. This influenced the subsequent scientific developments in India. Let us now
summarise the main features of this unit :
The colonisers were interested only in exploiting India's natural resources. Thus,
developments took place in a few areas like botany, geology, geography etc. However, the
long standing Indian tradition of science was destroyed. All creative thought was sought to
be stifled by the colonial masters to keep the Indians backward.
The local populace responded by setting up institutions of their own that worked for the
popularisation of science. The freedom movement gave further impetus to this cause.
Several Indian scientists received international recognition for their work. But, above all,
there emerged a conscious thinking about using science and technology for the benefit of all
our people.
This was reflected in the policies adopted by our country after gaining independence.
Several steps were taken to effectively use science. Yet, there are still several aspects which
need careful attention. Notable among these is applying western ideas and approaches to
our problems regardless of our social milieu. We have also to fight against the tactics of the
developed countries to dominate us by withholding scientific or technological information,
embroiling us in the arms race etc. We have yet to go a long way in attaining the standards
of the developed countries.

f
i
1

7.6 TERMINAL QUESTIONS

1)

State, in four or five lines, why there were such few developments in science in British
India.

Science in Colonial and

Modem India

2)

List two aspects of the role of developed countries, which impede our development in
science and technolopv.

................................................................
................................................................

..............
3)

Which three options from among the following would you expect our country to
exercise for using science and technology in our social context? Tick your choices.
i)

Increasing the funding of education and research.

ii) Preventing braindrain, i.e. the migration of young scientists to developed

countries by creating favourable conditions.

iii) Leaving economic and scientific development entirely to private enterprise.

I
I

iv) ~ n c o u r L ~an
i n all-round
~
education in the various components of knowledge.

v) Adopting uncritically, the ideas or practices of the developed countries.

[3

1
4

ANSWERS
Self Assessment Questions
1) i) T ii) F iii) T iv) T v) F vi) T vii) F viii) F.
ii), v), vii), viii): It was just the opposite for each case as you can see from the text.

2)

a) i) T o solve the problems of introducing new varieties of cash crops like cotton, tea,
indigo for export to UK.
ii) T o exploit mineral and natural resources.
iii)To provide healthcare for the colonisers.
b) ii)

3)

4)

i)
ii)
iii)
iv)

Swadeshi
Scientists, science, technology
agriculture, medicine
Industrialisation, planning
V)
science policy
i) J ii) x iii) J iv) d V)

Terminal Questions
The primary aim of the colonisers was to maximally exploit India's natural resources for
supplying raw materials to Britain and sell finished products in the Indian market. They
were just not concerned with preserving India's scientific and cultural tradition or
encouraging any development, scientific, educational or material in India.
Use of science and technology to assert their dothination over underdeveloped
countries and to make them behave.
ii) Encouraging the arms race so as to make huge prbfits and increase the dependence
of poor countries on loans, technologies and strategic policies.

2)

i)

3)

i) J

ii) J

iii)

iv) J

v) x

i
I

UNIT 6 RENAISSANCE, THE

INDUSTRIAL REVOLUTION AND
AFTER
Structure
6.1 Introduction
Objectives

6.2 Science and Technique in Medieval Europe

The Feudal Society
The Transformation of Medieval Economy

6.3 The Renaissance (1440-1540)

Science and Technology during the Renaissance

6.4 Science in the Post Renaissance Period (1540-1760)

Why Science Grew in Europe

6.5
6.6
6.7
6.8

The Industrial Revolution (1760-1830) and After

Summary
Terminal Questions
Answers

In Unit 5 we have described the scientific and cultural developments that took place in the
Arab world and in India during the medieval period. We are now going to describe, in brief,
the European society of those times. You have read about the Iron Age Greek and Roman
societies in Unit 3. You also know that these Iron Age societies were slave societies.
The slave economy of classical times was followed by a feudal system which lasted well into
the seventeenth century. The feudal system was technically and economically more fragmented
than the slave society which it replaced. It did not contribute much to scientific thought.
However, several new productive techniques were introduced on a small scale. These
techniques were USAby common people and were, therefore, widespread. In this unit we will
describe these techniques in brief. As we will see, this, along with the accompanying economic
changes, laid the basis for the transformation of feudalism to capitalism and the birth of
modem science in Europe.
In Unit 5 we had tried to analyse why science did not flourish in India, the way it did in
Europe from the sixteenth century onwards. In this unit we will complete the analysis by
outlining the features of European society that helped the growth of science there. We will,
once again, cover a long period in the history of science, picking up the thread from the fifth
century A.D. We will dwell briefly on the feudal system which contained the seeds of the
transition to capitalism, and then describe the Renaissance and the Scientific and the Industrial
Revolution, which led to the emergence of modern science. If you want to go into the details
of the social conditions prevailing in the European society, you may refer to Units 7,8,9 of
the Foundation Course in Humanities and Social Sciences.
We also find that the Industrial Revolution created a great demand for raw materials as well
as for markets to sell goods. This led to the colonisatio~lof many backward countries,
including India, by the newly industrialised countries. In the next unit we will discuss the
developments in science and technology in India during the colonial rule and the postIndependence period.

Objectives
After studying this unit you should be able to :
describe the developments in science and techniques in the European society during feudal
times and explain how these led to the transformation of the feudal society,
describe the social changes brought about by the Renaissance and the consequent
developments in science and technology,
outline the important scientific developments in the post-Renaissance period,
compare the Indian and European societies of the period from the sixteenth to the

I
I

Emergence of Modern
Science

eighteenth century and analyse the features of the then European society that helped the
birth of modern science,
describe the technical innovations leading to the Industrial Revolution, its consequences and
some of the major scientific advances made thereafter.

6.2 SCIENCE AND TECHNIQUE IN MEDIEVAL EUROPE

About the second century A.D., the collapse of the Roman Empire and the barbarian
invasions by Franks, Goths, Magyars, Vandals, Slavs and others brought about conditions in
Europe, in which,the slaves could revolt and free themselves. But even in freedom, slaves
could not do much since they had no land to produce food for themselves. Though the
Romans had conquered the whole of Western Europe and had come as far as England (see
Fig. 3.18), agricultural land was limited. Most areas in western Europe were covered with
thick forests and even the soil was clayey and heavy. The Romans did not have the
agricultural tools and techniques for working such land for cultivation. This led to widespread
scarcities of food and other daily necessities, which resulted in discontent. In other words, the
breaking up of slave society was accelerated by its own tensions and scarcities. We find that
from the fifth century onwards, slaves were disappearing and their place was being taken by
serfs.
Towards the beginning of the tenth century, a new productive system and a new society had
established itself in many parts of Europe. This was the feudal system.' Let us now see what
this society was like and the status of scientific and technological development in it.

6.2.1 The Feudal Society

The economic basis of the feudal system was land, and the village was its economic unit. The
feudal economy was dependent on local agricultural production and a scatte~edhandicraft
industry. In the villages, peasants or serfs shared the land and work. But they were forced to
yield part of the produce or labour to their lords in the form of rent, taxes or feudal service.
Usually, a lord owned one or more villages or land in several villages. The serfs were obliged
to maintain their lords and they were not allowed to leave the land on which they worked.
This obligation of feudal service, that is, of work exacted by force or by custom backed by
force, is the characteristic of the feudal system. What distinguished the serfs from the slaves of
classical times is that unlike the latter who were owned by the slaveowners, the former were
free men and had a secure tenure to cultivate land. Though the serfs were nominally free, their
condition was not much better than that of slaves. However, social pressures on them had
been somewhat reduced. This feudal order lasted until about the seventeenth century in
Europe.
The period from the tenth century to about the fifteenth century is usually called the Middle
Ages in Europe. In this period, the Church was the centre of power. It provided a common
basis of authority for all Christendom. It was also an instrument for intellectual expression. All
intellectual activity was carried on by people who were part of the Church. Thus, the Church
dominated all walks of life. Therefore, the clergy had to be trained to think and write, in order
that they may be able to defend the faith and take up missionary work. At first, this need was
met by setting up cathedral schools. By the twelfth century, these had grown into universities.
The first university to come up in this period was at Paris, in France, in 1160. It was followed
by the founding of Oxford University in 1167 and Cambridge University in 1209 in Britain.
Then came the universities in Padua (1222), and Naples (1224) in Italy, Prague (1347) in
Czechoslovakia, and several others. These universities were mainly for training the clergy.
Teaching in these institutions had to be only by lectures and debates because books were still
rare. The curriculum comprised grammar, rhetoric, logic, arithmetic, geometry, astronomy,
music, philosophy and theology. In practice, the amount of science that was taught was very
little. Arithmetic dealt with only numbers, geometry with the first three books of Euclid and
Easter is a Christian Festival
astronomy got no further than the calendar and how to compute the date of EarHer. There was
commemorating the rising of Jesus Christ
little contact with the world of Nature or the practical arts, but, at least, a love of knowledge
from his grave. It falls on a Sunday but
and an interest in argument was fostered. As we know, education by itself can be a positive
the date may change every year.
factor in human development In this case re!igious personnel were k i n g trained according to
a specific curriculum, and the universities were citadels of conservatim. However, they did
24

RenPissmce, the h
i
m
,.Rwdution and ~ e r

come in contact with the creative thought of others, particularly the classical Greek thought
and, to some extent, Arab, Indian and Chinese thought. This led to an intellectual climate
which proved good for the future developments and discoveries in science.
But in the Middle Ages, education was still restricted to a small number of people. What may
be called 'scientific' investigation was undertaken only by the clergy. And it was done to
somehow justify religious beliefs. There was a constant debate between faith and reason, but
even reason was used to prove the supremacy of divine thinking, revelation and every aspect
of Christian dogma. We will now describe very briefly the 'scientific achievements' of the
Middle Ages.
hiedieval Science
We can record the sum total of the medieval achievement in the natural sciences in a few
lines. It can be put down as a few notes on natural history and minerals, a treatise on sporting
birds, such as falcons, hawks etc., some improvements in Ibn al-Haitham's optics and some
criticism of Aristotle's ideas. In mathematics and astronomy, the Arabic algebra and Indian
numerals were introduced and Ptolemy's Almagest was translated. The medieval European
astronomers could not go much beyond the Arab contribution in observational astronomy
although they added a few details. They made some contribution to trigonometry and the
construction of instruments. However, there was no radical revision of astronomy. Robert
Growteste ( 1 168-12531, a Bishop and Chancellor of Oxford University, was a leading
scientist of the Middle Ages. He thought of science as a means of illustrating theological truths.
He experimented with light and thought of it as divine illumination. There were many other
such 'scientists' in the Middle Ages.
Those who questioned the prevalent religious beliefs, were likely to be prosecuted for heresy!
Even the idea that man could reach God directly without intermediaries, such as priests, was
considered a heresy. The Middle Ages were an era of faith and of regimented thinking. The
feudal society in its social, economic and intellectual character was again a stagnant society.
The limired contribution of medieval xience under such conditions is understandable. It is,
indeed, unfair to expect more of such a xience than what was demanded from it in its time!
However, the feudal society was definitely on a higher technical level than the slave society of
the Iron Age. In fact, the impetus to technical innovations had existed from the beginning of
the Middle Ages. This arose from the need for better use of land. It was here that the peasant
and the workman could use and improve the classical techniques. For most of the Middle
Ages there was a chronic labour shortage with the labour force of slaves no longer available
and with the expansion of cultivable land in the countryside. Thus, human labour was sought
to be substituted by mechanical means; manpower shortage led to the use of animal, wind and
water-power. Thus, we find that many technical developments took place in medieval Europe
though most of them seem to have come from the East, especially from China. Let us see what
these developments were. But how about trying an SAQ first!
SAQ 1
Which factors among the following led to technical developments and which ones were
responsible for very little advances in science in the European society in the Middle Ages? Put
a 'T'for the former and an 'S' for the latter against each statement.

i)

Expansion of cultivable land.

ii) Only priests conducted scientific investigations to justify religious beliefs.

iii) Shortage of labour due to absence of slaves.
iv) A need for better use of land by serfs.
V) T o question religious beliefs or say anything contrary was branded a heresy.

Technical Developments in Feudal Society

Major inventions, namely, the horse collar, the clock, the compass, gunpowder, pap& and
printing, were not developed in feudal Europe. Most of these were being used in China during
the first few centuries of Christian era. W e need to know about these advances because, in
Europe, the use of some of these techniques set in motion a revolution, which contributed to
the breakdown of the feudal system.
The horse collar and the mills were more efficient means of using power. The horse collar
originated in seventhcentury China and reached Europe in the eleventh century. Its use

Emergence ofModern

Science

resulted in a manifold increase in the horse's ability to pull loads and work longer. Horses took
the place of oxen at the plough and more acres of land could be cultivated (fig. 6.1).

Fig. 6.1: (a) Horse collar in use in the fourteenth century in England; (b) improved horse collar that made a great
difference lo the load that a hone could draw.

The water-mills were also invented in the classical period. But they came to be widely used
only in the Middle Ages. The wind-mills and water-mills harnessed nature for performing
mechanical work. These mills were used for grinding grains, extracting oil from seeds and
drawing water from wells, thus helping agriculture. They were also used for blowing bellows,
forging iron or sawing wood. Mills became so popular that a mill and a miller were found in
every lord's domain. The task of making and servicing the wind and water-mills was beyond
the skill of most village smiths. Therefore, there grew a trade of mill-wrights who went about
the country, making and mending mills. These men were the first mechanics who knew all
about the making and working of gears. They also had a hand in the development of
mechanical clocks and watches.

There were two navigational invent~ons,the compass and the sternpost rudder, that had a
profound impact on sea voyages in the Middle Ages (Fig. 6.3). The earlier sea trade
routes were along the coastline of various countries (see Fig. 4.1 1 in Unit 4). With these
two inventions, the oceans were thrown open to trade, exploration, and even war for the
first time. Open-sea navigation quired accurate charts of the position of stars, latitudes
etc. and gave an impetus to later developments in astronomy and geography. It also
raised the urgent problem of finding the longitude. The need for compasses and other
navigation instruments brought into being a new skilled industry.

Sternpost rudder
(a)

(W

Fig. 6.3 :(a) Manner's compass, (b) thirteenth century boat showlng a rudder In the stem

Other innovations used and improved by the Europeans were the lenses and the spectacles.
This gave an impetus to the further study of optics and there were some contributions to Ibn
al-Haitham's optics, as mentioned wilier. The demand for spectacles also gave rise to the
profession of lens grinders and spectacle makers.
Distillation of perfumes and oils was already known in Europe through the Arabs. To this was
added the distillation of alcohol, which gave rise to the first scientific industry, that of distillers,
and laid the foundation of modem chemical industry.
Of all the innovations introduced m the West from the East, gunpowder had the greatest effect
politically, economically and scientifically. With its use in cannons and hand guns, gunpowder
enormously altered the balance of power. In science, the making of gunpowder, its explosion,
the expulsion of the ball from the cannon and its subsequent flight, furnished many practical
problems. Solutions to these problems and the accompanying explanations occupied the
attention of medieval scientists for many centuries and led to sciences like mechanics and
dynamics. The preparation of gunpowder required a careful separation and purification of
nitre giving rise to the study of solutions and crystallisation. Nitre provides the oxygen needed
for explosion of gunpowder. So, unlike ordinary fire, it does not require air. Studies related to
the explosion of gunpowder led to attempts to explain combustion, i.e. burning. These
attempts were later extended to studies on breathing which provides the oxygen needed to
convert food into energy inside the animal body. These explanations were not easy at that time
and taxed the ingenuity of medieval chemists most.
Two other technical introductions from the East had a far greater effect in the West than in
the land of their origin. They were the inventionspf paper and printing. The need for a writing
material cheaper than parchment became urgent with the spread of literacy. Linen rags
provided the basis for the first paper of quality. Paper turned out to be so good and cheap that
its increased availability led to a shortage of copyists. This contributed a lot to the success of
printing, originally a Chinese invention of the eleventh century.
Printing, with movable metal types, was first used by KoreaAs in the fourteenth century. It was
introduced into Europe in the mid-fifteenth century and it spread rapidly, first for prayers and
then for books. The new, cheap, printed books promoM reading and created increased access
to education for a larger number of people. This, as we shall see, became a medium for great
technical and scientificchanges as well as changes in the society during the Renaissance.
To sum up, we have seen above that by the fifteenth century a number of small technical
changes had taken place. Before we move on to the study of Renaissance and the Industrial
Revolution, let us assess the effect of all these technical advances on the economy and ideas of
the late Middle Ages. This is necessary because the feudal system contained the see& of its
own transformation.

RenPissanee, the Industrtsl

Revolutkn and After

Emergence o f hlodern
Scier~ce

6.2.2 The Transformation of Medieval Economy

The new techniques led to greater production in agriculture and, therefore, a surplus from the
needs of people. Increased productivity led to greater trade which was aided by better modes
of transport. Production of other articles such as cloth, chemicals, wine, and iron for tools and
weapons also expanded, leading to a considerable increase and diversification in trade. The
more the trade grew, the more money it brought in by way of profit to the merchants, who
traded the goods produced by peasants and urban workers. The increased profit led to the
manufacture of more goods and production of cash crops from the land. With better
techniques, better modes of transport and ample markets, the production of commodities for
sale increased considerably. Thus, a trading and urban manufacturing economy grew inside the
feudal system. These changes succeeded in breaking down the local self sufficiency of feudal
economy at the local village level.
Although, the manufacture of commodities was carried on more often in the countryside as a
part-time peasant occupation, the markets were dominated by town merchants. By the midthirteenth century, the merchants had become rich and powerful enough to acquire a
monopoly position in trade. They had formed guilds and used their position to buy goods
cheap, and sell them at huge profits. As the markets expanded, the merchants wanted freedom
of movement as well as safety along the trade routes which passed through numerous feudal
estates with their own laws and restrictions. A clash of authority between the feudal
landowners and the new-rich merchant class was taking place all over. Gradually, the
merchants gained the upper hand. By the fifteenth century, they had grown so strong that they
were beginning to transform the economy. The feudal economy, characterised by agricultural
production based on forced services of the serfs, was transforming into one in which
commodity production by craftsmen and hired workers, and money payments became
dominant.
These economic, technical and political changes were accompanied by changes in the Church.
Till this time the Church was all-powerful. It had a monopoly of learning and even of literacy.
The Church had a hold on the state and was deeply involved in the maintenance of feudal
order. As the rising merchants and artisans of the towns threatened the feudal order, the might
of the Church began to be questioned. The Church tried to suppress all such people by
branding them as heretics. However, in the last two centuries of the Middle Ages, the Roman
Church was considerably weakened. In some places, kings started asserting themselves against
the central authority at Rome. In this they were helped by merchants, though the country
nobility was still aligned with the orthodox Church. Thus, the unity of the Church began to be
threatened. Between 1378 and 1418, the Christian Church was split between two or three
Popes. More authority had to be given to the general councils of the Churches. Substantial
movements of reform in the Church were initiated and there was soon to be a struggle for
power between the Pope and the Emperors.
It is obvious that the European society, in general, was on the threshold of major changes
around the beginning of the fifteenth century. The stage was set for the full flourishing of the
Renaissance. In the next section we will describe the changes ushered in by the Renaissance
and how they moulded the future development of science.

SAQ 2
We are listing the factors responsible for the breakdown of feudal economy. Fill up the blanks
to complete the following statements:
i)

Better techniques led to increased production of ...... ; ................... With

better modes of transport and growing markets
expanded
considerably. This destroyed the locally ......................... character of the
feudal economy.

........................

ii) Merchants dominated the markets and huge ..................... made them very
powerful. They came in conflict with the .....................and gradually gained
the upper hand.
iii) Production of commodities for sale and payment in terms of .......................
became dominant and replaced agricultural production by ........................
based on their forced service.
We have seen above, that the technical improvements introduced in the latter half of the
Middle Ages led to a greater available surplus in agriculture and other goods. This spurred a

rapid expansion of trade which was also increased by improvements In shipping and
navigation. The consequent economic changes from a feudal economy to an economy based
on commodity production and money payments were accompanied by momentous social
changes. In fact, these changes led to a movement for changing the social system from that
based on a fixed hereditary status to one based on buying and selling commodities and labour.
The Renaissance and the Reformation are two aspects of this movement. We will now
describe what this movement was and examine, in brief, its impact on the scientific and
technological developments.

Renaissance, the Industrial

Revolution and After

6.3 THE RENAISSANCE (1440-1540)

The Renaissance was a revolutionary movement. It marked a definite and deliberate break
with the past. It swept away the medieval forms of economy, of building, of art and thought.
These were replaced by a new culture, capitalist in its economy, classical in its art and
literature, and scientific in its approach to Nature. The feudal system dominated by the lords
and the Church had given way to nation-states, where the kings or princes provided patronage
to the new scientists. So they didn't have to depend any more on the Church. With the
economy picking up again, the despair of the Dark Ages and the resignation of the ages of
faith gave way to a period of hope marked by a frank admission of physical enjoyment. In the
changing social milieu, money became much more impofint than it had ever been before.
Even the attitude towards making money changed. Any way of making money was good as
long as it worked, whether by honest manufacture of trade, by inventing a new device, by
opening a mine, by raiding foreigners or by lending money at interest.
In these changed social conditions, the technicians and artists were no longer so despised as
they had been in classical or medieval times because they were essential to the making as well
as spending of money. The practical arts of weaving, pottery, spinning, glass making, mining,
metal-working etc. became respectable. Initially, this enhanced the status of craftsmen. But
later, by the seventeenth century the merchant and the capitalist madufacturers started
controlling the production more and more. As a result, both craftsmen and peasants were
reduced to the status of wage labourers.
In its intellectual aspect, the Renaissance was the work of a small and conscious minority of
scholars and artists who set themselves in opposition to the whole pattern of medieval life and
thought. The Renaissance also reestablished the link between the traditions of the craftsmen
and those of the scholars. With this coming together of the doers and the thinkers in the
changed economic situation, the stage was set for a rapid growth in science. Let us see what
changes occurred in sciehce and technology during this period.

6.3.1 Science and Technology during the Renaissance

This phase in the history of science was one of description and criticism. First came the
exploration of ancient knowledge, mainly of the Greeks. The scholars encountered the
thoughts of Plato and Aristotle in the original, as well as those of Democritus and Archimedes.
Then came the challenge to old authority. At the same time the arts and techniques flourished
and provided the material means for the growth of science.
Art
The visual arts, such as painting and sculpture, came to occupy an important place in society.
These had a profound influence on the development of science. For instance, painters were
required to have a thorough knowledge of geometry, so that they could represent three
dimensional figures in two dimensions. For this, they also used many mechanical and optical
aids. The realistic life-like paintings required the most detailed observations of nature and thus,
laid the foundation of geology and natural history. The anatomy of human beings was also
studied in much detail.

The professions of artists, architects and engineers were not separated in the Renaissance.
Artists were also the civil and military engineers. They could cast a statue, build a cathedral,
drain a swamp or even besiege a town. The great Renaissance artist Leonardo da Vinci is well
known to all of us for his beautiful painting 'Mona Lisa'. Not many of us may know of his
contributions to the study of human anatomy, study of plants and animals as well as of
machines and military devices (Fig. 6.4). His drawings indicate that he was also a keen
observer of the operations of metal-workers and technicians who constructed buildings
snrl

k4A-c

Renaisance was the transitional

movement in Europe between
medieval and modern times. It began
in the 14th century in Italy and lasted
into the 17th century. It was marked
by a humanistic revival of clarsical
influence expressed in a flowering of
the arts and literature and by the
beginning of modern science.

Emergence of Modern
Science

Fig. 6.4: Sketches of Lmnardo da Vinci : (a) anatomical studies of muscles; (b) Leonardo designed the first flying
machine-he spent yean observing birds in flight (I);an early flying machine-a wooden wing hooked
up to a hand crank 12); flying machine (3).

Medicine and Technology

The faculties of medicine in the universities, especially in Italy, were the first ones to break out
of the general obscurantism. The doctors mingled freely with artists, mathematicians,
astronomers and engineers. These associations gave European medicine its characteristic
descriptive, anatomical and mechanical bent. The human body was dissected, explored,
measured and explained as an enormously complex machine. The new anatomy, physiology
and pathology were founded on direct observation and experiment. Thus,the hold of classical
ideas of humours and elements, about which ypu have read in Unit 3 began to be broken.

In technology, the greatest advances of Renaissance were in the fields of mining, metallurgy
and chemistry. The need for metals led to the opening up of mines. With growing capitalist
production, mining became a large scale operation. As mines grew deeper, pumping and
hauling devices became essential. This led to a new interest in mechanical and hydraulic
principles.

RenPissaw, the Industrid

Revolution and After

The smelting of metals like iron, copper, zinc, bismuth, cobalt etc., their handling and
separation led to a general theory of chemistry involving oxidation and reduction, distillation
and amalgamation. For the first time, metallic compounds were introduced into medicine.
Other chemical substances such as alum and clay were studied to improve cloth and leather
industries or to make fine pottery. By the end of the Renaissance, the chemical laboratory with
its furnaces. retorts. stills and balances had taken a shape that was to remain almost the same till
into modem times (fig. 6.5).

Fig. 6.5: A chemical laboratorv of the earlv eighteenth century.

\

Navigation and Astronomy

As we have said earlier, by the edd of the Middle Ages, trade on land and over the seas was
being Sken up on a big scale. By the fifteenth century, the Turks had acquired a monopoly of
trade routes on land. Therefore, new sea routes for trade were being explored. Great voyages
were undertaken. We all know about Vasco da Gama, a Portuguese sailor, who reached India
in I497 via the Cape of Good Hope in Africa. Around the same time, a great and adventurous
voyage was undertaken to sail westward on the Atlantic Ocean in the hope of reaching India.
Columbus, an inspired adventurer, though a penniless sailor, was able to obtain the assistance
of Portuguese, Spanish, English and French courts to undertake this journey. He reached the
continent, later named as America, in 1492 thinking that he had reached India. The adventure,
the general excitement and ultimately, the great profitability of these voyages created great
enthusiasm for building new ships and instruments for navigation. Interest in astronomy was
strongly revived.
The Copernican Revolution
It was right in the midst of these developments in the fifteenth century, that there came the first
major break from the whole system of ancient thought. This was the work of Copernicus, who
gave a clear and detailed explanation for the rotation of earth and other planets on their
axis and their motion around a fixed sun which was at the centre. This model simplified
astronomical calcuhtions, and also made them more precise. You will read more about
the Copernican model in Unit 9. As we have seen in Units 3 and 4, such a model had
been proposed by Greek astronomers like Aristarchus many centuries earlier. However, it
was not given any importance because it ran counter to the established ideas of those
times. This work of Cope~nicuswas published in the very year of his death in 1543.
Although his book attracted limited attention and there were objections to his model, his
work-gave a great boost to further work by Galileo. We will talk about Galilee's work
later in Sec. 6.4.
This was the first phase of what we now call the Scientific Revolution. In this phase, the old
ways of thought were proving inadequate. By rejecting the old ideas, the men of Renaissance
had cleared the grounds for new ideas of the succeeding century. In the use of science for
practical purposes too, the Renaissance set the scene for.future developments. From now on
science had become a necessity for profitable enterprises, trade and war. Later it could ektend
it< wwirp t n r n n n i ~ f n r t ~ inro~r i r ~ i l t ~ i rnnrl
e e v e n mprl;r;ne

Fig. 6.6: Nicholas Copernicus.

31

Emergence of Modem
S e i

SAQ 3

i)

List five significant scientikand technical developments during the Renaissance.

..........................................................................

ii) What was the Copernican Revolution?

6.4 SCIENCE IN THE POST-RENAISSANCE PERIOD

(1540- 1760)
We have seen above that improved techniques as well as growing trade had led to great
voyages to many lands. These were made in search of spices, silver, fur, sugar plantations,
slaves, gold and other commodities. The one to have very far reaching effects was the voyage
undertaken by Columbus in 1492, which, eventually, resulted in a lot of Europeans going to
America. There they cleared the land, settled down and started plantations of sugar and
tobacco exploiting the hard labour of African people. The Africans were forcibly taken on
board west-bound ships to be transported to the new country and were sold there as slaves.
The stealing, selling and exploitation of people as slaves caused terrible suffering. Yet, it was
done unashamedly because there was great profit to be made from the new colonies. Money
was being piled up for investment in shipbuilding, mining acd manufacturing other articles in
Europe.
These developments greatly strengthened the merchant class and over the next two or three
centuries they were able to replace the feudal lords and landowners in authority over their
regions. Society tensions, peasant revolts, religious wars and the race to acquire colonies were
all playing a role in changing the feudal society of the Middle Ages into a capitalist society of
the eighteenth century in some areas of Europe. The development of capitalism as a leading
method ofproduction was accompanied by the birth of a new method of natural science, that
of experiment and observation.
In science, this period from the mid-sixteenth century to the mid-eighteenth century includes
;he first great triumphs of the new observational, experimental approach. This new approa n
together with'the development in science and technology during tne Renaissance, amounted to
a "Scientific Revolution". Technically, this period was of steady advance without any
revolutionary inventions. The increasing demand for iron led to development of new blast
furnaces. The shortage of wood for iron-smelting led to widespread use of coal. From then on.
the centre of industry was to move towards the coal fields. With time, the demand for limited
resources increased, forcing the search for new resources and techniques. Thisalso altered the
attitudes towards change and novelty, which could not be shunned anymore. You may recall
that in the regimented feudal society, new ideas and change were resisted.
It was in this atmosphere that European science grew to maturity, The first institute for
teaching science, the Gresham College, was opened in England in 1579. As we have already
seen, the revolQionary Copernican model of the solar system helped in improving
astronomical tables, What the theory lacked was an accurate description of the orbits of the

planets. This was done by two remarkable men, Tycho Brahe (1546-1601) and Johannes
Kepler (1571-1630). Brahe, collected a series of exact observations on the positions of stars
and planets with specially made apparatus. His results were theoretically worked over by
Kepler. Kepler found that the observations could be explained only if the orbits were taken as
ellipses. Thus, he broke away from the idea of circular orbits. Kepler's laws of planetary
.motion struck a mortal blow to the old Greek thought of perfect circular motion. You '11
find more details of their work in Unit 9.

Renaissance, the Industrial

Revolution and Mer

The telescope, invented around this time, proved to be the greatest scientific instrument of this
period. In the hands of Galileo Galilei (1564-1642), a professor of physics and military
engineering at Padua, it became a means of revolution in science. Galileo was able to see that
the moon was not a perfect round and smooth body but it had ridges and valleys. He also
observed that three moons circled around the planet Jupiter, more or less like the system
Copernicus had proposed for the earth going round the sun. Within a month, in 1610, he
published his observations in his book Siderius Nunrius, (Messenger from the Stars). It created
a great sensation because the 2000 year old model of heavenly bodies going round the earth
was threatened. It challenged the accepted world view that man, specially created by God,
lived on earth, hence, it was natural to believe that the whole universe revolved around the
earth.
Galileo's more detailed work, entitled Dialogue concerning the Two Chief Systems of the
World, the Ploiemaic and the Copernican was published in 1632 and was, indeed, dedicated to
the Pope. In this he criticised and ridiculed the ancient Ptolemaic cosmology. The challenge
put down by Galileo could not be ignored. Far more was seen to be at stake than a mere
academic point about the motion of the earth and planets. If the challenge in one respect was
ignored, more such challenges would arise. The new knowledge threatened the stability of the
Church and the social order itself. It immediately led to conflict with the Church which
resulted in Galileo's trial. He was condemned and forced to go back on his words.
The trial of Galileo dramatised the conflict between religious dogma and carefully observed
and analysed scientific data and theory. It is a sheer chance that the year Galileo died,
Newton was born. As we shall see later, Newton was to continue Galileo's scientific tradition.
He provided a complete scientific theory of motion of all objects, whether planets in the
heavens or bodies on earth. This shows that given the socio-economic conditions of those
times, it was not easy any more for the Church to suppress the scientific tradition. Whereas
earlier Giordano Bruno (1548-1600) was burnt to death and Campanella (1 568-1639) was
imprisoned for years for opposing the Aristotelian world view and supporting the Copernican
theory, Galileo suffered a nominal imprisonment in the palace of one of his friends. By
Newton's time, interference from the Church in science had more or less stopped.
Galileo did not stop even after being tried and condemned by the Church. He tried to explain
how the Copernican system existed. For this, it was necessary to explain how the earth's
rotation did not produce a mighty wind blowing in the opposite direction and how bodies
thrown in the air were not left behind. This led to a serious study of bodies in motion. On the
basis of carefully conducted experiments, Galileo succeeded in formulating a mathematical
description of the motion of bodies. This was the major work of his life expressed in his
Dialogue on Two New Sciences. Galileo questioned all accepted views. This he did by the new
method, the method of experiment. When Galileo's experiments gave him results he did not
expect, he did not reject them. Rather, he turned back to question his own arguments. This
was the hallmark of experimental science.
Galileo and Kepler could formulate mathematical descriptions of the motion of bodies because
they were masters of the new mathematics that had grown during the Renaissance. Algebra,
geometry and the decimaI system, taken from the ancients and the Arabs, as well as the
introduction of logarithm by Napier (1550-1617), greatly simplified astronomical calculations.
Forty years later, the observational laws of Kepler were combined with the explanations of
Galileo in Newton's theory of universal gravitation. We will talk about it shortly.
There were other important developments in science in this period. Magnetism was
experimentally studied for the first time. Another important development was William
Harvey's (1578-1657) discovery of the circulation of blood in the human body. Once again, it
led to a complete break from Galen's ideas which we have described in Unit 3. A totally new
approach was formulated and the human body was analysed on the principle of pumps and
valves like the ones seen in machinery. As a result, a new kind of experimental anatomy and
ohvsioloay emerged.

Fig. 6.7: Galileo Galilei

Emergence of Modern
Science

Fig. 6.n: Isaac Nr\*[o~i.

The developments in the latter half of the seventeenth century paved the way for an outburst of
activity which created modern science in most of its fields in the next fifty years. These were
helped by the emergence of stable governments in France and England, the two principal centres
for scientific activity in those times. The merchants in Britain had arranged a compromise with
landlords, in which the king became the constitutional monarch. The economy was dominated
by the merchants. But, more importantly.'a new class of manufacturers was emerging from
among the skilled craftsmen. The courtiers and the learned men of the universities, dependent
on the favour of the princes of yesteryears, were being replaced by men of independent
means. These were mostly merchants, landowners, doctors, lawyers and quite a few Parsons.
They financed science out of their pockets. As they grew in number, they tended to come
together for discussion and exchange of ideas.
Thus were formed the first well-established scientific societies, the Royal Society of London
( 1662) and t h e ~ r e n c hRoyal Academy ( 1666). These societies set themselves the task of
concentrating on the pressing technical problems of those times, those of pumping and
hydraulics, of gunnery and of navigation. In science, it appeared at first that anything and
everything could be improved by enquiry. However, certain fields of interest drew special
attention. Those were the ones directly related to the needs of expanding trade and
manufacture. Foremost among these was astronomy which was an essential need of ocean
navigation. The developments in astronomy led to the new mathematical explanation of the
universe, finally arrived at by Newton. This was a major triumph of science.
The greatest triumph of the seventeenth century was the completion of a general system of
mechanics. This system could explain the motion of heavenly bodies as well as the motion of
matter on the earth in terms of universal laws and theories. Many mathematicians and
astronomers ihcluding almost all great names of science of that period-Galileo, Kepler,
Descartes, Hooke, Huygens, Halley and Wren, had worked to find this complete form of
mechanics. Standing on the shoulders of these giants, it was ultimately Newton who worked
out and proved his theory of universal gravitation and set it down in his 'De Philosophiae
Natural& Principia Mathematics '.
Newton's theory of universal gravitation applied to all particles or bodies possessing mass,
whether on the earth, on the sun, or anywhere else in the universe. Newtonian mechanics, as
it is known to us now, provided a coherent explanation for the motion of all bodies in this
universe, i.e. how bodies moved as they did. By the use of Newtonian mechanics it was
possible to determine the path of any body in motion, if all the forces acting on it were known.
Newton's laws of motion are now taught in all the science courses all over the world. The
immediate practical consequence of Newton's work was that the position of the moon and the
planets could be determined far more accurately with a minimum of observations. It also
became the basis for the design of s great diversity of machines and structures which are used
today and will be used for centuries to come.
Newton's theory of gravitation and his contribution to astronomy mark the final stage of the
transformation of the Aristotelian world-picture begun by Copernicus. Newton established a
dynamic view of the universe in which things were changing with time. Yet, he stopped short
of questioning the existence of a divine plan. His world moved according to a simple law, but
it still needed divine intervention to create it and set it in motion. His theory gave no reasons
why the planets went round the same way. He postulated that this was the will of God at the
beginning of creation. Newton felt he had revealed the divine plan and wished to ask no
further question. By Newton's time, the phase of criticism in the Renaissance was over. A new
compromise between religion and science was being sought. Newton's work provided this
basis for a compromise between science and religion which was to last until Darwin upset it in
the nineteenth century.
There were other developments too, such as in optics and the theory of light, closely linked to
astronomy by the telescope and to biology by the microscope. Seventeenth century optics grew
largely from the attempts to understand refraction. At the same time, theories about the nature
of light were also given. Another development was pneumatics, the science of mechanical
properties of gases. The question of vacuum was also important. The actual production of
vacuum and the use of air pump for this led Robert Boyle to study the behaviour of air. Thus,
it led to his epoch-making work on the gas laws. Robert Hooke, an assistant of Boyle, was the
greatest experimental physicist of those times. His iliterests ranged over the whole of
mechanics, physics, chemistry and biology, though he is best known for his study of elasticity.
The world of biology saw great advances with the coming of the microscope. Small creatures
were observed and the anatomy of larger ones was refined. In chemistry, new substances such

as phosphorus were accidentally produced and new metals such as bismuth and
discovered. The demand for new chemicals led to a growth in the chemical industry.

were

SAQ 4
In the table given below, match the names of the scientists of the post-Renaissance period
,isted in.column 1 with their works listed in column 2.

a ) Tycho Brahe

i)

Developed the table of logarithms,

b ) Johannes Kepler

ii)

Made observations on planetary motion.

iii)

Discovered laws of planetary motion.

d) John Napier

iv)

Formulated gas laws.

e) William Harvey

v)

Established sun-centred model of the solar

system; gave mathematical description of
motion of bodies.

fl

Isaac Newton

vi)

Discovered the law of elastic properties of

matter.

g)

Robert Boyle

vii)

Discovered blood circulation.

C)

Galijeo Galilei

h) Robert Hooke

viii) Gave the theory of universal gravitation.

Thus. we find that in this period of the Scientific Revolution, the new approach to science,
based on observation and experiment, led to pathbreaking advances in many areas like
mechanics, astronomy and biology. They also set the stage for further activity which created
modern science in many other fields. The prevailing social conditions in Europe were also very
conducive to the growth of science. W e will now discuss some of the features of European
socrety that helped the rapid development of science there.

6.4.1 Why Science Grew in Europe

Looking back over the development of the new science in the fifteenth to the seventeenth
centuries, we can understand why the birth of science occurred when and where it did. We
have seen that it closely followed the revival of trade and industry. The profit from expanding
trade and successful voyages was being invested in new activities giving rise to a climate of
intellectual enterprise. The birth of modern science follows closely after that of capitalism. The
rnerchanb and gentlemen of the seventeenth century had cleared the ground for the flourishing
of a humbler set of manufacturers. These were the ones who made use of and developed the
traditional techniques beyond all recognition in the next century. In science, as in politics, a
break with tradition also meant venturing into hitherto unknown areas. No part of the
universe was too distant, no trade too humble, for the interest of the new scientists. The fact
that these scientisb often interacted with each other, established societies and published
journals also helped the advance of science.
Science was also able to flourish as it did because of the Church's internal feuds, its friction
with the emerging merchant class and a general erosion of its authority. The resistance of the
Church to scientific ideas seemed to be quite strong in the beginning. This was evidenced by
the trial of Galileo and by the execution of Bruno who uttered the heresy that just like our
own world, there may be other worlds in the heavens. But later dn the success of the new
scientific thjnking based on observations was unstoppable.
As we have said earlier, a compromise was being sought between science and religion. Hence,
ways and means were explored to find a way of coexistence between science and religion. This
was to be on the basis that science should deal with the phenomena which affect the senses,
but it should leave as~deother matters which are spiritual or aesthetic in nature. An artificial
divide which we see even today was, thus, created between science, social science, arts and
humanities. O n the other hand, from the time of Newton onwards, scientists were able to
work with greater freedom, and with practically no interference from religion. As we have
seen, scientific societies were established to see that the advancement of science was linked to
practical benefits, to business or to society at large.
The success of science in this period was also due to the working together of the people who
-I&I.OPA
nr m a n t t f a r t ~ a r * AAiffprpnt ~lrtirlecand the scientists who tried to understand the

Redssnnce. the Industrial

Revolution and After

Emergence of Modem
Science

properties of materials that were being handled. This was because manual work was given
greater social prestige as it was a source of great profit. The economic and social world had
changed from one with the fixed hierarchical order of the classical and feudal period where
each human being knew his or her place. Now, it was a world of individual enterprise where
each human being paved his own way.
These exciting developments in Europe had two facets. Expanding production add trade and
the resulting search for markets led to European entry into many countries of Asia, Africa and
North and South America. Colonies came in:o existence and their wealth began to flow into
the European countries, which improved the 16: of even the common man in these countries.
On the other side, it was a misfortune for the colonial people whose crafts and industry were
ruined and whose natural resources were harnessed for export to the ruling countries. The role
of the East India Company in bringing India into the colonial system is well known. Extreme
poverty and deprivation in India has its origin in the colonial exploitation of our land and our
people. We shall talk more about it in Unit 7.
We will now tell you about a major event towards the second half of the eighteenth century,
viz. the "Industrial Revolution" in Europe, particularly in Great Britain. This arose from the
ability to s e steam powered machines on a large scale, resulting in a radical change in the
means and the mode of production. It also resulted in bringing about deep-seated changes in
the structure of the society.
-

6.5 THE INDUSTRIAL REVOLUTION

(1760-1830) AND AFTER
We will first give a brief description of the qocial and economic changes of this period so that
developments in science can be seen in the proper perspective. Already, by the end of the
seventeenth century, the stage was set for the further advance of the capitalist mode of
production. The feudal and even royal restrictions on manufacture, trade and business had
been swept away. The triumph of the bourgeoisie, and of the capitalist system of economy
which they had evolved, had taken place only after the most severe political, religious and
intellectual struggles.
In Britain, the urban middle class had broken away completely from feudal limitations by the
eighteenth century. With an ever increasing market for their products all over the world, they
could finance production for profit. With an expansion of markets, growing freedom from
manufacturing restrictions and increasing opportunities for investment in profitable enterprise.
the time was ripe for great technical innovations.
Thus, we.find that by the middle of the eighteenth century, the slow and gradual changes in
the production of goods gave way to a rapid change. The new methods of experimental
science that emerged from the Scientific Revolution of the sixteenth and the seventeenth
century were now extended over the whole range of human experience. Their applications in
creating new techniques brought about the great transformation of the means of production
which we call the Industrial Revolu!ion. The architects of the Industrial Revolution were
artisan inventors. Workmen with their small accumulated or borrowed capital were, for the
first time, establishing their claim to change and to direct the production processes. The
domination of merchants over the production of small artisans was also being broken.
The Industrial Revolution came mainly from developments in industry, that too within thc
major industry of those times: the textile industry. As the demand for cloth increased, the old
industry could not expand rapidly to meet it. Also, by 1750, the industry came to deal with a
new fibre, cotton. Earlier, cotton cloth had been imported from India. With the import of
cotton textile from India into Britain being prohibited, there was a great impetus to increase
production of cotton textiles. The use of cotton called for new techniques. Here, at last: in the
cotton industry there was unlimited scope to substitute machinery for manual work. Thus,
from the technical changes which had been taking place for many decades, came the idea of
introducing several mechanical gadgets tor spinn~ngand weaving. Manual work was greatly
redue as machines replaced &&operations that were done by hand (Fig. 6.9).
The textile industry led the way to developments in other areas as well. The market for textile
machinery and textile processing stimulated the iron and chemical industries. All these
industries called for an ever increasing supply of coal, which required new developments in

Restabmm,tbeMRevdutim mi After

Fig.6.9: A spinning machine which could spin much faster and produce much stronger thread than the old spinning
wheel. It made possible a cloth woven of cotton alone, rather than cotton mixed with flax as in the past.

mining and transport. The new mechanical industry developed around coal fields. However, it
was the use of the steam engine for power in the textile industry that really created the
industrial complex of the modem world. It revolutionised textile production, so much so, that
production of goods increased almost five fold within 20 years.

The idea of mechanisation rapidly spread to other areas such as mining, metallurgy and even
agriculture. Very soon the attention of the entire society was drawn to its explosive potential.
With soaring profits, the search for markets became niore acute. It became necessary to have
radically new means of transport and communication to carry on this trade. The steam engine,
as a stationary device, had long been used in mines and then in "factories" which had come
into existence. Now it was put on rails to draw heavy loads over long distances. Thus, the
railways linked the centres of industry; and the steamships collected its raw materials and
distributed its finished products far and wide.
While the eighteenth century had found the key to production, the nineteenth century was to
find that to communication. Electricity had been used as long ago as 1737 to transmit
messages for distances of a few kilometres. But now it was absolutely necessary to transact
business over long distances. This was ensured by the successful invention of the telegraph in
1837. Soon, wires were laid for speedier communication between towns, from one country to
another. By 1866, across the Atlantic Ocean. on its bed in the form of cables, wires were laid
to form a telegraphic link between Britain and America. Withiv a hundred years from the
beginning of the Industrial Revolution, factory towns had sprung up and the appearance of
even the countryside had changed. A complete transformation had taken place in the lives of
milliork of people living in the newly industrialised countries like Great Britain, France,
Gennany, Holland, USA etc.

'

Introduction of machines in production centres which moved from homes to specially

constnrcted premises called factories, led to reorganisation of work, and, in particular, to
"division of labour". This meant that complex operations were broken down into simpler
ones, and one man at his workplace performed only one or two very simple operations. Thus,
the production per person was greatly enhanced. However, at the same' time; this increased
human drudgery, reduced requirement of mental involvement, and, in fact, made human
beings work like machines (Fig. 6.10).
It is known these. days that, in general, "industrialisation" makes one person produce many
times more surplus than agriculture. More surplus yields more profits. Therefore, capital gets
multiplied much more rapidly, and it can be used to put up more machines for more
production. Hence, the tendency is to multiply production as a whole. What is produced must

be sold, and hence the market must also expand all the time. However, in the home market,
buyers must also have the cash to buy the product. This creates a dilemma-profits have to be
maximised, but what if the workers cannot buy the product? There is no safe formula to
determine the worker's share in the profit and hence such a system is prone to social and
economic problems.

Fig. 6.10: Industrial production in which a worker carried out the same simple task repeatedly. In this sketch, a
worker is placing blocks on a series of tables which, put on wheels, move on a track through the casting, moulding

and other rooms of a factory.

The history of early industrialisation in all countries shows how workers were exploited, how
every ounce of the workers' energy was extracted so that the machines could chum out huge
profits; and how miserable were the conditions in which the workers had to live. This gave rise
to the new phenomena of trade unions and workmen's struggle to improve their lot.
There was another aspect of this industrialisation. With increase in production, the cost of
production came down. Since goods were produced on a large scale, the overhead costs did
not increase proportionately. Thus, industrially produced goods turned out to be cheap. This
led to goods from indllstrialised countries swamping markets in the colonies and ruining local
industry. Where the industrial goods were not competing well, the colonial governments went
out of their way to use their authority to ensure the sale of imported products.

SAQ 5
a) Which three among the following technical innovations led to the Industrial Revolution?
Tick the correct answers.
i)

Mechanical clocks.

ii) Mechanical gadgets for spinning and weaving.

iii) Use of steam-powered engine.
iv) Telegraph.
v) Mechanical devices for use in mining, metallurgy and agriculture.

Renaissance, the Industrid

b) State, in the boxes provided, whether the following statements about the consequences of
Industrial Revolution are true or false. In the case of a false answer, write the correct
answer also in the given space.
i)

Revolution and After

Factory to,wns had come up changing the entire countryside.

ii) The division of labour led to better working conditions for the workers.
iii) Colonisation of countries meant that industrial goods were made in colonised
countries and sold in industrialised countries.
iv) Industrialisation also led to increased exploitation of workers.
V)

The telegraph was invented to facilitate long distance communication for business
P"rpo=.

It may be said tbat science did not play a direct role in the Industrial Revolution-but, of
course, kcbnology did On the other hand, technological understanding and design of
mochincs depended oa sdence-particularly Newton's ideas on motion, force, power and
eaagy etc. The steun engine, the centre-piece of the Industrial Revolution which was used in
fadones, d w a y s and steam ships, owes a great ded to a correct understanding of the nahlre
of beat and the behaviour of gases with change of prsute. Purification of ores, casting of
machine parts from iron, and printing of cloth gave further impetus to developments in
chemistry. Oxygen was discovered by Joaeph Priestley (1733-1804) at around tbe time of tbe
Industrial Revolution. Based on his experiments on combustion, Antoine Leurent Levoisier
(1743-1794), a French scientist formulated a theoretical framework for a rational and
quantitative study of chemistry. John Dalton (1766-1844) proposed the atomic theory a few
dcauis later.

Other sciences soon gathered momentum and the list of inventions or new laws discovered in
the decades following the Industrial Revolution is most impressive. The list ranges from
the b v e r y of Coulomb's law in 1770. about the force of attraction or repulsion
between two electric charges, to the invention of electric light and the discovery of
radio waves towards the end of the eighteenl century. In the md-nineteenth century,
Louis Pasteur's discovery OF bacteria and his theory that diseases were caused by germs,
provided a great impetus to medicine. It led to the development of immunisation against
diseases like anthrax in cattle and rabies in human beings. Pasteur also demonstrated that
m y of these microbes bring about chemical changes in foodstufEs and that it is possible to
select specific hicrobes to produce products like wines and vinegar. This discovery forms the
basis of industrial microbiology which has enabled us to get many precious drugs, like the
antibiotics cheaply today. It has also made ii possible to explore alternative sources of fuel like
biogas, power-alcohol etc. But, perhaps, the most significant contribution of Pasteur was that
through carefully designed experiments, he gave a convincing proof against the idea of
spontaneous generation of life. He postulated that living being can arise only from the living
and not from non-living matter. Can you believe that almost till the nineteenth century it was
widely held, even by some scientists, that life could arise spontaneously from non-living
matter?

Around the same time, a major contribution came from Charles Darwin (1809-82) in his
revolutionary ideas about biological evolution. Until this time, it was believed that each form
of life was specially and separately created and, thus, had a specific place and function in the
hierarchy of creation. Through careful observations and painstaking research, Darwio built up
a theory about the evolution of different forms of life from some simpler ones. You will read
more about Darwin's work in Block 3. Darwin's work destroyed the last justification for
Aristotle's philosophy. And its conflict with the Church continues to this day.

Fia. 6.11: LOU,S Pasteur

.
Fk. 6.12: Charla Darw~n.
39

Emergence of Modern
Science

To sum up,,we have oiltlined some of the major drvelopments in science and technology in the
eighteenth and nineteenth centuries. In this period, capitalism came fully into its own and with it
science came of age. It completely shed the ancient and medieval myths. and replaced them by a
rational analysis of observed or.experimenred phenomena. In this manner, it helped to carry the
Industrial Revolution to great heights and to spread it to several European countries. Science and
technology are now recognised to be essential ingredients of industrialisation. This has yet to take
place in most countries which were under colonial domination till recently.
Science educat~onwas introduced as a subject in some universities in Europe even during the
eighteenth century. However, it spread widely during the nineteenth century when scientific
academies were founded in many countries and scientific research took root in many European
centres. The Industrial Revolution and science grew hand in hand, and if the Industrial Revolution
bears certain characteristics of science. science too carries several features of that revolution, as we
will soon examine.
Unfortunately, these developments in industrialised countries further strengthened or expanded
the~rcolonial hold. lndla came under colon~alinfluence almost at the same time as the Industrial
Revolution and we suffered all the negative effects. Our industry was undermined, our
natural resources were packed off, as much as possible, to England which would
manufacture articles and force them on our market. Disruption of social life and extreme
poverty began at Lhe same time. Although science was irresistibly growing in the West, our
education and research were completely neglected. Thus, India fell back in the race of
economic developrnenl by at least a hundred years. Since the international rate of scientific
progress is very high, this uagedy nearly ineans that scientifically we are likely to be
dependent on b e West, perhaps, forever, unless we takc extraordinary measures to pull
ourselves up. We will take up tliis discussio~lin detail in the next unit.
I t would be interesting for you if we went on to explore the relation between sc~ence;technology
and society in the present-day world. But we would not be able to dojustice tosuch an exploration
without discussing the various branches of science and technology and their special role. In this
course, through' the units that will follow, you will begin to appreciate the present situation'by
studying problems of health, food, agriculture and industry. which will be presented in our social
context.

6.6 SUMMARY
In this unit, we have covered a long period from the fifth century A.D. to the nineteenth century
A.D. This was a pericwl of momentous changes which led to the emergence of modern science in
Europe. L,et US summarix what we have read in this unit.
The regimented thinking in the stagnant feudal society did not allow signifidnt growth of
science in Europe in the Middle Ages. However, there were many technical developments
necessitated by the expansion of agricultural land and the need for its better use at the time
when there was a shonage of labour.
Surplus produce led to trade which encouraged further production. Slowly, the hierarchical
feudal order based on the forced service of serfs gave way to a trading society in which
commodity production and maney payments became dominant.
@

The hallmark of the Renaissance were criticism and rejection of medieval thought. The
Copernican Revolution was an important scientific development of this period.
The post-Renaissance period saw the emergence of a new method of science-that of
observation and experiment. There were a serles cff path-breaking advances in science in this
pdriod, foremost among them being the works of Galileo, Harvey and Irlewton. It also set the
stage for the birth of modern science in many other areas.
The Industrial Revolution in Great Britain radically altered the means of production. With this,
the transition from a feudal economy to capitalist economy was complete in that country. The
social structure also changed accordingly. The feudal hierarchical order with a fixed hereditary
Modern science and
status gave way to the enterprise and monetary status of an ~nd~vldual.
technology came of age in this period, and from then onwards, there was no looking back.

v
Renaissance, the Industrial
Revolution and After

6.7 TERMINAL QUESTIONS

1) Against the technical innovations listed below, describe in one or two lines, the social,
economic, political or scientific consequences of each of these, which helped the
transformation of medieval economy.
i)

The horse collar.. ...............................................................

ii) Wind-mills and water-mills ................................................

iii) Compass and sternpost rudder. ..................; ....................................

......................................................................................
iv) Gunpowder ...............................................................

...........................................................................
v) Paper and printing.. ..................................................................

2) State at least three developments that helped the advance of science and technology
during Renaissance.

3) In the following table we have compared the features of European and Indian societies
from the sixteenth to the eighteenth century, that helped or impeded the growth of science
in Europe and in India, respectively. Describe the corresponding features of both the
societies in the blank spaces left below. You may have to look up Sec. 5.4 once again.

i)

European society

Indian society

After severe conflict, the hierarchical

feudal order had given way to a
climate of individual enterprise and one

........................................
.. " .. ................................
........................................
........................................

in which monetary status mattered.

This paved the way for greater freedom
of thought and action.

ii)

iii) Manual work had acquired greater

social prestige. Artisans and craftsmen
who produced goods mixed on equal
terms with the scientists and thinkers.

"

The hold of orthodox religious priests

had stifled creative and innovative
thinking in society.

iv) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Knowledge was limited to only a few

4) What was the difference between the science of classical and feudal times on the one hand
and science of the time after the Renaissance on the other?

...........................................................................................

6.8 ANSWERS
Self Assessment Questions
I) i) T

2) i)

ii) S

iii) T

iv) T

v) S

commodities, trade, self-sufficient

ii) profits, feudal lords

iii) money, serfs

Study of human anatomy; representing three-dimensional figures in two-dimensions;

detailed observations of'nature; pumping and hydraulic devices in mining; building
new ships and instruments of navigation; Copernican Revolution.
ii) Copernicus proposed a model of the solar system in'which the sun was at the centre
and all planets including the earth rotated around it. It was revolutionary as it
completely rejected the ancient geocentric model.

3) i)

4) a) ii),

b) iii), c) v), d) i), e) vii), f) viii), g) iv), h) vi)

5 ) a ) i) x ii) d hi) d iv) x v ) d

b) i) T ii) F iii) F iv) T V) T
ii) Instead, it increased the workers' drudgery and reduced their mental involvement.
turning them into virtual machines.
iii)'' Colonised countries supplied the raw materials and served as markets for finished
goods of the industrialised countries.

Terminal Questions
1) i) More acres of land could be cultivated leading to surplus agricultural produce for
trade.
ii) Helped in agriculture, forging iron or sawing wood and in overcoming the labour
shortage.
iii) Opened the oceans for voyage leading to increased trade with far off lands which led
to developments in astronomy, geography and the industry of making navigational
instruments.
iv) Led to studies in chemistry, mechanics and breathing.
V) Aided the spread of literacy and increased people's access to education.
The status of technicians, craftsmen and artists was enhanced as the practical arts
flourished.
ii) Scholars questioned and challenged the medieval thought.
iii) Links between craftsmen and scholars were re-established.
iv) The method of observation, experiment and calculation became the new method of
science.

2) i)

The social order was stable. There was general satisfaction among the population with
no clamour to bring about change.
ii) In the changing social conditions, a compromise was worked out between science and
religion. From the seventeenth century onwards there was no religious interference in
science.
iii) The learned people in the society did not interact with the manual workers who were
not considered respectable.
iv) Printing made education and information about science and technology available to
people at large.

3) i)

4) Earlier works in science were mostly based on speculation ahout the world around. After
the Renaissance, observation, experimentation and calculation, accompanied by a will to
question and revise one's assumptions, became the new methods of science.

UNIT 5 SCIENCE IN THE MEDIEVAL

TIMES
Structure
5.1 Introduction
Objectives

5.2 The Arab Renaissance

Arab Science
Decay of Arab Culture and Science

5.3 Science and Technology in Medieval India

Achievements in Science
Technical Innovations and Inventions

5.4
5.5
5.6
5.7

Impediments to the Growth of Science in India

Summary
Terminal Questions
Answers

5.1 INTRODUCTION
We have seen in Unit 3 that the centre of science had shifted to the east for about 500 years
following the collapse of Rome. We also saw in Unit 4 that the period from the fourth century
B.C. to the fifth century A.D. was an age of great cultural advance in India. Science and
technology flourished in India during the period of the Guptas (320-480 A.D.). However, by
the sixth century A.D., India once again developed a complex religious and caste system.
Slowly, the rigid social structure, prevailing religious dogmas and the crumbling empires led to
a stagnation in Indian society. The development of science also slowed down in this process.
Meanwhile, between the third and the seventh century A.D., Europe had seen the rise of
Christianity. In its early phase, Christianity was associated with democratic tradition and had a
popular appeal. However, soon the Roman Empire took over the Christian Church and
adopted the Christian faith. This, as we shall see, stifled the growth of science in Europe. Even
as the ancient Indian and Roman cultures decayed, a positive development was taking shape
elsewhere in the world. The advent of Lslam in the seventh century A.D. provided a great
stimulus to the Arab culture and science. Even though the Islamic culture had started decaying
by the eleventh century A.D., the fruits of Lslamic science were not wasted. When Islam came
to India in the eleventh cectury, a large body of knowledge came into Indian possession. This,
in.may, shaped the developments in Indian science in the medieval times.
'

In this unit we will cover a rather long period in the history of science, from a r o u d the
seventh century A.D. to the end of the eighteenth century A.D. We will, very briefly, touch
upon the history of Christianity and then see how the Arab renaissance and the rise of Lslam
helped in the flowering of Arab science. In the latter part of this unit, we shall concentrate on
the development of science and technology in medieval India.

Objectives
After studying this unit you should be able to :
describe the contribution of Arabs to the body of scientific knowledge,
describe and assess the level of development of science in medieval India,
analyse the factors that impeded the growth of science in India in the medieval times.

5.2 THE ARAB RENAISSANCE

1

I
I
I

We have seen in Unit 3 that, by the end of the second century A.D., the Roman Empire had
begun to decline. Its economy was overburdened by a huge army. Stagnating production had
led to the imposition of heavy taxes. Consequently, the social structure became extremely
exploitative.
''.

$ .

Emergence of Modem

Sdarc

Christianity, most probably, grew out of the distress and protest of the slaves and other
common people of the Roman Empire. It is no accident that it first arose among the Jews who
were the most oppressed. They were also imbued with the spirit of rejecting any compromise
with the powers of this world. The popular appeal of Christianity lay in its outward
submissiveness combined with absolute determination to have no part in the prevailing
oppressive and sinful society. This also led to its persecution, which gave it even greater appeal
and strength. Christianity spread rapidly among all people. Very soon it was no more confined
to the lower classes. Its teachings became influenced by the prevalent social ideas. Within a
few centuries, the Church itself established the rule of dogmas and became a partner in
maintaining the state. By the sixth century A.D., people on the eastern borders of the Roman
Empire began to identify Christianity with an alien, hostile and oppressive government.
However, we find that to these negative factors, there was soon added a positive one-the
appearance and spread of a new religion, Islam, in the seventh century A.D. Islam
incorporated what was most agreeable in Christianity. With its message of universal
brotherhood, simple but exacting personal conduct and a sure hope of realistic paradise for the
believer, it soon found popular support. As the Arabs from Syria and Iraq came to conquer
lands stretching upto the Mediterranean with the message of Islam, they very often found little
resistance from the local population.
Soon a vast area stretching from Spain to India came under the influence of Islam (Fig. 5.1)
and, thus, extensive trade and cultural exchanges became possible. The flourishing trade gave
rise to demand for commoditiesl This, in turn, encouraged invention of new techniques for
making steel, paper, silk, porcelain etc.

Fig. 5.1: Expansion of Islam upto 750 A.D.

Christianity had, by then, become identified with a decaying and corrupt empire. Therefore,
scholars and intellectuals from the eastern and African parts of the Roman Empire started
escaping to Persia which was becoming the new centre of learning and scholarship. These
people were largely heretics and were safer from persecution under Muslim Caliphs than
under the orthodox Roman Empire. In 431 A.D., the Syrian monk Nestor and his followers
who challenged fhe Christian dogma were condemned and persecuted. They fled to Persia
where a vigorol~sculture was being promoted by the Sassanian kings. Similarly, the Egyptian
monk Eutyches of Alexandria (378-454 A.D.) and his followers had to flee from Egypt to
Persia under pressure from the Church. Both these scholars made significant contributions to
mathematics and astronomy. In the next section, we will describe how Arab science took
shape. We will also see what contributions the Arabs made to the world of science.

5.2.1 Arab Science

What was crucial about this new Arab-centred civilisation was its willingness to examine and
understand the classical scientific and philosophical traditions of the Greeks in the context of
its new and vigorous culture. This was possible because of the written documents which
reached the Arabs with the spread of the Ro-n Empire. Besides, they also had a strong feeling
of being the heirs of the ancients. They traced the store of knowledge step by step back to the

original Greek works. They translated these writings, absorbed.them and developed them
further. Caliph-al-Mamun founded a bureau of translation, Dar el Hikhma, where :he great
scholars Hunain ibn Ishaac and Thabit ibn Khurra prepared Arabic texts of most of Aristotle's
and Ptolemy's writings and other major Greek classics of'science. These scholars prospered
under the patronage of the great Caliphs, al-Mansur, Haroun-al-Raschid, al-Mamun and
al-Mutawahkil. They also translated the Indlan medicinal, surgical and astronomical texts. This
was aided by the extensive travels undertaken by merchants, travellers and scholars such as
alBiruni (973-1048 A.D.), who brought back the knowledge of local practices from the
distant lands of India, Greece and China.
It is interesting to note that only the scientific and philosophical books were selected for
translation, and not history, drama or poetry. Centuries later, when Europe tapped this source
of learning, which was preserved in Arabic, they got a lot of scientific and philosophical
writings of all the previous civilisations. The social sciences and humanities were, however, to
be rediscovered by Europe directly from Greek and Latin. Thus, science and humanities entered
into the modem tradition by separate channels. This, perhaps, explains to some extent the
persisting divide between these areas of knowledge.
One of the reasons which ensured the growth of Arabic science, apart from flourishing trade
by land and sea, was the fact that it was practised in a language used by the kings and slaves
alike. This provided strong links between ordinary craftsmen and scholars, links which never
fail to provide a great impetus to the growth of science.
The Arab science provided a genuine continuity to classical Greek science, and was also a
melting pot for scientific thought of other civilisations. Yet, it seems to have had little ambition
to improve upon or revolutionise these traditions. In studying Arab scientific works, we are
struck by the rationality of treatment generally associated with modem science. However,
mysticism and too much respect for Greek science and its leading figures like Aristotle became
a handicap. The main pillars of science were astronomy and medicine. These were united by
astrology which furnished the link between the outer big world of the heavens and inner small
world of men. We would, however, like to state categorically at this stage, that the greatest
figures of Arab science such as al-Kindi, al-Razi (Rhazes), Ibn Sina (Avicenna) and alBiruni
clearly rejected the extravagant claims of astrology and alchemy.
We have described above some general features of Arab science. You may like to work out an
SAQ based on these !
SAQ 1
Which among the various factors given in column 2 helped or impeded the growth of Arab
science? Indicate by drawing a line between the statements that correspond to each other in
coiumw I and 2.

a) Features that helped the growth

of Arab science.

b) Impediments to the growth of

Arab science.

i)

The Arabs were willing to assimilate the

best scientific traditions of classical cultures
of Greece, India and China.

ii)

They had too much respect for Greek

works.

iii)

The Arabs travelled extensively to various

countries and brought back immense
information.

iv)

Arab science was practised in a language

used by kings and slaves alike.

v)

They could not completely escape from the

influence of astrology, alchemy and
.
mysticism.

vi)

The Arab treatment of scientific ideas is

very rational.

Science in the Medievd

Al-Mansur, al-Mamun, Haroun-al-

as^
dvnasty, who ruled Persia between'
7s4 and 861 A , ~ ,

Emergence of Modem
Science

We will now briefly describe the significant contributions of Arabs in some areas of science
such as astronomy, mathematics, medicine, optics and chemistry.
Astronomy and Mathematics
Arabs canied on the Greek tradition in astronomy. They translated Ptolemy's Almagest and
continued astronomical observations in spite of occasional religious interference. Although
they did not add substantially to the Greek methods, the continuity that they provided was to
prove invaluable to the sixteenth century astronomers.

The practice of astronomy provided the necessary incentive to develop mathematics. In

this, the Arabs adopted the Indian system of numbers and introduced them on a large scale,
to the extent that warehouse clerks and traders started using these numerals to conduct their
business. The widespread use of the number system simplified calculations and had the
same effect on mathematics as alphabets had OR writing. Arabs translated Indian works o h
algebra and trigonometry and applied them to solve many physical and practical problems.
Geography
We have seen that Arabs were great travellers. Arab scholars travelled as far as Russia, Central
Africa, India and China. They wrote well-ordered and rational accounts of their journeys and
made maps and charts. Their geography was not only descriptive, they also had some idea of
the size and scale. In this way, they laid the foundation of modem geography of Asia and
northern Africa (Fig. 5.2).

Fig. 5.2: Arabic map of the worlo.

Scientific Chemistry
The Arab doctors, perfumers and metallurgists made their greatest contribution in chemistry.
This was mainly due to the fact that Arab scholars, unlike their predecessors in Greece, never
hesitated to take part in laboratory practices in handling drugs, salts and precious metals. The
Arabs continued the Egyptian and Babylonian traditions, and learnt extensively from the
Indian and the Chinese sources. To these they added their own rich contributions, giving rise
to the first statements of scientific chemistry.

Arab chemists greatly improved the earlier distillation apparatus and used it for large scale
production of perfume. They also undertook large scale production of soda, alum, copperas
(iron sulphate), nitre and other salts which could be exported and used particularly in textile
industry. While they perfected new techniques, they were not satisfied till they were able to get
at the bottom of the reactions which made these techniques possible. Arab chemists stipulated
the positive and negative naturc of two reacting constituents. This was the first time that
chemical transformation was approached rationally, to lay the basis f y modem chemistry.

Medicine
The Arabs continued the Greek tradition in medicine also, but added to it the knowledge of
new diseases and drugs which was made possible by the wide geographical spread of Islam.
The doctors, who were not only Muslim, but also Jewish, studied a great range of diseases.
They concerned themselves with questions of the effect of climate, hygiene and diet on health.
They also paid attention to the practical art of cookery.

Fig. 5.3 :Oldest representation of a caesarean section from the works of al-Biruni.

optics
The prevalence of eye diseases in the desert and tropical countries led to the study of the eye
by Arab doctors. Surgical treatment of the eye led to renewed interest in the structure of the
eye. This was to give the Arab physicians the first real understanding of dioptrics, the part of
optics dealing with the passage of light through transparent bodies like a lens or glass. This also
laid the foundation of modem optics. The lens of the eye was to point the way to the use of
crystal or glass lenses for magnification and reading, particularly by the old. The 'Optical
Thesaurus' of Ibn al-Haitham (about 1038 A.D.) was the first serious scientific treatment of
the subject.

SAQ 2
Which three among the following developments in science are contributions of the Arabs?
Tick the appropriate statements.
a) The use of number system was greatly popularised.
b) Gunpowder was discovered.
c) Chemistry was treated rationally for the first time, large scale production of salts was
undertaken.
d) A heliocentric model of the solar system was given.
e) The first scientific treatment of optics was carried out.

The bare outline of the developments in Arab science that we have given above is just a
glimpse of its extent and importance. Arab scholars rescued Greek science from the decadent
state it had fallen into under the later Roman Empire. They created a live and growing
science. They were able to extend the narrow basis of Greek mathematical, astronomical and
medical science by drawing on the experience of Persia, India and China. They also extended
the techniques of algebra and trigonometry and laid the foundations of optics and scientific
chemistry. These developments continued till eleventh century A.D., after which we find that
the best days of Arab science were over. There were brilliant individual scientists like Averroes
(about 12th century A.D.) and Ibn Khaldun (about 14th century A.D.). However, the widely
based and living movement existed no more. We will now try to analyse the reasons that led
to the decay of Arab culture and, as a consequence, of Arab science.

Science in the Medieval Tlmg

~nngmec
ol M O I I ~
scknce

ASa mult of h e regeneration of the

Church md ~ntemfiedlntemal

Crussdes look place

under the tudenhtp of vanous
to sub,u8atc olher
Eumpan
rulea adto
the
or
Christianity.

5.2.2 Decay of Arab Culture and Science

The association of science with kings, wealthy merchants and nobles which was initially very
fruitful, ultimately proved to be the weakness of Arab culture and science. The patronage
provided opportunities to translate, observe, experiment and reflect upon various aspects of
science. It also resulted in Arab science getting cut off from the people, who began to suspcct
that the learned advison of the elite were upto no good. This made the wmmon people an
easy prey to religious fanaticism. The link also tied up the fortunes of science with the strength
of the kingdoms. After the eleventh century A.D., both the Byrantine and Islamic empires (sa
Fig. 5.1) started breaking up internally and grew more dependent for military and economic
purposes on local kings. By the time of the Crusades (between eleventh to thirteenth century),
the empires broke up into local feudal estates where peasants and craftsmen were subjugated
with renewed brutality. This destroyed the market for industry and the need for innovative
sclence. In this situation of decay and stagnation came new barbarians from the steppe lands.
They over-ran the Arab lands aid effectively st~fledtheir culture.

The genius of Arab science lay in the fact that it provided a crucial link between the rise of
modern science, and developments in Greece, in India and, to a lesser extent, in China in the
classical period. Modem science, & w e know it, arose in the sixteenth century after the
Renaissance in Europe. The Renaissancetook up the clasical science as it was transmitted by
the Arabs and developed it in a revolutionary sense. Thus started a new age in which science
and technology could play pre-eminent roles, roles they had never been called upon to play
before. We shall tell you more about this in Unit 6.

5.3 SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY IN MEDIEVAL INDIA

Let us now turn our attention to what was happening in India in the medieval times. As you
have read earlier in Sec. 5.2.1, al-Biruni (973-1048 A.D.) had visited India and travelled
extensively. He had studied the social life, political system and religious beliefs of the Indian
people in depth. We get a great deal of information about India from his writings. In his
writings he gave a detailed account of the level of scientific developments in India, in the early
decades of the eleventh century A.D. His works also include reference to the earlier advances

SOUTH POLE

Fig. 5.4: A meridian is an imaginary circle passing through the poles of the eanh. which divides thesphere into two
equal par&. Twelve equally spaced meridians divide the eanh into 24 equal secton. each passing through the pols
and each mak~ngan angle of IS" with its ne~ghbour.By international agreement. the firs1 or the prime meridian
passes through Greenwich. England. The smaller of the two angles formed by the prime meridian and the meridian
passing through any point on the eanh is called the longitude ofthat point. The longitude of any point on the globe i?
measured east or west from Greenwich whichever makes the smaller angle. The parallels of latitude are lines drawn
on the globe parallel to the equator. The latitude gives the angle north or south from the equator. The location of any
point on the earth Is described bv its lon~itudeand latitude.

in Indian science. For itrstance, he records the Indian contribution to astronomy and refen to
the works of Aryabhatta, Varahamihira and Brahmagupta about which you have read in Unit
4. According to al-Biruni, Indians had tried to calculate latitudes (Fig. 5.4) of some places like
Kannauj, Thanesar and Srinagar (in Kashmir). The calculation of longitudes was based on
timings of the eclipse at different places, as had been suggested by Ptolemy earlier. Their prime
meridian passed through Uijain.

Al-Biruni points out that the Indian views regarding matter were similar to those of the
Greeks. You have read about this in Sec 3.4 of Block 1. According to al-Biruni, the greatest
Indian contribution was in the use of the decimal system. The numeral signs that the Indians
used were the source of Arabic and the present day international numerals.
Al-Biruni's account is not a mere description of things as they were. He also tried to analyse
why things were as they were. He realised that Indian science was already on the decline and
lamented that "it is quite impossible that a new science or any new kind of research should
arise in our days. What we have of sciences is nothing but the scanty remains of bygone better
days". He attributed this situation to the lack of patronage to the scholars. This, incidentally,
highlights the very elitist character of Indian science. It was restricted to a few people who
practised science only as an intellectual exercise. Science in India had lost its connection with
the life of common people or productive pro&es. There was, however, some change in the
state of affairs with the coming of lslam to India.
Islam came to India at a time when the vigorous intellectual phase of the Islamic civilisation
was largely over. With al-Ghauali's mysticism, a stiff resistance to rational philosophy had
developed. Nevertheless, the Arab body of knowledge had inherited the best of sciences from
the Greek civilisation, from China and from India. It also included innovations from within
the widespread Arab civilisation. This entire body of knowledge became an Indian possession,
all the more so as Indian scholars learnt Persian and Arabic after the establishment of the
Delhi Sultanate. This influenced to a great extent the development of science in medieval
India.

5.3.1 Achievements in Science

The interaction between Indian sciences and those brought by the newcomers remained
limited for some time. However, astronomy and medicine received ready patronage from the
Delhi Sultans as well as from Mughal Emperors and their nobility. We shall now tell you
about the achievements in various areas of science in medieval India.

Astronomy and Physical Sciences

Astronomy was used not only for working out the calendar, the dates of the eclipses and for
the determination of time but also for casting horoscopes for astrological purposes. Astronomy
was also needed for fixing the direction of Mecca, in order to properly align the mosques. We
find that Firozeshah Tughlaq (1351-88) established an observatory where a special type of
astrolabe and waterclock were set up (Fig. 5.5). The interest of the rulers in astronomy
continued during the Mughal period. Humayun is reputed to have employed a number of
astronomers and with their help, he attempted to make astronomical observations.

(a)

(b)
Fig. 5.5: (a) Asirolabe : front surface showing the graduated rim of a spherical astrolabe which is a small portable
metal disc with a diameter varying from 4" to 8"; (b) water clock: as water flows into the cylinder, the float rises,
turning the polnter on the dial to tell time.

Science in the Medieval Times

Emergence of Modem
Science

The astrolabes made in India during the seventeenth century, were no doubt an achievement
of metal and wood-workers and of mathematical arts. Also, a high degree of accuracy was
achieved in circular gradation, which affected all measurements.
The most impo&nt stride in the field was made at the beginning of the eighteenth century.
Raja Jai Singh, under the patronage of Emperor Muhammad Shah, established observatories
at a number of places, such as Delhi (Fig. 5.6), J a i ~ u r Uijain,
,
Benaras and Mathura. He
paid special attention to the instruments of observation. A noticeable feature was the
construction of large sized observational instruments for fixing time and determining
latitudes. He succeeded in compiling fairly accurate astronomical tables, rectifying the
calendar and in making more accurate predictions of eclipses. Jai Singh's astronomical
tables entitled Zif-i Muhammad Shahi borrowed heavily from the Zif-i Ulugh Beg (13941449) in the text, but his actual calculations and figures are different. Nevertheless, in the
theory of astronomy, there was hardly any advance over the Ptolemaic system. It is the
astrological aspect and preparation of horoscopes which proved to be the mystifying
distraction.

Fig. 5.6: The Ram Yantra, a kind of a cylindrical astrolabe and the Jai Prakas (right-hand rorrttr ), Jantar
Mantar, Delhi

A familiarity with the knowledge of specific gravity and laws of motion, based on classic
sources, was shown by Abu'l Fazl (d. 1603). This is indicated by a W1 chapter devoted to
these matters in his book A.in-i Akbari, completed in 1595. In this he shows a clear
understanding of the Archimedes principle, and the differences in the weights of bodies in air
and under water. He also grappled with the problem of molecular arrangement in various
substances and tried to relate it to specrfic gravity. He reproduced a table from al-Biruni giving
the specific gravity of various metals and precious stones. The application of measures of
specific gravity were given a practical turn by Akbar when he sought to determine the quality
of timber by this means. Abu'l Fazl also gave in his book, a table of specific gravity of seventy
two types' of wood.
Geography
Geography was another science where development took place. The astrolabes helped
determine more accurate latitudes. A big advance was made in the field of cartography when
in 1647 Sadiq Isfahani prepared an encyclopaedic work that con.tained a World Atlas. The
maps prepared by him, particularly of India, were fairly accurate in representing India as a
peninsula and adding Sri Lanka at its southern tip. Rivers were sparingly shown. In India, only

the rivers Ganga and Jamuna were drawn. However, their courses were shown quite
accurately, unlike in the contemporary European maps of India. He had also indicated the
physical features, for example, mountain ranges by wavy lines and used various colours to
mark rivers and oceans. However, Sadiq made no attempt to show routes, a practice that
started in Europe around 1500 A.D. By this time, India had also become aware of the
discovery of the New World (America). Abu'l Fazl in his A 'in-i-Akban'mentioned above,
entered some remarks about the New World.

Chemistry
In the field of metallurgy too we notice some remarkable developmenk. Before the close of
the sixteenth century, zinc was isolated by a process known neither to the Arab civilisation nor
to the Europeans who learnt the art in the early nineteenth century. It has now been suggested
by archaeological excavations at Zawar in Rajasthan that Indians knew how to isolate zinc by
about the first century after Christ (Fig. 5.7). In China, zinc was isolated only during the ninth
ccntury.

/Aperture
for outflow of
hot gases and feed~ngfuel

Furnace chamber

II

1metal

Fia. 5.7: A cross-section of the zinc distillation furnace found at Zawar, Rajasthan

The isolation of zinc was accompanied by another achievemenf namely the manufacture
of brass, an alloy of copper and zinc. Abu'l Fazl gave three proportions of zinc and copper for
obtaining brass of different varieties.
Tin-coating of copper and brass learnt from the Arab world became prevalent in medieval
India, thereby enabling copper vessels to be more widely used. Soldering, particularly of gold
on agates, crystals and other brittle materials, was done so efficiently, as to earn commendation
from European travellers.
India seems to have discovered the freezing mixture before Europe. Saltpetre (potassium
nitrate) was used for cooling water before 1580. This discovery has been attributed to
Emperor Akbar.

Medicine
Aristocratic patronage for physicians and surgeons was not wanting, though, perhaps, surgeons
did not enjoy a very high status in comparison to physicians.
The Greek (Unani) system of medicine still widely practised in India arrived with the
Muslims. One would have expected improvement by the mutual exchange between it and the
already existing Indian system of Ayurveda. But the two systems remained separate. Miyan
Behwa (about 1500 A.D.) wrote an important work on medicine Tibbi-i Sikandar Shahi,
based on a number of Ayurvedic sources that are explicitly mentioned. Jahangir's favourite
surgeon Muqarrab Khan made use of selections from this book in his two tracts on medicine.

Science in Ule Medieval Times

Emergence of Modern
Science

The two systems continued to coexist but probably without any great intoraction. Both hakims
and vaids were employed by the Emperor and the nobles. In the list of physicians at Akbar's
court one finds four vaids, i.e. practitioners of Ayurveda.
In surgery, blood letting, and in orthopaedicr, setting right dislocated bones were the known
practices. A practice attributed to the surgeons of Kangra was that of tmting those whose
noses had been cut. They could create an artificial nose by a partial skin transplant. However,
unlike in contemporary Renaissance Europe, no important systematic researches in the field of
anatomy or physiology were made. Observations, such as plague spreading through rats, were
chance observations. An interesting technique, which was pursued by popular practitioners,
was smallpox inoculation, since the disease seems to have spread silently all over West Asia
and India in the seventeentheighteenth centuries. The practice, however, was not safe.
Europeans were also employed as physicians by Mughal nobility but the attempt to make use
of their knowledge remained confined to individuals. For example, Danishmand Khan (a
Mughal noble about 1660 A.D.) tried to understand Harvey's discovery of blood circulation
from the French traveller Bernier who dissected a sheep for demonstration. But such display of
interest in European medicine on the part of Indian scholars was exceptional, and even the
translations of European scientific works prepared on the orders of Danishmand have not
survived.
On the whole, we find that the development of science in medieval India was at a rather slow
pace. There was no adequate response to advan~esin science made in Europe. The lack of
endeavour to understand European science is evident from the fact that an Atlas presented to
Jahangir by Thomas Roe was returned to him because Jahangir's scholars were unable to
understand it. It is difficult to explain this failure when the European merchants, priests,
travellers and physicians were found in most parts of the country.
One possible factor could be the narrow social base of learning, i.e. learning was restricted to a
small elite group. This was to some extent due to the absence of printing. Printing was
introduced in India by the Portuguese. However, the products of their printing press were not
aesthetic enough to be appreciated by the Mughal court and nobility. The possession of books
was a privilege of the rich. Thus, the spread of knowledge was prevented.
SAQ 3
In the space given below, list at least five significant developments in science in medieval
India, one each from the fields of astronomy, geography, physics, chemistry and medicine.

So far, we have told you about the developments in science. Let us now see what technical
innovations and inventions were taking place in medieval India.

'es

, ,

5.3.2 Technical innovations md Inventions

Medieval India witnessed considerable improvement and changes in the field of technology.
While these changes were largely a result of diffusion from outside, some technological
Fig. 5.8: The worm gearing has a innovations also originated in India. Diffusion from outside suggests readiness and ability to
short revolving screw (the worm)
imitate, apply and extend the use of technological devices. On the whole, there seems to have
whose teeth move into the special
been no inhibition against technological change.
teeth ofa helical gear (the worm
gear).

We shall now describe some technical devices that were invented or improved upon in
medieval India.

Gearing
Gearing provides a device for transforming horizontal motion into vertical and vice versa and
for increasing or reducing speed (Fig.5.8). One form of gearing is that of the parallel worm which

Science in 'Ie Medievd Times

originated in ancient India. It was received in Kampuchea, in all probability, from India before
1000 A.D. Parallel worm gearing was used in wooden cotton-gin in medieval times; it was
also applied to sugar milling, with wooden rollers.
Right-angled pindrum gearing came with the Persian wheel (saqiya), an improved water
liftiig device received from the Arab world. India already had water lifting devices such as
pulley-system @hitxi) and noria (araghatta) with pot-chain (mala). The application of
pin-dnun gearing to the araghatfa. converting it into what is known as the Persian wheel,
enabled water to be lifted from deeper levels, in a continuous flow, by use of cattle power. The
gear wheel and the shafi were of wood. A horizontal pindrum, meshing with a vertical pin
wheel, was rotated by cattle power. The Persian wheel was being widely used in the Punjab
and Sind by the tifteenth century. This improved the means of imgation and probably resulted
in extension of agriculture in the region.

Belt-drive
The beltdrive is a mmpratively simpler device than gearing for transmission of power and
for increasing or decreasing the speed of motion (Fig. 5.9). Beltdrive came to India m the
fonn of the spinning wheel. The spinning wheel quickened the speed of spinning by about
six fold. This must have multed in reducing the prices of yarn and, thus, of cloth. The
other improvement in the spinning wheel was the addition of crank handle 6uring the
seventeenth century. The beltdrive was extended to the diamond cutting drill, by the
seventeenth century.
Weaving
Evidence of an improvement in weaving comes from a fifteenth century dictionary which
describes the foot-pedals used by a weaver to control speed. The addition of treadles to the
loom facilitated the use of feet by the weaver for lifting alternately the heddles and freed hi3
hands to throw the shuttle to and fro (Fig. 5.10b). This could more than double the rate of
weaving.

I
I
I

~ i 5.9:
~ ~~l~
. drive found in
charkha, home sewing machine and
the fan of an automobile engine.

(a)
(b)
Fig. 5.10: (a) A simple loom. Harness A is raised so that the shuttle goes under those warp threads, but over the warp in
'd.The harnesses are reversed and the shuttle is passed back under B and over A; @) in the foot-operated handloom the
warp threads are wound on a cylinder called the warp beam. Each thread parses through a heddle or vertical rod.
Alternate beddles are separated so as to form two groups held together by harness. When one set of heddles is raised
and the other is lowered, the warp is separated into two sections, forming a shed through which shuttle is passed. The
position of heddes is reversed to form another shed and the shuttle is passed through again. The woven cloth is wound
onto a doth beam.

By the seventeenth century both methods of multicolour pattern dyeing, namely, the use of
resist to confine colours to patterns and of mordant to take colours were used. It was, perhaps,
during the same century that direct block printing, a time-saving technique as compared to
painting, became popular in India.

Paper manufacture
Paper was not used in India until the eleventh century. This Chinese invention of the first
.century A.D. reached India mainly through the Ghorian conquerors. Once introduced. its

manufacture spread quickly, and by the middle of the fourteenth century, paper became so
cheap that it was used not only for writing but also for wrapping purposes by the sweetmeat
sellers.

Emergence of Modem
Sciemw

Bridget and Raymond Allchin are

~ChDsoIogists.Joseph Ncedbam, a
scientis4 is -*ell known for hh works
On the
of
society
in China.

Mation

The know-how of liquor distillation also came to India during the thirteenth century. Though
it has been argued by the famous Indian chemist P.C. Ray (1861-1944 A.D.) and recently by
the Allchins and Needham on the basis of archaeological evidence, that :iquor distillation Was
known in ancient India, the stills seem to have been small and inefficient. With the thirteenth
century came various types of stills (for liquor as well as for rose-water) and therc is little
doubt that the manufacture of distilled spirits received great impetus.

Architecture
The architectural style of India underwent a drastic change after the Turkish conquest. The
Sultans and their nobles insisted on having arches and domes and competent Indian masons
succeeded in building them. The first surviving example of arch is Balban's tomb, dated 1280,
and of dome, Alai Darwaza, dated 1305. It was the change in b;ilding technology
accompanied by the introduction of lime mortar that made possible the change from trabeate
architecture to arcuate style. The principle of true arch seems to have been known in ancient
India, but somehow large arches could not be made. However, false arches were constructed
in ancient times (see Fig. 5.1 1).
Use of lime mortar made it possible to waterproof floors and walls for tanks. Thus, it became
possible to build tanks and vats such as those needed for producing India's major dye, indigo.

I
(a)

(b)

Fig. 5.11 :(a) True arch : ib lower part is called springing, top is the crown, m d shoulder is the hunch. Keystone has
a key position in the formation of arch ;(b) false arch is built of horizontal laym so laid that eacb projects slightly
beyond the one below, gradually coming together at the top where the meeting point is covered by a flat slab.

Military Technology
Important changes were introduced in military technology. Rope and wooden stimps for
horsemen were known in India before the thirteenth century. However, the iron stirrup seems
to have been introduced by the Ghorians and'the Turks. This greatly improved the combat
power of horsemen. At the same time, shoeing improved the performance of horses.
Turks also brought with them the cross-bow (Fig. 5.12). The sross-bow had an additional tube
at right angles to the bow in which the arrow was fitted; the tube gave greater accuracy of
direction to the arrow. This tube seems to be a direct precursor of the barrel-of the hand-gun.
The next stage of development in military technology was the use of cannon and gun powder.
This innovation came to India during the latter half of the fifteenth century from the Ottoman
Empire which had itself received it from Europe.
By Akbar's time, match-locks and their manufacture became common in the imperial aknal.
Some improvements were attempted mainly with a view to do away with the match and
strengthen the barrel. Akbar's arsenal succeeded in manufacturing a gun that had most

probably a wheel-lock. Here the spring released by trigger caused a wheel with serrated edges
to revolve against a piece of pyrites and so send sparks into the priming pan. The flintlock
widely used in Europe by the first half of the seventeenth century was adopted in India later
on (Fig. 5.13).

Science in the Medieval Timvs

Manufacture of the barrel of a gun posed a problem for the gunsmith. The barrel had to be
very strong to withstand the explosion within it; the making of the bore and alignment
required high accuracy. In Akbar's arsenal, the barrel was made by rolling flat iron sheets and
welding the edge. Thereafter, the bore was worked from inside. The same technique was used
in Europe down to the eighteenth century.
India was credited with casting the heaviest bronze cannons in the world at the close of the
sixteenth century. But the heavy guns were not necessarily efficient as they lacked mobility as
well as accuracy. W e find that Akbar paid great attention to the manufacture of lighter guns
that could be pulled by a single man.
An important device used in the Indian a m y was bana or rocket. This was made of bamboo,
with iron cylinders containing combustible materials at the tip. It was this Indian rocket that
inspired the invention of rockets by Congreve in early nineteenth century.
Metal Screw
One important device that had a great potential in the manufacture of precision instruments
THE
and machinery was the metal screw. It came into use in Europe from the middle of the
fifteenth century for holding metal pieces together. Its use was of great importance in
mechanical clocks. The screw began to be used in India by the second half of the seventeenth
century and even then it was a less efficient version of the European screw. The grooves were
not cut, but wires were soldered around the nail to create the semblance of grooves. This had
to be done owing to the absence of lathes which were used in Europe for cutting grooves. Due Fig. 5.12: (a) Cross-bow and (b) how
it works. String of the bow is drawn
to this limitation, the Indian screw did not fit properly.
T l l C C F l MECHANISM

Ship-building
The shipbuilding industry in the seventeenth century. witnessed far-reaching changes that
mainly resulted from imitating European techniques. The Indian sea-going ships, until the first
half of the seventeenth century, were called 'junks' by the Europeans. These were very large
and supported immense main sails. In some ways, the imitations even improved upon the
originals. The Indian method of riveting planks one to the other gave much greater strength
than simple caulking used by European ship-builders. A lime compound dabbed on planks of
Indian ships provided an extraordinarily firm protection against sea-weeds.

back and held in a notch (A). Bolt, a

type of arrow used with crm-bow is
then laid in a groove on top of the
stock (B). When the trigger is pressed
upward (C), the rod drops, allowing
the circular plate in which the string
is resting to spin freely. Force of the
releared bowstring sends the bolt
through the air with great force.

However, it was the instruments used on ship where India lagged much behind Europe.
Indians failed to fashion modem navigation instruments. The main instrument used on Indian
ships still remained the astrolabe. Later, in the seventeenth century, European captains and
navigators were employed on Indian ships, and they naturally used telescopes, quadrants, and
other instruments that were imported from Europe.

Agriculture
Agriculture has been India's largest industry. The Indian peasants have used se-d drill from
antiquity; in the seventeenth century they practised dibbling, that is, dropping of seeds into
holes driven into the ground by sticks. They also practised crop rotation in most areas. The
number of crops grown by Indian peasants was quite large. Abu'l Fad mentions around 50
crops for khanifand 35 for rabi seasons, though their number varied from region to region.
The most remarkable quality of the Indian peasant was his readiness to accept new crops. The Fig. 5.13: Different firing
new crops introduced in the seventeenth century that came from the New World were tobacco mechanisms of guns in use in the
and maize. These crops came to be grown quite widely. By the fifteenth century, the peasants medieval times: (a) match-lock: when
of Bengal also took up sericulture and by the seventeenth century, Bengal had emerged as one the trigger was pdlled, a curved
hammer thrust the burning cord into
of the great silk exporting regions in the world.
the hole igniting the gunpowdet;
Horticulture developed considerably under aristocratic patronage. Various types of grafting
were introduced. In Kashmir, sweet cherry was obtained by grafting, and the cultivation of
apricot was also extended by the same means. During Shah Jahan's time, the quality of oranges
was greatly improved by use of the same technique. On the western coast, the Portuguese
introduced mango @ng and Alfonso was the first mango produced in this fashion. Mango
grafting seems to have spread in northern India during the eighteenth century.
To sum up, in this section we have tried to give you a brief overview of the scientific and
technological developments in India during the medieval times. If we look at the 600 years of
development of science in medieval India, we cannot but be disappointed. There seems to

(b) wheel-lock: pulling the trigger

released a clock-type, hand wound
spring, which spun a steel wheel
against a piece of flint or iron and
gunpowder was ignited by a shower
of sparks; (c) fl~nt-lock:a simple
spring snapped the hammer down
when the trigger was pulled. A plece
of fl~ntor iron held In the hammer
jaws created Sparks ~gniting
gunpowder.

17

Emergence of M o d e m
Science

have been progress here and there, in astronomy, medicine and technology, but all within the
old frame of thought which is often called Aristotelian : a world which always was as it is
now, and will continue to be so: a unlverse at the centre of which was the earth md all things
were made of five elements-fire, air, watet. earth and ether. The concept of master and slave of
the Greek society or hierarchical structure was so natural that it also pervaded the physical
world where evmhing knew its place and fulfilled its purpose.
There was, indeed, no effortto incorporate the latest findings in each subject, to even be aware
of the discoveries being made in contemporary Europe. There was still less effort to develop a
theoretical and philosophical understanding in which each element of knowledge could fit.
Little interest was taken in such remarkable advances as Copernican model of the solar system,
Galileo's work (1610), Newton's great work on gravitation (1665), or even circulation of blood
discovered by Harvey (1628). The invention of the printing press which had the potential to
make knowldege available to a larger number of people or again the telescope (about 1600)
and the microscope attracted no attention. It is remarkable that the few centres of learning that
existed propounded theology, either Hindu or Muslim, or explained a body of knowledge that
already e-xisted.Their role was not to break fresh ground and develop new things.
Why was it so? We shall now try to analyse why science and technology did not grow in
India as in Europe in those times. But before reaaing further you may like to try an SAQ.

SAQ 4
List at least five technical innovations of medieval India in the space given below.

5.4 IMPEDIMENTS TO THE GROWTH OF SCIENCE IN

INDIA
By the end of the eighteenth century, Indian society had become very complex. Hence it is
difficult to discuss even one aspect of it, that of science, as it arose from this society and
contributed to it, without over-simplifying. However, if simplification makes sense and does
not distort the picture, it is a good thing, because it gives us an overview which helps in
understanding the interaction between science and society.
What may have struck you from the brief presentation given here is that Indian science was
at the same level as science anywhere else in the world In particular, it was at the same level as
European science, upto about the middle of the sixteenth century. But, then European science
took big strides forward and left Indian scienceway behind in the period that followed. In fad,
the British were able to subjugate this country, and make it their colony, on the basis of
science, technology and industry which had developed there. The question that naturally arises
is what the ditierence between Europe of sixteenth century and India of that period was.If
you get interested in pursuing the question, you would probably have to read history in depth.
However, to put it simply, the difference in the two societies was in their social structure, in
the degree of the hold of religious orthodoxy, and the intellectual atmosphere. Let us explain
what we mean.
We have seen that one kind of pressure for advancing knowledge and technology comes from
the necessity of satisfying human needs. There is an old saying that necessity is the mother of
invention. Well, it appears that in spite of periodic wars between the rulers of vanoh regions
and states in the country, there was a very considerable stability in Indian society. Population
was small, the land was fertile and even from small land holdings Indian peasants were able to
meet the requirements of subsistence. They could feed and clothe themselves. Although there

were poor people, poverty and hunger of the kind we see today did not exist. The deprivation
that we see today is largely a result of British policies imksed on us. The hold of religion,
particularly in the rural areas, and the existence of the caste system, contributed both to a
certain reconciliation with fate, and an acceptance of the social hierarchy. There was a
fascination with the idea of an infinitely old universe condemned to an endless cycle of deaths
and rebirths, in which nothing fundamentally new could ever happen. What can be called a
peculiar kind of satisfaction prevailed, which did not allow pressures to build up for either
enhancing production through technological innovation, or to change the society.
Another reason was that those who worked with their hands did not contribute to the stock of
knowledge. And those who possessed even out-dated knowledge never had to test it on the
touchstone of practice. Either the kingdoms fought wars or settled down to long periods of
peace. It seems natural to think that in such a society there was no clamour to develop new
products or new processes. Social stability and stagnation can easily go hand in hand. The rich
had no need for change, the poor had no power to bring about change.
We have seen that when Islamic influence entered India in successive waves, it tended not to
disturb the life of the common people who lived in rural communities. It did not interfere with
the prevailing religious ethos, which remained predominantly Hindu, with its ideology tolerant
of great variations, but at the same time protecting the caste system which was well established
in India. We find that at the level of administering the country, and in the armed forces there
was mutual support between the higher strata of people in the two communities. Muslim kings
with Hindu Commanders-inxhief, and Hindu Rajas with Muslims at the head of their armies
are known to have fought and also defended each other. Naturally, there was give and take,
and intermingling of cultures. What we call Indian culture today is a result of centuries of
interaction between our people of different areas and of those who came and settled down
here in different periods.

At the level of religion, there was coexistence between Islam and Hinduism, perhaps, out of
necessity, since the Muslims were in a small minority. They could certainly not afford a
confrontation with the vast majority if their rule was to last in India a d was to be extended in
the centuries to come. This was also because priests had a great hold over people and any
interference in each other'saffairs would have had serious political consequences. It could
have led to turmoil. So, each steered clear of the other. Further, the priests of the two
communities were well off, and satisfied with their economic condition. Within the two
religious systems too, there were no active controversies and no strong movements of reform.
The Bhakti and Sufi movements did arise in the medieval period. These movements preached
religious tolerance and were highly critical of the caste system. However, they did not make a
wide impact as their word did not reach far.
This was perhaps due to the absence of printing. Typically, when a printed book was
presented to Jahangir, he is said to have thrown it away, saying that it was ugly and
unaesthetic as compared to the beautiful calligraphy in which they prided. He little realised or
was, perhaps, little interested in the possibility of enriching peopie's life on a large scale
through the availability of cheaper books. This was in contrast to the sixteenth century Europe
where the availability of printed word greatly helped the spread of knowledge that created a
wider and deeper impact for bringing about social change. You will read more about thiS in
Un~t6.
In India education was, by and large, limited to religious teaching and the intellectual
atmosphere was not in favour of challenging the established ways-of thinking, or of
propounding new theories. In such an atmosphere few would venture to propose freedom of
thought. It was still more difficult to accept such new things as a suncentered universe
demonstrated by Galileo. For, the new theory changed the order which was believed to have
been established by God to give the abode of man a central position in the entire creation.
Indeed, astrology was, perhaps, esteemed enough to let astronomy go on! Alchemy still held
some promise of converting base metals to gold, howsoever mysteriody or irrationally, to
allow dabbling in chemical techniques! The reign of the orthodoxy with its belie4 in eternal or
revealed truths never allowed free thinking and imaginative adventure of ideas. To put it in
another way, the learned had fixed ideas which they did not negd to change. And those whose
social status was low and who were exploited by the feudal order had no access to learning.
If it were not for these factors, we had a tremendous advantage over Europe in the sense that
the strong streams of Arab and Indian science coexisted here, and we should have k e n miles
ahead of Europe. In Europe, comprehensive books of Arab authors like Compendium of

Science in the Medieval

Tbnc

Emergence of Modern
Science

Astronomy by al-Fargani, Howi Liber Continens by al-Razi, the Canon of Ibn Sina and the
Colfigetof Averroes (all medical treatises) were used as text books in the seventeenth century.
All these books were available in India and could have been used, but were not. The exciting
advances made in science during the sixteenth and the seventeenth centuries in Europe, such as
the works of Copernicus, Galileo and even Newton did not attract widespread attention, since
they were not close to the hearts of such scholarship as existed in India at that time. Due to
this indifference and neglect and the other factors mentioned earlier, we lost the race.
All this can, perhaps, be summarised by saying that a traditional, hierarchical society with a
low level of discontent and conservatism promoted by both the religions, made scientific
advance superfluous. Naturally, such a society could not bring about a scientific revolution
such as was taking place in contemporary Europe in the sixteenth and the seventeenth
centuries. It could, and did, devote its attention to the good things of life such as drama and
music, dance and painting, architecture and poetry. This, at least, was the saving grace of the
medieval society.

5.5 SUMMARY
In this unit we have covered a long period in history starting from about the seventh century
A.D. to about the eighteenth century A.D. Geographically also, we have covered a wide
region spread from the West Asia where Arab science flourished, to the Indian subcontinent.
We now summarise what we have learnt.
We have seen that Arab science provided continuity between the classical science of the
Greek, Indian and Chinese civilisations and science in the medieval times. For the first time
a rational approach was adopted by the Arabs in the study of many areas of science as
applied to the solution of practical problems. Arab scientists were from the common people.
spoke the same language and shared common problems. This gave an impetus to the
growth of practical science. We have also seen that about the eleventh century A.D.,
the vigorous intellectual phase of Arab science faded out due to several reasons.
Medieval India had the advantage of having a vast storehouse of knowledge which was
gained through contact with the Arabs and the Europeans. The Indian people were able to
pick up the technical innovations. Many innovations were also made here. However, they
failed to imbibe the rational philosophy of the Arabs or appreciate the scientific endeavour
taking place in Gontemporary Europe. The reasons for this attitude may be seen in the
prevailing social conditions. This resulted in Indian science being left far behind.

5.6 TERMINAL QUESTIONS

1) Explain in four or five lines how the absence of printing hampered the growth of science
in medieval India.

2) Which three among the social factors mentioned below became impediments to the
growth of science in India in the medieval times? Tick the correct choices.
a) There was stability in society. There were no pressing socioeconomic needs to
demand scientific innovations.
b) Art and music, drama and painting thrived.

C) The hold of Hindu and Muslim religions on their adherents was absolute. The
reformist movements created very little impact.
d) The intellectuals in the society had fixed ideas that need not have been tested with
practice. The peasants and artisans had no access to learning.
e) Mughals made great contributions to architecture.
3) State, in the space provided alongside, whether the following statements about science in
medieval times are true or false?
a) Medieval times signify the darkest period in the growth of science in India.
b) Indian scholars of the medieval period did not show much interest in disseminating
knowledge by using comprehensive text books on astronomy, medicine etc.
0
c) The availability of printed works of learned men played a great role in bringing about
change in the European society.
d) Indian science was linked with the lives of common people and the productive
processes.
e) The Indian people showed remarkable willirlgness to imitate and extend the use of
technology obtained from contact with Europeans.

5.7 ANSWERS
Self Assessment Questions

I ) a) (i), (iii), (iv), (vi).

b) (ii), (v).
3)

i)
ii)
iii)
iv)
v)

The establishment of observatories by Raja Jai Singh.

The preparation of a World Atlas by Sadiq Isfahani.
The measurement of specific gravity of metals, stones, wood etc.
The discovery of freezing mixture.
Creation of an artificial nose by partial skin transplant; the practice of smallpox
inoculation.

4) Persian wheel, rocket, iron stirrup, light guns, ships with riveted planks, astrolabe, gr'afting.

Terminal Questions
1) The absence of printing meant that learning was restricted to a small elite group. The

practitioners could not have access to books. Thus, the gap between theory and practice
could not be bridged. You can further expand this answer.

Science in the Medieval Times

UNIT 13 EVOLUTION OF MAN

13.1 Introduction
Objectives

13.2 Theories of Evolution

Darwin and Natural Selection
Human Evolution
Primate Heritage

13.3 Evidences of Evolution

Palaeontological Evidencc
Archaeological Evidence
Anthropological Evidence
Biochemical Evidence
Dating the Past

13.4 Summary
13.5 Terminal Questions
13.6 Answers

13.1 INTRODUCTION
In the previous unit, we discussed how the first primitive organisms arose within a few
hundred million years of the planet becoming cool enough to support life. In the
present unit, we would discuss the theory of evolution. We would particularly lay
emphasis on the evolution of man; many of whose characteristics, such as very high
degree of intelligence, upright walking and marked sociability, distinguish him from
other mammals like monkeys and apes.
Here, we have tried to reconstruct the origin of man by putting together the traditional
study of fossils, the study of mankind, especially of its societies, customs and structure
or what we call anthropology and the evolution of man as an animal through studies of
cellular and biological macro-molecules.

Objectives
.. .

After you have studied this unit, you should be able to:
describe Darwin's theory of evolution through natural selection,
list various stages of human evolution,
state evidences from different sources for the processes of human evolution like
palaeontology, archaeology, anthropology and biochemistry,
explain how the age of fossils of plants and animals etc. is determined.

'

13.2 THEORIES OF EVOLUTION

Towards the beginning of the nineteenth century, scientists had already started
doubting the theory of special creation and various attempts were made to explain how
different life forms could have evolved. Lamarck, a French naturalist (Fig. 13.1), for
instance, believed that all living things adapted to their environment, by using and
developing their organs and characteristics that suit their environment best. If
environment changed, their organs too changed accordingly to suit the needs and these
changes were passed on from one generation to another.
Accordingly, as the giraffe lived in an environment of high trees and had to stretch its
neck to eat the leaves, its neck became long and this trait was inherited by its
descendants. This theory has won little support with the scientists. As we can see, there
is no evidence that a dog trained to d o certain things would pass on the ability to the
next generation, or a scientist's skill is passed on to his children.

Fig. 13.1: Larnarck was a

French naturalist and
predecessor ( 1744- 1829) of
Darwin. Lamarck belicved
in evolutionary change, but
thought that such changes
were brought on as an
animal strugglcd to adapt to
its environment, and then
these changes were passed
on by inhcritance.

Universe and I.ife:

The Beginnings

13.2.1 Darwin and Natural Selection

The English naturalist Charles Darwin (1809-1882, Fig. 13.2) explained how biological
evolution took place, in his remarkable "The Origin of Species" in 1859. Darwin
began his observations at the age of 22, as a naturalist on H.M.S. Beagle, which was a
sail ship (Fig. 13.3) going round the world. He spent five advent~irousyears on the
voyagc. During this period, he visited may islands of the Atlantic Ocean, some parts of
the coasts of South America, and some islands of the South Pacific, of which the
Galapagos is the most important. This journey gave Darwin a prolonged exposure to an
area of the world, radically different in its plant and animal life from his native place.
He collected and preserved a lot of material and took extensive notes throughout the
voyage.

Fig. 13.2: Charles Darwin:

his active pursuit of varied
scientific interests brought
him famein 1859 as the
author of the "Origin of
Species".

Fig. 13.3: Route of H.M.S. Beagle surveying trip around the world (1831-1836). Dashed lines indicate the
return journey of Charles Darwin.

Once back in England, he spent nearly 22 years examining his collection and
pondering over the question of how evolution of species could have taken place. He
drew the evidence from three important areas: the record of the rocks, in which he
discovered fossils and imprints of creatures of the past ages; the distribution of animals
and plants in the world; and finally from the study of the breeding experiments that
were going on in the nineteenth century to improve life stock or to breed dogs and
pigeons.
Darwin's great innovative step was to introduce the theory of 'natural selection' as the
mechanism for evolution. Though the credit for giving this theory*is generally given to
Darwin, another English naturalist-Alfred Russel Wallace had conceived the theory of
evolution independently at'the same time. The work of the two scientists was presented
'jointly at the meeting of the Linnean Society in London in 1858. The theory began
with two observations. First. more organisms are born than can survive t o reproduce:
themselves, because the environment has limited means of subsistence. This
overproduction results in a struggle for existence and ultimate survival o f the fittest.
Plant and animal species compete within and among themselves for food, water, air,
light-everything that enables organisms to survive and reproduce. The second
observation is that offsprings, i.e, children differ slightly from their parents and from
each other in characteristics which they inherit. This we now call genetic variation.
Darwin held the view that these variations are a source of evolutionary change.
According to him in any group, individuals with characteristics which enable them t o
adapt best to their environment survive and reproduce, while those who lack these
characteristics have a poor chance of survival. Thus, Nature selects and preserves the
useful variations in a changing environment, Darwin called this natural selection.
Darwin's theory of evolution through natural selection is a scientific theory. Darwin
developed it taking into account his own observations as well as the other existing
information. Through his analysis, he not only postulated the theory of evolution, but
was able to give us a mechanism for evolutionary change. However, like all scientific
theories, Darwin's theory of evolution through natural selection has been enriched and
extended as more facts have been discovered about living beings.

In his own time, Darwin's Theory of biological evolution was unacceptable to most
people, especially the Church; as it spoke against special creation. In fact, Darwin was
very severely criticised for his views. However, he got support from scientific circles.
The debate went on for quite a few years, and continues even today between the men
of science and those of religion.

Evolution of Man

13.2.2 Human Evolution

Charles Darwin in the 'Origin of Species' gave a lilechanism for the evolution of plants
and animals in general, even though he had speculated about the origin of man. Four
years later, he published the "Descent of Man", in which he speculated that like other
animals, man too had evolved form pre-existing living forms.
Darwin was greatly impressed by the similarities in the bodily structure of man and the
great African apes, the Chimpanzee and the Gorilla. From this, he speculated on the
location of man's origins. In his own words, "In each great region of the world, the
living mammals are closely related to the extinct species of the same region. It is,
therefore, probable that Africa was formerly inhabited by extinct apes, closely allied to
the gorilla and chimpanzee; and as these two species are now man's nearest allies, it is
somewhat more than probable, that our early ancestors lived on the African continent
than elsewhere".
Darwin had noted that embryos, i.e. early unborn young ones, of different organisms
pass through very similar stages (Fig. 13.4). However, small alterations in the timings
of events in early development might produce a substantial change in the mature
organism; for example in many ways adult humans are like juvenile apes, their small
faces and globular cranium bones enclosing the brain are indicative of this. A crucial
step in human evolution, enlargement of the brain, can be seen as a result of the
slowing down of development in the embryo of an ape-like ancestor. Instead of
stopping at birth, brain growth continues well into childhood, eventually producing a
much larger and more complicated piece of mental machinery.

13.2.3 Primate Heritage

Man belongs to a group of animals called mammals which are different from other
animal groups in possessing hair, and milk producing mammary glands, among other
things. Mammals can be further divided into smaller groups or 'orders' on the basis of
4fferences within the group. 'Primates', the order to which man belongs, alongwith
apes and monkeys, were active during the night, that is, they were nocturnal in the
beginning of their evolution. These animals were insect-eaters and lived on trees (Fig.
13.5). This combination of feeding on insects, while being suspended on branches and

Fig, 13.4: Similarities

between monkeys and man
during embryonic
development

Fig. 13.5: A tree shrew (a) and some representatives of modern pr~mateslemur (b) tarsier (c) macaque
monkey (d) gibbon (e) chimpanzee (f) Gorilla (g)

L:niverse and 1.ife:

T h e Beginnings

twigs, led the primates to develop some important adaptations. The hand, underwent
several changes. The thumb became opposable, that is, it closes to meet the finger tips
which aided in holding the prey. Sensitive fingers developed, having nails rather than
claws. Eye sockets were shifted to the front of the head, providing the primates a better
vision and keen ability for judging distance.
These striking adaptations in the primates gave rise to large sized forms, which adopted
a diurnal life style, i.e. they were active during the day. Their diet included plant food
like leaves and fruits. The origin of monkeys and apes took these adaptations to even
higher levels. Possession of sensitive finger tips became of even greater importance, as
the ripeness of fruits could be judged better by touch than by sight.
Apes move beneath the branches, suspended by long agile arms rather than walking
along them (Fig. 13.5 (e)). This involves a relatively upright posture, and their hips
became a part of this kind of movement. Even when they move on the ground, apes
ockasionally walk as bipeds, i.e., on two feet. It may be an awkward walk with short
steps and swaying motion, but it is two footed. nonetheless. Changes in the skull and
back~bonehelp in the upright posture (Fig. 13.6). And the way the heart, lungs and
other body organs are suspended in the abdomen differs from that of conventionally
four footed animals.

Gorilla

Fig, 13.6: Comparison of skull, back bone and hip bone of man and gorilla.

SAQ 1
a) Indicate whether the following statements are true (T) or false (F).
i) Lamarck noted that embryos of different organisms pass through very similar
stages and as such seem to indicate that like other life forms, man too could
have descended from the animals like monkeys and apes.
(
ii) The need for a keen ability for judging distance, produced'relocation of the
eye sockets in early primates to the front of the head.
( )
Give
very brief answers to the following questions in the space provided.
bj
i) What sort of informations were collected by Darwin during his voyage oh
H.M.S.Beagle?

>

Evolution of Man

ii) How can mammals be distinguished from other animals?

..........................................................................................................................................
iii) Which animals were insect eaters?

iv) Name the mammals that move beneath the branches of trees.

..........................................................................................................................................

13.3 EVIDENCES OF HUMAN EVOLUTION

4

We have described above, the various adaptations associated with bipedal locomotion
in the early primates. Many more changes were yet to take place before the first human
forms were to emerge. You may like to know, what were these various changes, what
evidences we have in support of the evolution of modern man-'Homo sepiens'. You
would appreciate that, whenever a theory is postulated, we look for evidences which
support that line of thinking. This is true for the general theory of evolution and also I
for the evolution of our own species. Let us try to reconstruct this theory from the
evidences that are provided from different sources, such as the fossil records of animals
which lived in the past, similarities found in the developing embryos of primates and of
other animals about which we have talked above, the archaeological remains of the past
and their dating and more recently from biochemical studies. Cave paintings and other
artefacts left by the early human beings speak of their social and cultural life.
9
',

13.3.1 Palaeontological Evidence

Palaeontology is a branch of earth sciences, which is essentially a study of plant and
animal life in the past geological periods, millions of years ago. It deals with the
successive plants and animals which have inhabited the earth since the earliest times,
Evidence of their existence is left in the form of skeletons and bones buried in the
rocks. These are known as fossils. Crucial evidence of human evolution is provided by
the study of these fossils.
Sometimes, the buried body and the skeleton of an animal disintegrate entirely. If the
surrounding material is sufficiently firm, a cavity may remain, having the exact outlines
of the structures that disappeared. Such a cavity is called mold, Similar to molds are
the impressions. These are left by extinct objects or parts of the body upon the
~urroundingmaterial. The impression is made while the surrounding material is soft,
like footprints in clay or lava. Footprints of extinct animals are also impressions
affording valuable information about the animals that made them.
It is important to mention here, that early human fossils that have been found are
generally fragmentary and incomplete. This is because only during the last 50,000 years
or so, man started burying his dead. These later fossils are better preserved and,
therefore, give us more information. For the earlier period, parts of bones are often the
basis of imagining the re-construction of the whole skeleton. The finding of fossils
deposits is both a matter of chance and of deliberate excavation in certain regions of
the earth.

The First Hominids: The First Human Fossil

The earliest human like or hominid (Fig. 13.7) remains come from two separate East
African sites. Ethiopia has yielded several hundred fossil fragments of individuals that
lived and died between 3.0 and 3.6 million years ago. The second site is in Tanzania
where three hominids left a 20m trail of footprints some 3.75 million years ago. It is
concluded that these earliest h o e i d s were built with an ape's head on top of a
man-like body. They show hominid characteristics to place them firmly within human
ancestry. There is evidence that they walked on two feet. However, enough primitive
features still remained, so as to put them close to an ape-like ancestor with tree
climbing habits.

I'niverse and 1,ile:

The Beginnings

Evolution of Man

Fumkrms \ t r r k l o n ~ c , ~
and Krorndraa,

Fig. 13.7: (a) Map of early

honiinld sites in East and
South Afnca (b) the partla1
skeleton of a 20 years old
hom~nidwho lived more
than thrcc mlll~onyears
ago was found by Dr.
Donald Johanson in
Ethiopia. The fossil
remains, are .known as
'Lucy'.

Australopithecus-The Transitional Human Forms

By about two million years ago, there were several well established hominid ancestors
in Africa. One of the earliest of these is Australopithecus (Fig. 13.8). Fossils of
Australopithecus, which have been recovered from South and East Africa, show that
their brains were relatively small, the bones enclosing the brain, therefore, were rather
ape like, but the face was shorter than in apes. The enamel of the teeth indicated that
Australopithecus ate essentially fruits. The evidence for two-footed posture in
Australopithecus is strong as the back bone shows the typical hominid curvature. Also
the hip bone, which is the skeletal frame to which the legs are attached is shorter than
in apes, although it is not as short as in modem humans.

'Homo Habilis-The First Tool Makers

One of the most important developments in human evolution was the dramatic
expansion in brain size which, according to the fossil data available so far, began about
two million years ago. Certain specimens recovered from deposits in East Africa
apparently have brain capacities in excess of 650 cm" and close to 800 cm3. These
specimens were taken to represent the first appearance of our o m kind and were
termed Homo habilis. The species name Homo habilis, means, literally, handy man.
Homo habilis walked upright. The bones of the hand, while displaying many
characteristics of modern humans, are somewhat curved in places and more robust
than in modern man, i.e. Homo sapiens. The leg and foot bones have characteristics
that are both ape-like and human-like, but overall, they are much closer to those of
,nodern humans than to apes. The leg and foot were those of a habitual two-footed
animal. The simultaneous occurrence of Homo habilis fossils and crude flakes and
stone tools indicate that they used tools. There is no evidence that this early form of
habil
, homonids ate meat.
HO~IO

Neanderthal Man

Homo ereclur

Fig. 13.8: Artist's reconstruction of the appearance of the Early Man.

Homo Erectus
Homo erectus or the erect man first arose at least 1.6 million years ago and continued
to five for more than a million years before the transition to Homo sapiens occured.
Homo erectus had a large brain (Fig. 13.9) measuring 800 to 900 cm" Fossils of
Homo erectus have been discovered throughout Africa, Europe and Asia. Signs that
Homo erectus hunted animals and ate meat, are available from the stone tools he used
and the marks which these tools left on the bones of animals which have been
recovered near their own dwelling areas.

Evolution of Man

fniverse and Life:

The Beginnings

There is evidence, that the life of Homo erectus must have been fairly complex;
placing great demands on these individuals as intelligent, socially interacting beings.
One can even imagine that a relatively complex spoken language may have evolved.
The prehistoric record is, of course, silent on this point.

The Neanderthals
These were the first human like fossils found. The Neanderthals existed throughout
western Europe and across into the near east and central Asia from about 100,000
years ago LO 40,000 or 35,000 years ago, depending on the precise locality. There are,
striking structural distinctions between Neanderthals and modern humans. Although,
the posture, range of movements and manipulation skills were the same in
Neanderthals as in modem humans, the skeleton was substantially more robust.
Neanderthal's brain (Fig. 13.9) was on average slightly larger than normal for modern
humans, measuring about 1400 cm3. The large brain size could be corrasponding to the
more robust musculature. Neanderthals (Fig. 13.8) were proficient hunters, skilled tool
makers and they used hides for protecting their bodies. For the first time in human
history, ritual burial became common.

Homo erectus

Neanderthal man

Homo sapiens

Fig. 13.9: Comparison of Neanderthal man with H o m o erectus a n d H o m o sapiens shows it t o have some
features of both. T h e very large brain of the Neanderthals, which slightly exceeds that of Homo sapiens is
seen as a modem feature.

Homo Sapiens-Modern Human Beings

Discoveries of number of fossils of Homo sapiens suggest that modern humans (Figs.
13.8, 13.9) arose in Africa and migrated to the rest of the old world via the Middle
East. It should be noted that these modern humans of the early upper stone age,
40,000 years ago, were distinctly more robust or sturdy as compared with the
population today.

13.3.2 Archaeological Evidence

The study of human antiquities, especially of prehistoric period is known as
archaeology. The biological and cultural evolution of man proceeded side by side and
the two influenced each other. Like the physical remains of man, his cultural remains
also lie buried in the ancient deposits. Often, the two categories of evidence are found
together in the same layers of the rock. With the passage of time, and the increasing
capacity of his brain and development in other bodily organs, man's culture became
more and more varied and complex. He learnt the use of new materials for making
tools and developed new techniques for improving them. The use of tools had a

tremendous impact on increased access to food and therefore on cooperative living in

colonies. In many areas, archaeological remains show reindeer to be the principal
source of meat they ate.

13.3.3 Anthropological Evidence

I
b

Modern humans arose at a time when the Earth was going through a very cold and icy
period called the Ice Age, which began about 75,000 years ago and ended about
10,000 years ago. The Ice Age was at its most severe about 18,000 years ago, a point
which coincides with the development of prehistoric art, represented by colourful
images painted on cave walls and rock shelters, Many thousands of carved and
engraved pieces of bone and ivory have been discovered from the same period. A great
majority of images are, indeed, of animals we can recognize, especially images of
reindeer and bisons are plentiful; while paintings of people are strangely absent.
The general view about agriculture is that, at the end of the last Ice Age, i.e. about
10,000 years ago, there was a dramatic global shift in the human pattern of living from
nomadic hunting and food gathering to settlements producing food. The discovery that
sprinkling of grain could lead to crops and hence to lot of food, must have had a big
impact on social living. Settled living probably led to increase of population, as also to
development of music and dance to occupy the leisure. Language and communication
must have developed, as also a capacity to wonder and to reflect about nature.

13.3.4 Biochemical Evidence

t

As we had said earlier in section 13.2, Darwin had recognized that humans and the
great apes shared many physical characteristics. This led him to conclude, that humans
and apes descended from a common stock. Darwin's conclusions were based on the
study of fossils and the physical similarities that he had observed. Now, a century later
biochemical studies of proteins and the genetic material-DNA show how good his
guess was,
Biochemical studies show us that, as evolution proceeds and the species get
differentiated, they accumulate changes in the structure of their proteins and DNA.
Longer the separation time, greater the changes. These changes are expressed in terms
of percent genetic distance which indicates the proportional difference between the
DNA of the two species. Comparative studies of the proteins of the African apes and
humans showed that chimpanzees, gorillas and humans are closely related to one
another, while the Asian apes, i.e. the gibbon and orangutan were the more distant
cousins of this trio .(Fig. 13.10).

PCrcCni FWilc distance

1.2 percent geneuc dlrtancc\

2.2 Pcrceni r k i c distance

Fig. 13.10: A chart to show hereditary distancc between humans anxthe apes.

Evolution of Man

I'niverse and I.ife:

The Beginnings

Once the Asian and African apes were considered to be closely related and it was
thought that the hominids developed from apes prior to 15 million years ago.
Biochemical evidence, however, indicates that the ape-human divergence may have
been much closer to five million years and that thc gorilla split off first, leaving the
chimpanzees and the human-like creatures to share a common ancestor briefly before
separating. Ramapithecus (Fig. 13.8)-a fossil specimen found in Asia, Europe and
Africa was at one time thought to be closely related to the species of modem man.
However, on the basis of biochemical evidence, it has now been shown that it cannot
be considered a homonid, because it lived before the Asian apes diverged from
hominids. Same is true for Sivapithecus indicus, a fine fossil specimen of which was
discovered in 1980 from the foothills of the western Himalayas in Pakistan.

SAQ 2
Match the type df evidence given in favour of evolution in column 1 with the statement
given in column 2.

--

Biochemical

i)

Palaeontological

ii)

Anthropological

iii)

Archaeological

iv)

-----

With the passage of time and the increasing capacity

of man's brain and development in other bodily
organs, his culture became more and more varied and
complex.
The earlier assumption rcgal-ding human evolution is
supported by chemical studies on the nature of
proteins and DNA, which show chimpanzees, gorillas
and humans to be closely related to eachothcr.
'Lucy', a partial fossil skcleton, recovered from a site
in Ethiopia showcd that bipedal locomotion had
already dcvrloped to an advanced stage, cvcn
though the brain size was modest.
Thousands of carved and engraved pieces of bone
and ivory have been discovered from thc prehistoric
period.

13.3.5 Dating the Past

You would be wondering how we can tell, today, that a particular rock is a million
ycars old, or a fossil is 5 0 thousand ycars old. For instance, how do we estimate the
duration of various geological periods on a time scale of billions of years? Initially, such
estimates were based on the rate at which geological processes such as depositions of
stones and rocks occur. Many layers of rock originated as deposits in the sca~andat the
mouths of rivers. Therefore. one way to get an idea of the length of time required to
produce a deposit of a given thickness, is to measure the rate at which rivers arc
depositing sediments in thc sca today.
With the dcvcloping knowlcdgc of radioactivity. more accurate dating o f fossils and
certain types of rocks has become possible. Radioactive substances can be easily
detected using certain instruments. They have built-in "clocks" in the form of
'radioactive isotopes' that change or decay at a constant rate into non-radioactive form.
If this rate is known, the length of time since the fossil or the rock was formed can be
estimated by measuring the quantities in the rock, of the radioactive isotopes arid the
non-radioactive ones into which they have changed. For example, Uranium is
transformed into certain isotopes of lead which are not radioactive. So, the age of
uranium-containing rocks can be determined by comparison of the proportions of
undecayed Uranium and that of the corresponding lead isotopes present in the rock.
see Fig. 13.11.
The method most commonly used, now, for estimating the age of fossils is radio-carbon
dating. Radioactive isotope of carbon is commonly known as carbon- 14. Since
carbon- 14 is chemically the same as ordinary carbon, both arc absorbed by plant and
animal tissues in the same proportion as they arc present in the atmosphere as carbor.
dioxide. Plants use this carbon dioxide in making their food. Animals eat the plants.
Hence, the proportion of carbon- 14 in the tissues o f plants and animals is the same as
in the atmosphere, as long as the plant or the animal is living. But as soon as it dies, no

Evolution of Man

--+-A number of stages, in.wh~ch small

parucles are given off, and energy is evolve
Uranium

Fig. 13.11: Radioactive atoms have unstable atomic nuclei. When these nuclei break down or decay,
they emit characteristic particles o r rays. The end result of this radioactive decay is that another kind of
atom is formed.

more carbon can enter its body as photosynthesis or food intake stops. Following
death, the carbon-14, already present in the body, decays steadily into ordinary carbon.
So the smaller the number of carbon-14 atoms remaining, the older is the fossil. Thus,
if we take a piece of ancient wood or bone and measure the amount of carbon-14
present in it, we can estimate the age of the material. This technique has been applied
to materials of known age, and thus its accuracy was tested giving confidence in the age
determinations of unknown samples.
The carbon-14 method is applicable only to organic materials which still contain
carbon. It cannot be used for fossils in which all organic matter has decayed. In that
case the age of the fossil can be estimated by determining the presence of other
radioactive elements like flourine, or phosphorus.

SAQ 3
Complete the following statements.
i) Accurate dating of fossils and certain types of rock is possible with the
development of the knowledge of ...........................
ii) The rate of decay of radioactive isotopes into non-radioactive forms helps in
estimating the age of ...........................
iii) Radio-carbon dating is used for organic materials that still possess ..........................
iv) Age of the fossil in which all organic matter has decayed is estimated with the help
of radioactive isotopes of ...........................

'13.4 SUMMARY
In the present unit you have studied:
1

That Darwin's theory of natural selection postulates the survival of the best adapted
forms with the inheritance of the distinctive characters in which their fitness lies.

The evidences from palaeontology, archaeology, anthropology as well as the study

of proteins and genetic material of present day apes and human beings indicate a
common ancestry till about five million years ago.

a That the age of rocks, fossils and archaeological remains is estimated by measuring
the quantities of radioactive and non-radioactive isotopes of different elements.

13.5 TERMINAL QUESTIONS

1 What does Darwin's theory speak about?

State the difference between palaeontology and archaeology.

................................................................................................................................................

.................................................................................................................................................

llniverse and I.iIe:

The Beginnings

How is the age of a fossil determined?

How is the age of the remains of ancient plants, animals, men, and their belongings
known?

Study the diagrams in part (a) and (b) of Fig. 13.12 showing two theories about
evolution and give short answers to the following questions.

Early giraffes probably had short necks

which they stretched to reach food.

Early giraffes probably had necks of

various lengths.

Their offspring had longer necks which

they stretched to reach food.

~ o n i ~ c t i t i oand
n natural selection led to
survival of the longer-necked giraffes and
their offspring.

Eventually the continued stretching of the

neck resulted in today's giraffe.

Eventually only long necked giraffes

survived the competition.

i) Name the two scientists who proposed these two theories.

ii) Which of two theories is.supported by the current data and evidence about
evolution?

13.6 ANSWERS
Self Assessment Questions

1) a ) i )
b) i)

Falsc ii) True

During his voyage Darwin collected and preserved a variety of plants and
animals and took extensive notes on them.
ii) Mammals have mammary glands and hair on the body while other animals
do not possess these characters.
iii) early primates
iv) apes

2) i) Archaeological ii) Biochemical iii) Palaeontological iv) Anthropological

3) i) radioactivity ii) fossil iii) carbon iv) flourine or phosphorus

Terminal Questions
1) The survival of the forms best adapted to environment with the inheritance of
those distinctive characteristics in which theii' fitness lies.
2) Palaeontology deals with the fossil remains of prehistoric anirnzls or plants whereas
archaeology is the study of human antiquities especially of prehistoric period.
3) The carbon- 14 method is applicable KOorganic materials still containing carbon, it
can not be used for fossils in which all organic matter has decayed. Therefore, in
case of these fossils, the'rate at which flourine becomes incorporated into bones
during fossilization is utilized for estimating the age.
4) Age of ancient wood, bone antiques etc. can be determined by using carbon-14.
5) i) a) Lamarck
b) Darwin
ii) Only Darwin's theory of natural selection is supported by existing data.

GLOSSARY
asteroid: a small body orbiting the Sun; a minor planet
astrology: a study of the supposed influence of the positions of the Sun, Moon,
planets and stars upon human affairs
astronomy: the science which describes objects in space according to their location,
motion, size, composition, and appearance
astrophysics: the branch of astronomy that applies the methods and tools of
physics to the study of heavenly objects
atom: the smallest particle of an element, which retains its properties
aurora: the display of lights in nature, usually in the polar regions
binary star: a double-star system in which the two stars revolve around each other
biochemistry: chemistry of living organisms
biomolecule: molecules of substances like sugar, fats & proteins present in living
organisms.
biped: twb-footed animal e.g. man or a bird.
black dwarf. thought to be the final stage in the evolution of a white dwarf
black hole: thought to be the final stage in the evolution of a massive star
cell: microscopic unit of living matter enclosing s e ~ f - ~ r o d d cgenes
in~
compound: 3 substance made up of two or more elements
constellation: a definite region of the sky defined by a group of stars
core: the central portion of a planet or any heavenly body
cosmology: the study of the organisation and structure of the universe and its
evolution
cranium: bony part of the head enclosing the brain
crater: a depression in the surface of the Earth, Moon, or other such bodies
crescent: that phase of the Moon, which shows it less than half full
crust: the outer layer of the Earth, Moon, or other such bodies
cybernetics: the science of communication and control in machines and animals
density: the mass of an object divided by its volume
deoxyribo nucleic acid (DNA): complex biomolecules responsible for storing and
transfer of genetic material

Evolution of Man

Universe and Life:

The Beginnings

electromagnetic radiation: a special kind of energy that can propagate through

vacuum, like light
electromagnetic spectrum: the full range of electromagnetic radiation
element: simplest substance like oxygen, carbon etc. which cannot be broken down
into simpler forms by chemical processes
environment: collective term for the conditions in which an organism lives e.g.
temperature, light, water, other organisms
evolution: development of more complicated forms of life (plants and animals)
from earlier and simpler forms
focus: the point at which the converging rays of light meet after passing through a
lens or a mirror
fossils: recognisable part, trace, or imprint of a prehistoric animal or plant once buried
in earth, now hardened like rock
galaxy: a collection of millions to hundreds of billions of stars, and clouds of gas and
dust
genetic: the ways in which characteristics are passed on from parents to offspring
gibbous: that phase of the Moon or a planet during which it appears more than half
full but less than full
hormone: internal secretion that passes into the blood and stimulates the body organs
or endocrine glands
intergalactic: space between the galaxies
interstellar: space between the stars
isotope: atom of an element e.g. heavy hydrogen, having a nuclear mass different from
that of other atoms of the same element, although chemically identical
light year: the distance light travels in one year
mass: a measure of the amount of material in an object
molecule: a combination of two or more atoms
nebulae: a cloud of dust in space
nova: a star that suddenly brightens and then fades again
nucleus (of an atom): the central part of the atom, containing protons and neutrons
nucleus (of a cell): body containing the chromosomes present in nearly all cells of
plants and animals. It is essential for continued life of most cells
nucleic acids: two complex compounds (DNA, RNA) which occur in all living cells
orbit: a closed path along which a body moves as it revolves around a point in space
organic molecules: molecules which have carbon and hydrogen atoms as their
constituents or molecules derived from these.
parallax (stellar): the apparent shift of a star against the background of more distant
stars due to the motion of the Earth around the Sun
period (of rotation or revolution): the time taken to complete one rotation or one
revolution, respectively
phase (of the Moon or a planet): changes in the portion of their illuminated 'face'
is visible from the Earth
photosynthesis: process in which energy of sunlight is used by green plants to build up
complex substances, like carbohydrates from carbon dioxide and water
primate: one of the highest order of mammals including men, apes, monkeys and
lemurs
primordial: existing at or from the beginning
prism: a solid of glass or other transparent material shaped like a wedge and used to
disperse light into its spectrum of seven colours
proteins: body building substances essential to good health, prcscnt in such food as
milk, egg, meat etc.
protostar: the mass of material in the process of forming a star
pulsar: an object that emits brief pulses of radiowaves; possibly a very rapidly spinning
neutron star
quasar: a star-like object at a great distance; it emits huge amounts of energy
radiation: the sending out of energy, heat etc. as waves
radio active substance: atoms of some elements such as radium and uranium break up
spontaneously with the emission of radiations or electrically charged particles c q a b l e
of penetrating even opaque bodies and producing electrical effects
.red giant: a very large, cool star
red shift: the shifting of spectral lines to4ards the rt '1 cnd of the spectrum due to the
source moving away from the observer
spores: germ, single celled or many celled body by which plants specially moss, ferns,
fungi etc. reproduce themselves

stellar evolution: the life cycle of a star

terrestrial: living on the earth or land
UV-rays (ultra-violet rays): invisible rays having wave lengths shorter than that of
violet colour (in sun light, light from mercury vapour lamp, etc.)
wavelength: the distance between two successive crests or two successive troughs r)f a
wave
white dwarf: a very hot, dense, small star
zodiac: a band in the sky containing the twelve constellations usually associated with
astrology

FURTHER READING
1
2

3
4

5
6

Cosmos, Carl Sagan, Ballantine Books, New York, 1985.

Physics, Part I & II, A text book for class X, NCERT, 1985, Chapter 1.
Essays about the Universe, Boris A. Vorontsov-Vel'yaminov, Mir Publishers,
Moscow, 1985.
Basic Biology, Part II, A Text book for class X(ed.) by R.N. Kapil, NCERT,
1986.
The Ascent o f Man, J . Bronowski, BBC, London, 1976.
New Guide to Science, Isaac Asimov, Penguin, 1987.

Evolution of Man

COURSE CONTENTS
Block 1 : History of Science
Unit 1 Science as a Human Endeavour
Unit 2

Science in the Ancient World

Unit 3

Iron Age
The Golden Age of Science in India

Unit 4

Block 2 : Emergence of Modern Science

Unit 5

Science in the Medieval Times

Unit 6

Renaissance, the Industrial Revolution and After

Unit 7

Science in Colonial and Modem India

Unit 8 The Method of Science and the Nature of Scientific Knowledge

Block 3 : Universe and Life -The Beginning

Unit 9

Universe as a System

Unit 10 Exploring the Universe

Unit 11 Solar System
Unit 12 Origin and Evolution of Life
Unit 13 Evolution of Man

Block 4 : Environment and Resources

Unit 14 Ecosystem
Unit 15 Components of Environment
Unit 16 The Changing Environment
Unit 17 Natural Resources
Unit 18 Resource Utilisation, Planning and Management

Block 5 : Agriculture, Nutrition and Health

Unit 19 Food and Agriculture
Unit 20 Scientific Possibilities and Social Realities
Unit 2 1 Food and Nutrition
Unit 22 Health and Disease

Block 6 : Information, Knowledge, Insight

Unit 23 Mind and Body
Unit 24 Psychological Aspect of Behaviour
Unit 25 Information and Communication
Unit 26 Modes of Communication

Block 7 : Science, Technology and Development

Unit 27 Science and Technology in Industry

Unit 28 Technology and Economic Bevelopment

Unit 29 Modem Development In Science and Technology - I
Unit 30 Modem Development in Science and Technology - 11

Block 8 : New Perspectives

Unit 3 1 Perceptions and Aspirations
Unit 32 Science -The Road to Development
AudioNideo Programmes
Audio :

1)

Science and Society (Block 1)

2 ) Astronomical Bevelopment in India (Block 3)

3)

Measuring Astronomical Distances (Block 3)

4) Evolution of Man (Block 3)

5) The Forest Ecosystem (Block 4)
6) Population Pressure (Block 4)
7) Common Misconceptions about Health (Block 5)
8) Human Factors in Engineering (Block 6)
9) New Information Order (Block 6)
10) Technology and Self-Reliance (Block 7)

, 11) Nuclear Disarmament (Block 7)

Video :

1) Method of Science (Block 2)

2 ) A Window to the Universe (Block 3.)

3) The Story of a River (Block 4)
4) Green Revolution (Block 5)
5) lnfectious Diseases (Block 5)

6) Jean Piaget Development Stages of a Child (Block 6)

7)

INSAT (Block 6)

UNIT 12 ORIGIN AND EVOLUTION OF

LIFE
Structure
12.1 Introduction
Objectives

12.2 Origin of Life on the Earth

Special Creation
Spontaneous Generation
Chemical Evolution
Miller's Experiment

12.3 Biological Evolution

12.4 Systems View of Life
Life cycle
Aging

12.5
12.6
12.7
12.8

Extra-terrestrial Life
Summary
Terminal Questions
Answers

12.1 INTRODUCTION
You have already studied how and when our planet Earth was born. This unit proposes
to take you back to a distant past when there was no life on our planet and helps you
to imagine how life originated and how plants and animals came into existence.
Naturally, in discussing things which must have happened billions of years ago, there is
a certain amount of guess work and uncertainty. But the guess or conjecture has to
conform to a good deal of available evidence as well as to basic laws of physical
sciences. This creates a certain amount of confidence in the suggested theory of the
origin of life on our planet. Thus, there is general agreement today that life originated
about 4 billion years ago, from spontaneous chemical reactions whose ingredients were
molecules of non-living substances. This theory is supported by the remarkable fact
that all living organisms on the Earth have a similar composition and basic molecular
structure.

Objectives
After studying this unit you should be able to:
describe the various theories regarding the origin of life, and Pasteur's contribution
in this context,
explain the theory of chemical evolution and its scientific basis,
discuss the theory of biological evolution and the diversity of life forms,
describe systems view of life, the mechanism of feedback, information and control,
discuss the concept of life cycles and aging,
analyse the possibility of life beyond the Earth.

12.2 ORIGIN OF LIFE ON THE EARTH

Man has always wondered how he came into existence, who created him, and why he
was created. Curiosity in this connection has been so strong that every ancient thinker,
philosopher or "prophet", has tried to give some answer to this question and suggest
some mechanism for the creation of life.
According to an ancient Greek idea, life was transferred from "cosmozoa" (life of
outer space) to different planets in small units called "spores". These spores had a thick
impenetrable covering which prevented loss of water and other necessary components.
It was assumed that under favourable conditions of temperature and moisture, thesc
spores gave birth to the initial living organisms on the, as yet uninhabited, plancts. This

idea presumes a universal and eternal store house of spores of life, and thus indeed
avoids answering the question as to how life anywhere originated in the first place. The
Greeks, or anyone else at that time, of course, did not know that the travelling spores
would encounter destructive radiations like the ultraviolet and gamma rays in space.
In addition to this, various other theories have been put forward from time to time
about the origin of life. Some of them were mere speculations, whereas others have
some scientific basis. Let us see briefly what some of these theories are.

12.2.1 Special Creation

One belief, common among people of all cultures, is that all the different forms of I l k .
including human beings were suddenly created by a divine order about 10,000 years
ago. These innumerable forms of life have always been the same and will last witho~t
change from generation to generation until the end of the world. As we shall see later
in this Unit, such a theory of 'special creation' is'unsound, because fossils of plants and
animals which must have lived a hundred thousand or more years ago have been
discovered. In fact, researches show that life existed on the Earth even 3.5 billion years
ago. It seems that simple forms of life came into being from non-liv~ngmatter, and that
these forms grew more complex over a period of time.

12.2.2 Spontaneous Generation

If we look around at our everyday environment, we observe that straw, soil, mud, dirt,
indeed any sort of refuse or rotting matter is infested with a wriggling, moving
multitude of living organisms. Such ~bservationsled people to believe that life
originated spontaneously from non-living matter. Aristotle (384-322 B.C.), known as
the father of biology, maintained that not only worms and insects, but also fish, frogs
and mice couli spring from suitable breeding materials like filth and moist soil. Even
man might have had a similar origin! This theory of spontaneous generation was
disproved by the experiments of the French microbiologist Louis Pasteur aslate as
1862. It was not easy to dislodge Aristotelian ideas. It took all the ingenuity and
experimental skill of Louis Pasteur to disprove the theory of spontaneous generation.
Pasteur performed his experiment before a gathering of well-known biologists of the
time, who were commissioned by the Academy of Sciences of France to test his
hypothesis, that only "life begets life".
For his experiment, Pasteur took two flasks, half filled them with yeast infusion
containing a little bit of sugar and heated them so as to kill any living organisms. He
sealed the mouth of one of the flasks and left the other open to the air. After a few
days, he invited His friends to observe what had happened. T o their surprise, they
found that the closed flask was still free of any living organism while the open one was
infested with living organisms. In fact one of these sealed flask is still kept at the
Academy of Sciences in Paris. Even after more than a hundred years, there are no
living organisms in it. However, to further remove any doubt that organisms did not
grow in the sealed flask due to lack of oxygen, Pasteur repeated the experiment with
s+an necked flasks which were left open (Fig. 12.1). The gooswan-neck would enable the
air to get in, but would prevent any living organisms from getting into the infusion.
Again no organisms grew in these flasks.

No growth

Growth

FIE. 12.1: Pastcur boiled broth in flasks with long "swan necks" that admitted a ~ out
r not dust part~clcsor
m~cro-organisms.Whcn cooled, his broth remained clcar until the necks were broken off. Pasteur argued
that these cxperimcnts disproved the existence of a vital substance in the air.

Pasteur had, thus, shown by these simple experiments that living orpanisms do not arise
spontaneously.

Origln and Evolution

of M e

Pasteur's studies helped to solve many problems related to brewing of wines. Wine
making was an important industry in France at the time and 'souring of wine' or wine
going bad was threatening this industry at that time. Pasteur showed that if certain
harmful organisms could be kept out during the brewing process, wine would not sour.
These studies had a profound effect in another area also, namely that of surgery.
Surgical wounds and injuries used to get infected invariably. So much so, that if one did
not die of injury, one would certainly die of infections caught from surgical instruments,
bandages etc. Taking Pasteur's work as the basis, it was postulated that if the wounds
could be kept 'clean', i.e. if disease producing germs could be prevented from getting
into a wound, it would not get infected and would heal better.

12.2.3 Chemical Evolution

The question of how life came into being in the first place still remained unanswered.
T o find an answer to this question means looking back billions of years in time and
trying to imagine what the conditions on the earth could have been like, when life first
appeared. Soviet biochemist, Oparin, and the British biologist, Haldane, tried to do just
that. They proposed that "life could have arisen from non-living organic molecules".
In other words, to understand the problem of origin of life, one must have a
knowledge of the origin of 'organic molecules' on the earth. In the early stages of its
development, with the hot gases condensing and molten matter which was solidifying to
form what are rocks, today, the Earth acted as the huge factory, producing many kinds
of compounds. The sources of energy available for the formation of numerous type of
molecules were cosmic rays, ultraviolet radiations, electrical discharges such as
lightning, radioactivity, and heat from volcanoes and hot springs. Molecules of all sorts
were being continuously created and destroyed due to their state of agitation. The
lighter gases of the atmosphere such as hydrogen, helium, oxygen, nitrogen, etc..
escaped into space unless they could combine with other elements to form liquids or
solids. In such cases they remained on the earth. In particular, oxygen could not remain
as free oxygen. It combined with other elements to form compounds. For example,
hydrogen and oxygen combined to form water vapour, and remained in the Earth's
atmosphere. Similarly, oxygen combined with calcium and carbon to form calcium
carbonate, i.e. limestone. Again, nitrogen, hydrogen and oxygen combined together to
form ammonium nitrate. Compounds of carbon and hydrogen were also formed
sometimes along with nitrogen or oxygen. These compounds are, today, called "organic
compounds".
The Earth had at the same time started cooling down. As the Earth cooled sufficiently,
torrential and prolonged rains were caused due to condensation of steam. The rains
began to accumulate in the depressions on the earth and so the oceans were formed.
These hot bodies of water contained abundant and varied organic compounds washed
down from the atmosphere. Continued interaction among these compounds in the
warm waters resulted in the formation of yet more compounds. The waters of this stage
of the Earth's development have been referred to as "hot dilute soup", which amongst
other things also contained "amino acids" having a composition of carbon, hydrogen,
nitrogen and oxygen. The molecules of amino acids combined together to form large
cuinplex molecules, the "proteins" which are the building blocks of life.
It is from this accumulation of complex organic molecules that the first extremely
simple self-replicating molecular systems accidentally originated. Because of the
property of self-replication, they are called living organisms. The Sun's deadly ultraviolet (U
radiations would have killed any exposed living molecules unless they were under the
protective cover of water. Such primitive life also had a very limited food supply, since
it depended on the slow sinking of organic materials synthesised by radiation in the
upper layers of water. Thus, for millions of years, life must have existed under these
special conditions. Again, random combinations may have led to the formation of
chlorophyll containing organisms which could produce their own food by a process
called photosynthesis. Such organisms had a better chance of survival. During the
process of photosynthesis, light from the Sun helps to synthesise carbohydrates like
sugar and starch out of carbon dioxide and water. Oxygen is given off in the process.
As such organisms grew and photosynthesis proceeded, the atmosphere grew richer in

Self replicating molecule, i.e.,

they could make from
chemical substances around
them, other systems like
themselves.

Universe and Life:

The Beginnings

The primitive earth's

atmosphere was devoid of
free oxygen and contained
mostly carbon dioxide,
methane, an~rnonia,water
vapxJr etc. It was only the
photosynthetic process
initiated by cyanobacteria
ahout 2 n~illionyears ago,
that led to release of free
oxygen in the universe.

free oxygen. As we shall see, this had a profound effect on the course of subsequent
events.
Oxygen when acted upon by ultraviolet radiation, forms ozone, a gas through which
ultraviolet radiation cannot pass. This happens at a height of about 25 km above the
surface of the earth, giving a protective 'ozone layer'. We have, therefore, the happy
chain of events-more photosynthesis, more oxygen produced. And in its turn, more
ozone produced out of oxygen in the atmosphere. screens the earth from the ultraviolet
radiation of the Sun. This allowed living organisms to come to the surface of water and
to survive even on land, if they got thrown out of the swirling and splashing water. The
oxygenation of Earth's atmosphere was very significant from biological point of view,
as organisms of greater complexity and even intel!igence could eventually arise.

12.2.4 Miller's Experiment

The above theory could be tested by recreating in the laboratory on a small scale, the
conditions which must have existed when life originated on the earth.

Fig. 12.2: Stanley Millcr shown with hls apparatus which demonstrates amino acid synthesis in a
condition that prevailed on the earth before life came into being.

Miller, an American biologist (Fig. 12.2) subjected a gaseous mixture of methane,

ammonia, water vapour and hydrogen in a closed flask at 80C to electric sparking, for
a week. This mixture, with its temperature, and electric discharge through it,
represented a situation that might have prevailed on the earth before life came into
existence. When the contents of the flask (Fig. 12.3) were examined a week later, they
were found to have amino acids which are essential for the formation of proteins. As
we have said before, proteins are the essential building blocks for living organisms.
With the making, in the laboratory, of molecules related to life, the credibility of the
Oparin-Haldane theory of chemical evolution greatly increased. Many amino acids
have been obtained, since by this method. So also some sugars and nitrogenous bases
which are otherwise found in the nucleus of a cell, which is a unit of living organisms.
Similar experiments have led to the production of various compounds which form
many kinds of fats and important natural pigments. Miller's experiment thus forms a
turning point in our approach to the problem of the origin of life.
The evidence, we get from Miller's experiment, is supported by evidence of similar
chemical reactions occurring in space even today. Chemical analysis of a meteorite
which fell near Murchi Murchison in Australia, in 1969, shqwed the presence of organic
molecules. The types and relative proportions of these molecules were very similar to
the products formed in Miller's experiment. The presence of organic molecules like
methane, ethane, formaldehyde, acetyle'ne etc. has been shown in interstellar space by
radioastronomy also.

,
I

Heat
Fig. 12.3: A typical experiment simulating conditions on the primitive earth. Water is heated in a closed
apparatus contaii:ing methane, ammonia and hydrogen and an electric discharge is passed through the
vaporized mixturc Organic compounds accumulate in the U-tube trap.

SAQ 1
i) In the table given below, we list some of the theories related to the origin of life
and some features of the 3 theories. Match the features with the corresponding
theory.

Theories

a) Theory of spontaneous
generation
b) Theory of special creation

c)

Theory of chemical evolution

d) Ancient Greek idea

Features

-.

1 Cosmozoa or Spores were ttansfened to

many planets from outer space.
2 Oparin and Haldane gave independently
the idea that life on the earth may have
originated from preformed organic
molecules.
3 Innumerable forms of life were
created hy the Divine Act.
4 Living organism are produced from
rotting food and other organic matter.

ii) Some incomplete statements regarding evolution of life on the earth are given

below. Complete them by choosing the right word from the parenthesis.
a) A theory related to the origin of life such as the .................theory of chemical
evolution could be verified experimentally.
b) Miller subjected a gaseous mixture of methane, ammonia, water vapour and
hydrogen in a ...........................flask at 80C.
c) When the contents of the flask were examined, they were found to have
........................... which are essential for making of proteins.
d) Similar experiments in the laboratory led to the production of various
.....................which form many kinds of fats and natural pigments.
(compounds, closed, amino acids, Oparin-Haldane)

12.3 BIOLOGICAL EVOLUTION

In the previous section you have seen how life could have originated on the Earth. You
have also seen how, as the conditions on the Earth changed, more and more complex
life forms evolved. We can presume that biological evolution began with the formation

C niverse and l i f e :

The Betinnings

of the first true cells. These must have been forms that did not require free oxygen and
lived at the expense of organic molecules available in the waters that surrounded them.
Eventually, as nutrients were depleted, tht: first cells capable of using carbon dioxide
and energy from light, to make their own food through photosynthesis must have
arisen. Today, the diversity of plant and animal forms we have, ranges from simple
single celled organisms to many kinds of plants on one side and animals including man
on the other. Today, we have millions of 'species' of living forms on our planet. There
is evidence, that all the life forms are inter-related and also that the higher forms have
evolved from the lower ones. We will study more about this in the next unit-Evolution
of Man. The study of these millions of species, individually would be a cumbersome
task. Therefore, it is necessary to classify them in groups according to their
evolutionary relationships and similarities in form and function.

Millions of
years before

.
.. ..

accumulates
in atmosphere

.'. ,.,.
. .

..

Oxygen from
photosynthesis

prohucefi
Unicellylar forms
Organic Evolution

I ~hemcial'holution

t I

atmAPhere
Oxyg n-free

5.m

[ Formation of Earth)

Fig. 12.4: Diagrammatic representation of major events in history of life on earth.

Today, most biologists recognise five categories or kingdoms of living organisms shown
in Fig. 12.5. The first category, Monera, consists of the most primitive single celled
organisms. These alone were present in the beginning for about 2 billion years. These
cells do not have a nucleus and are represented today by the bacteria and cynobacteria
(formerly known as blue green algae). The second, Protista evolved about 1.5 billion
years ago and consists of single celled organisms containing a nucleus. Algae,
protozoans and slime moulds belong to this kingdom.
You must have seen mushrooms sprouting under the trees during the rainy season.
These, and the unicellular yeast are members of the Kingdom Fungi. They are placed
in a separate kingdom because they are one of the most complex organisms that feed
on decaying organic matter. Some fungi are also parasitic causing serious diseases in
plants, animals and human beings while some fungi have given us the most useful
group of medicines-antibiotics. You must have heard about penicillin, streptomycin
etc., these are produced by fungi. The next two kingdoms, Plants and Animals, evolved
later as a result of adaptations to the changing environment of the earth. Plants began
to evolve about 400 million years ago and most of these organisms possess a green
pigment, chlorophyll, which helps them in manufacturing their own food by the process
of photosynthesis. They first appeared in the seas as unicellular algae. The green algae
are believed to be ancestral Links to the land plants like gymnosperms, i.e. nonflowering
plants sand angiosperms or flowering plants. Today, these plants have diversified and
increased in numbers tremendously.

ANIMALS

Fig. 12.5: Five categories or kingdoms of living organisms.

W i l e plants are multicellular organisms which synthesise their food through

photosynthesis, animals are multicellular organisms that survive on food
by
the plants. The animals are divided into invertebrates or animals without a backbone
and vertebrates, i.e. animals with a backbone. It is possible to arrange the various
animal groups so that one can see an increase in their complexity. The insects and
worms are invertebrates, while the fishes, frogs, toads, snakes, birds, and mammals like
cows,deer, horses, elephants, and even man, all belong to the group-vertebrates.
Thus, we see that organic evolution proceeds slowly and over these billions of years,
various species have evolved and have adapted themselves to their environment.

SAQ 2

Some questions regarding the origin and evolution of plant and animal life are given
below. Write your answer in the space provided.
i)

What was lacking in the first cell?

ii) List the names of some non-flowering plants found in your region or locality.

.................................................................................................................................................
iii) Name the pigment that plants possess for the manufacture of fdod.
...........a.

.....,..4...1.).....................................,...,...,.,....,.,,.,.

O ~ i g i nand Evolution
of Life

i'mivcrw and I.ik:

'l'hc Bcginninp

iv) What are the animals possessing a backbone called?

.................................................................................................................................................

12.4 SYSTEMS VIEW OF LIFE

You have seen above, that evolution has given rise to various types of life forms
from single celled bacteria to organisms as complex as a human being. It may
interest you to know, that even the simplest of these organisms is able to carry out
various life processes like, taking in food, excreting waste material, reacting to
stimuli and reproducing offsprings. It is able to survive in varied environments. Let
us see how an organism is able t o d o this.
The characteristics, which we recognize as life, are in fact an expression of the
coordinated working of various parts in the organism. Various parts in an
organism, whether plant or animal are not haphazardly put together but are
organised into systems.
A system is a set of some specific inter-related parts which are organized as one
unit for some purpose. The parts work together and the entire combination forms
one unit. A car producing company, which is organized to produce transport
vehicles can be viewed as a system too. For the effective functioning of the
company, all of its parts, such as the department that purchases raw materials, the
factory, the management and the sales department must work in unison. An
animal or a plant is also made up of numerous parts which represent a well defined
system. For example, in an animal body, the parts concerned with the in-take of
food and digesting it, the bones arranged as a skeleton to support the body, the
heart circulating blood to different parts of the body through the arteries and veins
and the brain receiving signals and giving orders of various kinds together compose
the system.
The assemblage of all plants and animals in an environment provided by each
other as well as by the land, air and water works collectively. The way these diverse
forms of life depend on each other makes one imagine this planet itself as a huge
system. Looking at it in another way, the life and environment of the earth are a
well ccwrdinatcd system, within which there are sub-systems like individual
organisms. And within each of these sub-systems, a single plant or animal, one
would find a complex multicellular system. Similarly, industrial, agricultural c r
educational systems can be visualised as the sub-systems in the society.
Organic systems maintain themselves in a given composite form and function. For
example, a cat remains a cat, it prowls for food, it may lay kittens, but its internal
system functions on the basis of physical principles with stability. How is this stability
maintained by a system? Let us take a specific example; how does a man or woman
maintain this internal stability while the environment around them changes. For
instance, how d o they maintain a fixed temperature of 37"C, or the composition of
their blood or the blood pressure? It has been found that all organisms possess a kind
of information and control network which directs them to adjust to various situations
for survival, e.g., if you touch a snail, it withdraws into its shell. This is a kind of
information and control device for protecting its life. If you sit in the Sun and you feel
hot, a signal which is internally generated causes perspiration and produces cooling by
evaporation of the sweat. This is another example of information and control for
maintaining a fixed body temperature.
You will find that all organisms possess a network of information and control which
may be very simple or at times quite complicated. Without it, neither the survival of an
organism nor its existence in a stable physical condition is possible.
A whole science of "cybernetics" has developed to study information and control in a
generai way. This is because, even machines have to be .so designed as to work with
stability. You must be familiar with a device called a voltage regulator which is used
with a television set or a refrigerator. If at any time the voltage becomes higher than a

fixed'value the voltage regulator brings it back to that value. Thus, the voltage supplied
to the TV or refrigerator remains stable.
Another example is prevention of fire in buildings particularly offices, hotels, etc. Here
a technique is used to measure the temperiiture of the rooms and in case of a sudden
rise in temperature in a particular room a \ ~ l v opens
e
to sprinkle water from the
ceiling. This is automatic protection against fire:
If we just think about it, the basis of information and control is that any deviation or
"difference" from some "normal" value is detected and this generates a signal to correct
the difference. Thus. difference, deviation or error being used to correct the error, is at
the heart of all stable systems. One can also call it a "feedback" arrangement. which
means, feeding the error back into a control so as to reduce or correct the error.
Living organisms have remarkable capacity to regulate their own lives according to the
changes around them. They maintain a normal external and internal structure and
environment in spite of the change in the outside surroundings. This state of constancy
which is vital for life is known as 'homeostasis'.
I---------

- - --

- ------ 1
I

i
No release
Of

Release
ADH of ADH

Loss of Water
water reabsorption
A

1
I

4
I
I

Kidney

I
I

L -- -- - - - - - -

I
I

--------------A

+Ureter
+Urinary bladder

Fig. 12.6: Feedback mechanism which checks the loss of water from the kidncys.

We will give you just one example of the feedback system in the human body which
maintains the right amount of water in the blood (Fig. 12.6). Kidneys are able to
control or check the loss of water from our body. For this, water is reabsorbed by the
collecting tubes in the kidneys so as to prevent its undue loss in the form of urine. This
absorpdon of water is'lmndm the control~d:ad~ernical
called iinLin(i-.diuielir:hormonc (ADH), which is produced by specialized nerve cells in one of the parts of the fore
brain. If more water begins to be lost by the body due to greater evaporation during
summer, a decrease of water in the blood will take place, changing its internal
environment for which our body is very sensitive. At the time of need a positive signal
to the brain causes the production of this particular chemical (ADH) which increases
the absorption of water in the kidneys and reduces excretion of urine. The absorbed
water gets back into the blood to maintain the normal concentration of the fluid.

SAQ 3
Statements given below speak about life systems. Fill in the blanks by using words
given in the parenthesis.
i)

The various parts in an ..................... whether plant or animal. are not put together
haphazardly but are organized into .....:................

Ori(lin snd Evolrtiun

of Life

l'niver5e and lire:

The Beginni~~gs

........................and ........................ network.

Cybernetics is a study of information and control in a general ........................
Kidneys are able to control or check the .......................... of water from our body.

ii) All the organisms possess a kind of

iii)
iv)

V) They send a signal to the brain to cause the production of the particular chemical
......................which increases absorption of water in the .................... and reduces
the flow of urine.
(ADH, organism, way, loss, information, control, kidneys, systems)

12.4.1 Life Cycle

The idea that an organism is a system, consisting of various parts, that function to
maintain its internal environment throughout its life time is an important concept in
biology. But how is this system formed?
In its life time an organism passes through certain recognizable stages like birth, growth,
reproduction and death. We see around us plants sprouting from seeds, growing,
bearing fruit and ultimately drying up. Children are born, grow to adulthood, marry,
have children of their own, grow old and die. The series o f events which occur from the
time an organism is born to the time it dies, constitute a life cycle.
The parents die and disappear but the progenies continue to repeat the life cycle,
generation after generation. This continuity of generations is made possible by
reproduction. Primitive organisms like bacteria, algae, protozoa, etc. reproduce by
simple division of the unicellular parent into smaller cells of approximately equal size,
each of which then grows to the size of the parent. Some organisms develop a small
outgrowth or 'bud' which gets separated from the parent body and develops into an
individual. In some lower animals, the body of the parent breaks into several parts and
each part develops into a complete organism.
The common feature of all the processes described above is that only a single parent is
involved and as such all the offsprings produced are alike. This method of reproduction
is called 'asexual reproduction'. Interestingly, asexual reproduction prevails only in the
lower animals and in some plant groups. Man has used this to his advantage in plant
breeding or horticulture. For instance, one can get a new rose plant by simply cutting a
branch and growing it separately. This method is extensively used in growing some
economically important plants, like several varieties of citrus fruits, lemons, oranges
etc. It has been found, that' plants produced in this way mature faster and bear fruit
earlier than those grown from seeds.
Evolution, as we now know, is dependent upon individual variations due to interaction
of heredity with environment. These variations are inherited by the process of sexual
reproduction which involves two parents. Most animals and plants reproduce by this
method. The male parent produces a highly specialized cell called 'sperm' and the
female produces 'ovum' or 'egg'. These cells also called 'gametes' are different from
other body cells in having half tl vlmber of 'chromosomes'. Chromosomes are the
chemical structures which carry infol...ition for all the life processes. These two cells,
sperm and ovum, unite t dal process called fertilization, to form a new cell called
'zygote'. The general pattern of development from zygote to many-celled organism is
basically the sahe for every animal and plant. In the first stage of development the
single-celled zygote divides, and the subsequent cells continue to divide repeatedly
while adhering to one another. These cells finally become specialized for the formation
of various organs. For example during the course of development, a few cells become
specialized for the formation of liver. These cells begin to multiply and give birth to
millions of cells so as to form a liver. Likewise, differentiated brain cells give birth to
complicated structure of brain in an organism. Other organs are also formed in a
similar way and become different parts of the organism. After the organism obtains
maturity, aging starts with the passing of time.

12.4.2 Aging
Aging simply means the process of growing old or the process of progresswe
deterioration in the structure and function of the cells and organs of the body.

Aging is an integral part ol the life cycle of an organism. Even if an individual meets no
fatal accident, or is not eaten up by other organisms or does not suffer a killing disease,
death still comes as the natural final result of old age. We are all familiar with the
symptoms of aging in man, some of which are dry and wrinkled skin, brittle bones,
reduced blood circulation and thin shrivelled body. These outward signs of aging are
the rewlt of changes taking place within the cells and the loss of ability of cells to divide.

,
I

During a life time, millions of cells are destroyed and replaced rapidly by the process of
ccll division. Whelk more cells are destroyed than are replaced, aging takes place. The
ability of cells to divide is fixed and is always characteristic of an organism. This
explains why some animals age more rapidly than others and have shorter life span
than others.
The division rate of different body cells is also specific. In human beings, the cells
forming the skin are continually destroyed and rebuilt, while the cells constituting the
brain undergo no division at all from a time about 5-6 years after birth. Thus, the
different cell types within the same individual age at different rates.
In recent years, much attention has been paid to study the process of aging, and how to
slow it down. If this could be done and we could remain active physically and mentally
for longer periods of life span, it would be wonderful. Wouldn't it? Physical exercises
which counter sluggish blood circulation and other body processes are known to be of
some help. Some drugs, which can slow down aging, are also being experimented with.
SAQ 4
Tick mark the right answer in the space provided.

i)

Asexual reproduction is carried out by participation of

a) both the parents
b) single parent

ii) In sexual reproduction gametes are formed by

a) doubling the number of chromosomes
b) reducing the number of chromosomes to half
c) no change in the number of chromosomes
iii) Aging is caused by
a) retardation of growth of brain cells
b) wrinkling of skin
c) defects in function of the cells
d) deterioration in structure and functions of the cells and
organs of the body on the whole

12.5 EXTRA-TERRESTRIAL LIFE

Just as we have been curious about how life originated on the Earth, we have also tried
to explore whether there is life on any other planet in the Solar System or elsewhere in
the universe.
Explorations of outer space carried out by spacecraft and ground based observatories,
in recent years, have led us to the conclusion that in the entire Solar System, the planet
Earth is, perhaps, the only place where there is life. The other planets are at such a
distance from the Sun that they are either too hot or too cold for life toexist. The one
close possibility is the planet Mars. Space probe Viking collected and analysed samples
of rock and soil from Mars (Fig. 12.7) to detect the presence of life. But so far no
conclusive evidence of any life, present or past, has been found on this planet.
Man is also looking for life beyond the Solar System. Two approaches are currently
available to him; either to send a man or an instrument to a particular star in the
Universe and examine local surface for life or to listen to the signals from outer space
which may come in the form of radio waves. With our present technology, the first
approach does not take us beyond the Solar System. The second approach is based on
the assumption that there may be civilisations technically as advanced or even more
advanced than our own. So we can exchange radio messages with them. We have

Origin and EIohtion

of Life

Lniverse and Life:

The Beginnings

Fig. 12.7:' A Viking Lander which analysed rock and soil samples from the planct Mars.

drawn a blank so far on this front. But it is quite possible that our galaxy, the entire
system of dust, gases, and stars within which the Sun moves, is already filled with
chatter between the far older and more advanced civilisations! These signals may havc
been transmitted b) a technique still undiscovered on Earth, so we may be nlissi!?g
them altogether! Recently it has been reported that astronomers have found sornc
other stars, like our Sun, which have planets. If this is provcd to be true, there may bc
millions of planetary systems in the Universe, increasing the likelihood of lifc cxisting
on some of them.

12.6 SUMMARY
In this unit you have learnt:
about various theories which have been put forward to explain the origin of life on
the Earth, and how Pasteur, through a well designed expcrirrient showed that living
organisms alone can produce other living organisms,
the Oparin-Haldane theory of chemical evolution and the support it got from
Miller's experiments,
how biological evolution started with the formation of the first cells and the role
photosynthesis played in the release of frec oxygen and formation of ozonc layer in
the atmosphere. With this change in the earth's atmosphere tremendous
diversification of life forms, both plants and animals became possible.
the systems view of life and the ability o f living orpi~nismsto maintain thci~.fornl
and function in changing environments.
the life cycle or the various phases through which an organism passes from the time
it is born to its death and the phenomenon of aging.
---

12.7 TERMINAL QUESTIONS

-

- -- .. .

1) In what way the concept of spontaneous gcncl'ltlon

--

r!t

--

lltc &a\ drsc,lrdcd b l ~ h c .

works of Louis Pasteur.

2) Explain briefly the impacts of Miller's experiment on the classical thcories of origin
of life.

3) Can the deviatiun in normal state of living being be corrected? Describe your
answer in short.

4) .Are there any devices known to obtain the information about extra-terrestrial life?
What are they?

12.8 ANSWERS
Self Assessment Questions

1) i) a) 4 b) 3 c) 2 d ) 1
ii) a) Oparin-Haldane b) closed c) amino acids d ) compounds
2) i) nucleus ii) cycas and pine trees iii) chlorophyll iv) vertebrates
3) i)
4) i)

organism, system ii) information, control iii) way iv) loss, ADH, kidney
a ii) b iii) d

lerminal Questions

1) Pasteur demonstrated by setting experiments that it is not the rotting food and
other organic matter that produces living organisms but rather that the rotting and
fermentation are caused by micro-organism.
2) Miller took a gaseous mixture of methane, ammonia, water vapour and hydrogen
in a closed flask at 80C subjecting the flask to electric discharge for a week. This
represented the early atmosphere ~f the earth. Analysis of product formed thus
revealed the formation of organic compounds known to occur in living organisms.
This experiment supported the theory of chemical evolution given by
Oparin-Haldane.
3 , Living organisms are provided with mechanisms which conceive of changes from
rhc. normal state and once the change is detected, it is corrected through a
in~chanismsof feedback.
1 hc other planets are so far away from the Sun and from one another that
3
currently only two ways are available for man either to land a manned or
unmanned space craft or to obtain signals from the outer space with the help of
spccial instruments devised for this purpose.

Origin asd Elolution

of Lift*

UNIT 11 THE SOLAR SYSTEM

Structure
11.1 Introduction
Objectives

11.2 The Solar System: A General Survey

11.3 The Sun, A Model Star
11.4 The Planets, Asteroids and Comets
Mercury-the Elusive Planet
Venus-the Clouded Planet
Mars-the Red Planet
.The Asteroid Belt-Rubble of the Solar System
jupitera Strange Ve~ledGiant
Saturn-the Ringed Planet
Planets Beyond the Reach of the Eye
A Cloud made of Comets

11.5 The Earth-The Most Familiar Planet

11.6 Formation of The Solar System
11.7 Some Myths and Misconceptions
11.8 Summary
11.9 Terminal Questions
11.10 Answers

11.1 INTRODUCTION
In Unit 10 we have described some modem astronomical methods of exploring the
universe. You also studied some theories about the origin of the universe and stellar
evolution,'which explain many observations and data gathered in these explorations.
While readdg Unit 10 you must have realised that our knowledge of the universe is
rather imperfect. In fact, every new answer opens up many new quegtions about the
universe. However, there is one tiny'~artof this vast and ancient universe that We know
a little better. This is the Solar System, of' which our planet Earth is a part.
In this unit you will read about the Solar System. We will describe the currently
available knowledge of the Solar Family, the special characteristics of its members and
the formation of the Solar System. Within the Solar System, we know more about the
Earth and its satellite Moon than its other members. Therefore, we will give a detailed
description of these two.
We now know a lot more than our ancestors did about the planetary motions. Yet,
people harbour many myths and misconceptions about the planets' influence on their
daily lives. We will Bnalyse, in brief, why it is so and try to show the irrationality of
such notions. With this unit we will end our discussion about the universe. in Unit 12
you will read about the origin and evolution of life, which makes an equally fascinating
story.

Objectives
After studying this unit, you should be able to:
describe the main @aracteristicsof the various members of tbe Solar System, i,e,
the Sun, planets, their satellites, asteroids and comets,
a explain how the formation of the Solar System may have taken place,
describe the origin and early history of our planet Earth,
a analyse the myths and misconceptions about the effect of planetary motion on
human lives.

11.2 THE SOLAR SYSTEM: A GENERAL SURVEY

At night you can see very many stars in the sky. But during the day, only one star is
.visible, and that is the Sun. This is not because there is anything extraordinary about it

Universe and Life:

but because it is the star closest to us. The light of the other, more distant stars is too
feeble to be seen during the day time. The Sun's apparent magnificence had led ancient
civ~hsationsto think of it as the 'head' of the univeise. Actually, it is only the 'head' of
its own family, known as the Solar System. This family consists of :line planets,
including the Earth, their satellites, asteroids and comets. Arranged according to their
increasing distance from the Sun, the nine planets which go around the Sun are:
Mercury (Buddha), Venus (Shukra), Earth (Prith VI),Mars (Mangal), Jupiter
('Brihaspat~),Saturn (Sham), Uranus (Arun), Neptune ( Varun), and Pluto ( Yama),
(Fig. 11.1). Except for Mercury and Venus, all the planets have big and small satellites
going around them. There are also countless asteroids and comets in orbit around the
Sun.

The Beginnings

PLUTO

NEPTUNE

All the planets and zsteroids, and some comets, revolve around the Sun in elliptical
orbits (see Fig. 11.2). They all orbit the Sun in nearly the same plane. youcan inake a
fairly accurdte model of the Solar System from a single piece of cardboard on which
you can draw the planetary orbits.The only exception of this model is the orbit o f . Pluto, which is inclined at an approrimate angIe of-17'' to the general plane of the
Solar System. The North Pole of the Earth determines the 'north side' of the Solar
System. Seen from the "north side", all planets revolve around the Sun. Its gravitational
attraction keeps them tevolving in their orbits. If tbe Sun were to suddenly vanish, the
planets wouId all fly off in straight lines at a tangent to their orbits,

SATURN

JU
MARS

EARTH

VENUS Q
MERCURY

The Sun is the dominating member of the Solar System. With a mass calculated to be
g (grams), it contains almost 99.87% of the mass of the entire
approximately 2X
Solar System. Of the nine planets, Jupiter and Saturn are the most massive, accounting
for 92% of the mass of all planets. The planets do no generate their own light, like the'
Sun does. They shine by reflecting the Sun's light that falls on them. The percentage of
sunlight reflected by any object is directly related to the amount and type of
atmosphere that it possesses. Planets or satellites with no atmosphere, such as Mercury
and Moon reflect less light.
Earth.

MOON MERCURY

VENUS

SUN

cf

3r

@
e

MARS JUPITER

SATURN NEPTUNE

EARTH URANUS

PLUTO

(b)
Figure. 11.1: (a) Solar System
\how~ngthe relatlve vzes of
planets, (b) symbols d e p ~ c t ~ n g
\omc member\ of the Solar
System

38

Figure, 11.2: Planetary o r b ~ t so t (a) lnner pisnets sealed up; (b) outer planets.

All plaliets, except Venus and Uranus, rotate on their axes in the anticlockwise
direction. So, on all these, like on the Earth, the Sun rises in the eastand sets in the
west. Venus and Uranus rotate in a clockwise direction and as a result, on these two
planets the Sun rises in the west and sets in the east! All planets except Uranus have
their axes of rotations more or less perpendicular to the plane of orbits (see Fig. 11.3).
The axis of rotation of Uranus is in its orbital plane, as though Uranus had toppled
over.

Uranus

-4

Fig. 11.3: Inclination of the axes of rotation of some planets to the perpentlicular?

The four planets, Mercury, Venus, Earth and Mars are known as the inher or terrestrial
(Ce., earth-like) planets. Jupiter, Saturn. Uranus, Neptune, and Pluto are the outer or
Jovian (i.e., Jupiter-like) planets. Tbere is a clear division in the properties of the inner
and the outer planets. The inner planets consist mostly of metals and rocks and have an
average density of 4 or 5 g/cm3 (read as grams per cubic ccntimetre). The,asteroids.are
also like the inner planets in composition. The outer planets, on the other hand, are
mostly gas and ice with an average density of 1 or 2 g/cm3.
SAQ 1
What objects constitute the Solar System?
This is a general survey of the Solar System. Let us now look at each of the members in
some detail. We begin with the head of the fqmily, the Sun.

11.3 THE SUN, A MODEL STAR

The Sun is the most important star from our point of view. It is the only star close
enough to be studied in considerable detail. The grandeur of the Sun is partly because
of its size. Its diameter is almost 110 times that of the Earth. We can best visualise the
volume of the Sun if we realise that more than a million earths can be dropped into the
grams,
space it occupies. As we have said above, the mass of the Sun is about 2 X
which makes it more than 300,000 times the mass of the Earth. The average density of
the Sun, i.e.. its mass per unit volume, is about 1.4 g/cm3. You m a y answer the
following questions to refresh your memory of what you've read about the Sun as a star
in Unit 10:

SAQ 2
Give short answers in the space provided.
a) What is the Sun largely made up of? ..............................................................................
b) What is the source of the Sun's energy? ........................................................................
c) For how many years will the Sun keep 'burning' like this? .........................................
d) What stages of evolution will the Sun follow, once its source of energy gets
exhausted? ...........................................................................................................................
Although the Sun appears to be unchanging, it rotates about its axis once every 25
days. From time to time dark patches appear on the surface of the Sun, usually in pairs
or in groups. These dark patches are called sunspots. Their movement is an indication
of the Sun's rotation. This fact was recognised for the first tiine by Galileo. Actually, a
sunspatis a regiim cn the surface of the S& that consists of gases almkt 1000"~
cooler than those surrounding the area (Fig. 11.4). The number of sunspots increases
and decreases in a cyclc every 11 years. In the long term, there are periods of low
number of sunspots and High'number of sunspots.
Layers of the Sun
Tbe Sun's body is made up of several layem Tbe layer that forms the viable surface of
Lady oi the Sun
the Sun is called the photosphere-it is the surface that demarcates
and its atmosphere. When we talk of the diameter of the Sun, we are referring-to the
diameter of the photosphere. The temperature of the photosphere is about 6000C.
The innermost layer of the Sun is its core where its energy is produced through nuclear
reactions. There are other layers between the core and the photosphere which we will
not describe here.

~ig.11.4: Sunspots on the

Sun's photosphere.

39

Unlversc md Life:
The Beginnings

I
I

Like the Sun's body, the solar atmosphere too has several layers. The outermost layer
of the Sun's atmosphere is called the corona. Normally, the corona cannot be s&n due
to the brilliance of the photosphere. However, if it is seen during a total solar eclipse, it
(Fig. 11.5). The corona extends all the way.upto the Earth's
is visible in its full
orbit and even beyond.

Solar Wind and Solar Flare

Most of the Sun's family is continually bathed in an outflow of material from the Sun's
atmosphere. Streams of electrons and protons continuously flow out from the Sun's
atmosphere and travel across the Solar System. This rapidly moving stream of charged
particles is called the solar wind. About one million ton material is removed every
second from the Sun in the form of the solar wind. These charged particles react with
the atoms of the Earth's atmosphere to produce northern lights, 'aurora borealis' at the
North Pole and southern lights, 'aurora australis' at the South pole: This display of
lights in nature, is truly spectacular.
Fig. 11.5: Solar corona seen at the

time of total solar eclipse.

The solar flare represents the most dynamic activity associated with the Sun's surface
and atmosphere. It represents a tremendous release of energy in a very short time.
Usually it occurs in the neighbourhood of a sunspot. There is a sudden brightening
accompanied by a violent outflow of e'nergy in the form of light, radiowaves, X-rays
and solar material like electrons and protons.
The Sun is our nearest star and we have been able to examine it quite closely. We have
just presented2ome salient features of the Sun's structure and its activity. You may like
to try the following SAQ before studying about the other members of the Solar
System!

SAQ 3
a) What observation indicates that the Sun rotates?

b) Which phenomena indicate the activity of the Sun?

11.4 THE PLANETS, ASTEROIDS AND COMETS

In this section you will read abopt the planets and their satellites, asteroids and comets.
We will not consider~heEar@ and the Moon here as we plan to take a detailed look at
them in the next section. In Table 11.1, we&gsome of the space probes that have been.
sent to the planets. They havi revealed a lot of information about the surface features,
temperature, atmosphere etc. of the planets. If you want to know more details, you
may study the books listed at the end of this block.
Table 11.1
Planets
probed:

Mercury

Space
probes:

Mariner
series

Venus

Mars
Pluto, Saturn's satellite Titan

Venera,
Mariner,
Pioneer
Venus
Mission

Mariner,
Viking,
Mars

Voyager, Pioneer

Observations made: Surface features of the planets, atmospheric conditions, chemical composition,
temperature

-11.4.1Mercury-the Elusive' Planet

I

Mercury, the planet nearest to the Sun, has long remained a mysterious body. Because
.of the Sun's glare, it is difficult to see it clearly all the mare so because it is very small.

Solar System

Mercury appears for a brief time as a morning object in the eastern sky, rising just
before sunrise. Then it can be briefly seen as an evening object in the western sky,
setting just after sunset. Even through the largest telescopes in use today, Mercury
appears less distinct than the Moon does to the naked eye.
Photographs of the surface of Mercury show craters and wrinkles on it, separated by
substantially large smooth areas (Fig. 11.6). Mercury possesses no atmosphere. It has a
temperature of almost 427C on the side facing the Sun to a low of almost-270C
on its dark side. It has no satefite.

Fig. 11.6: Mercury.

A planet is called a morning

~ ~ ~ ~ ~ e ~ ~ l ' ; ; tb
l : ; ~ ~ ~
,,,

,t

ob~oct.

Fig. 11.7: Venus.

11.4.2 Venus-the Clouded Planet

Venus, our nearest planetary neighbour, only 40 million km away, has its surface
hidden from view by a dense yellowish-white cloud, which extends to 80 km above the
surface (Fig 11.7). Venus appears to be the third brightest object in the sky after the
Sun and the Moon, because of its short distance from us and because the white cloud
reflects almost 76 per cent of the sunlight that falls on it. Venus appears so bright at
times that, under ideal atmospheric conditions, it may be seen with the unaided eye in
daytime. Venus can be best seen about three hours after sunset when it is a night object
or about three hours before sunrise when it is a morning obiect. As you have read in
Unit 9, Venus appears to go through phases, quite hke those oi the Moon. It requires
almost 20 months for an observer to see Venus in all its phases.
As revealed from the space probes, Venus has turned out to be a broiling hot planet.
The surface temperatures of Venus are around 480C. The atmosphere of Venus is
made up of 96 per cent carbon dioxide gas and clouds of sulphuric acid withsmall
quantities of hydrochloric and hydrofluoric acid. There we small traces of water
vapour, nitrogen, argon, sulphur dioxide and carbon monoxide gases. The atmospheric
pressure is 90 times the pressure we feel from the Earth's atmosphere. With its searing
heat, crushing pressures and poisonous gases, Venus seems less the goddess of love of
mythology and more an incarnation of hell! Life cannot survive on Venus.

The high surface temperat%e of Venus comes about through what is known as the
greenhouse effect. Sunlight passes through the clouds and atmosphere of Venus, and
reaches its surface. The suqace on being heated, gives out infrared radiations. The
carbon dioxide in the atmosphere of Venus does not let the infrared radiation escape.
Thus, the heat of the Sun is efficiently trapped with only very little being able to
escape. As a result, the surface temperature rises.
t
beings have unveiled the mysteries of the clonldedplanet, many imaginative
Now t h ~ human
ideas have been put forward tosturn Venus into a habitable plane,. One idea is to
introduce small living organisms, which can consume carbon dioxide and give off
oxygen, into the planet's atmosphere. So, as time passes, the greenhouse effect will

is ,,ii&

an evening

become less as carbon dioxide gas decreases in the atmosphere. This will'cool the
planet's surface, and water vapour will condense. As rain falls, the heat-retaining
clouds will begin to clear. This will create a planet with an oxygen-rich atmosphere and
a cool temperat&e to sustain a variety of life fonns. It may even become suitable for
human beings to live! This may seem like a fantasy today. But, there are plausible
elements in this idea and it might become a reality in the not so distant future!

ijniverse and Life:

The Beginnings

11.4.3 Mars-tbe Red Planet

After Venus, Mars is our closest neighbour. It seems very earth-like. There are ice-caps
on its poles, drifting white clouds and raging dust storms in its atmosphere. Seasonally
changing patterns occur on its red surface. There are large dark areas on its surface
called maria (meaning 'seas'). It even has a twenty-four-hour day. Mars experiences
summer and winter seasons, each of which lasts for almost six earth m k t h s . However,
the planet's distance from the Sun causes these seasonal changes t o be more extreme.
It is tempting to think of Mars as an inhabited world. In 1877, the Italian astronomer,
Schiaparelli, observed an intricate network of single and double lines criss-crossing the
bright a r p s of the planet Mars. He gave them the name of canali. Canali in Italian
means channels or erooves. But it was promptly translated into English as 'canals'.
Slnce then,people have wondered who had ma& these canals
. . and how. Were there living
beings on the planets?

Many satellites have now been sent into orbit around Mars. Two automated laboratori,es
have been landed on its surface. The entire planet has been mapped. Martian surface
has craters of sizes, ranging from 5 km to 121 km in diameter, created by meteorite
impact (Fig. 11.8). It &o has enormous volcanoes. The largest volcano on Mars,
Olympus Mons or Mount Olympus is nearly three times as high as Mount Everest. It is
not active any more. The Martian surface has deep ridges and valleys. Pictures alsa
show islands made where water once flowed around the existing craters, and river beds,
dry for hundreds of millions of years. The surface features indicate that Mars may have
had both atmospher~and ocean in the past. Viking space probes, send by U.S.A., did
find evidence that 'liquid water once flowed on the planet and the atmosphere was also
more dense than what it is now. Martian soil is mostly like the Earth's soil made up
mainly of silicates. However, about 16 per cent of the soil is made up of iron oxide,
giving it its red colour.

Fig 11.8: The surface of Mars.

The atmospheric pressure on Mars is very low. It is comparable to what it is on the

Earth at a height of 32 km from sea level. Thus, Mars has a very thin atmosphere. It is
made up of 95 per cent carbon dioxide. The rest is nitrogen, argon and a small amount
of water vapour. Tiny amounts of hydrogen, oxygen and ozone have also been
detected. Though Martian atmosphere has clouds of frozen water, carbon dioxide and
of reddish dust, it does not contain enough gases to trap the Sun's heat. This makes
Mars a very cold planet. The surface temperature may rise to 21C or 27C near its
Silicates are compounds made up Equator, at noon. But, during the night, it becomes as low as-84C. The present
of silicon, Oxygen and Some other conditions on Mars-cold, extreme dryness, intense ultraviolet light and little
me,tal, such as aluminium,
oxygen-are hostile to the familiar forms of life. The Viking experiments on Mars
calcium etc.
showed no signs of life.
a

Mars possesses two natural satellites. They are called Phobos (F&) and Deimos
(Terror). Phobos, about 27 km in diameter, is about 9,300 km away from Mars. Deimos
is even smaller, about 14 km in diameter. The latter is 24,000 km from the surface of
Mars. More information about Mars and its satellites is expected in the near future
from the Soviet Union's space missions to the planet.

11.4.4 The Asteroid Belt-Rubble of the Solar System

There is a gap of 547 million kilometers, between the orbits of Mars and Jupiter. In this
gap are thousands of bodies made of rock and metal, ranging in size from mere specks
of dust to hundreds of kilometers. These are called asteroids, and are believed to
represent original solar material which failed to bind together to form a planet. The
first asteroid was discovered in 1801 by Giuseppi Piazzi, who named it Ceres. It is 960
km across. The number of asteroids known now runs into thousands.
Most asteroids are irregular in shape. They reflect varying amounts of light as they
travel through space. Their shapes suggest that they may be the product of a collision

or an explosion. Thousands of fragments of asteroids enter the Earth's atmosphere

every year, producing a streak of light across the sky. This streak of light shooting
across the sky is called a meteor. Of the objects that enter the Earth's atmosphere,
mgny are of the size of a grain of sand or a pebble and they are destroyed in flight. The
objects that are large enough to survive the flight and hit the Earth's surface are called
meteorites. A meteorite is like a piece of the Solar System right in our laboratory. The
chemical analysls of meteorites provides us vital information about the Solar System.
Thus h r , we have described some characteristics of terrestrial planets, except the Earth
and its satellite Moon. You will now study some features of the Jovian planets and the
comets. But how about trying the following SAQ first.

SAQ 4
Give short answers in the space prdvided.
a) Why does Venus reflect so much more light than Mercury or Mars?

.................................................................................................................................................

b) What features of Mars make it similar to the Earth?

.................................................................................................................................................

c) Why have we called the asteroids as thc rubble of the Solar System?
d) What is the difference between

a meteor and a meteorite?

............................................................................................................................................
.-

- .

11.4.5 Jupiter-A Strange Veiled Giant

Jupiter is the largest planet of the Solar System. If Earth were placed on the face of
Jupiter, it would look like a 50 paise coin on a dinner plate. It weighs more than twice
as much as all the other eight planets put together. It has sixteen known satellites.
Jupiter is not only the biggest planet bur also the liveliest. It is full of mysteries and
surprises. Its highest clouds are mainly crystals of frozen ammonia gas at a temperature
of about - 1 4 0 " ~ .It is veiled in a turbulent, gaseous atmosphere made up of hydrogen
and helium with significant amounts of ammonia and methane. The atmosphere.
reaches thousands of kilometers deep to the surface. It gradually thickens into a
churning liqu~ddue to the immense pressures scientists assume that it finally turns into
a liquid metallic core. At its centre, Jupiter has a small rocky core where temperatures
probably reach 20,000"C, about three times the temperature of the Sun's surface. There
may also be iron, silicon and other heavy elements in the rocky core. Jupittr seems to
be more like the Sun in its composition than the other planets.

(a)
Fig. 11.9: (a) Jup~tcr;( h ) thc Circat Kcd Spot of Jupitcr.

The most outstancling feature on t h surface

~
of Jupiter is the Great Ked Spot shown in
Fig. 11.9 (b). It is a long oval area which is so huge that two earths. side by side, could be

Solar System

l'niverse and Life:

The Beginnings

dropped through it. Sometimes it becomes pale plnk in colour and at other times a
fiery orange red. For long, the Great Red Spot puzzled the astronomers. The Pioneer
and Voyager missions to Jupiter revealed that the Red Spot is a huge cyclonic
disturbance in the atmosphere.
Jupiter is mainly a quick-spinning ball of gas and liquid with no solid surface. It also
emits radio waves. Its composition, size and the number of moons gave rise to the idea
that Jupiter is not a planet but rather a star with a "sdar system" of its own, that did1
not start 'burning'. It is estimated that if Jupiter,were just ten times heavier, it could
have started to produce its own energy like the Sun.
Jupiter's four largest satellites, 10, Europa, Ganymede and Callisto are called the
Galilean satellites after Galileo, their discoverer. They are fascinating worlds in
themselves. Io,,of d i a m w 3240 km,is almost like a fireball'with frequent-volcanic
eruptions. Beyond 10 are Europa, diameter 3120 Km,Ganymede, diameter 4900 km
and Callisto, diameter 4U0 lan.Europa is thought to'& made-up of frozen ice.
Ganymede and Callisto have a thick icy covering on them. The remaining satellites of
Jupiter have not been so well studied.
With ammonia clouds, intense emission of radio waves, enormous storms and satellites
of fire and ice, Jupiter seems to be a most unlikely place to find life. Yet, in some ways,
conditions on the present day Jupiter are not very different from those that did
produce life on Earth about four billion years ago. Water, ammonia and methane,
considered essential to the formation of life, are all present in the atmosphere of
Jupiter. Moreover, lightning bolts continuously flash through Jupiter's clouds. Even if
only a few organic compounds aie found to exist on Jupiter, it will strengthen the idea
that life is a normal phenomenon throughout the universe.

11.4.6 Saturn-the Ringed Planet

Saturn, the sixth planet, is the last one visible to the naked eye. Its rings, visible only
through a telescope, make it the most striking and beautiful sight in the Solar System
(Fig. 11.10). On seeing Saturn through his telescope, Galileo described the planet as
having ears! These were actually three rings that girdle Saturn's equator. It is the
second largest planet, exceeded in size and mass only by Jupiter. Saturais colder than
Jupiter. The temperature at the top of its clouds is - 1 8 0 " ~ .Like Jupiter, Saturn
consists mainly of hydrogen and helium, with traces of ammonia, methane and other
compounds. Its average density is less than that of water. Thus, if we could put Saturn
in a large enough ocean, it would float!

Fig. 11.10: (a) Saturn; (b) the rings of Saturn.

The rings of Saturn are its most distinctive feature, giving it a matchless grace. The
rings are in fact a thousand tightly packed individual ringlets, like the grooves on a
gramophone record. Even the supposed gaps in the rings have been found to contain
small particles. Most astounding of all, a new outermost ring contains two strands
twisted around each other like the threads of rope. The rings are made up of large chunks
of solid matter-probably ice coated rocks.
I

Saturn, too, has at least 16 satellites orbiting it at the edge of the rings. The close-ups
of the known satellites reveal that they are icy and heavily cratered by the impact of
meteorites. Saturn's main satellite is Titan, 5800 km in diameter. It is large enough to
have been a planet by itself. It is the only satellite in our Solar System which has an
atmosphere nearly as dense as our .own. Its atmosphere is made up of 90 per cent
nitrogen gas and organic compounds such as hydrogen cyanide. But it is a very cold
world, with a surface temperature of - 184C. It is far too cold for any life as we know
it, apart from having the highly poisonous hydrogen cyanide.

Solar System

'11.4.7 Planets Beyond the Reach of the Eye

The remaining three planets Uranus, Neptune and Pluto, invisible to the unaided eye,
were discovered later.
Uranus
Uranus (Fig. 11.11) appears as a green disc with vague markings, even through the
largest telescopes. Its colour is produced by the large amounts of methane and
ammonia clouds in its outer atmosphere. The temperature of the ammonia clouds is
about -217C. Uranus is made up of gases such as hydrogen, helium and methane just
like,Jupiter and Saturn. Uranus is unique in the Solar System because its axis of
rotation is tilted at an angle of 980 to the perpendicular and lies almost in the plane of
its orbit around the Sun, with one pole sometimes pointing directly towards the Sun. It
would seem that the planet has toppled over its side, rolling along the orbit like a
wheel. Thus, the Sun shines directly on its poles. Uranus has fifteen satellites. In 1977,
.-nine faint rings of rocky debris were also discovered around Uranus.

Fig. 11.11:Uranus.

Neptune
The eigth planet, Neptune, was discoveted in 1846 by astronomer Johann Gottfried
Galle. We have already told you the story of its discovery in Sec. 8.3.4. It is so far away
that, seen from Neptune, the Sun must appear just as a bright point. Neptune's
atmosphere has methane hut no detectable ammonia. Its cloud temperature is about
-237C. Neptune is orbited by Triton, one of the biggest satellites in the Solar System.
It orbits Neptune in a clockwise drrection, i.e. opposite to the planet's own rotation. It
has an atmosphere of nitrogen and methane. It may even have an ocean of liquid
nitrogen. 'lhton is acmmpanied by a smaller satellite, ere id. In 1989, Voyager 2 passed within 35,000 km of Neptune and within 40,000 km of Triton resulting in
a significant increase in our knowIedge about Neptune and its satellites.
Pluto
Pluto's existence was also proposed to account for deviations in the orbit of Uranus.
Even after the influence of Neptune~hadbeen accounted for, an American astronomer
Percival Lowell, detected that the orbit of Uranus was still disturbed. Neptune's orbit
too showed a similar disturbances. Lowell and Pickering did some calculations to
predict the mass and radius of the orbit of Planet X which was supposed to cause these
disturbances. In 1916, Pluto was discovered in about the right place in the sky.
However, its mass turned out to be much smaller, about that of our Moon. Small, cold
and dark, Pluto is about one-fifth of the size of the Earth. Its surface is coated with
,frozen methane. In 1938, a satellite of Pluto was discovered and named Charon. Not
much is really known about Pluto.
Pluto's orbit crosses that of Neptune's. No other planetary orbits cross in this way, and
it is possible that Pluto is an escaped satellite of Neptune. Pluto's discovery had led
astronomers to believe that it was the Planet X. But now calculations show that ,the mass
of Pluto is too low to cause irregularities in. Uranus' orbit. Thus, the search for the
elusive Planet X goes on.

11.4.8 A Cloud Made of Comets

The cold outer areas beyond Pluto are the regions of comets, those visitors that dash,
around the Sun, seldom to be seen again. Comets are of grei3tinterest because they
are the relics of the early history of the Solar System. When solar matter was churning
and the Sun had just been ignited, its heat drove ,the lighter elements into the outer
reaches of the Solar Syst.em. Hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen and carbon collected into
something like snowy cotton balls and they still float as a "cloud", at a disiance of
100.000 times the distance of the Earth from the sun! This thin cloud of comets

W.H. Pickering was a

Profeshor of Physics at
Harvard University, U.S.A.

I:niverse and Life:

The Beginnings

reaches out t o a distance halfway to the nearest star, i.e. almost a few billion
kilometers.
Comets are made mainly of 'ices', that is ordinary water ice mixed with frozen gases
such as methane, carbon dioxide and ammonia. The ices are mixed with specks of dust
that makes them look like dirty snowballs. Billions of comets stay in their great cloud,
moving slowly in enormous orbits around the Sun. While still in this cloud, comets d o
not shine. Once in a while the gravity of a passing star disccrbs this cloud. A few
comets then move into interstellar space and are lost to the Solar System. Others move
towards the Sun.
Seen from the Earth, the comets shinc more brightly than anything in the sky, except
the Sun and the Moon. You may wonder how dirty looking snowballs turn into bright
long-tailed comets. As a comet moves towards the Sun, its surface is warmed by the
strengthening sunlight. Some of its frozen material turns into gas, forming a rapidly
growing cloud called its head or coma, around its centre. O n getting nearer t o the Sun,
more gas evaporates and its head becomes bigger and brighter. Also, a brilliant tail,
made of dust and gas, is pushed out of the head by the pressure of the sunlight and the
solar wind. This tail extends in a direction away from the Sun.
If comets pass very close to the Sun, they acquire enormous speeds, more than a
million kilometers per hour, and move off into space with their tails pointing ahead.
Most comets depart on long elliptical orbits, billions of kilometres into deep space, ana
remain there for thousands of years. But a few d o not escape from the Sun so easily. If
they happen to pass near a large planet, particularly Jupiter, its gravitation pushes them
into short-period orbits around the Sun. One of the most famous comets is Halley's
comet which returns once every 74 to 79 years (Fig. 11.12). It was last seen in 1986.
Sometimes fragments from the comets fall on the Earth producing meteors. Comets
returning repeatedly lose their gases each time. When all their ices melt, comets
disintegrate, leaving a stream of small particles that spreads out thinly and loses its
identity.

Fig. 11.12: Comet Halley.

SAQ 5
Give short answers in the space provided.
a) What properties of Jupiter make scientists think that it is more like a star which is
not burning'?

b)

What feature makes Saturn appear distinct among the Jovian planets? What
property of Saturn Is demonstrated by the fact it would float in water?

'

c)

What observations led to the discovery of Neptune and Pluto? Why is the search
for Planet X still on?

.................................................................................................................................................
.................................................................................................................................................
d) What are the head and tail of a comet made of?

.................................................................................................................................................
.................................................................................................................................................

In this section we have tried to give you a bird's eyeview of the Sun's family, except the
Earthtand the Moon. Let's now e k e a closer look at our planet and its satellite, the
Moon.

11.5 THE EARTH-THE MOST FAMILIAR PLANET-How do we describe the 'big ball' on which we live? Seen from space, it appears as a
bluish-white sphere. Its wealth of plant and animal life, snow covered peaks, blue
oceans and white clouds make the Earth a beautiful planet. Human beings have
explored it extensively. Yet, the first hand knowledge of the Earth is limited to a thin
shell of rock and water extending to a few kilometres below the surface, and to the
atmosphere above. However, using indirect methods, such as the study of waves
generated during earthquakes, scientists have been able to picture the Earth's interior.
without ever seeing or sampling it. We will now briefly describe the current scientific
knowledge about the Earth.
I I Z O ~ ~

(b)

Stratosphere ,
-

Fig. 11.13: (a) A cm\\-section of tlic t..orth \howin@ its

structure; (b) Earth'\ atmosphcrc: (c) thc Eartli'scr~lstis
not uniform.

Solar System

Universe and Life:

The Beginnings

Study Fig. 11.13 a ~ answer

d
the following questions.
SAQ 6
a) List the layers of the Earth's body and atmosphere in a sequence starting from its .
inner core.

b) What is the layer of air that we breathe and the part of the Earth we live on,
called?

c)

Is the crust of the Earth uniform?

The Earth's atmosphere has been studied extensively with the help of ground based
experiments, aircraft, rockets and balloons. Though it is not divided into distinct layers,
it-is helpful to think of the atmosphere in this way. The troposphere, nearest to the
surface, is made up of 78 per cent nitrogen and 21 per cent oxygen, with water vapour,
carbon dioxide, neon and argon making up most of the remaining one per cent. It has
an average temperature of about 16C at sea level and- 16OC near its top. The
stratosphere, coming next contains ozone and has a temperature ranging from - 16OC
to -4OC. This ozone layer absorbs the harmful UV radiations fron, the Sun,thus
protecting us from them. The carbon dioxide in the Earth's atmosphere traps heat and
makes it warmer through the greenhouse effect (recall Sec. 11.4.2). Were it not for
this, the Earth's surface temperature would be much lower and it would always be
covered with ice.
We will now describe, in brief, the Earth's own structure and composition. Its crust is
about 10 km thick under the oceans and about 65 km thick under the continents. If you
imagined the Earth to be apple sized, its crust would be as thick as the apple's skin, The
main elements in the crust are oxygen (47.3 per cent) and silicon (27.7 per cent).
Elements such as aluminium, iron, calcium, sodium, potassium and magnesium make
up about 23 per cent, with less than 2 per cent being made up of all other elements.

Fig. 11.14: (a) The change of seasons on the Earth results from the tilt of its axis of rotation. For half a
year, the north pole leans towards the Sun causing the Sun's rays to strike the northern hemisphere (shaded,
area) more directly. For the rest of the year the South pole leans towards the Sun and the Southern
hemisphere receives stronger sunlight. There would be no seasons on Earth if its axis of rotation were
perpendicular to the plane of its orbit; (b) tides on Earth due to Moon's presence; (c) solar eclipse. An
observer within the circle of totality will see a total eclipse, while an observer in the circle of partiality will
see only a partial eclipse; (d) lunar eclipse.

Crust is thectopmost part of a layer called lithosphere, the Earth's outer layer. The
lithosphere has lumps which we see as mountains, and wrinkles in the form of trenches
in the ocean. Beneath the crust, the bulk of the Earth's interior is hot and partially
molten.
Let us briefly discuss our day-to-day experiences on the Earth, for example, the Earth's
rotation on its axis, once every 24 hours, gives it a 24 hours day and night. The reeu1ar
seasons on the Earth result from tl~efact, that the Earth's axis of rotation is tilted at an
angle to the normal. If it were almost along the normal, like the axes of rotation of
some other planets, there would be no seasonal changes on the Earth (Fig. 11.14a).
The Earth's rotatim on its ax& a i d revolution around the Sun ' M e s ii appcar as if the
Sun, stars and planets were moving in the sky Then there are phenomena like tides in
the sea or ocean, and solar and lunar eclipses (Figs. ll.l4b,c,d). These are caused by
the presence of me Moon, a satelliteof the Earth. k t ' s find our-more about the Moon.
The Moon, the Earth's Companion
What do you norrqally observe about the Moon? Itshinesbrightest, whenever present
in the night sky. It seems to go through phases and it seems to present the same side
toward the Earth always. Let's first explain these observations. The Moon appears to
be the brightest night object, because it is the nearest to the Earth. Its phases occur
because of its revolution around the Earth (see Fig. 11.15a). It revolves in an elliptical
orbit round the Earth, once in 27.33 days. In the same time, it rotates once on its axis.
Thus, we always see the same face of the Moon from the Earth.
The Moon is the only other heavenly body on which human beings have landed. They
have spent only a shdrt period, though, a total of only 13 days. They brought back
samples of lunar rock and soil and much more information about the Moon which we'll

waxing ' 1st Quarter

Waxinn

C--

Sunlight

3rd Quarter

rn

Fig. 11.15: (a) Phases of Moon; (b) far siide of the

briefly describe. The Moon's surface has flat dark expanses called maria (seas), big and
small aat$as,,mountabis and-qalleys. It also hasrilles, i.e., channels such as theones
made on.the Earth by the cutting action of water in a river bed. There are also
dome-like structures made of concentric mountain rings.
The Moon rocks and soil are almost similar to the earth rocks and soil. However, they
are older and contain much higher levels of some elements like titanium and lack
elements like sodium and potassium. The lunar soil has the texture of fine damp sand.
Unlike its face, the far side of the Moon has no seas, mountains or valleys (Fig.
11.15b). It has only uniformly distributed craters. The temperature of the Moon
ranges from 130C in areas directly under the Sun, to - 170C on its night side. It has
neither water nor any atmosphere. About three billion years ago the Moon's interior
'cooled. Since then, it has changed very little and has settled down to a quiet existence.

Solar System

Universe and Life:

The Beginnings

Though the Moon is a dead world, it is of interest to us. Its mysteries are not fully
understood yet. It awaits further exploration.

SAQ 7
a) The Moon has a period of revolution of 27.33 days and presents almost the same
'face' toward the Earth at all times.
Therefore, which of the following is true:
1) its period of rotation is 29.5 days.
ii) its period of rotation is 27.33 days.
iii) it does not rotate.
b) Why is the Moon a dead world'!

Having learnt so much about the Solar System, don't you wonder how it wes formed,
how it came to be what it is? We will now describe the theory that seems to explain
best the observations about the Solar System.

11.6 FORMATION OF THE SOLAR SYSTEM

This theory is based on the assvmption that the Sun and all the planets were formed
- .
from a huge rotating cloud df interstellar gas and dukusee Fig. 11.16).For some
reasons, the cloud started contracting. The contraction was hastened by its gravitational
I

(el

(f)

Fig. 11.16: Sketch showing a theory about the formation of Solar System.

pull. Tlle cloud continued to contract (Fig. L1.16a). It also started rotating faster and
became disc shaped (Fig. 11.16b). More and more'matter contracted towards the
centre of the disc, forming the star to be-the new Sun. The temperature of this star
rose due to contraction until it started generating its own energy (Fig. 11.16~).
Revolving around the Sun was a disc of gas and dust from which the planets condensed
(Fig. 11.16d). In this revolving disc, the lighter elements were thrown towards the
periphery and heavier elements concentrated inwards. A s the Sun's energy increased,
the gas shells around the inner planets were driven off and only cores of heavier
elements in the cloud remained (Fig. 11.16e). The outer planets were less affected.
Finally, the bright star's radiation removed the last of the system's free gases and a
mixed array of planets remained (Fig. 11.169. The smaller, solid ones were near the
star and the much larger gaseous ones farther away. The Earth was the third planet.

The Early History of the Earth

The Earth has been evolving and changing ever since its origin, about 4.5 billion years
ago. In the first tens of millions of years of the Earth's evolution, the impact of small
bodies, gravitation, squeezing together of matter and some other factors heated it. This
caused some of its constituents to melt. Iron melted before most of the silicates. Since it
was heavier it tended to sink toward the centre, torcing up the Lighter sil~catestowards
the surface, just as hot air rises over a stove. As the iron descended, the Earthls surface
heaved and huge bubbles formed, with volcanoes exploding through it and lava flowing
over large parts of it. There were violent storms too. At last most of the iron reached
the centre, where it accumulated as the core. Slowly, the Earth cooled and quietened
down. Then, a thin shell of solid rock was formed on its surface. The rock shell
accumulated as the initial continents at the top of [he lithosphere, like huge rafts. These
initial continents drifted about for billions of years. Scientists believe that they formed a
supercontinent, which, about 200 million years ago began to drift apart to become the
present continents (Fig. 11.17).

PRESENT

('
In M I L L I O N Y E A R S
F R O M NOW

-- --

Fig. 11.17: Drift of continents.

Solar System

Universe and Life:

The Beginnings

An ordinary oxygen molecule has

two oxygen atoms in it.

The Sun's radiation had removed the gases from the Earth's surface, so the early Earth
had no atmosphere. Water vapour, carbon dioxide, methane and ammonia were
-released from the molten mass and volcanic eruption and they formed the initial
atmosphere. The UV rays from the Sun broke up water into its constituents, hydrogen
and oxygen. Being a light gas, hydrogen escaped from the Earth. Oxygen combined
with ammonia and methane to form water, nitrogen, carbon dioxide and other
compounds. Higher up three atoms of oxygen combined to form ozone molecules and
so the ozone layer was formed at the same time. As the Earth cooled further, water
vapour in the atmosphere became condensed, and it fell as rain to fill the huge craters
on the Earth.
About four billion years ago, a much more remarkable process began on the Earth.
This was the first feeble start of life. Paradoxically, the same U V rays that would kill
most modern creatures today, helped the beginnings of life. You will read more about
this in Unit 12.

The Earth has a special relationship with the Sun. Life on Earth would not have
survived, but for the Sun It is a steadv source of energy tor all basic processes that
sustain life. Also the Earth's distance from the Sun is such as to produce a climate that
was and still is quite mild, conducive to our kind of life. You will understand this
relationship better, once you read Units 12 and 14.
So far we have discussed various features of the Sun, the planets and their satellites,
asteroids and comets, andthe formation of the Solar System. It is appropriate that we
now analyse some myths and mirjconceptions associated with their influence on our
lives.

11.7 SOME MYTHS AND MISCONCEPTIONS

Recall from Units 2 and 9, how our ancestors watched the Sun and the stars, and from
their movements predicted the changes in season and the timing of floods. They could
also relate the ocean tides to the Moon's apparent changes of shape. There were
planets too in the sky. Only five of them could be seen-Mercury, Venus, Mars, Jupiter
and Saturn. If the Sun'could bring summer and winter, and the Moon move the oceans,
why would the planets not have power over earthly affairs?

Out of this wrong, but natural conviction grew astrology. The idea started developing
that a person's future was determined by which constellations the planets were in at the
moment of his or her birth. The motion of the planets was believed to determine the
fates of kings, dynasties and empires. Astrologers studied the motion of planets
accurately. They would know what had happened, the last time that, say, Mars was
rising in the Constellation of the Lion. Perhaps a similar thing would happen again.
And, thus, they would tell kings when to attack a neighbouring state. If the position of
thc 'war gods' Saturn and Mars were 'unfavourable', they might advise the king to
postpone his campaign. A good way to overthrow a regime was to predict its downfall!
And if planets could determine the fate of nations, they could also influence the events
in a person's life. Thus, astrology grew into a strange combination of observations and
mathematics, with illogical thinking. Nevertheless, with time, astrologers came to be
patronised by the State. This led to an increase in the influence of 'astrology, which
continues to this day all over the world. But a precise cause and effect relationship
between the movements of planets and human beings has never been scientifically
established. I n fact a critical analysis of astrological beliefs would show you that they
re totally unscientific; they can be disproved in the light of the day to day events.

Activity

Compare a few clippings from different newspapers of the same day, which have
columns predicting events in the lives of persons belonging to various zodiacal signs.

I
1

You will notice that each one says a different thing, in an equally vague manner. You
will also find that none of the events occurring in your life in the following week were
predicted by any of them with any certainty! Similarly, in our society, many wild beliefs
and superstitions are associated with the occurrence of solar eclipses, the appearance of
comets, etc. Now that you have some idea about our Solar System, we hope you realise
that these notions have no rational basis.

11.8 SUMMARY
In this unit we'have briefly described some of the major characteristics of the Solar
Syslem, i.e., the Sun. theplarrets and their satrllites, tl~easteroids and cornets.
The formation of the Solar System and the early history of the Earth have also
been discussed.
We have tried to analyse how, many of the myths and misconceptions about the
influcncc o f ~ l h e t on
s hr~manlives arose and show that Uxre is no rational basis
of such ideas.

11.9 TERMINAL QUESTIONS

1) ,List two properties that distinguish the terrestrial planets from the Jovian planets.

.................................................................................................................................................
2) The maximum surface temperature of Venus is greater than that of Mercury even
thotlg11 it is farther away from the Sun. IIow docs.ihis 1!appcna?

3) Why d o some comets return frequently near the Sun?

Put the various steps in the formation of Solar System listed below in their proper
sequence by numbering them from 1 to 4.
;..........
i) As matter contracted towards the disc's centre, the Sun was born .............
ii) Gases in the inner planets were driven away leaving them as solid; the outer
planets remained gaseous ........................................................................................
iii) A huge rotating interstellar gas cloud started contracting and after a while
became disc shaped ...................... .
.
.......................................................................
iv) The planets condensed from the cloud of gas and dust surrounding the Sun .....

5) List three teatures which distinguish the carly Earth from the present day Earth.

11.18 ANSWERS

--

Self Assessmerit Questions

1 ) The Sun. thc nine planets and thcir hatellitch, asteroids and comcth.

2) a) Hvdropcn, helium

~ d v & mnd Life:

The Beginnings

The hydrogen nuclei fuse together to form helium nuclei giving off energy.
About 5 billion years.
It will become a white dwarf and eventually a black dwarf.
The movement of sunspots on the Sun's photosphere.
Increase and decrease of sunspots, solar wind, solar flare.
Because of the clouds on Venus.
Its 24-hour day, changing seasons, ice caps on its poles; white clouds and dust
storms in its atmosphere.
Because they are believed to be chunks of solar material which could not form
into a planet, like the rubble of a collapsed building.
A meteorite is a heavenly object that strikes the Earth's surface; a meteor is a
streak of light produced in the atmosphere when a particle of cosmic dust or
any other object from space enters it.
The size, composition, density and the large number of satellites of Jupiter.
Saturn's rings; its average density is l ?ss than water.
The path of Uranus showed deviations. Because the deviations in the paths of
Uranus and Neptune cannot be explained with Pluto's presence alone.
Head- water ice mixed with frozen methane, carbon dioxide and ammonia;
tail: dust and gas.
inner core; outercore; mantle, crust; troposphere, stratosphere, upper
atmosphere.
troposphere, crust
No, it has mountains and trenches tilled with oceans.
ii b) It has neither atmosphere nor water to sustain life.
Tenninal Questions
1) Composition, density
2) Greenhouse effect. You can explain it.
3) They acquire short period orbits if they pass near a big planet, like Jupiter or
Saturn, because of its gravitational pull.
4) i) 2 ii) 4 iii) 1 iv) 3
5) Much higher temperatures and violent conditions, no atmosphere, no life.

UNIT 10 MPLORlNG THE UNIVERSE

Structure
10.1 Introduction
Objectives

10.2 Probing the Universe

Visible and Invisible Radiations
In Pursuit of Starl'ght
Tuning in on the Lars
Messengers from the Sky
Ventures in Space

10.3 Understanding the Universe

Let Us Know about Stars
The Life Story of a Star
The Expanding Universe
Closing in on Creation

10.4 Summary
10.5 Terminal Questions
10.6 Answers

10.1 INTRODUCTION
In Unit 9 you had a brief glimpse of what the universe is made up of. You know that
the universe has a structure. Seen on a large distance scale, it is made up of
superclusters which are groups of large clusters. Clusters contain anything from a few,
to a few thousand galaxies. The galaxies are, in turn, made up of stars and clouds of gas
and dust. Our own star, the Sun, is an ordinary star in the Milky Way Galaxy, one
among 100 billion stars. It is surrounded by nine planets including the Earth, that move
around it.While reading all this, did you not wonder how we came to know about the
structure of the universe in such detail? Because, all we can see by our unaided eyes are
the few thousand stars scattered in the sky.

In this unit we are going to satisfy your curiosity on this count. We will describe the
various techniques and instruments that have helped us in gathering information about
the universe. But the information gathered is of no use if it cannot be analysed
systematically and used to develop an understanding of the universe. This is what
thousands of scientists all over the world are doing everyday. They take the bits and
pieces of information from here and there and try to paint a coherent picture of the
enigma that our universe is. We will try to pfesent this picture before you, in as simple
a way as possible. As we explore the universe, we may come across many puzzles that
are rather difficult to solve. However, there is a tiny part in this whole universe that we
understand a little better than the rest. That tiny part is the Solar System. In the next
unit, we will tell you about the Solar System.

Objectives
After studying thisunit you should be able to:
enumerate the various astronomical methods of exploring the universe, and explain
how these methods are put to use to gather information,
describe our current knowledge of the stars-their distances, brightness,
temperature, motion etc.,
explain, in a simple manner, how stars evolve,
describe the prevalent theories about the origin and evolution of the universe
alongwith the supporting evidence, if any.

10.2 PROBING THE UNNERSE

I

'Now, my own suspicion is that the universe is not only queerer than we suppose, but
queerer than we can suppose'.

C ~ ~ i t e r sand
e Life:
The Beginnings

J.B.S. Haldanc (1892-1964)

was a British biologist who '
hecame an Indian citi7en. and
~ t t l c din Cuttack, Orissa.
j ' u u will read about his work
in L'ltit 12.

This remark of Haldane, a famous scientist, reflects, in a way, what most of us feel
about this subject. The universe is a rather difficult subject to study. We cannot bring it
to the laboratory to carry out experiments on it. We cannot compare,it with any other
universe, this is the only universe we have. And finally, we are a part of it. We can
study it only from within. We cannot go out of it and look at it from the outside.
So, how do we study it? It is here that the scientific method comes to our aid. You
must understand that the study of the universe is a rather special example of the
method of science, as we cannot experiment on it. However, the observations that we
make about it provide us with an enormous amouit of information that we can analyse
and interpret in terms of the known laws of nature. Based on these laws, various
theories and models of the universe are given by scientists.
Observations are the pillars on which models and theories are based. You may ask:
What observations can be made about the universe? And how are they made? We will
now answer these questions. Wc will not discuss the underlying principles of Ihc
methods and instruments in detail. Our*
is to give you an idea of the vast variety ot
tools and methods ava.ilable tor making observations about the universe.
Most of what we know about the universe has been learnt from a study of light, heat
and other radiations like the radiowaves, X-rays, gamma rays etc. coming from the Sun
and the stars. These radiations are detected by special instrumznts \ct up at
astronomical observatories on the Earth and in orbit around the Earth. In the last few
decades, we have been able to send
to the neighbouring world\. Many men
have also visited the Moon and brought a lot of lunar material for study. 7'hu\, there
are a variety of ways for making observations and collecting information ahout thc
universe. However, before describing these methods, we will explain to you \om;
features of the radiations from space that bring the secrets of the universe-right to our
doorstep.

10.2.1 Visible and Invisible Radiation

1,ight is very much a part of our existence. Without it we cannot see; It Iends colour
to the world around us. Light is also termed as visible radiation. There are other kinds
e termed invisible radiations.
of radiations in nature, that we cannot s e e . ' ~ h e s are
Some examples of invisible radiations are the infrared and ultravioler radiations,
radiowaves, X-rays and gamma rays. We may c6me across all these radiations in our
lives. For example, infrared (IR) radiation is given out b\y warm objects, such as our
bodies, room heaters, buildings and the Earth after a warm day. Rattlesnakes dctcct
infrared radiation very well. Ultraviolet (UV) radiation can kill germs. It is invisible'to
us but can be detected by bumblebees. Radiowaves are.emitted by TV and radio
broadcasting stations and are received by our TV o r radio sets through the antennas.
Thus, they are useful in communication. They can also be detected by bats. X-rays are
used in medicine, gamma rays aie us@ in cancer treatment and are also emitted in
nuclear explosions.
All these radiations-the gamma ray, the X-rays, ultraviolet rays, light, infrared rays,
and radiowaves-are useful in astronomy. Actually they are different forms of the sanle
kind of radiation called the electromagnetic radiation. Electromagnetic radiation is a
form of energy. There are other forms of energy with which you must be familiar, like
heat, sound or the energy stored in thespring of a watch. We usually think of
electromagnetic radiation as being made up of waves that travel with the speed of light
in vacuum. Now, the simplest examples of waves that you may know are waves of
water in a pond or sea, waves on a string. You may have seen waves on a curtain
fluttering in the air. Some people have wavy hair. We will not go here into the details of
what waves are, or the special nature of electromagnetic waves. For details, you may
like to refer to the books listed at the end of the block.
But clearly, from their description given above, the various kinds of electromagnetic
radiation do not seem to be alike. What is the difference between each of them?

The difference lies in their wavelengths and hence in the energy they carry.

What do we mean by the wavelength of a wave? Study Fig. 10.1 to understand this.
This is the usual way of showing a wave. The distance between two successive crests

(hills) or two successive troughs (valleys) is defined as its wavelength. It is measured in

metres. The curve marked OABCD is called one cycle. The frequency of a wave is
defined as the number of cycles it travels in a second. It is then measured in terms of
cycles per second (cps) or Hertz. The product of the wavelength A and the frequency
f of an electromagnetic wave is equal to its speed c:

Exploring the Universe

The symbol h is a Greek letter

profiouiCededas'lambda' with
'b' silent.

~ i g ' .10.1: Sketch of a wave showing its wavelength.

Thus, if we know any two of these parameters, we can determine the third. The energy
E carried by a wave of frequency f is given as:
E=hf=hc/ A
where h is a constant number, known as Planck's constant. Thus, the higher the
frequency of a wave or the lower its wavelength, the more energy it can carry across
space. UV rays, X-rays and gamma rays carry huge amounts of energy. Therefore,
constant exposure to them can prove very harmful. Luckily most of these harmful
radiations are cut off by the Earth's atmosphere. All kinds of electromagnetic
radiations arranged according t o their wavelengths, constitute the electromagnetic
spectrum. (Fig. 10.2)

Mountain Office
building
TYPE

OF

Human

Thumb Pinhead Dust Bacteria Virus

Radiowaves
A

lnfra red
I

'Iy

RADIATION

UV

Atom
Xrays

Atomic
nucleus
Gamma rays

.-ly
Visible (red, orange. yellow, green, blue, violet)

WAVE

LENGTH
106

(ems)

10s

104

103 102

101 10 10-1 10-2 10-3 10-4 10-5 10-6

10-7

10-8 10-0 10-10lo-" 10-12jO-13

Fig. 10.2: Electromagnetic spectrum. Thc unshaded arcas show thc radio window, and the optical
t ) 8.0 X 1
0 %m. (red) wavelcngths. Objccts shown in
window which ranges from 4.0 ~ ' l ~ - ~ c m : ( v i o l cto
the figure arc of the same ~imensionsas the corrcsponding wavclcngths.

SAQ 1
a) An announcement of the day on any AIR station may start like this:
This is All India Radio. You aretuned lo the medium wave band at 375 metres.
that is 800 kilohertz.
What is the wavelength and frequency of the wave t o which you have tunccl the
radio? In what region of the electromagnetic spectrum does it lie?

Universe and I.ife:

The &Binning

b)

Calculate the speed of radio waves mentioned in part:(a) in this SAQ?

.................................................................................................................................................

c) What is the range of wavelengths and frequencies used for broadcasts made on

radio? You may read the markings on a radio set .......X ..................................................
d) What are the waves with lowest wavelengths called? ...............................................:......
e) What is the wavelength of the longest radiowaves? .........................................................
Light is the radiation to which human eyes arc sensitive, i.e., our eyes can.detect visible
radiation. However, it fohns only a tiny part of the electromagnetic.spectrum.The
colours in white light o r light from the Sun can be seen when it is sent through a prism
which splits it into the familiar spectrum of rainbow colours-violet, indigo, blue, green,
yellow, orange and red. By definition, each colour of visible light has a specific
wavelength, the violet light having the shortest and red light the longest.
Cosmic objects emit radiations of all wavelengths. For instance, visible light forms only
40% of the Sun's radiation. The rest is made up of the other kinds of electromagnetic
radiation. However, as these radiations fall on the Earth, all except light and
radiowaves get absorbed in its atmosphere. Only the visible light waves and radiowaves
penetrate the atmosphere to reach the Earth's surface. These are, therefore, referred to
as the two windows to the universe. We can view the-wavelengths lying outside these
windows only if we move out of the Earth's atmosphere.

SAQ 2
a) What is the range of wavelengths for which electromagnetic radiation is visible to
our eyes? Calculate the frequency of the violet and red colours.
b) Which colour of light cames more' energy, blue or green?
c) What wavelengths of the electromagnetic radiation reach the surface of the Earth?

Now that you have some idea of the various kinds of radiations coming from the stars,
let us see what different methods astronomers use to collect them. We start with a
discussion on how light from the stars is collected.

10.2.2 In Pursuit of Starlight

The easiest method of studying light from a cosmic object is to collect it through a
i c are exposed for
telescope and record it on a photographic plate. ~ h o t o g r a ~ hfilms
long periods of time-sometimes night after night-to the light being collected by a
telescope aimed at distant stars. Since the Earth rotates on its axis, the stars appear to
move in the sky. The telescope is rotated following the daily movement of the stars at
which it is aimed. Thus, its movement is synchronised with the movement of the stars
being studied, stars, far too faint for human eyes, slowly begin to register on the plate.
This method of collecting and investigating light from the cosmos is called optical
astronomy.
Over the centuries, astronomers have refined the telescope from the first crude lenses
of Galilee's day to giant 'telescopes in use today. Three simple pieces of glass, the lens,
the mirror and the prism over the period of a few hundred years. have turned into
sophisticated and powerful tools in human hands. Shouldn't we marvel at the ingenuity
of the human mind'?
As of today, a huge optical telescope called the Hubble space telescope. after Edwin
IIubble, is in orbit around the earth. Several large telescopes are stationed in the USA,
Hawaii, Australia, Chile, Russia, U.K.etc. In India the major optical observatories are at
Nainital, Gurusild~ar(Near Mount Abu), Udaipur, Japal Rangapur (near Hyderabad),
Kavalur and Kodai Kanal. Many smaller telescopes scan the skies every night, adding to
our knowledge of the cosmos.
There are many other ways of learning about the heavens than by just studying the light
coming from them. One of them is radio astronomy. Nowadays, scientists use very
scrlsitive radio telescopes to tune in on the cosmic objects and study them. Let us see
what this method is.

10.2.3 Tuning in on the Stars

Exploring the iini\er\c

The fact that stars emit radiowaves was discovered accidentally in 1932 by a young
engineer Karl Jansky. He was trying to find the source of noise in a transatlantic
telephonic link. He made an experimental radio receiver set to study this problem. To
his surprise, he found that the disturbance was due to radiowaves coming from the
Milky Way Galaxy. This w2s the beginning of radio astronomy, i.e. the study of cosmic
objects through radiowaves emitted by them. The radio telescope, a basic tool of radio
astronomy, collects radiations from space in the radiowave region. One of the largest
radio telescopes in the world was designed and set up by Indian astronomers at
Ootacamund. The other radio telescopes in India are stationed at Gulmarg,
Ahmedabad, Gauribidanur near Bangalore.
Radio telescopes may be tuned to receive radiowaves of the desired wavelength in the
same way as we tune a radio to receive only the station we want. Radio telescopes not
only give a 'view' of the invisible universe, but can also probe much deeper into space
when compared with optical telescopes. Radiowaves can propagate through dust clouds
in space, just as radio signals on the Earth can penetrate cloudy or foggy weather.
Thus, they enable'radio astronomers to construct images of regions completely hidden
from the view of optical telescopes. However, radio telescopes normally receive
radiation within a narrow band of wavelengths.
Radio telescopes have led to the discovery ot hundreds of cosmic objects that emit
radiowaves. Most of these could be identified with the objects seen by optical
telescopes. With the help of radio telescopes objects like pulsars were discovered.
Pulsars are stars that send out pulses of light and radiowaves in regular bursts. For
example, a pulsar in the centre of the Crab nebula at a distance of 6000 light years
from the Earth sends out bursts of light and radiowaves 30 times a second.
Certain radio sources like 3~273,detected by radio telecopes and later examined by
optical telescopes, were named quasars (Fig. 10.3). Quasar. an abbreviation of
'quasi-stellar radio source', is a star-like object situated billions of light years away.
Not all quasars are radio sources. Since the electromagnetic waves from quasars are
being detected on the Earth, they must be sending out huge amounts of energy.
Quasars are comparatively small in size, only about a light month across. That is, if you
imagined the Milky Way Galaxy to be a football field, a quasar would appear like a
grain of sand. But it emits 100 times more energy than the entire Milky Way Galaxy.

Fig. 10.3: A quasar.

Scientists have also found that many elliptical galaxies that seemed unimportant when
seen throug6 optical telescopes, were powerful sources of radiowaves. These galaxies
were named radio galaxies. Often, the centre of a galaxy is a powerful source of
radiowaves. Violent movements of huge quantities of matter and gas take place in the
central part of the galaxies, emitting radiowaves in the process. Radio telescopes also
showed that organic molecules exist in interstellar space.
SAQ 3
a) List four features which distinghish a radio telescope from the optical telescope.

.................................................................................................................................................
b) What new discoveries could be made with the help of radio telescopes?

10.2.4 Messengers from the Sky

Light and radiowaves are not the only messengers from tht: sky t o our planet Earth.
There are others; like the meteorites entering the Earth's atmosphcrc from time to
time. They bring us many messages about the cosmic ohjcct\ frorn which they were
chipped off. Earth is also constantly bombarded by cosmic ray\ which, as you've read
earlier. are beams of electrons. proton5 and helium nuclc~tt.it cruise through spac, at
very high speeds, approaching the speed of light. Their orlgln and their travel through
space is a puzzle that scientists have not yet been able to solve completely. Onv- it is

A dc5crlptlon ot meteorrtcs
h . ~ \hccn elvcn ~n scc I 1.4.
of Unit I I.

27

l'niverse a n d Life:
T h e Beginnings

solved, we will get to know a lot more about interstellar gas clouds, the stars and the
galaxies.

10.2.5 Ventures in Space

Sometimes the atmospheric conditions distort the light or radiowaves coming in from
space. For instance, there may be a storm disturbing the radiowaves. Or clouds may
obscure light. Then it is not possible to study the universe in these regions of the
electromagnetic spectrum. Even otherwise, modern science and technology have given
astronomers several new ways and means of probing the universe. We will briefly
describe each one of them.
Observatories in Space
With the coming of the Space Age, observatbri&equipped with telescopes and
cameras could be placed right in space, beyond the Earth's atmosphere. An
observatory in space may be in the form of an orbiting satellite like the Unmanned
Orbiting Solar Observatories, Orbiting Astronomical Observatory, Skylab, Einstein
Observatory, IRAS (Infra Red-Astronomy Satellite) and many others. An observatory
may also be stationed on the Moon or any other planet having suitable temperature and
other conditions. Instruments are also put aboard high flying balloons, rockets and
aircrafts to record observations. These observatories can record radiation from a
cosmic object in the regions of the spectrum such as the IR, UV, gamma rays and
X-rays that do not penetrate the Earth's atmosphere.
Visiting the Neighbouring Worlds
As space research came of age, it became possible for us to send spacecraft to other
planets and even land men and instruments on the Moon. These ventures also provided
a rich stock of information about the Solar System. For instance, astronauts of the
Apollo mission to the Moon in tne nineteen wventies brought back lllnar rocks and soil
samples, photograplis of the lunar surface' and Ieft several instruments there for further
study.
We have been able to send spacecraft, also called probes, across the Solar System to
know more about our planetary neighbours. Space probes have visited a number of
planets and a host of their moons, and jsuccessfully landed and operated on the surfaces
of Mars and Venus.

The American spacecraft, Pioneer-10, Jcrossed the orbit of Neptune in 1983, and, thus,
became the first man-made object to lepve the Solar System. With the hklp of
observations from the Earth and the dqta sent by these probes, scientists have been
able to arrive at a better theoretical understanding of the origin and evolution of the
Solar System. We will present this information about the Solar System derived from
observations in Unit 11.
SAQ 4
a) What is the difference between the Einstein Observatory and the probe
Pioneer- lo?

b) What other ways than the space.observatories ,and space probes, have been used to
collect information about the universe from beyond the Earth's surface?

.................................................................................................................................................
To sum up, in this section we have given you a bird's eye view of the wide variety of
tools and methods that astronbmers use to make observations about the universe, We
gave this brief description so that you may appreciate the importance of observations in
astronomy. The'universe is far more complex than we can imagine. Whatever
hypotheses or theories we come out with, must be validated by observations. This is the
reason why astronomers devise newer and better.techniques of observation, to know
more about the universe, to test their hypotheses and theories.
At this point, wc advise you to take a break! Have a cup of tea or coffee and review
what you have studied so far.

Exploring the Universe

10.3 UNDERSTANDING THE UNIVERSE

So far you have studied how infolrmation about the universe is collected.'lt is stored
mainly in the form of photographs of the cosmic objects, and spectra of their light. The
other radiations coming in from space are recorded in various ways. This information is
analysed and interpreted to construct theories about the universe and the objects that
constitute it.
The hypotheses and theories about the universe and its constituents are always open to
change in the light of new discoveries. Quite often a given theory may turn out to be
wrong. Observed data may also be misinterpreted. In fact, a given theory may never
agree hundred percent with the observations about the universe. A good scientific
theory about the universe is one that is extremely close to all relevant observations. A t
the other extreme are tentative and speculative theories. We will now present some
theories and concepts which represent the best possible understanding of stars, galaxies
and the universe as a whole. Let us see what can be known about stars on the basis of
the information obtained.

10.3.1 Let Us Know about Stars

The point-like stars have always presented astronomy with many questions such as:
Where are the stars? How bright are they really? What is their temperature, size, age,
etc.? What are they made up of? The developments in astronomy have provided
astronomers with an ability to interpret starlight correctly and answer such questions.

Where are the Stars?

Astronomers use various methods to measure the distances to stars. For determining
the distances to nearby stars, the method of stellar parallax is used (see Fig. 9.6). For
stars farther away, more sophisticated methods are used. We will not go into their
details. The distance to astronomical objects situated very far away is found by
measuring the 'red shift' of their spectral lines. As far away objects, such as galaxies
and quasars, move away from us, the lines in their optical spectra are shifted towards
the red end. This shift can be measured and their distances calculated by using
appropriate formulae.
Fingerprinting the Stars
Maximum information about starlight can be derived from its spectrum. When a
lens-sized prism is put over the front (or objective) end of a telescope, each star can be
seen as a colourful spectrum. We can place a photographic film at the focal plane of
the lens-sized prism. Then it becomes possible to register the spectrum of starlight.
Ironically, the astronomer sees the spectra, not as brilliant rainbows, but as black and
white patterns shown in Fig. 10.4. Each star has its own characteristic spectrum-a
fingerprint of its individual personality. From its spectrum, we can learn what elements
a star is made up of, what its temperature is, how bright it is, how fast it is moving etc.
-

!
i

Stellar Motion
Stars are not fixed in the heavens. They are moving within the galaxies. The speed of a
star moving toward or away from the Earth is indicated by a shift of its spectral lines. If
a star is approaching the Earth, its lines shift towards the blue end of the spectrum. If it
is moving away from the Earth, its lines shift towards the red end of the spectrum. The
greater the star's speed, the more its lines shift.

You have read that there are many kinds of stars-blue, yellow or red, normal or giant,
pulsating or releasing excessive energy. Most stars nlove together in groups. Only one
out of four stars may travel alone. Of the rest, almost a third are double stars and the
rest are groups of many stars. In a double star system, known as a binary, two stars
orbit one another. In a triple system; there are three stars-all three may move around
each other, or two of them may move around the third. Then there are loose clusters,
with a few dozen stars, to the large globular clusters containing hundreds of thousands
of stars, all moving in many possible ways.

SAQ 5
List four pieces of information that can be deduced by analysing the fingerprint of a
star i.e. the spectrum of its light.

IRON

(b)
~ i ~ (a)
. The
composition of a star is found
by identifying thc pattern of
lines cast across its bpectrurn
by its chemical clement.,.
(b) The temperature of a star is

: , h ~ ~ ~ ~ C

liner
highcr tcmpcratures have
fcwcr Iincs, as in uppcr
spcctrurn.

L'nlversc and Life:

The Beginnings

Having studied the stars in t a m s of their distances, colour, brightness, motion etc.,
astronomers and astrophysicists have turned dore a'nd more to questions like: How did
the stars come to be as they are? The search for answers has revealed a grand picture ,
of stellar evolution. This picture tells us the story of how a star is born, how it evolves
and how it dies. We can now explqin the diversity of stars as also the unusual species
of stars, simply as different stages in the lives of normal stars.
But. in this brief observation span of a few decades, how has it been possible to
construct the story of stellar evolution which takes place at a time scale of millions and
billions of years? How this is done can be seen by a simple analogy. Suppose a visitor
from outer space arrives on Earth for one hour and wants to know about us within that
time. He lands his spaceship in a busy place and hurriedly videotapes the people there.
After heparting he looks at the tape. He observes that the majority of the people are of
the same size, but some are quite small, some are so tiny that they need to be camed.
Still others, although of normal size, walk bent over with the help of canes. Being
intelligent, our visitor soon realises that he is observing an ageing process: people are
born very tiny, they grow up and spend most of their lives as active adults, and eventually
they become old. Since the old people are few in number, he concludes that in the end
they die.
Astronomers are in the same position with regard to the stars as our visita from
outside is with regard to people on the Earth. In a relatively short span of time,
astr,onomershave observed more than a million stars. They have taken detailed spectra
of their light, measured the brightness and surface temperatures. By carefully analysing
this information they have deduced the story of stellar evolution. We will now relate
this story.

10.3.2 The Life Story of a Star

A young star is thought to be composed largely of hydrogen gas. Hence, the most likely
place for a star to be born is in one of the numerous clouds of hydrogen gas that exist
in the interstellar space. Stars are now believed to form inside large dense interstallar
clouds of gas. It may happen that for some reasons, not fully known so far, a gas 'cloud
starts contracting. Under the influence of gravitational pull of the gas, its contraction
may continue further. Once such a process begins, a very large volume of gas clouds is
affected. As gravity pulls in the clouds, the pressure in the cloud increases. Also, as the
cloud contracts, the temperature at its. centre increases. At this stage, it is called a
protostar.
When the temperature becomes sufficiently high (about 4 million degrees centigrade),
a nuclear reaction starts in the protostar, in which the hydrogen nuclei fuse together to
make helium nuclei (see Fig. 10.5). In this process a large amount of energy is
released. The energy travels to the surface of the star and is radiated in the form of
light, heat and other electromagnetic radiation. This energy creates an outward
pressure and force. The contraction of the star stops oqly when the inward pull of
gravity is balanced by the outward force of this radiant energy. At such a time the star
becomes stable in size and temperature.
The Sun has been in such a stable situation for the past 5 billion years. Nuclear
reactions in the Sun convert about four hundred million tons (4X10t4grns) of
hydrogen into helium every second. It is expected that the Sun will remain in thk state
for another 5 billion years.
Fig. 10.5: An lmaglnary
'howlnl!
Ihc nuclear
f u w n proccc\ In \tam.

30

As the star consumes a significant percentage of the hydrogen fuel in its core, the
nuclear reaction decreases and the outforce of the radiant e n e m weakens. The core of
the star further contracts because its gravitational pull becomes more than the
out-force of radiant energy.
But this raises the temperature of the core. Meanwhile, the hydrogen nuclei 'burn' in
the outer layer or shell surrounding the core. The extra heat from the core as well as
the heat generated in the outer layers cause the star's outer region to 'boil' and expand.
The star becomes big and its brightness increases. But, as the outer layer expands

farther away from the nuclear furnace, its temperature falls. The puffed-up star Looks
red and cool. If it is many times more massive than the Sun, it becomes a red super giant
like the Betelgeuse. If it is sun-sized or only slightly more massive than the Sun, it
becomes a slightly swollen red giant.

Exploring the'tlrirorw

The red giant stage of a star is a relatively short stage. I n this stage, the star consumes ~ t s
hydrogen at a v e j fast rate, piling'up helium in its core. As the fuel burns, the core
contracts further, producing temperatures as high as 100 million"^. At this point the
helium nuclei in the core fuse together in another nuclear reaction to form carbon
nuclei. This is a critically unstable moment in a star's life with two layers of the star
burning at the same time-an outer layer where hydrogen is being turned into helium
and inner core where helium is being turned into carbon. Hereafter the fate of the star
depends on the mass of its core. We will merely describe the process without going into
the reasons.
If the mass of the core is less than 1.4,, where M, is the Sun's mass, the contraction of
the core halts when it is about the size of the Earth. This limit of 1.4M, is known as
the Chandrasekhar limit, after S. Chandrasekhar, the famous Indian scientist who won the
Nobel Prize for this work. He had settled in the U.S.A. Such a star is known as a white
dwarf. From the Earth it would be seen as very small and very faint but it is hotter than the
Sun. One of the first stars recognised as a white dwarf was Sirius B, the faint companion of
the bright star Sirius. Sometimes a white dwarf suddenly flashes millions of times more
brightly. Such a phenomenon is known as 'nova'. As it cools, a white dwarf may turn into a
black dwarf, disappearing from our vision.
If the core mass of the star is in the range 1.4M,--3Mo,
or the star mass is between
8M, to 15 M,, the core shrinks to a radius of about 10 km and a neutron star is
formed. If a neutron star is born rotating very fast, it emits electromagnetic radiation,
which astronomers detect as pulses of radiowaves. Such stars are called pulsars. Pulsars
were discovered in 1967 and about 400 are now known.
In stars with higher mass, the helium in the core turns into carbon. However, it
continues burping in the outer layer. The core goes on contracting and becoming
hotter. It sets the carbon nuclei burning to form oxygen nuclei. As each nuclear fuel is
exhausted in the core, it contracts, increasing the temperature and sets the fuel in the
core burning. Meanwhile, the earlier fuel keeps burning in the shell surrounding the
core. Thus, the star contains several nuclear burning shells (see Fig. 10.6). This
process may go on in massive stars all the way upto a core of iron.
I f a star starts with a mass of more than 20 M,, its contraction continues. Then the
core of the star collapses to become a black hole. Itsgravity is now so strong that
nothing, not even light, can leave it. Obviously, we cannot see a black hole.
Sometimes, massive stars (with the core mass between 3 M,and 15 M , ) explode,
releasing a tremendous amount of energy. Such explosions are called 'supernova'. The
brightest of the supernova hurl out almost as much light as the entire galaxy-its
brightness becoming equal to hundred million Suns. A supernova was seen in
the Milky Way Galaxy as recently as in 1987 A.D.
SAQ 6

a) Arrange the following stages of a star in their correct sequence:

i) protostar ii) stable star iii) gas cloud

b) What happens when a gas cloud contracts?

.................................................................................................................................................

.........................................................................
c) What is the source of energy in a star?

Fig. 10.6: The structure of

a massivc star (30M,,)at'a
latc \tagc in its cvolution.
'Thc star consists of scvcral
laycrs with different
coniposition scparatcd h?;
nuclc;~rhurning shclls.
T'hc layer\ arc of
'
Hydrogzn (I). Helium (2),
Carbon, Oxygen (3),
Silicon (4): and Iron (5).

Universe and Life:

The Beginnings

d) When does a star become stable?

The evolutionary stages of any real star involve many factors which are not completely
known. Nature may not adhere strictly to the sequence described above. The
description of the final stages in the life of a star is purely theoretical and, therefore,
open to change. For example, in a supernova explosion it is very uncertain whether
what remains will be a neutron star, a black hole or nothing at all. Every new set of
observations makes the life cycle of a star clearer to astronomers.
Stars may be regarded as laboratories that allow scientists to study many natural
phenomena like the synthesis of heavy elements or the triggering of interstellar cloud
collapse. Such events resulted in the formation of the Solar System and life on Earth.
Stars, as you know, are themselves part of galaxies. Do galaxies evolve the same way as
the stars? Scientists think that the answer is yes, but they have yet to work out a very
convincing theory of evolution of galaxies. However, the study of galaxies has provided
one very interesting piece of information about the universe-that it is expanding.

10.3.3 The Expanding Universe

As you saw in Sec. 9.2.3, Hubble's observations had proved the existence of galaxies.
After mapping as many galaxies as could be seen by the telescopes then'available, he
turned his attention to the motion of galaxies. He was motivated to do this by a
puzzling report of V.M. Slipher, an American astronomer. He had discovered in
1912 that many of the faint nebulae were moving away from the Earth at very great
speeds. Their spectral lines exhibited large shifts towards the red end (what is called as
red shift). This seemed peculiar because stars in the Milky Way Galaxy move at
much smaller speeds, some moving away from us with others moving towards us.
Slipher had made these observations a decade before galaxies were discovered. Then it
was thought that the nebulae were objects in our own galaxy. He did not know what to
make of his observations.
But as Hubble knew that these nebulae were galaxies, he began a systematic study of
the relation between their speeds and their distances alongwith his colleague M.L.
Humason. What they found was very interesting. To put it simply, his observations
showed that;
i) all galaxies were moving away from us;
ii) the farther away a galaxy was from our Galaxy, the greater was the speed at which
it moved away.
Hubble's discovery put forth the picture of an expanding universe. But if all the
galaxies are moving away from us, are we at the centre of the Universe? No. If we were
situated in another galaxy, even then the other galaxies would seem to move away from
us. You can understand this picture of an expanding universe if you study Fig 10.7
and also perform a simple activity.
z
A
B
C
D
-

Velocities
seen by ,A
Velocities
seen by B
Velocities
seen by C

*-

--

--

c,

c*

+a

c,

w
c,

Fig.10.7: A str~ngof equally spaced galaxies Z, A, B, C, etc. are shown. Their speeds as measured from A
or B or C are indicated by the lengths of arrows: The directions of arrows indicate the directions in which
the galaxies would appear to move. Seen from any galaxy, any other galaxy would appear to move away
with a speed proportional to the distance between them.

Activity
Take a balloon and mark a few points on it with a pen. Inflate the balloon. What can
you say about the movement of points with respect to each other?

Did you observe that each point on the balloon moves farther away from the other as
you inflate it more and more? We can picture the movement of galaxies in a similar
fashion. However, this is a rather simplistic experiment because here you are viewing
the balloon from outside, whereas, when we observe the universe, we are within one
galaxy. This was just to give you an idea of how the universe is expanding.

'

Now, if the universe is expanding, then it was much more compact million of years ago
and the galaxies were much nearer to each other. Does it set you wondering what the
universe was like in the beginning? What caused it to expand like this? We will now
describe what theories cosmologists hatre given about the origin and evolution of the
universe.

Exploring the Universe

10.3.4 Closing in on Creation

The most important current theory for the origin of the universe is the Big Bang
theory.According to this theory, the universe started with'a huge explosion. It was not
an explosion like the ones with which we are familiar, which start from a definite centre
and spread out. It was an explosion which occurred everywhere in space at the same
time. It filled all space from the beginning, with every particle of matter rushing apart
from every other particle. This was not a burst of matter into space but rather an
explosion of space itself. Every particle of matter rushed away from every other
particle. It is so far impossible to 'picture' the f i ~ s moment
t
of 'creation' of the universe.
One-hundredth of a second after the creation of the universe is the earliest time about
which scientists can speak with any confidence. At this instant, the temperature of the
universe was about a hundred billion degrees centigrade. This-is much hotter than in
the centre of even the hottest star. At such temperatures none of the components of
ordinary matter, atoms, molecules, or even nuclei of atoms, could have held together.
Instead, the matter rushing apart in the explosion consisted of various types of
elementary particles. The particles most abundant in the early universe were the
electrons, positrons and neutrinos. There were also some protons and neutrons. The
rest of the universe was filled with energy. It was a kind of a cosmic soup.
As the explosion continued, matter and energy rushed apart, the universe expanded
~ degrees centigrade after
and the temperatures dropped, reaching 30 billion ( 3 10"')
about one-tenth of a second; 10 billion degrees after about one second; and 3 billion
degrees after about fourteen seconds. At the end of the first three minutes, the universe
became cool enough (about 1 billion "C) for the protons and neutrons to begin to form
into simple nuclei. The first to be formed was the nucleus of heavy hydrogen which was
made up of one proton and one neutron. There were also helium nuclei made of two
protons and two neutrons. It was still too hot for atoms to hold together, they were
ripped apart as soon as they were created. This matter continued to rush apart,
becoming steadily cooler and less dense.

Many thousands of years later, it became cool enough for electrons to join with nuclei
to form atoms of hydrogen and helium. Soon, the resulting gas began to form clumps
under the influence of gravitation. These clumps ultimately condensed to form the
galaxies and stars of the present-day universe, almost 5 billion years after the Big Bang.
There is another theory about the origin of the universe known as the steady state
theory. This theory holds that the universe has always been just about the same as it is
now. As it expands, new matter is created continuously to fill up the gaps between the
galaxies. Thus, the problem of the origin and early moments of the universe is
banished: there was no early universe.
However, the Big Bang theory is the most favoured by the astronomers and
astrophysicists. Why is it so? This is due to the evidence based on observations which
lend support to the 'Big Bang' universe.

I
I

I
i

Evidence Favouring the Big Bang

One piece of evidence comes from the expansion of the universe which we have
already described. The expanding universe suggests that the matter was packed much
more densely in the early stages of the universe. The proof for this also comes from the
distant objects quasars. When we 'look' at quasars situated 6 to 8 billion light years
away, wc are looking at them as they existed then. If the universe were more dense in
that epoch, we should be able to sce some evidence of that density in the quasars. We
d o see such high density among thc quasars.

Another substantial hit of evidcncc for the Big Bang theory comc9 from thc cosmic

The study of the universe, as

a whole, of its large scale

:;:2
i

background radiation. For many years the astronomers believed that if there was a .
cosmic explosion long ago, radiation from that event should still exist within the
universe. This radiation may be weak, it may have lost its energy due to the expansion
and cooling of the universe, but it should exist. Radio-astronomers have, indeed,
discovered faint signals-a constantly present background radio noise that pervades all
space. Calculations done by astrophysicists show that this radiation, called the cosmic
microwave background radiation, is a relic of the ancient past when the universe was in
its first throes of creation in the Big Bang.

'

An additional discovery made by astronomers in the past two decades is that of the
primordial abundance of elements, i.e. the elements hydrogen and helium first created
in the aftermath of creation are found to be most abundant in the universe. By
examining the light coming from the various parts of the universe, astronomers have
found out that, out of every 100 atoms, almost 93 are hydrogen atoms and seven are
helium atoms. Elements heavier than helium are present in traces only. This suggests
that the universe started out with a Big Bang from a very hot and dense state and
quickly cooled as it expanded. The hot and dense conditions lasted long enough for
some hydrogen to fuse into helium. But they did not last long to allow other heavier
elements to form in significant amounts. These were made much later in the interior of
massive stars.
SAQ 7'
a) State one difference between the Big Bang and the steady state theory?

.........................................................................................................................................................
.........................................................................................................................................................

b) Which three among the following observations support the Big Bang theory of the
the correct answers.
origin of the universe? Tick (4)
i) Stellar spectra show blue shift as well as red shift in the spectral lines.
ii) The elements hydrogen and helium are the most abundant in cosmic matter
with other heavier elements occurring in traces only.
iii) The spectra of light from galaxies shows a red shift suggesting that the universe
is expanding.
iv) There is a cosmic radiation pervading the entire space.

In conclusion, we find ourselves amidst an expand-ing universe .which throws up puzzles

with amazing regularity. With each question answered. many more questions arise. For
example, an important question today is about the future of the
universe. Will it go on expanding like this? Or, will its expansion stop some day? What
will happen then? Will the universe remain as it were then or will it start contracting?
We also find ourselves amidst an explosion of ideas and techniques being applied to
study the universe. In this unit we have tried to give you a brief glimpse of the
enigmatic nature of the universe and our undaunted efforts to understand it. Don't you
feel that this brief insight was worthwhile? We end this unit with a quote of Edwin
Hubble from his last paper:
'From our home on Earth we look out into distances and strive to imagine the sort of
world into which we are born. Today we have reached far out into space. Our
immediate neighbourhood we know rather intimately. But with increasing distance our
knowledge fades ..........until at the last dim horizon we search among ghostly errors of
observations for landmarks that are scarcely more substantial. The search will continue
The urge is older than history. It is not satisfied and it will not be suppressed.

10.4 SUMMARY
In this unit we have briefly described the various tools and methods of modern
astronomy used to gather information about the universe and some theories and
concepts about stellar evolution, the origin and evolution of the universe. Let us now
sum up what we have discussed in this unit.
Information about the universe can be gathered in many ways through optical
astronomy, radio astronomy, space observatories, space probes etc.
The information is analysed and interpreted to understand various phenomena

occurring in the universe and construct theories or models to explain them. One
such theory is about stellar evolution.
By observing the red shift in the spectral Lines of starlight from millions of galaxies,
it has been established t t the universe is expanding.
The most important th ry of the origin of universe is the Big Bang theory;
According to this theory the universe was created in a gigantic explosion which
occurred everywhere in space at the same time.
Another theory about the origin of the universe known as the steady state theory
holds that the universe was always the same as it is now and will remain the same.
There was no early universe.
The evidences such asthe expansion of the universe, cosmic background radiation,
primordial abundance of elements support the Big Bang theory.

10.5 TERMINAL QUESTIONS

1) M?tch the various methods of astronomy listed in column 1 with their descriptions
listed in column 2. Draw an arrow between the corresponding items.

a)

Optical Astronomy

b)

Radio Astronomy

c)

Space Observatories

d)

Space probes

e)

Visitors from the Space

i)

Spacecraft carrying instruments are sent to

neighbouring worlds.
ii) Instruments are stationed in satellites going
around the Earth, on the Moon or any
other planet:
iii) Meteorites, cosmic rays etc. coming from
space also carry a lot of information about
the universe.
iv) Light from the planets, stars and galaxies is
collected and analysed.
v) The radiowaves emitted by various objects
in the universe ate collected and analysed.

2) List the methods that enable astronomers to analyse the IR, UV, X-rays, gamma
rays coming from space.

.....................................................................................................
3) a) How is each of the stars of masses 25 M,,10 Mo.Q.8 M,, likely to evolve
'after the red giant stage?
'

..
................................................................................................................................................

b) state the difference between a 'nova' and a 'supernova'.

4) Describe in one or two lines the state of the universe against each instant of time
given below, as suggested in the Big Bang theory.
i) The first moment of creation ................................................................................
ii)
iii)
iv)
v)

..................................................................................................................................
1/ 100.sec. after Big Bang .....................................................................................
...............................................:.................................................................................
3 minutes after Big Bang ......................................................................................
10,000 years after Big Bang .................................................................................
5 billion years after Big Bang ...............................................................................

Exploring the Universe

Universe and Life:

The Beginnings

10.6 ANSWERS
Self Assessment Questions
1) a) 375 metres, 800 kilohertz; radiowaves region
b) 3x108m/s
c) 530 kilohertz (KHz) to 1605 (KHz) in only the medium wave band; 530
kilohertz to 220 megahertz (MHz) in the medium wave to shortwave bands.
d) gamma rays.
e) A few kilom'etres.
2) a) 4 x lo-' metres to 8X lo-' metres; 7.5X 1014Hz, 3.8X 10'4 Hz
b) blue
c) Wavelengths in the visible and the radiowave regions. You can write their
values.
3) a) i) Radio telescopes collect and analyse radiowaves giving a view of the
invisible universe; (ii) they can probe cosmic objects situated at much larger
distances; (iii) radiowaves can penetrate dust clouds unlike light waves;
(iv) radio telescopes are made for only specific wavelengths but optical telescopes
collect all optical wavelengths at the same time.
b) Pulsar~radiogalaxies,organic molecules in interstellar space.
4) a) The Einstein Observatory is an artificial satellite which revolves around the
Earth. Pioneer-10 is a spacecraft that has moved out of the Earth's
gravitational pull travelling across the Solar System.
b) Through instruments stationed in rockets, high flying balloons and aircrafts.
5) Composit~on,temperature, brightness and motion of stars.
6) a) Gas cloud, protostar, stable star.
b) As a gas cloud contracts, the temperature of its core increases.
c) When the hydrogen nuclei in the core of a star fuse together to form helium
nuclei, a lot of energy is released.
d) A star becomes stable when its inward gravitational pull is balanced by the
outward force of radiation energy.
7) a) The Big Bang theory says that the universe had a beginning in a huge
explosion. According to the steady state theory there was no early universe. It
has always been the same as it is now.
b) (ii), (iii), (iv)
Terminal Questions
1) a), iv); b), v); c), ii); d), i); e), iii).
2) Through space observatories, rockets, balloons, space probes.
3) a) Black hole, neutron star or pulsar, white dwarf.
b) A nova takes place when a white dwarf flashes millions of times more
brilliantly; the explosion of a star with :we mass between 3 M, and 15 M& is
called a supernova.
the
space explodes all at once in a Big Bang, matter starts rushing apart.
4) i)
ii) elementary particles such as electrons, positron, neutrinos, protons and neutrons
form.
iii) heavy hydrogen and helium nuclei form.
iv) atoms of hydrogen and helium form.
v) stars and galaxies form.

UNIT 9 UNIVERSE AS A SYSTEM

Structure
9.1

Introduction
Objectives

9.2

Historical Perspective
Geocentric Universe of the Ancients
The-Copernican Revolution
Rejection of Heliocentrism

9.3

The Physical Universe

Cosmic Distances
The Solar Family
The Night Sky
The Milky Way Galaxy
Beyond the Milky Way Galaxy

9.4
9.5
9.6

Summary
Terminal Questions
Answers

9.1 INTRODUCTION
In Unit 8 you have studied about the method of science 'and the nature of scientific
knowledge. The scientific method has helped us unravel many mysteries of nature, the
origin and evolution of universe being one of them. In the last few thousand years, we
have made many discoveries about the universe. But, the most spectacular and
unexpected discoveries have been inade only recently, in the twentieth century.
Modern science has revealed to us a vast and ancient universe.

In this unit we will see how our understanding of the universe has progressed through
the ages and what our current perceptions about the universe as a system are. We will
briefly describe whatever we now know about the physical universe, that is, the objects
that constitute the universe. Our present understanding of the universe has resulted
from the powerful and elegant methods placed at our disposal by science. These include
the analysis of light, heat and other radiations coming from space, as well as space
explorations by various probes and human beings. In Unit 10 we will describe what
methods are now used for exploring the universe, and what our current ideas and
concepts of the universe are.

Objectives
After studying this unit you should be able to:
e describe how human understanding of the universe has changed through the ages,
from prehistoric to modern times,
e explain the major observations [hat radically altered the perceptions of the universe
prevailing at various times in human history,
e describe the varicus physical ot~jectsthat constitute the universe,
e list some features of our galaxy, the Milky Way.

9.2 HISTORICAL PERSFECTIVE

You have briefly studied, in Units 2 to 6, whit[ our ;~nccstors'ideas about the heavcus
were. You know that. the primitive human beings clcpcnded on food gathering and
hunting for their survival. The availability of food dcpcndcd on thc seasons and the
seasons depended on the movement of thc Sun and star>.7'hus, the Sun and the stars
controlled the Seasons, food and warmth. similarly, the Moon's motion controlled thc
tides and the life cycles o f many animals. Hcnce, it was natural that the primitivc
people noted the rising and setting of the Sun, the reappearance of the crescent moon
after the new Moon and the waxing and waning of the Moon. Thc more accurately
they knew the position and movemcn!s o f thc Sun, Moon and stars. the more rcliably

liniverse and Life:

The Beginnings

Certain stars rise just before

or set just after the Sun, at
times and positions that vary
with the seasons. If one made
careful observation of the
stars and recorded them over
many years, one could predict
the seasons. One could also
rncasure the time of year by
noting where on the horizon,
the sun rose each day. Thus,
there lay in the skies a great
'calendar' available to anyone
who cared to read it.

they could predict when to hunt, when to gather the tribe and when to move to warmer
places. In other words, their survival depended, to a great extent, on their ability to read
the 'calendars' in the sky (read the margin remark). The earIiest such records are in the
form of bone engravings depicting the phases of the Moon. These are estimated to be
about 30,000 years old.
However, the primitive people's universe was restricted to only the small patch of land
bounded, perhaps, by rivers, distant hills or by the blue line of the sea. Overhead was
the sky across which rode the Sun, a god giving light and warmth, and the Moon, a
lesser god shining with paler light. With the Moon at night rode innumerable brilliant
stars. Outside this little universe lay unimagined mystery.
With the discovery of agriculture came the need for sowing and reaping of crops in the
right seasons. As you have read in Unit 2, fairly accurate calendars based on the
regular movement of the Sun, Moon and stars were made in Babylon and Egypt long
before 2500 B.C. With the passage of time, human thought grew and improved.
Between 600 and 400 B.C., a great revolution in human thought began when
philosophers in many societies all over the world tned to understand the universe
without invoking the intervention of gods. They observed the world around them and
looked for rational answers to questions like : Why did the Sun rise at different places?
Why did the Moon change its shape? Why did a few stars, later called planets, move
among the others? Did such things have any meaning for men? However, with their
limited tools of observation and experimentation, their theories about the universe did
not, for a long time, progress beyond an earth-centred system. Let us see what the
ancient ideas about the universe as a system were.

9.2.1 Geocentric Universe of the Ancients

The earliest ideas of the Egyptians and Sumerians about the universe may seem strange
to us. The Earth appeared flat 2nd solid tg them. The Egyptian cosmos has been
depicted in Fig. 2.21 in Unit 2. Similarly, the Sumerians visualised the universe as a flat
Earth covered by the heaven made up of tin! Between them lay the glowing Sun, Moon
planets and stars which were conuolled by the gods. The Earth was &vbmlj the
principal thing in the universe. Indeed, they knew no reason to think otherwise. They
accepted the Sun, Moon, planets and stars for what they looked like.

The Earth is Round

The idea of a flat Earth was discarded by the Greeks. As early as 600 B.C.; the
philosopher Thales thought the Earth to be round. Pythagoras and his disciples also

Fig. 9.1: Thc Earth is not flat; (a) if the Earth were flat, a ship would aIways be seen complete, though
fainter as it moved away; (b) actual observations show a departing ship to be sinking as it disappears below
the observer's horizon.

maintained that the Earth was spherical. They reasoned that it must be round because
of the way ships seemed to sink below the horizon of h e sea (Fig. 9.1) or because
of the circular shadow it cast on the Moon during an eclipse

Udvecse as a System

SAQ 1
Give snort answers in the space provided.
a) Of what practical value were astronomical observations of the ancients?
b) What ooservations led Pythagoras and his followers to conclude that the Eanh was

spherical?

Greek astronomers had also mapped the stars and constellations and had estimated the
orightness of the stars. They had observed f i e apparent motion of the planets which
seemed to wander amidst the stars, with some, like Mars, even travelling backwards.
The problem before them was to figure out the 'real' motion of the planets as seen
from up in the sky, away from the Earth, in such a way that it explained their apparent
motion as seen from the Earth. We will now descr~bethe model of the universe figured
out by the Greeks.

The Ptolemaic System

The theoretical n'mdel of the universe given by the Greeks had a stationary Earth at its
centre, around which the Sun, the Moon and the planets moved in circular orbits. I,n
this model of the universe, stars merely acted as a b e d r o p , much iike a painted
screen hung by a photographer at a village fair! But, doesn't this seem to be the most
natural idea in the world? The Earth seems steady, solid, unmoving, while we can see
the heavenly bodies rising and setting each day.
MOst of the models constructed by the Greeks to explain the movement of planets
consisted of perfect concentric spheres or circles. They held that each planet was
attached t o an invisible sphere or a circle that rotated around the Earth at a different
speed from .the rest of the spheres. You may recall Eudoxus' model of 27 spheres,
shown partly in Fig. 3.12 in Unit 3.
The astronomical ideas of many earlier Greeks were gathered by Ptolemy who
published them in his Almagest. This series of thirteen volumes contained the ideas of
such men as Aristotle, Apollonius, Hipparchus, in addition t o his own ideas. This
combined picture of the r~niverseis called the Ptolemaic system (see Fig. 3.14 in Unit
3).
There were some exceptions to this model. Notable among these was the argument of
Aristarchus of Samos, that the Earth was one of the several planets, which like them
orbits the Sun which was at the centre of the universe. He also argued that the Sun was
much bigger than the-Earth and stars were enormously far away. However, we do not
know how he reached these conclusions, each of which is correct. As you have read In
Unit 3, these ideas were rejected under the overwhelming influence of Arlstotel~an
ideas.
In Units 2 to 4, you have also read about the parallel developments in India in the fieid
of astronomy. You know about Aryabhatta, a leading Indian astronomer of the fifth
century A.D., who believed in the rotation of the Eanh about its axis. He had also
given a rational explanation of the occurrence of eclipses. However, his ideas did not
survive for long in the prevalent social conditions in India.
SAQ 2
Indicate whether the following statements are !rue (T) or Fa,se (F). Write your answers
in the space provided.
a) Ptolemy believed that the Sun was stationary .................................
b) In the geocentric model, the Earth was at tlic centre, the rest of the heavenly
Sodies moved around it in circulal orbits ..........................
c) The geocentric model held that the Earth was at rentrc and statiol, ry, the Sun
Mimn and thc planets moved around it, the stars were fixed in the sky.. ..............
d) An exception to the geocentric model giveh by Ar istarchus, was a model. with the
Sun-at the m t r e ........................

'The Ptolemaic model of the geocentric universe held sway for over 1,000 years. With

The word 'planct mcans a

wanderer in Greek.

liniverse and Life:

The Beginnings

the Renaissance in Europe, scientists took to the path of observation and experiment.
The fifteenth century European astronomers built observatories, improved Ptolemy's
instruments and devised novel ones. As was bound to happen, their observations bcgan
to clash with Ptolemaic theory. As the observations about the paths of the planets
became more accurate, Ptolemy's model was increasingly strained to fit the facts.
The Renaissance had opened the vast storehouse of ancient Grcek knowledge to
European astronomers. A Polish astronomer, Nicholas Copernicus, re-examined the
long neglected sun-centred theories of the universe. In 1543, he published quite a
different hypothesis, from the prevailing Ptolemaic model, to cxplain the apparent
motion of planets. Its most daring feature was the proposition that the Sun. not the
Earth, was at the centre of the universe.

9.2.2 The Copernican Revolution

The Copernican model consisted of the Sun at the centre with the six planets, Mercury,
Venus, the Earth with the Moon-round it, Mars, Jupiter and Saturn going round it in
circular orbits. In this model too the stars formed a fixed sphere in the background (see
Fig. 9.2). Copernicus also believed all planets to be of the same size. His model worked
as well as Ptolemy's spheres in explaining the apparent motion of the planets. But it led
to a confrontation with the adherents of geocentric model. It was not generally
accepted until much later when Galilee's and Kepler's works proved that the
heliocentric model was valid.

Fig. 9.2: Copern~cansystem

The sun-centred model of Copernicus was established by the astronomical observations

of Galileo Galilei when in 1609, he turned his small, imperfect telescope towards the
sky. In the first few nights of observs:ion of the heavens, Galileo saw enough to shatter
the ancient picture of the serene, perfect, harmonious world.

Earth

-----

I
(a)

Fig. 9.3: (a) The phases of Venus cannot be explained by Ptolemaie model;
(b) phases of Venus in Copernican model.

For, the Moon, instead of being a perfect, smooth sphere, was found to be uneven,
covered by mountains and deep depressions; the planet Saturn seemed divided into
three. He also saw four Moons circling around the planet Jupiter. Hence in the heavens
was a small scale model of the Copernican system. The planet Venus showed phases
like the Mmn. The fact U~althe Venus showed a fully lighted phase when it was-near the
'Sun could not be explained by the Ptolemaic system. Only the Copernican model which
allowed Venus to circle around the far side of the Sun from the Earth, could explain it
(see Fig.9.3).
In spite of the prevailing opposition to Copernican model, these observations were
eventually accepted and they led to the final overthrow of the geocentric model.
Interestingly, the earth-centred ideas remain with us in our everyday lives even now. It
is almost 2,200 years since Aristarchus and almost 400 years since Galileo, but our
language still 'pretends' that the Earth does not rotate. For instance, we still talk about
the Sun 'rising' and the Sun 'setting'!
SAQ 3
a) The Copernican model was not ableto explain the planetary motion much better.
than the Ptolemaic model. Why then, was it accepted in spite of the initial general
opposition? Write your answer in the space given below.

b) Which two among the following observations provided conclusive evidence in

support of Copernican model? Tick 6)
the appropriate choice in the boxes
provided.
i)
ii)
iii)
iv)

The sun rises in the east and sets in the west.

The planet Venus shows phases like the Moon.
The planet Saturn seemed divided into three.
Four moons can be seen moving around the planet Jupiter.

Kepler's Laws of Planetary Motion

Further support to the heliocentric model came from the work of Johannes Kepler at
around the same time as Galileo's observations. Kepler, a German astronomer, was

Fig. 9.4 (a) Tycho Brahc; (b) Brahe's observatory at Uraniborg in Denmark. Note the' huge brass quadrant arc.

trying to work out a theoretical model which explained all observations of planetary
motion. The most accurate observations of apparent planetary positions had been
made bv Tvcho Brahe (Fie. 9.4).

universe os a System

Brahe invited Kepler t o work with him. He recommended that Kepler study the planet
Mars because its motion seemed most anomalous, most difficult to reconcile with an
orbit made of circles. Further, planets in circular orbits ought to move with constant
speed. But Kepler found that their speeds changed with their distance from the Sun.
After years of trial and error, he found that the only explanation of the observed
movement of Mars was that its orbit was an ellipse with the Sun at one o f its foci (Fig.
9.5b). Thus, the idea of circular orbits was abandoned. Kepler eventually succeeded in
explaining Brahe's observations which could all be expressed simply, in the form of
three law$ of planetary motion (see Fig. 9.5). You have read about them in Sec. 8.3.4.

L'niverse and Life:

The Beginnings

Fig. 9.5: (a) Johannes Kepler; (b) Kepler's laws df planetary motion..

starlight

Kepler's laws removed the main objection of the Copernican model, that this model
could not give an accurate description of the observed path of the planets. These laws
also led to the rejectioli of Pythagorean-Platonic view of the heavens showing only
perfect circular motions, which even Copernicus had retained. By.the end of the
seventeenth century the heliocentric model of the universe came to be accepted
generally. Interestingly, the physical proof of the movement of the Earth came when it
was no longer necessary, because by then everybody had already accepted that the
Earth moved around the Sun. Let us see what it was.

Stellar Parallax
Study Fig. 9.6. If the Earth were stationary, a given line joining point A on the Earth, a
nearby star C and any given distant star would never vary. However, if the Earth
changed its position in space and moved from A to B, this alignment would also
change. Thus, in the background of more distant stars, the hearby star would apwar
to shift from C , to C, as the Earth moved from A t o B. This apparent shifting of
nearby stars against the background of more distant ones has been observed, and the
phenomenanis called Stellar parallax. It is a periodic kind of a chahge. A given star first
shifts one way and then the other, during the course of one year, hence it must be due
to the fact that the Earth is moving around the Sun.
Fig. 9.6: Stellar parallax, the
method for determlnlngthe
distance to a 'near' star. The
distance r is related t o the
angle 6by a siniplz fofmula

The angle ismeasured in

seconds of an arc. One second
of an arc is equal tG
1
degree.

The change is small, less than a second of an arc. It was only in 1838 that Friedrich
Bessel, a German astronomer, could measure the stellar parallax of a star. -1he nearest
star, the Sun when viewed against distant stars appears to shift approximately 1" per
day.

SAQ 4
Give short answers in the space provided
a) What is the shape of the planetary orbits? ...............................
b) Express Kepler's second and third laws in common language. (.Hint:see Unit 8).
................................................................................................................................................

c) What observation shows that the Earth moves round the Sun?.....................................

.................................................................................................................................................
Stars in the Limelight
Among Galilee's m
y discoveries with the telescope was his observation that the
white nebulous band In the sky known as the Milky Way (Akash cranga) was in fact
made up of very many stars. T i this time, the model of the universe had consisted
merely of the then known Solar System, with stars being nothing more than point
sources of light. With'the availability of bigger and better telescopes in the
post-Galilean era, the remaining planets of the Solar System, Uranus, Neptune and
Pluto were discovered and the stars came to be examined in greater detail.
The first ever study of the stars was made by the English astronomer William Herschel
(1738-1822), who had earlier discovered the planet Uranus. Herschel showed in 1785
that the stars were not the backdrop to 'the Solar System but were individual objects
that extended to infin~ty..He prepared the first ever map of the Milky Way Galaxy
and showed that it was, in fact, a part of a flat disc of countless stars. In his model, the
Solar System was situated within the ~ i l k yWay Galaxy which constituted the whole
Universe. At that time, the telescopes were not very powerful. One could see in the sky,
point-like objects, the stars. One could also see white fuzzy clouds called nebulae.
When we entered the twentieth century, the model of the universe was still heliocentric.
Our Sun was at the centre of the Milky Way Galaxy which with its stars and nebulae
was the whole of the universe. However, it did not take long for the heliocentric model
to be abandoned. We will now describe, in brief, the observations that led to the
rejection of heliocentric model.

9.2.3 Rejection of Heliocentrism

This happened in the year 1918 when the astronomer Harlow Shapley (1885-1972)
first surveyed the size and shape of the Milky Way Galaxy. H e showed, by his most
original researches, that the Sun does not lie at the centre of the Milky Way Galaxy,
but is located a great distance away from the centre. But the question whether the
Milky Way Galaxy was the whole of the universe or not, still remainsd. The answer
came in the year 1924, when Edwin Hubble (1889-1953), another great astronomer,
showed that the fuzzy cloud called Andromeda nebula was not a member of the Milky
Way Galaxy. In fact it was a separate galaxy. Soon, other galaxies were spotted, but the
Milky Way Galaxy appeared to be the largest. This was some consolation to the human
ego: if the centre of the universe was neither reserved for our Earth, nor for our Sun, at
least we lived within the largest galaxy. This idea also did not last long. Walter Baade
(1893-1959) turned the telescope on many cosmic details that Hqbble had skipped
over. He discovered that the other galaxies were farther away than we had supposed,
and the Milky Way Galaxy was no bigger than the others. It was merely one galaxy
among countless others.
The revolution that had begun with Copernicus was now complete. We had no special
place in this universe! We were not at its centre. In fact, the universe was found to have
no centre and not even a boundary. Indeed, the greatness of Copernican ideas lies not
so much in what Copernicus did as what his work led to.

SAQ 5
The following statements about the way human pcrccption of the universe has changed
through the ages, are arranged randomly. Put them in a chronological order by placing
the numbers 1 to 7 against the appropriate statements.
a) The Sun is not at the centre of the Milky Way Galaxy which is still the whole of
the universe .................................
b) The Universe is without any centre or boundary, the Milky Way Galaxy is one
among the countless galavies in the Universe .................................
c) The Earth is flat and solid, with the sky on top and the Sun, Moon and stars in the
middle.. ...............................
d) The'Sun is at the centre of the universe and the planets move around it in circular
orbits .................................

Universe PS a System

The Milky Way was namcd so

because it looked like a trail
of milk spilled in the sky. <)ur
culture.callcd it Akash
Ganga, i.e., the river Ganga in
the heavens. What fertile
imagination our ancestors
had!

The term nebulae is now used

for glowing clouds of gas and
dust in a galaxy. A galaxy ts
made up of gas, dust and
stars. Galaxies arc islands of
stars scattered in the vast
space, like islands in an
endlcss ocean or oascs in a
boundless desert. The white
band seen in the sky and
called the Milky Way, is only
a pan of the Milky Way
Galaxy

Universe and Life:

The Beginnings

e) Other galaxies are there in thq universe, but the Milky Way Galaxy is at the centre.

.................................

f)

The Earth is spherical. It is at the centre of the universe. It does not move.

g) The planets move around the. Sun in elliptical orbits according to certain laws but
the sun is at the centre of the universe .................................
So far we have given a brief description of how human perception of the universe has
undergone a change in the light of more accurate observations in the last four centuries.
We will now present our current perception of the universe as a system, of its physical '
structure. We will describe the varied forms in which matter is distributed in the
universe, such as planets, stars, galaxies etc.

9.3 THE PHYSICAL UNNERSE

The universe is vast. The Earth we live on appears to be just a speck of dust circling a
small star in a remote corner of an obscure galaxy. If we are a speck in the immense
space, we also occupy dnly an instant in the expanse of time. The universe is also very
old. We now know that it is about fifteen or twenty billion years OM, while we, the
human beings have been around for only two million years or so. This vast and ancient
universe is populated with a variety of objects. Let us now understand what objects
constitute the universe and how they are distributed. In other words, what the physical
structure of the universe is. In doing so, we will not go into its chemical composition or
aoy other details. However, before we embark on this venture, we will give you an idea
of the cosmic distances, so that you're able to appreciate what follows.

9.3.1 Cosmic Distances

distance travelled
Speed =
time taken
The unit used to measure
speed is kilometres per
second written as km/s.

The accurate value of u ~ i c

light year is 9.46 X 10'' km.
It is calculated by putting in
the accurate values of the
spced of light. and the number
of seconds in a year.

If we asked you what the distance between Delhi and Kanyakumari is, you would say
that it is roughly 3000 km. Another way of answering the question would be that a
train takes.about 50 hours to cover the distance. And if we know the average speed of
a train, we would get a fairly good idea of the distance.
The dimensions of the universe are so large that using familiar units of distance like
kilometres would make little sense, Therefore, cosmic distances are measured in'"ight
years". One light year is the distance travelled by light. in one year. Now, light
travels,about 300,000 kilometres in one second, i.e. its speed is 3 X 105 kms. At this
s p e d it can travel seven times around the Earth in one second. A year has about
3X 107seconds (i.e. about 30 million seconds) in it. Therefore, the distance light travels
in one year is about
3 X 10%m/s X 3 X 107s=9 X 1W2km, i.e. about nine trillion kilometres.
This unit of length is called a light year, It measures not time but distances, enormous
distances. Space and time are interwoven. We cannot look out into space without
looking back into time. If we see a galaxy a billion light years away, we are seeing it the
way it was a billion years ago. Thus, the distance in units of light years also tells us
how far back into time we are looking.

9.3.2 The Solar Family

T h c tcrm spinning or rotatlon

refers to a body's turning on
its own aiis, like a spinning
top. Thc tcrm revolution of a
body is uscd to refcr t o its
motion around anothcr body.
T h e E a n h rotatcs on its axis
once cvcry 24 hours. and
revolves around thc Sun oncc
in 365'/, days.

Let us now take you on a journey across the universe. We begin from our planet EQrth.
It is our home. The Earth is active, lush and fertile. It is a place of blue skies, vast
*oceans, cool forests, a world full of life. Its surface is cloaked by an atmosphere in which
'we can breathe, and which keeps the Earth's temperature quite-constant. It spins or
rotates on its axis and revolves around the Sun, completing one orbit in one year. The
Earth is not alone. It has a companion on its travels, the Moon which orbits the Earth
once in 27.33 days. But the Moon is airless, waterless and lifeless; it is a dead world.
From the Moon, the Earth appears as a beautiful bluish-white planet.
The Earth is not the only planet orbiting the Sun. There are eight other planets that
orbit the Sun. The nine planets and their satellites togethkr with the Sun and many
asteroids and comets make a family, the Solar System (see Fig. 11.1) The planets arc
diverse in size, ranging from the giant Jupiter, efeven times the size of Earth, down to

tiny Pluto, less than half the size of our planet. Each planet's distance from the Sun is
different, Mercury being the nearest and Pluto, the farthest. They are all different from
each other in many respects. But let's not dwell on the Solar System for long as we will
take a closer look at it in Unit 11. Let's see what the space beyond contains.

Universe as a System

9.3.3 The Night Sky

When you look up at the sky on a clear night, what d o you-see? Most of it is dotted
with twinkling stars. You may see the moon or Venus as a bright point or Mars as a
reddish one. Venus is sometimes seen in the evening just after sunset and, at other
times, in the morning before sunrise.Except for the planets, all sthcr points of light
are stars. From our planet Earth, on a really clear, dark night, we aan see .about 6,000
stars.

Stars and Constellations

The night sky is interesting. The stars seem to fall into certain patterns. You must have
seen the Saptarishi, also known as the Big Dipper or the Plough. It is a part of a
bigger group of stars called the Great Bear or the Ursa Major which is seen in the
northern sky. We can see many different star patterns like the Hunters, the Lion, the
Dog, the Balance etc. These pictures are not there really in the sky. Our imagination
has put them there. The early star gazers and the ancient astronomers traced out these
star patterms and named them after gods and heroes, objccts or creatures which these
groups of sqrs resembled in their imagination (see Fig. 9.7a).

,The sky is divided into these patterns of stars or star groups which are called
constellations. A constellation is an arbitrary grouping of stars and it merely defines an
a x a of the sky. All cosmic objects in a given region of the sky form a constellation. There
are eighty eight constellations each havillg a definite boundary. Modern astronomers use
thc ancicnt names of the constellations to refer to these eighty eight regions of tl~: sky, and
not to thc imaginary ligures of long ago. In Fig. 9.7 we show the star charts of bright stars
and constellations visible in the Northern and Southem hemispheres. You could also look
up the star charts published in many newspapers and magazines fiom time to time and
familiarise yourself with the stars and constellations in the night sky.

(a)

Figure. 9.7: (a) Constellations Libra (the balance), Ursa Major (Great Rear); (b) Charts O f major
consrellations and stars as viewed from Northern and (c) Southern hemispheres.

The stars and constellations help explorers and navigators. In the ancient tiril*s, they
helped the seagoing ships. By watching the position of the constellation with respect to
the horizon night after night, the early sailors could determine the ship's latitude. And
now the spacefaring ships find their bearings in space with the help of stars and
constellarioces. lt we extend the llne jo~ningthe last two stars of the Saptarish~called the
Pointers, we can see'the Pole star. It is a bright star s~tuatedin the North, almost on the

Universe and Life:

fhe Beginning

Earth's axis of rotation. Therefore. lt appears like a fixed s.tar. Its posltlon gives the
geographical north. Thus, the Pole star also helped the earliest navigators in finding
their way at night.

I
I

As the ' ~ a r t hrevolves around the Sun, different constellations appear, disappear and
reappear at different times of the year. Thus, there are different constellations in
different seasons. The motion of planets, when viewed against these constellations,
appears as if the planets were entering or leaving a constellation at a specific time of
the year. Such movements of planets and stars have also been put to 'use' in astrology
to predict events in human iives! But, we'll say solnething more on this in Unit 11.
,

SAQ 6
a) Identify the group of stars called Saptarishi, in Fig 9.9b.
b) Which of the stars marked A and B in Fig. 9.9b, is the Pole star?
On the clear nights you must also have seen a glorious white band stretched across the
sky. This is the Milky Way or Akashganga which, as you have read in Sec. 9.2.2, was
seen by Galileo to have many stars in it. It is a part of our galaxy, the Milky Way
Galaxy. Often we simply call it the Galaxy. A galaxy is an enormous collection of gas,
dust and billions upon billions of stars. There are millions of such galaxies in the sky.
The Solar System and all the stars that we see in the sky belong to the Milky Way
Galaxy. Let's now find out more about the Milky Way Galaxy.

9.3.4 The Milky Way Galaxy

The white band stretched across the night sky is, in fact, a partial view of the Milky Way
Galaxy. Being inside the Galaxy, we can see it only in parts. We cannot see the whole
of it, the way we see the other galaxies. Visualising the whole Milky Way Galaxy and
determining its shape has not been easy. By watching a large number of galaxies
distributed in all directions in dozens of views as far as modem telescopes can see,
scientists have been able to form a picture of what our galaxy must look like from
outside. In ihis, they have also been helped by the observations about the stars in our
galaxy, their distances and motion, etc. The picture of the Galaxy constructed by
the astronomers is shown in Fig. 9.8. Doesn't it look somewhat like a disc or a
gramophone record with a swollen centre? The Milky Way Galaxy contains about 100
billion stars. The stars are not uniformly distributed. You can test this yourself by a
simple activity.
spiral a r m

?*bular

Sun's location

\F""

a * *.

-I

a
0

>.zg$

, G2T%*,@t%J..

cluster

- &;

w/

a:&A**.:2...

&&
C

e.

100,000 light years

"

-@I

Figure. 9.8: The Milky Way Galaxy; (a) edge-on view (b) face-on view.

Activity

Cut out a small cardboard Erame with a square opening of side 5 cm.Hold the ffame at
an arm's length and count the stars that you see within the frame. Repeat this for
different parts of the sky. Record the location and number of stars counted on each
occasion. Are they the samR

You will find that the dishibution of stars is not uniform. There is higher

concentration of stars in certain parts of the sky. There is a great concentration of stars
towards the centre of the Galaxy, which is located in the constellation of Sagittarius.
The Sun is.situated on its remote outskirts, about 30,000 light years away from the
centre. Note that when you see the portion of the Milky Way in the sky near
Sagittarius, you would be looking toward the centre of the galaxy. When you observe
the portion near Orion, you would be seeing the "edge" of the Galaxy, nearest the Sun.
The Galaxy, as you can sec in Fig. 9.8, is disc shaped. If we could see our galaxy from
the top, we would get the face-on view (Fig. 9.8b). If we could see it from the edge, we
would get the edge-on view (Fig. 9.8a).
In the edge-on view, the Galaxy consists of two basic parts: the disc and the halo. The
disc consists of stars, as well as clouds of gas and dust called nebulae. It has a diameter
of 100,000 light years, and a thickness of about 5,000 light years. This collection of gas
and stars rotates about the centre (also known as the nucleus) of the Galaxy, with each
part moving at a different speed. The Solar System at a distance of about 30,000 light
years from the centre, in the outskirts of the Galaxy, also revolves. Moving at a speed
of 250 km per sec., it takes roughly 200 million years to complete one revolution
around the centre of the Galaxy. There are individual stars like the Sun as well as
groups of stars, called galactic clusters, that move together in the disc. Astronomers
have identified about 1000 galactic clusters in the disc, each containing 10 t o 1,000
stars.

Thc diw of the galaxy contains spiral arms, which are about 2,500 light years wide. The
dlstance between the adjacent arms is about 1,500 light years. The spiral arms are seen
clearly because that is where the brightest stars and gas clouds are found. Dark clouds
of dust and gas line the inner rlms of the arms. The other stars in the disc are not
arranged In any conspicuous pattern. The Sun, for instance, lles between two spiral
arms (see Fig. 9.Xb).
The halo is spherical and has its centre at the nucleus of the Galaxy. The central redon
of the halo consists of a vast concentration of stars that form the nuclear bulge of the
disc (Fig. 9.8a). Elsewhere the halo consists of very little gas and widely separated stars
and about 120 globular clusters. The globular clusters are compact spherical systems
each containing aily number of stars from ten thousand to several millions. It is
observed that the halo, or the spherical component of the Galaxy, does not rotate with
the disc.
From a study of the distribution of globular clusters, we may conclude that the Sun
cannot be at the centre of the Galaxy. Because if it were so, the globular clusters would
have been distributed around the Sun. They are not, and hence we may surmise that
the Sun is not at the centre of the Milky Way Galaxy. The centre of the Galaxy is, in
fact, the centre of the distribution of these globular clusters.

SAQ 7
a) Fill up the blank spaces in the following statements about the Milky Way Galaxy.
A galaxy is a collection of ................................ The Milky Way Galaxy 1s one
among ................................of galaxies in the universe.
ii) In the face-on view of the Galaxy, we would see it from ................................,
viewing it from the edge, we get an ................................
iii) Seen from the edge, the Galaxy seems to be made of two
parts: ................................ and ................................
iv) The disc is made up of clouds of gas and dust, individual stars
and ................................ that rotate around the centre of the galaxy. The disc of
the galaxy also contains two ................................ arranged in a spiral. The sun is
situated ................................ the spiral arms.
v) The halo is shaped like a ................................ In its centre, there is
a ................................ concentration of stars. Elsewhere, it is made up
o f . ......................and ...........................
vi) A ................................cluster has about 10 to 1000 stars. A ...............................
cluster is made up of 10,000 to millions of stars.
vii) The globular clusters are found in the ................................ and the galactic
clusters in the ................................ of the galaxy.

i)

Universe ss P system

Universe and Life:

The Beginnings

b) Taking. 10,000 light years to be 1 cm on scale, draw the Milky Way in an edge-on

view; the diameter of the disc would be 10cm. Show its disc and nucleus. Locate
the Sun on this diagram.

9.3.5 Beyond t h e f ~ i l kWay

y
Galaxy

Let us now move away from the Earth and venture into the space beyond. If we were
at a point far out in space we would see scattered in space, a large number of faint,
wispy tendrils of light. These are all galaxies. As we have said earlier in Sec. 9.3.3,
these galaxies are made up of billions of stars, and clouds of gas and dust. The universe
is full of galaxies. Some of them are soliky wanderers. Most ofthem movein clust&s.
drifting endlessly in the great cosmic dark.

'I

Shapes of galaxies
The galaxies are usually found in three shapes: spiral galaxies, elliptical galaxies and
irregular galaxies (see Fig. 9.9). Further refinements have been suggested in recent
years, but we will not go into those details. The elliptical galaxies are so called because
they have an elliptical shape on a photographic plate. Elliptical galaxies in general do
not have much gas or dust from which to form new stars, and they consist of old stars.
The irregular galaxies do not show any coherent structure. ' h e number of elliptical
and spiral galaxies is almost equal, whereas the irregular ones comprise about 10% of
all salaxies.

I'ik. ').a):
(i;tl;txi~,\ 01 \.;~ric,tr\shape>: (a) thc galaxy M X 7 at thc ccntrc of thc virgc; cluster
i~
mil\\ of 300 I>illi~>n
sun\. ancl is the m!~st tni~ssivcvnlaxy knc!wn: ( Q cdp-on vrcw of the spiral
Sombrero galaxy; (c) spiral galaxy, face-on .!iew; (d)ilTe@ar
Large Magellanic Cloud .
..
ha\

16

Before going too deep into the space, let's take a closer look at, what astronomers on'
Earth like to call, the Local Group of Galaxies. Its cross-section is several million light
years, it is made up of around twenty galaxies. The nearest galaxies to the Milky Way
Galaxy are the Large and Small Magellanic Clouds, visible in the Southern hemisphere.
They are irregular in shape. The galaxy Andromeda'lies nearly two million light years
away and is visible to the unaided eye. It is a spiral galaxy, three times bigger and
brighter than ours.

As we move further out, we find that such groupings, or clusters of galaxies, are
extremely common. There are some hundreds of billions of galaxies in the universe
which form clusters of all kinds. There are rich clusters containing as many as ten
thousand galaxies and poor clusters having only a few galaxies. Our own galaxy is a
member of a poor cluster. The nearest rich cluster, at a distance of about 70 million light
years, is Virgo. It is irregular in shape and is huge, extending 7 million light years from
end to end. Like galaxies, clusters are also shaped like spirals, ellipses or they may be
irregular.
In recent years, one more step has been added in understanding this physical structure
of the universe. There is evidence to suggest that the clusters of galaxies, rich and poor,
in turn form superclusters or supergalaxies (i.e. clusters of clusters) that are 200-300
million light years in diameter. They may be made up of about a 100 member clusters.
The clusters, Local Group and Virgo, are members of the same supercluster. The
superclusters are very much alike. They are rather evenly distributed in space. Thus, on
a larger scale than this, the universe appears uniform, that is, it has the same structure
and composition everywhere, it looks the same in all directions.
The structure of the universe that we have described above is not static. It is changing.
New stars and new galaxies are being born. Stars, galaxies and clusters move.
Sometimes they collide giving rise to new galaxies. All these stars, galaxies, clusters and
superclusters have a story to tell about ancient events on the largest possible scale. We
are only now beginning to read this story.

SAQ 8
a) Think of the universe as a system and our planet as its smallest subsystem. Then
rearrange the following elements in such a way that shows each successive entity as
containing the previous one. List, against each entity, the objects that constitute it.
i) Earth
ii) Milky Way Galaxy
iii) Superclusters
iv) Solar systkm
v) Clusters/Local Group of Galaxies

b) In the pictures of galaxies given below, identify the shape of each of them.

Before we end this journey, let us show you what the space between the stars and
galaxies is made up of.

Universe as a System

Universe and Life:

The Bednnings

Interstellar and Intergalactic Space

An atom is the smallest

particle of an element. It is
made up of a nucleus
containing protons and "
neutrons. and electrons
revolving around it. See
Fig. 8.4b in Unit 8. A
molecule is made up bf
two or more atoms.

The space between the stars and the galaxies looks empty, doesn't it? But this 1s not
true. In the great dark between stars in the galaxies, and galaxies in the clusters, there
are clouds of gas and dust. The gas clouds are mainly made up of hydrogen atoms and
cannot be seen by the unaided eye. Only the modem astronomical instruments have
been able to detect these particles. Cosmic dust is made up of bigger particles. These
clouds of dust are revealed when they reflect the light of stars falling on them (Fig.
9.10). Cosmic dust and clouds of gas in a galaxy are found to play a great role in the
formation of a star. You will read about this in Unit 10.

Fig. 9.10: (a) Orion nebula; (b) Crab nebula, remnant of a supernova exvlosion seen in 1054 A.D.

Organic molecules are those

molecules which essentially
contain carbon and hydrogen
atoms. They may or may not
have other atoms like
nitrogen, oxygen etc.

In the gas clouds and cosmic dust we also find traces of different kinds of ordinary
molecules, like water, ammonia, carbon monoxide etc. There are many organic
molecules, like msthane, methanol (also known as wood alcohol), formic acid (the
substance that gives ant and bee bites their sting), and many more. The organic
molecules are the matter out of which our kind of life arose on the planet Earth. The
abundance of such organic molecules in the interstellar space suggests that there might
be life somewhere out there, perhaps in a different form. We may not be the only ones,
after all!
Another major constituent of the universe are cosmic rays. Cosmic rays are beams of
charged particles, such as the electrons, protons and helium nuclei etc., that freely
travel in space at nearly the speed of light. These particles carry large amounts of
energy across space.
Let us now end our brief journey of the universe, and summarise what we have
discovered. The matter of the universe is concentrated in large superclusters of
galaxies, each measuring 100 to 200 million light years across and each containing
millions of galaxies. The galaxies are grouped in rich or poor clusters, have different
shapes and are distributed in different ways. The galaxies contain stars and clouds of
gas and dust. Stars may be grouped in clusters or they may be individual stars like the
Sun having planetary systems like our Solar System. Our planet Earth is a part of the
Sun's family.

Carl Sagan is a renowned

American astronomer

Don't the diversity and the expanse of the universe seem truly amazing? Lost
somewhere in the vastness of space and immensity of time is our tiny planetary home.
This is a humbling thought. Yet, our species is young, curious and brave. We would
rather not feel overwhelmed by the expanse of universe in space and time. We would
like to end this unit with the words of Carl Sagan from his book 'Cosmos' (p.1):
"The Cosmos is all that is or ever was or ever will be ...........In the last few years, we
have made the most astonishing and unexpected discoveries about the Cosmos and our

'

place within it, explorauons that are exhilarating to consider. They remind us that
humans have evolved to wonder, that understanding is a joy, that knowledge is a
prerequisite to survival. I believe our future depends on how well we know this Cosmos
in which we float like a mote of dust in the morning sky."

In this unit, we have tried to present a picture of the universe as a system, what the
picture is now and how it has changed ever since human beings watched the heavenly
objects and wondered about what they were. Let us now summarise what we have
studied so far.
For our prehistoric i d Bronze Age ancestors, the Earth was at the centre of the
universe. The dark heavens beyond were a mystery to them working under the
control of some supernatural forces.
The Greek philosophers tried to understand the universe on the basis of
observations, logic and reasoning, and gave many models which were absorbed in
the Ptolemaic geocentric model of the universe.
Galileo's observations and later Kepler's formulation of the three laws of planetary
motion based on the observations made by Tycho Brahe established the
revolutionary heliocentric model.
The discovery that the Sun was one of the millions of stars in the Milky Way and
was located only at a large distance from the centre of the Galaxy led to the
rejection of heliocentrism.
a We now know about the structure of the universe on a large scale. The planets,

stars, gdaxies, clusters, and superclusters form a dynamic universe which is always
changing.

9.5 TERMINAL QUESTIONS

1) What was the need to look for a better model than Ptolemy's model of the
universe? Give your answer in the space provided.

2) Explain, in four or five lines, how Galileo's observations led to the rejection of
Ptolemy's model?

3) State in a sequence, the modem observations that have led to the rejection of
heliocentrism and our current perception of the universe that it is vast and has no
centre and no boundaries.

Univeme as a System

Universe and Life:

The Beginnings

4) State in the boxes given, whether the following statements about the universe are
true or false:
a) The Milky Way Galaxy is at the centre of the universe
b) Seen on a scale of distance larger than the superclusters, the universe seems
the same everywhere.
c) The space between the stars and galaxies is empty.
d) We can see the edge of the universe.
e) The interstellar space is full of clouds of gases, dust, cosmic rays. Organic
molecules have also been found in the interstellar matter.
The
universe is vast, billions of light years in extent. It is also ancient, being
f)
about 15 to 20 billion light years old.
5) Match each of the entities listed in column 1 with their features given in column
2 ,below.Draw an arrow between the items that match.

a) Earth

i)

b) Sun

ii)

c) Constellation
d) Milky Way Galaxy

iii)
iv)

e) Clusters

v)

f) Superclusters

vi)

Groups of galaxies, containing a

few to a few thousand galaxies.
A group of stars arranged in a pattern,
defining a region of the sky.
A tiny planet moving around the Sun.
A collection of clusters, extending upto
several hundred million light years.
A star situated at a large distance from
the centre of the Milky Way Galaxy.
A galaxy containing billions of stars, dust and gas.

9.6 ANSWERS
Self Assessment Questions
1) a) To predict changing seasons, draw calendars, set the time for hunting,
gathering tribes, sowing crops, reaping harvests etc.
b) The ships seemed to sink below the horizon; the Earth cast a circular shadow
on the Moon, during a lunar eclipse.
b) F
c) T d) T.
2) a) F
3) a) Due to the observations of the heavens by Galileo.
b) ii), iv).
4) a) Ellipse.
b) Second Law:Planets move faster in their orbits when they are nearer to the
Sun and siower when far away from it.Third Law: The more distant a planet is
from the Sun, the more time it takes to complete a revolution around the Sun.
c) Stellar parallax, i.e. the apparent shifting of nearby stars against the
background of more distant stars when viewed from the Earth at an interval of
six months.
5) a) 5, b) 7, c) 1. d) 3, e) 6, f ) 2, g) 4.

The star group Saprarrshi.

b) The star A is Pole star.

7)' a) i) stars, gas and dust clouds, billions, ii) top, edge-on view, iii) disc, halo.

iv) clusters of stars, arms, between, v) sphere, large, little gas, a few stars, globular
clusters, vi) galactic, globular, vii) halo, disc.
b)

8) a) i), iv), ii), v) iii).

Earth
Solar System
Milky Way Galaxy
Clusters
Superclusters

-All living beings, land, weans, forests etc.

-Sun, planets and their satellites, asteroids and comets.
-Stars, clouds of gas and dust.
-Galaxies.
-Clusters of galaxies.

b) i) irregular, ii) elliptical, iii) spiral.

Terminal Questions

1) As the observations about planetary motion became more and more accurate,
Ptolemy's model could no longer explain them.
2) The observation of the moons going around Jupiter showed a smaller version of
Copernican model in the heavens. Secondly, the phases of the Venus could not be
explained with the help of Ptolemaic system. The only way to explain these
observations was that the Venus went around the Sun (see Fig. 9.3).
3) i) There were stars other than the Sun, which were not a backdrop to the Solar
System but were objects scattered upto large distances in the vast space.
ii) Solar System was a part of the Milky Way Galaxy, a huge collection of stars,
gas and dust clouds.
iii) The Sun did not lie at the centre of the Milky Way Galaxy.
iv) There were other nearby galaxies similar to the Milky Way Galaxy such as the
Andromeda Galaxy.
v) The Milky Way Galaxy was one among the countless galaxies strewn in the
vast space, no bigger than the others.
vi) Galaxies grouped together to form clusters which were a part of giant
superclusters scattered in space. Thus, the universe had no boundaries,
neither any centre.
4, a) F b) T
5, aJ iii b) v

C)F
c) ii

d) F
d) vi

e) T
e) i

QT.

Q iv.

Universe as a System

UNIT 14 ECOSYSTEM
Structure
Introduction
Objectives

Ecology and Environment

Ecosystem
Individuals in an Ecosystem and their Ecological Role
Food Chain
Food Web
Energy Flow in the Ecosystem

Cycling of Materials in the Ecosystem

The Nitrogen Cycle
The Carbon Cycle
The Water Cycle

Interaction.in the Earth Ecosystem

Summary
Terminal Questions
Answers

14.1 INTRODUCTION
--

---

- -

As far as we know, our earth is the only planet where life exists, though scientists su
constantly searching for signs of life on other heavenly bodies. You have already learlt: i i
the previous block, how life came into existence on this planet. You have also studied, that
several hundred million years ago, living conditions on the earth were quite different from
what they are today and so were the earlier living organisms. The present variety of animals
and plants has evolved out of the old ones just as the present living conditions on the earth
have evolved over a period of rhillions of years. In addition to sunlight, air, soil, water, the
eanh has got the right pressure and temperature that enables life to exist, evolve, and
diversify. A~tuallythere exists a very delicate balance in nature between the earth's
environment and the living organisms. If this balance is disturbed then the life that exists
( d a y is likely to be affected or even destroyed. Flash floods.andsoi1erasion are same of
the adverse effects of this imbalance. Therefore, we must understand that how living and
non-living things exist in harmony with nature and what aie the processes that maintain this
balance. In this unit you will learn how life system is sustained on this planet.

Objectives
After studying this unit you would be able to:
describe how all forms of life are dependent directly or indirectly, on their environment,
as well as on one another,
explain how essential needs for the existence of life, such as energy, nutrition and water
are continuously made available by certain processes going on in nature,
discuss the interdependence of life, and how its sustaining processes are delicately
balanced in nature.

14.2 ECOLOGY AND ENVIRONMENT

Today, we hear people from different walks of life, using the terms ecology and
environment. Politicians, leaders. town planners, students and architects speak of
'environmental issues' and 'ecological concerns'. Of course, these phrases are very
common, but are they really understood by the speaker and the listener alike? Often these
are interpreted in many different ways. So we need to establish some common
understanding of these terms.

Ecology is a branch of biology which deals with the relationships betweeii organisms and
their 'environment'. Everything that affects an organism from outside, during its life, is

Environment and Resources

collectively known as its Environment. These environmental influences can be divided into
two categories. The living things that affect an organism are called biotic factors, and those
that are not alive are called abiotic factors. Let us understand this with the help of an
example. Consider a fish in a stream, we can identify many different environmental factors
that are important in its life. The temperature of the water is an important abiotic factor but, it
may be influenced by the presence of trees, a biotic factor, along the bank of the stream that
shade the stream and prevent the sun from heating it. The kind and number of organisms that
serve as food for the fish, are important biotic faitors as well. The type of materials that
make the bottom of tHe stream, and the amout'of oxygen dissolved in the water are two
other abiotic factors, which are related to the. speed of flow of water. In brief, the
environment of an organism is complex, and its various factors are interrelated.
SAQ 1
Fill in the blanks choosing appropriate words from the list given below.
a) . . . . . . . . . . is the study of the int&action of organisms with their. . . . . . . . . .
b) The word. ......... very broadly means as anything that affects a n . ........
during its lifetime.
C) The environment consists o f . . . . . . . . . . and. ......... components.
(environment, biotic, organism, abiotic, environment, ecology)
-

14.3 ECOSYSTEM

The example of a fish in a stream makes it quite clear that if we want to understand the
living things and their place in nature properly, we must not consider them alone, but rather
as a part of an interacting system. Such an interacting system, e.g., a stream, is called
ecosystem.
You must have seen a lake, a pond; a grassland or a forest at one time or another. All these
are some more examples of ecosystem. Let us consider a pond as our model ecosystem (see
Fig. 14.1) and examine it more closely.

Fig. 14.1: The pond ecosystem showing biotic and abiotic components.
-

As already mentioned earlier, it is made up of basically two types of components: living and
nun-living.The living components include various types of plants, frogs, birds, fish, turtle,
insects and numerous kinds of microscopic life forms called microbes. The water, the
dissolved gases such as oxygen, and carbon dioxide, the minerals, soil, and stones constitute
the non-living components. The various components of the pond interact with each other. In
lac(, d ~ pond
c
is a small world in itself I-Ierr, living kings are born, they live, breathe,
feed, excrete, move, grow, mate, reproduce, kcomc hod for each other and die withi? the
pon'ct itself: I r i s rightly said'that the p ~ n dhas a dynamic cxisten'ce. It is not the same tndiy,
as it was yeslerday, Mow let us look more -closely at Ihe biotic components in an ecosystem,
arid their rolc.

Ecosystem

14.3.1 Individuals in an Ecosystem, and their Ecological Role

Within an ecosystem, the organisms can be classified under three broad categories, namely,
producers, consumers and decomposers. Let us see what is their position in the ecosystem.
Sun is the ultimate source of energy for nearly all life on the earth. Solar energy enters life
mainly through green plants, and also through some kinds of bacteria and algae which are
called producers. During photosynthesis, green plants use the energy of sunlight to convert
two simple, low energy substances, carbon dioxide and water, into more complex
substances, such as carbohydrates which we may call food. Photosynthesis produces oxygen
as a by-product. To cany on photosynthesis and make food, green plants need not only
sunlight, water, and carbon dioxide, but also small amounts of some minerals such as
cAcium, potassium and~nagnesium,dissohed in tlie water around &he floaling plants. or in
the soil water around plant roots.

Photosynthesis:
Carbon dioxide + water + solar energy + minerals + food + oxygen
Food made during photosynthesis may later be used for energy by the plant itself, or by an
organism that consumes the plant. In an organism food is used up, with the release of its
stored energy, by the process of respiration. Respiration requires oxygen, a& releases three
products: energy (part of it is used for doing work, and the rest is not used and is given out
as heat energy), carbon dioxide, and water - the starting products of photosynthesis!

Respiration:
Food + oxygen + carbon dioxide + water + energy
Food is not only a source of energy, but also the nutrients used to build up the organisms'
bodies. So we see that nutrients and energy are combined into one entity, food, during
photosynthesis. This food may be taken by the other organisms from green plants.
So far we have seen that, green plants are called producers because they produce their own
food. Plants live and die, they may be eaten up by animals who also eventually die. There
are organisms - the decomposers which act on dead plants and animals and for their
existence they decompose the substances which form these dead bodies. In other words, the
decomposers, such as bacteria, fungi and worms, convert the material of the plants and
animals back to their elementary forms.
Besides the producers and decomposers, there is another category of organisms - the
consumers. These organisms cannot make their own food, and they depend directly or
indirectly on producers, for energy and nutrients.
Consumers include herbivores, animals that eat plants; carnivores, animals that eat other
animals; and omnivores, animals that eat both plants and animals. Deer, duck, goat, and
cow are examples of herbivores. Some human beings who are vegetarian by choice, could
also be considered as herbivores. Wolf, tiger, cat, dragonfly, and eagles are all carnivores;
rats and most human beings are examples of omnivores.

SAQ 2
Fill the empty boxes in the crossword puzzle given below. After you have completed the
crossword, classify the organisms as producers, decomposers, herbivores, carnivores, and
omnivores.

In the adjacent equation where

you see arrow read it as
'produces'.

'he arrow in the adjacent

equation means produces.

Environment and Resources

Clues

Left to Right
1 Bird (5)
2 Crop (5)
3 Animal (6)
4 Animal (7)
5 Insect (1 1)
6 Bird (4)
7 Animal (4)
8 Worm (9)
9 Animal (3)

Top to Bottom
2 Animal (5)

4 Weed (5)
10 Animal (3)
1 1 Plant (6)
12 Bird (3)
13 Insect (6)
14 Vegetable (3)
15 Bird (6)
16 Animal (4)

r"

* The numbers in bracket denote the letters in the word.

14.3.2 Food Chain
As you know from the discussion of the previous subsection (14.3.1), one of the ways in
which the organisms are related is through food, that is, one organism becomes food for the
other. A sequence of organisms that feed on one another constitutes a food chain
(see Fig. 14.2).

Fig. 14.2: Food Chdn

The mows in the figure show the direction of passage of nutrients and energy from the
producer, a plant, to caterpillar, to the sparrow and finally to the eagle. The number of links
or steps in a food &.in are usually limited to four or five. You may wonder why it is so.
You would find the answer to this later.
Coming back to the links or steps in a food chain, each of the link is also referred to as a
trophic level. The trophic leve! to which an organism belongs, indicates how far it is away
from plants in the food chain. Green plants or producers make up the first trophic level. The
second trophic level contains the plant eating animals, the herbivores, and higher trophic
levels are made up of carnivores. Another point, that we wish to make here is, that an
organism cannot always be assigned to one specific trophic level. Take the example of man
who is an omnivore, i.e., he is both a herbivore and a carnivore, so he may belong to the
second and/or the third trophic level.

14.3.3 Food Web

Within an ecosystem, there are many different food chains. Some organisms may be
involved in several of the food chains at the same time (see Fig. 14.3). So a number of food
chains become interwoven into a food web, that may be very complex. The term food web is
often used to describe more accurately, the actual feeding relationship within a given

ecosystem. In a forest, if deer become rare or get wiped out by a disease or any natural .
calamity, the predator, such as lion, can feed on other animals such as fox, wolf. crane etc.
rill the usuai prey arlimsls are availublt again (see Fig. 14.3). 11i brief', w e can say that rr!zr~y
irtterlocking fuucl chains make it possible for rhr living beings to survive rninor or major
setbacks and changes in their surroundings. Thus, interlocking food chains provide stability
to the ecosystem.

Fig. 11.3: A fvvd web showing the main fwd links. Note that the starting point for each chain is a plant, and
several fwd chains are interconnected to form a food web.

14.3.4 Energy Flow in the Ecosystem

The principal source o f energy for any ecosystem is sunlight. In the earlier sub-section
(14.3.1) you have studied that solar energy is converted by plants into food materials, and is
stored within the body of the plant. All food materials that we or other animals consume are
manufactured directly or indirectly by plants. Think of your breakfast, bread is made of a
cereal that is produced from plant material, egg from hen which has fed on plant products;
and milk from cow which has consumed grass or fodder derived from plants. In a nutshell,
the energy that we obtain from plants either by burning wood or by eating them, represents
the solar energy trapped by the plants. We are dependent on the stored resources of solar
energy. When we eat meat, we obtain energy that had been stored by plants several years
before and then taken up by an animal like a goat through grazing. When we cut firewood
for fuel, we obtain energy accumulated and stored by trees for perhaps a century or more.
When we bum coal or petroleum, we obtain solar energy stored by plant life, millions of
years ago.
Now let us trace the energy flow through an ecosystem. This is represented diagramatically
in Fig. 14.4.
ENERGY GIVEN OUT AS HEAT

DECOMPOSER

----

Ftg. 14.4: Energy flow in an ecosystem.

Environment and Resources

Notice that the energy from the producer to the last level has decreased considerably. The
energy passed on to the next trophic level is represented by letter E of three different sizes,
each by its size indicates the comparative amount of energy. The arrows in the upper half of
the diagram indicate the loss of energy in the form of heat given out by different organisms.
The arrows in the lower half show the energy loss via the wastes secreted and energy
trapped in dead bodies of the organisms. Decomposers use these wastes and dead bodies as
sources of food and derive energy from them. They also give out some unused heat energy.
Energy flowing through an ecosystem is thus first captured by the producers. From the
producers the energy passes to various consumers, via food. At the end of the chain we find
that very little energy is left for the last trophic level, because some energy is always lost in
going from one level to the next. This loss of energy limits the number of trophic levelsin
the ecosystem, and so they are seldom more than five. This also clearly shows that why the
steps in a food chain are limited to four or five.

SAQ 3
Place the missing links in the following food chains, from the list given below.

a) Plant + .......... +Fish

b)

c)
d)
e)

+ Man
Grass + worm + sparrow + .......... + Owl
.......... + rat + snake + Hawk
Bug + Spider + frog + ..........
Grass + grasshopper + .......... + eagle
.
(rat, snake, insect, rat, wheat.)

SAQ 4
Construct a food web using the items listed below.
deer
herbivorous insect
rabbit spider
plant
sparrow
wolf
hawk
snake
Hint: Keep the producers at the base, herbivores at the middle level, and carnivores on the
top; and connect them with arrows, depending on who eats whom.

14.4 CYCLING OF MATERIALS IN ECOSYSTEM

Living organisms require four nutrients in relatively large amounts, these are carbon.
oxygen, nitrogen and hydrogen. They also require phosphorus and sulphur. These elements
are present in our environment in a fixed quantity, therefore they must be recycled in order
to sustain life. Also these'elements must move efficiently, from the living to nonliving
components and vice versa. Let us understand this with the help of an example. Plants take
in carbon as carbon dioxide to produce food. As the herbivores eat plants, carbon is
on to them, which in turn is passed on to carnivores, and so on. Carbon is eventually
returned to the nonliving pool in the ecosystem, through the excretory processes of the
producers, the herbivores. the carnivores, and also through the activity of the decomposers.
Through such cyclic processe~thesenutrients are used over and over again by the
organisms.
This aspect of the ecosystem function is called the cycling of materials. In contrast to
energy flow which Is a one way process, mineral nutrients move more or less in a cyclic
way.

In the following sub-sections, you would study the cycles of nitrogen, carbon and water.
This would give you an idea of the complex involvement of the various living and nonliving
components.

14.4.1

he Nitrogen Cycle

Nitrogen is vital part of many essential organic compounds especially nucleic acids and
proteins. It also forms a major part (79 per cent) of the atmosphere. In fact, the atmosphere
is the chief reservoir of nitrogen, where it is present in the gaseous form, which
unfortunately, cannot be directly used by plants and animals.

Plants actually obtain their nitrogen from nitrates and ammonium salts in the soil to build up
proteins, from which animals derive some of their proteins. The amount of nitrates and
ammonium salts in the soil, is limited, at a given time, and their supply would quickly
exhaust, if it were not for the renewal of supply of nitrogen which goes on continuously.
What are these processes which enable the cycling of nitrogen? Now, we shall discuss them
briefly.
You are advised to first look at the nine basic steps of nitrogen cycle as shown in Fig. 14.5.
When you see number 1 in the figure, for its explanation look up step 1 of the nitrogen
cycle, described below.

Nitrogenous Compounds
Fig. 14.5: Ihe Nitrogen Cyde

1) During thunderstorms, some of the oxygen and nitrogen in the air are converted into
oxides of nitrogen by the high temperature of lightning. The oxides of nitrogen dissolve
in rain water, reach the soil and get converted into nitrates. These nitrates are taken up
by plants.

2) Certain bacteria can utilise atmospheric nitrogen and build up nitrates from it. They are
called the nitrogen-fixingbacteria. Some of these bacteria live freely in soil, others live
in small knots or nodules on the roots (see Fig. 14.6) of certain plants. Surely, you must
be familiar with plants such as beans, peas, peanuts, clover and alfa alfa etc., which have
these bacteria canying nodules on their roots. Farmers make use of some of these plants,
to make fodder, and then plough the rest of the plant into the soil, to increase the nitrates
in the soil.

3) Nitrogen fixation by bacteria, i.e., the process of putting nitrogen in a form that plants
can absorb, is rather slow, compared with the rate at which plants need nitrogen. In such
a situation the demand for nitrogen is fulfilled by adding nitrogen containing fertilisers
to the soil.
4) Nitrogen in the form of nitrates is taken up by plants, and is converted into amino acids,
which are the building blocks of proteins.

5) Nitrogen enters the food web through plants and passes on to animals which feed on
them.
6) Nitrogen eventually returns to soil in the following ways: (i) During excretion,
nitrogenous wastes in the form of various ammonium compounds are returned to the soil
or water. (ii, iii) Nitrogen trapped in plants and animals returns to soil by death and
subsequent decay of their bodies by the action of bacteria and fungi.
7) In soil, the nitrogen-containing matter are acted upon by bacteria and are converted to
ammonium compounds, then eventually to nitrates.
8) Some soils, particularly the ones in bogs. estuaries, lakes and parts of the sea floor
contain denitrifying bacteria which produce the opposite effect of nitrogen fixation.

DUL

Fig. 1A6. Root nodules

Environment and Resources

They act on nitrates and release nitrogen to the atmosphere.

9) Volcanoes are one of the important sources of nitrogen. They have been emitting small
quantities of nitrogen for centuries and contribute significantly to the nitrogen reservoir
of the atmosphere.
Intrusion into the Nitrogen Cycle
Human intervention can disturb the nitrogen cycle. Let us see how. When we grow and
harvest crops. there is loss of nitrogen from the soil, as it is utilised in the building up of
plant body. Similarly, harvesting of timber results in heavy outflow of niirogen from our
forest ecosystem. You may say that we can compensate for the loss of nitrogen by adding
commercial fertilisers to our fields or by large scale cultivation of nitrogen-fixing plants.
Yes. you'are right. so long as the right type of fertilisers are applied in proper quantities.
Heavy addition (4commercial fertilisers cause excessive build up of nitrogen in the soil and
groundwater, and nutriept enrichment of rivers, lakes etc. Automobile and industrial
exhausts add nitrogen oxides, especially nitrogen dioxide, at an alarming rate to the
atmosphere. Nitrogen dioxide reactg with moisture in the atmosphere to form weak nitric
acid, which is carried to the soil dyring rainfall, and ultimately to the water table. The results
of nutrient enrichment of rivers, lakes etc; presence of excessive nitrogen oxides in the
atmosphere; and the excessive formation and addition of nitric acid to the soil. would be
studied in Unit 16 of this block.

SAQ 5
Fill in the blanks.
Nitrogen, an element required in most molecules of life, occurs as . . . . . . . . . . in
atmospheric reservoir. Plants can only take up nitrogen in the form o f . . . . . . . . . .Nitrogen
gas is fixed into useful compounds by . . . . . . . . . . These are found in the root nodules of
plants like ..........and . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . bacteria produce the opposite effect of
fixation. The nitrogen in the soil is replenished by the addition of wastes and ..........
that are subsequently acted upon by the. .........

14.4.2 The Carbon Cycle

We have seen that carbon is one of the essential elements of all organic substances and it
enters the ecosystem through the process of photosynthesis. Carbon is present as carbon
dioxide in the atmosphere. Carbon dioxide forms 0.03 to 0.04% of the atmosphere. The
oceans also have carbon dioxide dissolved in their water. For understanding the cyclic
processes related to carbon, you are advised to go through the 12 basic steps of the cycle, as
indicated in Fig. 14.7. Please note numbers 1 to 12 in the figure. Each of these numbers
denotes a component process of the cycle. When you see number 1 in the figure, observe
what it shows and read its explanation under point 1 of the carbon cycle.
1) You have already studied that carbon dioxide enters food webs through plants

(Subsection 14.3.1) by the process of photosynthesis.

2) In the same sub-section (14.3.1) you have also studied that some of the carbon dioxide
captured by the plants and converted into organic molecules, is returned to the
atmosphere via respiration.
CARBON DIOXIDE IN THE ATMOSPHERE

Fig. 14.7: The Carbon Cycle

3? And; lome portion of the carbon is incorporated into the plant body, which is later
passed on to the herbivores, etc.

4) The living beings release carbon dioxide into air during breathing.

5) (i, ii) carbon dioxide is also returned to the atmospheric reservoir by the death and
subsequent decay of the dead bodies and wastes of animals and plants.

6) Formation of fossil fuels, like coal. oil. gas, is a part of the carbon cycle. wherein carbon
is trapped for millions of years. Fossil fuels are the remains of ancient plants and
animals that were subjected to high temperature and pressure over millions of years.
Man has been using wood, peat, coal and petroleum as sources of energy, for running
transport. such as motorcars. aeroplanec etc.: for industries. for cooking food and
var~ousother purposes. While considering fossi :uels as energy packed substances. you
must not forget that it is the energy of sunlight from prehistoric times that remains
stored in them in chemical form.
7)

Since air is in direct contact with the sea, the carbon dioxide from the air dissolves in
the upper layers of water resulting in the formation of carbonates.

8) The plants that grow in sea water, do not get atmospheric carbon dioxide. Therefore,
they utilise carbonates present in water as a source of carbon dioxide during
photosynthesis.
9) Food produced by water plants passes through the aquatic food chain. For example,
when fish feed on the water plants, carbon passes on from plants to the fish, and
ultimately to the other organisms that feed on fish.

by marine plants and'animals during breathing

10) Some of the carbon dioxide
gets dissolved in sea water and can be re-utilised by the plants.
I I ) However. some of the carbon dioxide. thus evolved. escapes to the atmosphere.

12) Organisms like snails, oysters etc.. extract carbon dioxide dissolwd in water and
combine it with calcium to form calcium carbonate from which they construct their
shells. Shells of these dead animals collect in undersea deposits and may eventually be
converted to limestone.

Intrusion into the Carbon Cycle

In the carbon cycle, as long as the average amount of carbon dioxide h a i r and in water
remains the same, a happy situation prevails. If the tendency is for it to increase. a point will
come when some animals will find it intolerable for their breathing. If the tendency is for
carbon dioxide to decrease, then. over a large number of years. a point will be reached when
plants would not be able to photosynthesise and produce oxygen for animal life. So. we can
see how important it is to maintain a balance in this cycle. In the present century, the carbon
cycle has been impaired by non-judicious utilisation of fossil fuels, indiscriminate cutting of
forests and changes in land use from agriculture to the cement and concrete roads and
buildings, which reduces the area under plantation.
We see enormous amount of smoke emanating from some of our industries, vehicles,
accidental fires, aeroplanes, and some also from kitchens. This adds carbon dioxide to the
atmosphere in amounts much larger than can be tackled in natural course. Carbon dioxide
input has been increasing since the beginning of Industrial Revolution some 100 years ago,
and since then its concentration has increased considerably in the atmosphere. The major
concern over increased carbon dioxide content, is its possible effect on the temperature of
the air surrounding the earth. Excessive carbon dioxide in the atmosphere tends to trap the
heat radiated by the earth. The effects of such a situation will be discussed in detail in Unit 16.

SAQ 6
Fill in the blank spaces given below:
The reservoir of carbon is carbon dioxide ga\ found in the . . . . . . . . . ., and dissolved in
. . . . . . . . . .Carbon enter\ the producers through ........... during which they
incorporate . . . . . . . . . . I the food prepared. Carbon is released to the atm0sphere.a~carbon
dioxide during . . . . . . . . . . . Carbon dioxide is also returned to the atmospheric reservoir by
the death and . . . . . . . . . . of the dead bodies o f . . . . . . . . . . and . . . . . . . . . .

14.4.3 The Water Cycle

The importance of water is obvious to everyone. Water is synonynlou. with life. The most
comnlon substance in the body of iinv organism is water. It is also the most abundant
substance .in our environment. An estimatcd amount of'1500 million cubic kilometers of

Environment and Resources

water, in one form or the other, is present in the biosphere. Ocean is the major reservoir of
water which covers about seventy per cent of earth's surface. Ocean water is salty. Fresh
water is mostly found in rivers and in between rocks below the surface of the earth.
The water cycle is driven by the sun's heat energy, which causes water to evaporate, while
gravity draws the water back to earth after water vapour condenses. Here, we would like to
point out a difference between the water cycle, and the two previous cycles. Unlike in
nitrogen and carbon cycles, most of the forces that cause water to be cycled do not involve
organisms, but are the normal physical processes, like evaporation, condensation etc.
In this unit, water cycle is divided into 4 basic steps. Before we proceed further, you may go
through Fig. 14.8 carefully, and then read the corresponding description as you did for the
study of nitrogen and carbon cycle.

Fig. 14.8: The Water Cycle

1) All water, which is used by mankind for personal and industrial purposes, is plain or
fresh water, which is derived largely from the ocean water through evaporation and
precipitation.
2) As the precipitation reaches the earth, some of the water falls directly on the ground,
some falls on vcgctation, on buildings and on strccts. A part of the watcr that falls on Lhc
ground, seeps through the soil, to an impervious layer of cla.1 or rock and collects as
groundwater. The rate of downward movement of water in soil is dependent on the type
of soil, its slope, type of vegetation and the amount of rainfall. The underground water is
utilised by human beings for domestic, agricultural or industrial purposes.

3) Some of the water falling on the ground runs down the gutters and drains to be carried
off to rivers. Some surface runoff may also collect in small ditches, lakes etc.
4) So far we have been discussing the various ways in which water, in different forms,
reaches the earth. Now let us understand as to how water reaches back to the
atmosphere.
Some amount of rain water never reaches the ground as it evaporates back into the
atmosphere.
Plants also give out large amounts of water back to the atmosphere through their
ii)
leaves.
iii-v) The water remaining on the surface of the ground and on vegetation as well as the
water in the surface layers of streams, lakes madoceans evaporates and goes back
to the atmosphere.
As the water vapours in the atmosphere form clouds and drift with wind,'they eventually

i)

meet cold air and condense in the same way as moisture from the air in the room
condenses outside a glass of iced water.

Intrusion into the Water Cycle

Water management is one of the leading concerns of man today. The natural water cycle has
not been able to compensate for the effects of human actions on water resources. The
amount of water that is fit for human consumption has decreased over the years and its
quality has deteriorated. To a large extent this is due to increased population, higher
demands of water for personal use, agriculture and industry.
Foremost in the list of detrimental effects of human activity is deforestation, that is the
indiscriminate cutting of trees and the ultimate depletion of the vegetation cover. Extensive
use of paper, and of wood for construction and fuel is responsible for this. Deforestation, not
only reduces the humidity in the atmosphere but also leads to a chain of other undesirable
effects, for instance, the vegetation that helps to hold the soil together, when reduced
considerably, is not able to hold the top soil in place. This eventually results in washing
away of fertile, top soil during rainfall or by blowing winds, thus exposing harder infertile
rocks. Not much water seeps down the hard soil, and the underground water reservoirs are
not ~roperlyreplenished. The loosely bound soil is carried along by water running on its
surface, and is ultimately deposited in river beds and dams, thus choking them.
The other human activities that disrupt the water cycle are: concentration of population in
big industrial towns; lack of proper sanitary facilities, and disposal of wastes. Domestic and
industrial wastes are often rcleased intb the water streams, sometimes'adversc ,\ffecting
lire in the water.
The antidote of deforestation is afforestation, i.e., plantation of new trees. For this, it is very
important to know what kind of plant would be suited for a particular condition T f no
attention is paid to this aspect, we may further increase the damage to our envirc.,.nent.
Eucalyptus is one example in this regard. It is one of the economically important and fast
growing trees. It was planted as a soil binder and wind breaker in places where there was
need of water conservation. The choice of Eucalyptus proved disastrous as this plant is
notorious for its high rate of water intake from the soil and subsequent loss to the
atmosphere. Many people also call this plant an "ecological monster", as it drains the water
table and prevents all other plants from growing underneath. It also makes cultivation on
neighbouring lands impossible.
SAQ 7
Fill in the blanks
Water is constantly being redistributed on the earth through the ongoing . . . . . . . . . . .It is
driven by . . . . . . . . . . , and includes evaporation and precipitation. The major movement
of water is from its main reservoir, the . . . . . . . . . . ,to the. . . . . . . . . . and back to. . . . . . .
and . . . . . . . . . . as precipitation.

14.5 INTERACTION IN THE EARTH ECOSYSTEM

In this comparatively smaller section, we will give you the idea, that the earth as a whole is
an ecosystem. Whatever you have learnt till now is also applicable to earth on a large scale.
Let us see how.
So far you have seen that the interaction of organisms with each other and with their
environment is seemingly endless. As we see, the source of all energy is the sun. Solar
energy, through photosynthesis, is stored in the food prepared by plants. This energy
supports earth's organisms. Sunlight also powers the water cycle, that ensures supply of
fresh water and continually regulates warmth and moisture over the globe. Whether it is the
life on land or in water, energy captured by photosynthesis flows through the consumers,
thus making animal life possible. In a far more subtle interaction, the molecules of all
organisms finally reach the decomposer where the last bit cf energy is exfracted by them.
Not only that, the vital elements such as nitrogen, carbon etc. are also freed, to be recycled
back to the waiting producers for another turn of the cycle of life. In the ongoing energy
flow, each participant releases its quota of unused energy in the form of heat. This energy
goes back to the physical world that is the atmosphere. Thus there is an equilibrium between
the physical and the biological world in terms of nutrients and energy. This state is also
called natural equilibrium, a term we very often come across, when dealing with problems
of ecology and environmental protection.

Ecosystem

Environment and Resoums

Every individual in modern times, must understand these basics of existence, because he or
she may otherwise unknowingly make choices which would provide a set back to these
processes and eventually to the life on this planet.

14.6 SUMMARY
In this unit you have studied that:
In Ecology, we study the relationships between organisms and their environment, and
anything that affects an organism during its life cycle constitutes its environment.
An ecosystem consists of all the organisms living in an area and depending on.each
other in various ways and'also on their environment.
kvery ecosystem requires certain nutrients, a source of energy, producer, and decomposer
. organisms. Most ecosystems also contain consumer organisms.
All the organisms in an ecosystem are interrelated through feeding relationships, and
they form a food web, a diigam showing what eats what. Energy and nutrients enter
the living world together as producers make food. Almost all the energy entering the
living world comes fiom sunlight, trapped during photosynthesis by the green plants.
This energy is released and used for various activities by plants, consumeas and
decomposers. Dead bodies and animal wastes are used as energy sources by
decomposers, which release the nutrients in simple forms that plants can use.
Although the energy flow through an ecosystem is essentially one way, the nutrients may
cycle indefinitely.
Earth as a whole is an ecosystem, where the fundamental principles of existence of life
hold as good as for any smaller ecosystem.

14.7 TERMINAL QUESTIONS

1) %ck the box for correct statement. Put a cross for wrong statement.
a) Ecosystem is considered as an independent unit, and sunlight is usually its only
outside energy source.
b) An ecosystem can continue to exist indefinitely, without any other organisms
as long as plants are there to make food.
C) Energy moves in a cyclic way whereas nutrients move in one way only.
d) More energy is lost fkom an ecosystem when a k i v o r e eats
an animal than a herbivore eats a plant.
e) Agricultural practices in the long-run disturb the natural equilibrium.
'

2) Answer the following in the space given below:

a) What are the factors that enabled life to exist on earth?

b) List the nutrients that are required by the living organisms in relatively large
amounts?

3) Fill in the gaps:

a) The entry point of energy in an ecosystem is ..........
b) In a food chain, the number of trophic levels are seldom more than four and five,
because at each level some of the ........... is lost, and ultimately very little of it
is left for the last, fourth or fifth level.
C)

.......... is an example of organisms that occupies more than one trophic level.

d)

..........is a group of living beings together with their environmental factors with
which they interact.

e) A food web tells us about the ..........relations, and the flow o f . ......... in
an ecosystem.

Ecosystem

14.8 ANSWERS
Self Assessment Questions

1) a) ecology, environment
b) environment, organism
c) biotic, abiotic

Top to bottom
2 Whale, Omnivore
4 Grass, Producer
10 Rat, Omnivore
11 Fungus, Decomposer
12 Hen, Omnivore
13 Spider, Carnivore
14 Pea, Producer
15 ~ a m tHerbivore
,
16 Lion, Carnivore

2) Left to right
1 Crane, Carnivore
2 Wheat, Producer
3 Jackal, Carnivore
4 Giraffe, Herbivore
5 Grasshopper, Herbivore
6 Crow, Omnivore
7 Deer, Herbivore
8 Earthworm, Decomposer
9 Man, Herbivore or Omniyore
3) a)
b)
c)
d)
e)
4)

insect
rat
wheat
snake
rat
Snake

hawk

wolf

herbivorous
insect

plant

5) gas, nitrate, nitrogen-fixing bacteria, pea, beans, denitrifying, dead bodies, decompo&rs.
6) atmosphere, ocean, photosynthesis, solar energy, respiration, decay, plants, animals.

7) water cycle, solar energy, mean, atmosphere, land, ocean.

Terminal Questions
1) a).l
b) x

c )x

e) 4

2) a) Sunlight, air, water, soil, appropriate temperature, and pressure.

b) Carbon, oxygen, hydrogen, and nitrogen.

3) a) producers

b) energy

c) man

d) ecosystem

e) feeding, energy

UNIT 16 THE CHANGING ENVIRONMENT

Structure
16.1 Introduction
Objectives

16.2 Pollution
Air Pollution
Water Pollution
Soil Pollution
Pollution due to Noise
Pollution due to Radiations

16.3
16.4
16.5
16.6
16.7

Impact of Technology on Environment

Impact of Population Increase on Environment
Summary
Terminal Questions
Answers

16.1 INTRODUCTION
The early human was a nomad, and he spent a lot of time in search of food. He was close to
nature because his existence depended directly on plants and animals. He, then made the
leap from hunting and food gathering to farming, creating conditions of living in small
village communities. If we compare the life of early man with that of today, we find a
tremendous difference. Today, most of the people are better off, in regard to food and other
basic necessities of life. There is production of goods and provision of services of various
kinds for health and communication etc. Much of it has been made possible by the
application and improvement of technology. Man has constructed dams on rivers; cut down
forests, ploughed land and grown crops; built towns, cities, canals and roads. No doubt, all
these developments have made his life easy and comfortable, but in the process he has
altered his environment, and often short-sightedly or even recklessly damaged it. Today,
there is clear evidence of man induced harm in many regions of the earth such as: the
dangerous levels of pollution in water, air and soil; the disturbances in the ecological
balance of the biosphere; and the destruction and depletion of irreplaceable natural
resources. There is, therefore, need to identify the areas and causes of the degradation of
environment that have occurred over the years, so as to take steps to preserve the heritage of
mankind and live in harmony with the environment. In the previous two units you have
studied the basic components of the environment and their relationship. In this unit, we
would briefly touch upon a few problems of global concern regarding our environment.

Objectives
After studying this unit you would be able to:
define pollution, and list the sources and effects of primary air pollutants
describe how photochemical smog and acid rain are formed, and how they affect the
living beings
list the major sources of water, soil, noise and radiation pollution and describe their
impact on environment
realist? how technology, over the years, has contributed to the degradation of environment
understand the reasons for tremendous increase in population in our country and the role
education can play in finding a solution.

16.2 POLLUTION
Now-a-days, you might have heard every one talking about pollution. What does pollution
mean? Pollution is the addition to the environment (air, water, soil) of substances or energy
(heat, sound, radioactivity,etc.) at a rate, and in quantities that are harmful to life.

Pollution has a long history. It became noticeable when larger and largcr numbers of people
began to live in cities. Unplanned growth of the cities,led to difficulties in the disposal of
garbage and sanitary wastes. Living .;pace was often shared with animals as is sometimes
done in lndia even now. Mud, slush and dusty roads added to the pollution. Air, water and
soil, acquired many harmful substances, in the form of wastes, from human activities.
The waste materials (pollutants) that cause pollution are of two types:
i)

those that remain in an unchanged form for a long time and are known as persistent
pollutants, e.g. pesticides, nuclear wastes, and plastlcs etc. Many of these are toxic;

ii) those that break down, into simple products, and are known as non-persistent
pollutants, e.g., garbage. If this break down process is facilitated by living organisms,
then such pollutants are referred to as biodegradable pollutants, e.g., wastes from

animal sheds.
Pollution has disturbed the ecological balance in so inany ways that can be disastrous for
mankind. Presently, we have reached a stage where we must begin to protect our
environment in order to protect ourselves. In the following pages, you will study how
different wastes have entered into air, water and soil, and how noise and radiation have
caused immense damage to our environment, and ultimately to us.

16.2.1 Air Pollution

Air pollution is one of the major problems created by modern man. It is estimated that about
100 million tons of waste are poured into our atmosphere each year. Wastes in the form of
smoke from industry, power plants, automobiles and homes; and also due to burning of
fossil fuels, spread pollution into our atmosphere (see Fig. 16.1). Aircrafts also release large
amounts of burnt or unbumt fuel into the air. You may have seen a long trail of smoke left
behind by a climbing jetliner.

Fig. 16.1: The causal agents of air pollution in most cities.

The burning of coal, wood, diesel oil, kerosene, petrol etc. produces the following five
categories of pollutants:
i)

Carbon monoxide

ii)

Hydrocarbons

iii) Particulates

The Changing Environment

Environment and Resources

iv) Sulphur.dioxide
V) Nitrogen oxides
These five categories of primary pollutants react with one another, producing secondary
pollutants that are even more dangerous to animal and plant life. First, we shall discuss each
of the primary pollutants separately.

Carbon monoxide is produced when organic materials such as gasoline, coal, charcoal, and
trash are incompletely burnt. Virtually all stoves, furnaces, fires in open places and forests,
factories, power plants give off carbon monoxide. The other significant source is from the
incomplete burning of tobacco when smoked. This gas combines with hemoglobin, and
reduces the oxygen canying capacity of blood, causing blurred vision, headache, and in
extreme cases, unconsciousness, and even death.
Automobiles emit a variety of hydrocarbons. These are a group of organic compound:;
consisting of carbon and hydrogen. They are either evaporated from the fuel or are the
remnants of fuel that did not bum completely. Hydrocarbons in air, are washed down oy
rains, and eventually they run off into surface water. They form an oily film on the surface
of water. Hydrocarbons are mostly only a nuisance except when they react to form
secondary pollutants.

Particulates constitute the third category of air pollutants. These are mostly fine carbon
particles (less than 0.002 mm in diameter) formed by the combustion of fossil fuels. They
remain suspended in the air, where they absorb other substances such as lead, hydrocarbons,
sulphur and nitrogen oxides. These particles enter the lungs during breathing and increases
the chances of lung cancer, and other respiratory diseases. Diesel automobiles and trucks
emit between 30 and 100 times more carbon particles than other vehicles. Asbestos is also
an air pollutant in the form of particles that enter the atmosphere from asbestos mining and
milling operations and from the manufacture, disposal and use of asbestos containing
products such as insulation devices. Asbestosis, a cancerous disease caused by deposition of
asbestos in the lungs, is widely prevalent among the people working with this material.
Several miners are known to have died in Singhbhum, Bihar due to this disease. Recently,
this disease has been classified as a killer disease under the Factories Act.
Silicosis, another cancerous disease caused by deposition of silica in the lungs, is prevalent
among the people working in the mining, potteries, foundries, stone cutting and finishing,
and glass manufacturing industries. It is also a fatal disease.
The air in most of the urban areas in India has a very high level of particulates. In fact, an
unpleasant haze of dust and smoke particles has become almost an integral part of our urban
environment. For example in cities like Delhi and Bombay, during rush hours in the
mornings or evenings, it becomes difficult to breathe if you are caught for long at traffic
crossings. There is so much of vehicular exhaust fumes.
One of the most harmful pollutants is sulphur dioxide. It is a compound containing sulphur
and oxygen and is produced when fossil fuels contaminated by sulphur are burned. Sulphur
dioxide has a sharp odour and irritates the respiratory tissues. It also reacts with water,
oxygen and other materials in air to form sulphur containing acids. The acids also become
attached to particles in the air, When, inhaled, such particles are veiy corrosive to lung
tissue. Sulphur dioxide also adversely affects the plants and reduces their growth. Steel gets
corroded 2 to 4 times faster in sulphur-laden air. Sulphur dioxide also corrodes other metals
like zinc as well as building stone.
Oxides of nitrogen are also major primary air pollutants. As a result of a variety of
combinations of nitrogen and oxygen, a number of compounds, oxides of nitrogen, are
formed. The primary source of nitrogen oxides is automobile engines. Oxides of nitrogen
react with other compounds to produce photochemical smog which we will describe now.

Photochemical Smog
Photochemical smog, a secondary Pollutant, results when the two pollutants,
nitrogen oxide and hydrocarbons found in automobile exhausts, react with one
another in the presence of sunlight to produce nitrogen dioxide (N02), ozone ( 0 3 )
and a compound called PAN (Peroxylacetyl nitrate), which then appear as a
yellowish brown haze. Breathing ozone affects the respiratory and nervous system.
It causes respiratory distress, affects eye membranes and stimulates tears. It also
causes headache. Ozone also damages rubber articles, textiles and discolours
paintings. It has been recently found that smog is harmful to timber. PAN is
especially damaging to plants. Plants exposed to PAN exhibit leaf mottling and

Acid .Rain

The Changiw EnviroamcP(

A side effect of air pollution is acid rain, which is now of common occurrence. You might
have seen, that some industries build very tall smoke stacks to protect the air quality in their
immediate vicinity. But this allows wind currents to carry the fine particles that have
absorbed sulphur dioxide and nitrogen oxides to far off places. Sulphur dioxide and nitrogen
oxides react with water in the atmosphere to give rise to sulphuric acid and nitric acids.
These acids, formed in the air, come down to the eanh along with rain. The pH of acid rain
depends on the concentration of sulphur dioxide and nitrogen dioxide in the atmosphere.
The pH of acid rain varies from 5.6 to as low as 3.0, which makes it almost as acidic as
vinegar (also see Fig. 16.2). The pH of natural rainfall is also slightly acidic and is 5.6. This
is because rain water reacts with carbon dioxide in air and forms weak carbonic acid.
n

R
Battery acid
Lemonjuice

Vinagar

Fish d i u p p n lrom lsk

Unpoll~tSdrain

Bakinp soda

I)

Ammonia

ABalln.

Fig. 16.2: pH scale showing the range of acid rain (see the shaded region). The top scale indicates the pH of
various substances, and the lower scale indicates the effect of acid rain on the ecosystem.

Now let us see the effects of acid rain on the ecosystem. It causes direct damage to the
leaves of p!ants. Forests in many pans of the industrialized world are drying because of acid
rain. It also causes the leaching of nutrients out of the soil, some of which are very essential
for plant growth, e.g., calcium and magnesium. These nutrients are carried out of soil into
streams and ponds. Besides this, it causes a lot of other effects, as indicated in Fig. 16.2.
Acid rain also affects lakes. Their waters become devoid of life, except for some algae and
fungi that grow at the bottom. Acidity leads to increase in dissolved metals, particularly
aluminium. This element affects the gills of the fish. and they die of suffocation. Birds living
near lakes that have high aluminium content, are poisoned by aluminium because they feed
on the aquatic insects. Acid rain also corrodes materials such as marble stonework and metals.
Then, how could one minimise the occurrence and the effects of acid rains? Most of the
sulphur dioxide produced, that leads to acid rain, is due to the burning of sulphur-containing
coal. Coal, therefore, could be washed prior to burning. Low sulphur coal could be
substituted for high sulphur coal. Devices such as scrubbers could be installed in tall
chimneys of furnaces to prevent sulphur dioxide from entering the air. A new method of
burning coal in which a mixture of coal and limestone are used, is now under development.
This technique could reduce the emission of sulphur and nitrogen oxides. Experiments have
been done to restore the lakes, streams and soils that have been affected by acid rain. Lime is
added to lakes and in fields where soil becomes too acidic. But it helps only for a short time
and does not completely solve the problem. However, limestone cannot be spread in the
forests. So. don't you think. the most effective solution is to reduce the emission of sulphur
and nitrogen oxides from all devices that produce them?
Weather
Scientists have reason to believe that air pollution. both due to carbon particles or soot and
carbon dioxide would affect weather. A rise in surface temperature of land and water due to,
what is called. the greenhouse effect is predicted.

When sun's rays fall on the atmosphere containing carbon dioxide, some of the heat is
reflected towards the sky but much of it passes down to the earth. Heat from the earth enters
the atmosphere and some of it is again reflected back to the earth, while the rest passes
through the atmosphere. Thus, the surface of the earth. i.e.. the surface of land and water are
net gainers of heat during the day. and this establishes a certain temperature on the surface
of the eanh. If the amount of carbon dioxide in the air increased. the net gain of heat and

The strength of acids and

alkalies is measured on a pH
scale which goes from 0 tcr 14
and on which pure water uhich
is neither acidic non alkaline
stands at the neutral. ie.,pH 7.
Substances having pH less than
7 are acidic and those having pH
more than 7 are alkaline.

Envlmnment and Resources

hence temperature on the earth would be greater. The earth would warm up in such a case. A
greenhouse is a glass house often used in cold weather to grow plants of warmer climates
and it works on the same principle. The greenhouse has glass walls, and the glass prevents
all the heat inside the house from being lost to the atmosphere. You would, perhaps, have
experienced the inside of a closed car parked in the sun becoming unbearably hot. The
reason is the same.
Since 1958. the concentration of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere has risen by almost 6 per
cent and is expected to increase in future. What leads to the increase in carbon dioxide level
in the atmosphere? VJe shall discuss that now. You have already studied in Unit 14, that
plants take up carbon dioxide and use it for making food. Forests comprising of enormous
vegetation remove a lot of carbon dioxide from the air. The destruction of forests
significantly increases the proportion of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere. The buming of
fossil fuel by industry and transport vehicles also keeps adding carbon dioxide to the air.
Thus, there is a continual build up of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere. If the present trend
continues, it is feared that a doubling of atmospheric carbon dioxide could occur sometime
towards the middle of the next century, and this would cause an average annual temperature
rise of 3 to 8OC. This rise in temperature could have a disastrous impact on all life. It will
affect agriculture, resulting in problems in the availability of food and other agriculturebased activities. Melting of polar ice would result in the rise of sea level. This could
submerge many coastal areas and farmlands. It is feared that cities like London, Glasgow,
Florida, Tokyo, Osaka, Montreal, Stockholm, Copenhagen and Calcutta would loose much
of their temtory to the rising waters.
Another scenario has also been predicted, i.e., the earth's temperature will be lowered
because of the increasing number of suspended particles in the air, coming not only from
soil erosion and dust but also because of soot and smoke from industries, fires in forests,
automobiles or from bombs and other weapons used during hostilities and war. The clouds
of suspended particles would prevent solar heat from reaching the earth and thus lower the
surface temperature of land and water. It has, indeed, been calculated that if even a small
fraction of nearly 50,000 nuclear bombs in the possession of the USSR and the USA are
used in an unfortunate war, so much debris, dust and soot will be thrown up in the
atmosphere from buming of fuel dumps, buildings, bridges and other objects, that solar heat
will be shut off from the earth for a considerable period causing, what is called, a nuclear
winter. The cold will destroy crops and vegetation and starve and kill all animals
everywhere on the planet earth. No wonder, people everywhere in the world are agitated and
look to the great powers to solve their disputes peacefully. The first step towards this would
be to destroy the nuclear weapons in stock and stop their production.

Depletion of Ozone Layer

Since the last decade or so, there is concern about the possible reduction in the ozone layer
surrounding the earth. Now the question arises, what had led to the depletion of this layer.
The reasons are many. The foremost is the widespread usage of chlorofluorocarbons. These
are gases which readily liquify when compressed. This makes them useful as refrigerants,
propellants in aerosol cans, and in plastic foams. Chlorofluorocarbons are very stable and
accumulate in the atmosphere, where they react with ozone. Nitrogen oxides also play a
significant role in ozone destruction. It is being felt that the introduction of more nitrogen
oxides into the upper atmosphere by jet planes flying there could decrease the ozone to
dangerously low level.
The fear is that chlorofluorocarbons will deplete the ozone layer and allow more ultraviolet
radiations to reach the earth's surface. An increased level of ultraviolet radiations would
cause more skin cancer, affect crops, interfere with oxygen cycle and even distoti weather
patterns.

Controlling Air Pollution

So far, you have studied, how air pollution of various kinds is caused, and what are its
effects. Now let us see, how air pollution can be controlled.
i) Photochemical smog-eliminating this would require large scale changes in life style
and culture. Life has become fast, and quicker modes of transport are preferred. Every
year hundreds of thousands of vehicles are added to the existing large number of
automobiles. So the net result is an increased production of oxides of nitrogen, and the
phorochemical smog. The alternative is to develop transport of a very different kind,
perhaps electrically operated cars and two wheelers rather than those burning petrol, or
to make the automobile industry develop devices that could be fitted to the vehicles to
minimise the discharge of pollutants.

ii)

Particulates generated largely by industries, can be controlled by scrubbers,

precipitators, and filters. These devices cost money but they save lives. So far, owners
of industries have thought only of cost and profit. They have not cared as to what
happens to plants and animals that are exposed to the soot and smoke which their
factories pump into the air.

iii) To control sulphur dioxide, which is produced largely by coal furnaces and coal-fired
steam generators. several possibilities are available. One is to change from high sulphur
to low sulphur fuel, such as natural gas. oil or nucleat fuel. This is. however, not a long
term solution, as low sulphur fuels are in short supply and nuclear fuels have problems
of their own. The other possibility is to remove sulphur from fuel, before use.
'
Scrubbing the gases is the third alternative you have studied about it earlier.
iv) The amount of smoke emanating from the kitchens can be minimised by the use of
smokeless cbulhas solar cookers and biogas. These have dualadvantage. One. they are
within the easy reach of people and secondly, there is minimum pollution.
So you can see, air pollution is related to technological development and
industrialisation. Technologies were available in the past to speed up transport or to
release the energy of fossil fuels for increasing production. There was little concern
about the pollution that was caused, until the use of technologies became more
widespread and the hazards became too great to ignore. But for the poorer countries. air
pollution means many other things. The housewife who bums cowdung or dry leaves
or splintered wood to cook food is exposed to intense heat and smoke. It is known that
a lot of people. particularly in rural areas, go half-blind due to such exposure. People
live in very dusty atmospheres-again very much so in rural areas. and their lungs
often get damaged. Those working in mines and small workshops are exposed to air,
that contains substances which irritate the breathing system causing disease, and often,
early death. Air also carries foul odours, flies and mosquitoes which make life
unpleasant and cause communicable diseases. Our priorities in combating air pollution
have to be intelligently determined. Perhaps, it can be said that the greatest hazard is
poverty which obliges people to live in dirt and squalor and work under conditions, to
which, even animals should not be exposed.
Before we proceed further, how about trying a couple of SAQs first?

SAQ 1
Fill in the blank spaces in the following statements with appropriate words given below:
a) .......... is anything produced by humans in a quantity that interferes with the health
or well-being of organisms.
b) The main primary pollutants are.
and . . . . . . . . . .
C)

d)

........................................

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .,and .......... constitute the photochemical smog.

.......... causes leaching of nutrients from the soil; and increase in the quantity of
certain metals such as aluminium that dissolves in water and may prove toxic to many
organisms.

e) Increased. ......... in the atmosphere may contribute to the greenhouse effect and
may lead to an overall .......... of earth's temperature.

......... into the upper atmosphere by jet planes and wide

spread use of. ......... in refrigeration, have adversely affected the ozone layer in the
atmosphere.

f) Activities like emission o f .

(carbon monoxide. chlorofluorocarbons,ozone. sulphur dioxide, pollution,

hydrocarbons, peroxylacetyl nitrate, particulates, acid rain, nitrogen oxides, carbon
dioxide, nitrogen dioxide, warming. nitrogen oxides).

SAQ 2
List three health effects of air pollution.

The Changing Environment

Environment and ~aoweos

16.2.2 Water Pollution

Pollution of fresh water is one of the most serious environmental problems of the world as a
whole. In our country most of the rivers and lakes are polluted and their waters are unfit for
drinking. According to an estimate nearly 2/3rds of all illness in India is related to water borne diseases such as typhoid, hepatitis, jaundice, cholera, diarrhoea and dysentry. About
73 million workdays are lost due to these diseases every year. Pollutants from different
sources enter surface waters as depicted in Fig. 16.3. Now we shall take up these sources
one by one and discuss how they cause pollution.

i)

Water is required in large quantities in industrial processes, for cooling. washing,

diluting chemicals or cleaning purposes. Power plants, fertiliser factories, steel mills,
paper mills, refineries, sugar factories and automobile factories are examples of
industries which mostly dump their wastes in rivers or into the sea. It is not a rare sight
to see the used water with foul smelling chemicals just standing around the factories as
a symbol of total disregard of civic responsibility.

ii)

Community wastes (sewage and garbage) from urban and rural settlements account for
four times as much water as industrial wastes. Most of these wastes are discharged
untreated into the water courses. Out of India's 31 19 towns and cities, only 217 have
partial (209) or full (8) sewage treatment facilities. It is not unusual to find whole
localities where waste water, with all its filth, just stands around the houses where poor
people live.

iii) Water that flows on the surface of cultivated fields where fertilisers, pesticides,
insecticides and other agrochemicals are used, contributes much to the pollution of
water. This water, on absorption also pollutes the underground sources.

Fig. 16.3 :Human beings bring about water pollution in many ways as shown here.

iv) Nuclear and thermal power stations use large quantities of water for cooling purposes.
They discharge the resultant hot water often containing chemicals, into water streams.
This results in increase in temperature of the water of the stream, which is injurious for
fish, and other aquatic organisms.
V) Pollution of river water by ferries which leave a certain amount of oil on river surfaces
and similar pollution by ships on the high seas interferes with the supply of oxygen
needed for plants, and animals such as fish etc. in water. Offshore exploration for
petroleum, and accidental oil spills cause similar problems for under-water life.
vi) Acid water from mines, and also from rain pollutes water in rivers and in the sea.

vii) Suspended particles in the air, such as the pesticides sprayed through an aircraft are
brought down into the water bodies by rain and thus cause pollution of water.

The Changing Environment

So far, you have seen, how water on the surface of the land is polluted by various means.
Now, let us talk about our underground water resources and see if they are free of pollution.
Ordinarily one would expect underground water to be free of pollutants, because bacteria
and deca y-causing fungi present in the soil can remove most organic contaminants before
water reaches the water body underneath the soil. But sometimes, the underground water is
polluted with heavy metals, nitrates, chlorides etc.
You may wonder how do pollutants enter the groundwater? Previously, industries were
accustomed to running waste waters to pits. There the pollulants would seep into the
ground. Also some of the wastes, were buried in deep wells made in the soil. from which
pollutants were constantly discharged. Anolher reason is excessive use of fertilisers in the
fields, which gradually seep down to the ground water.
Having seen how our water resources both on surface and underground, are pollutt.d, we
shall now discuss the effects of water pollution on the life forms. Some of the worst
problems have been created by pollution of streams.with heavy metals such as lead and
mercury coming out of industrial wastes. These pollutants make bathing and drinking water
from such sources dangerous. Fish from such sources are also not safe to eat.
Mercury, especially, is a heavy metal that builds up in the food chain. Industrial activities
such as mining, paper making, manufacture of electrical equipment, have increased.
the concentration of mercury in the aquatic environment. Mercury is not easily excreted.
Once it enters the food chain its concentration goes on increasing at each level. For
nxample, from plants+ large fish -+human beings. In countries like Japan which depend
largely on fish and other sea food, there is a distinct danger of mercury poisoning resulting
from the industrial discharge into the sea. In the 1950s an outbreak of mercury poisoning in
Japan raised awareness of the hazard. Residents who ate sea food from Minimata Bay that
had been contaminated with methyl mercury developed numbness of the limbs, lips and
tongue and lost muscle control. Deafness, blurring of vision, clumsiness. apathy and mental
derangement also occurred. Of the 52 reported cases, 17 people died and 23 were
permanently disabled.
Pollution due to oil and petroleum products from refineries, drilling and pumping
operations, shipyards and oil spills, have destroyed wildlife and made water unfit for use.
Many of the sea birds die, because their feathers get soaked with oil, and they lose buoyancy
and hence get drowned. Thermal pollution is caused by the addition of heat to a body of
water. Power plants and other industry use water to cool their machinery. Then they
discharge the heated water back into a stream or lake. This changes the temperature of
nearby water environment and may kill many of the aquatic plants and animals that are less
tolerant.
Eutrophication
Materials such as sewage or organic wastes from milk plants, canneries, slaughter houses,
paper mills, starch factories and fish processing plants, and runoff from agricultural lands
greatly increase the productivity of waters and cause algae to grow in abundance, so that
sometimes water surface gets entirely covered by algae. This is called 'algal bloom'. In
general, the entire water body becomes a green nourishing soup. Eventually, the death of
this algae promotes the growth of a very large 'decomposer' population. The decomposers
break down the dead algae using a lot of oxygen present in the water. In addition, the living
algae also consume oxygen from water at night for their respiration. The decomposers, and
the algae cause decreased amounts of oxygen available to fishes, ultimately causing them to
die. The problem of eutrophication or excessive nourishment leading to loss of life in water
bodies mainly occurs in ponds and lakes and not in flowing water.
Now the question arises what is the solution to this problem? One solution is to process the
sewage thoroughly, to remove nutrients to prevent 'algal bloom'. Since such a treatment is
expensive, ~ t h e ways
r
are being explored. One suggestion is to use this water to irrigate
crops and/ or to grow algae and aquatic plants in a man made shallow pond which can be
used for making biogas.

SAQ 3
Fill in the empty spaces picking up the right word(s) from the list given below.
Major sources of water pollution are . . . . . . . . . ., . .. . . . . . . and . . . . . . ..

. o s ~ ~ ~ ~ ~

Environment and Resources

matter in water requires high amount o f . . . . . . . . . . for its decompbsition. . . . . . . .. .

depletion can result in the death of fish along with many aquatic organisms. Many of the
pollutants such as organic matter, some industrial wastes etc. enrich the. water with
. . . . . . . . . .,and result in . . . . . . . . . ,Algal blooms occur in the. . . . . . . . . ., polluted
waters.
(oxygen, municipal sewage, nutrients, industrial wastes, eutrophication, non-flowing,
oxygen, agricultural runoff.)

16.2.3 Soil Pollution

The problem of soil pollution is rapidly increasing in the rural, urban and industrial areas
due to unscientific and irrational disposal of solid wastes generated by human beings from
their domestic and industrial activities. In many rural parts of our country, daily thousands
of people pollute the soil through their wastes, as toilet facilities are not available. In
industrial areas heavy metals, plastics and other persistent organic compounds including
msticides, are the major causes of soil pollution. Hazardous wastes in soil, often
accummulate in the bodies of organisms including man, because they are not excreted. Once
they enter the food chain, they become more concentrated at each level. Note in Fig. 16.4.
how DDT, a pes'ticide, becomes more concentrated as it passes along fmm producer to
consumers. The story of DDT is one everybody should know. It was once a widely used
pesticide. It is a substance that does not easily break down. It can persist in the environment
for as long as fifteen years. It enters birds through the organisms they feed on which in turn
get it from the organisms lower in the food chain (see Fig. 16.4). When a high concentration
builds up in birds. their reproductive systems are affected. As a result they lay fragile eggs
that easily break in the nests. Similarly other pesticides are also major soil pollutants,
because of their retention in soil. The pesticides not only kill the targeted pests, but also kill
many harmless and even beneficial insects. They cause more harm than benefit. Therefore,
DDT and many such agrochemicals have been banned in many parts of the world.

Fig. 16A: The accumulation of DDT in living organisms. Dots represent the density of 8crumnJatIon.

What should be done to minimise soil pollution? First of all, in India, the use of open fields
and banks of ponds and tanks as open toilets should be stopped, by providing latrines. Care
should be taken while dumping wastes in the soil. Substances such as heavy metals, plastics
and other substances that remain unchanged for very long time should not be added to the
soil. Instead ways should be found for their reutilisation by various recycling processes.
Utmost care should be taken so that the minimum necessary pesticides or other
agrochemicals are used. In fact. biological control of pests and fixation of nitmgen should be
urgently developed by rcsearch, so that dependence on widespread use of toxic chemicals is
reduced.

SAQ 4
Name three comr~lonsoil pollutants.

SAQ 5
List the ways in which the soil pollutants harm the living beings? Complete the answer
giyen below, by picking up the appropriate word(s) from the list provided.
Firstly. many of these pollutanls enter the .......... and eventually get concentrated at
each trophic level. At the last ...........their concentration becomes so much that it does
considerable .......... to a variety of organisms. Secondly, pollutants like the. ........
not only destroy the harmful organisms, but also wipe out a large number of beneficial
organisms.
(pesticides, trophic level, food chain, damage)

16.2.4 Pollution due to Noise

Sound is an important means of communication, but high levels of noise could damage
hearing, and cause deterioration in capacity to concentrate on work. Noise is referred to as
unwanted sound that is usually unpleasant. The loudness of noise is measured in decibels
(db). The quietness of a lonely place at night may be represented by, 20 db; a library where
people are not supposed even to talk loudly, by 40 db; the sound level when you hear a radio
broadcast, by 60 db; a factory or a motor-cycle may produce uncomfortable noise at 100 db,
if you stand near a jet engine of the airlines it may be hard to bear the noise of 120 db level.
High level of noise is harmful to man. Hearing loss begins with prolonged exposure (8 hours
or more) to noise at 80-90 db or more.
Can you think of some places where there is high level of noise? The level of noise is very
high in certain industries, such as the ones dealing with iron and steel manufacture, motor
vehicle production, metal products fabrication. printing and publishing, lumbering and wood
products, and textile manufacturing. Busy streets in big towns, and the places near the
railway tracks are so noisy that if you were living there, you would hardly be able to sleep.
It is often said that noise pollution is different from air, soil and water pollution. let us see
how? Noise pollution differs significantly from air, soil and water pollution in the sense that
it decays almost instantaneously and leaves no residues, whereas a majority of pollutants of
air, soil and water remain as such for very long durations.
Now the question arises how can noise pollution be reduced? Maintenance of machinery and
automobiles, etc. in good condition reduces noise. Loudspeakers which blare music at night
during celebrations of festivals or marriages cause tremendous strain on the whole
neighbourhood. Rules that already exists to stop such noise should be enforced by local
administration. Planting of trees along roads also reduces noise levels in residential areas or
i~ work places.

SAQ 6
List three places where high level of noise, could harm your sense of hearing.

16.2.5 Pollution due to Radiations

Hazards of nuclear radiations are extremely serious, because they upset the genetic make up
of the living beings. Environmental pollution from nuclear radiations is increasing rapidly
due to proliferation of nuclear power plants. All nuclear power plants produce large
quantities of nuclear wastes, which remain radioactive for long periods of time. These
wastes need to be stored and disposed off in a manner that prevents the contamination of the
environment with radioactivity. But no satisfactory way has yet been developed to store the
radioactive waste material over long periods, without running the risk of leakage. Nuclear
wastes include radioactive elements that will be dangerous for thousands of years. For
example, Plutonium-239 remains in the biosphere for 2,00,000 years, with all its ill-effects
before it loses its radioactivity. Unfortunately, the developed countries which produce such
waste in huge quantities are known to be cleverly dumping this waste in the poor countries.
producing grave hazardf o their people who do not at all benefit from the positive side of
nuclear energy.

The C k P ~ n g
Environmmt

Environment and Resources

Whenever nuclear explosions occur, radioactive particles are camed to great distances by air
currents. The radioactive material eventually settles on earth and is then taken up from the
soil by plants. If these plants are eaten by animals or man, these radioactive particles get
deposited in flesh, milk or bones of the animals. Once a certain concentration of these
radioactive substances is reached, their radiations can destroy tissue and cause death from
cancer or tissue damage. Unfortunately nuclear bombs were used by USA against Japanese
cities of Hiroshima and Nagasaki in 1945. Apart from the deaths caused by heat and blast,
tens of thousands of people died from damage caused by radiation, even the babies born
afterwards were affected by radiation that brings about genetic change. Testing of nuclear
weapons over the ground also creates increasing danger from radiation and so there has been
a worldwide movement to ban nuclear tests. India has played a big role in this movement.
Now a days, many people talk of the devastating effects of a nuclear war. There are now
enough nuclear warheads to destroy all military installations, most concentrations of
industry and almost every city on the globe. If even 1% of existing weapons are used, then
for months after the explosions, radioactive ash would continue to fall upon us from the
upper atmosphere. The dust and smoke raised by these nuclear explosions might create a
nuclear winter about which we have talked earlier, and all life and the whole civilisation
may be extinguished, The attacker as well as the attacked, and all the other nations would be
there no more to shed tears over their fate. Therefore, concern to bring about nuclear
disarmament has become the most important problem of the world.

SAQ 7
Identify the following statements as true or false. Write T for the correct statement and F for
the wrong statement in the boxes provided.
a) Radioactive wastes do not require any special treatment.
b) Exposure to a large amount of radiations can cause a number of diseases.
C) Radioactive waste materials are biodegradable.
d) Nuclear radiations disturb the genetic make up of the living beings.
e) Nuclear wastes belong to the category of persistent pollutants.

LA
Cj

l
I

u
7

16.3 IMPACT OF TECHNOLOGY ON ENVIRONMENT

Since the mid 1950s, in most parts of the world, growth and development have vastly
improved living standards and quality of life. This improvement is largely due to the
application of technology. Technology, however, has also produced a new set of problems
concerning environmental stress due to.industrial effluents and emissions, use of chemicals
in agriculture, clearing forests, converting cultivable land into a maze of cement concrete
roads, buildings and embarkments, noise and radioactivity that are added to the atmosphere.
The consequent impact on human environment is greater than ever before in human history.
The increasing use of coal and oil as energy sources, the release of non-degradable or very
slow-degrading wastes from industry, and some of its products such as plastics and stainless
steel alloys have the potential of accumulating in the environment. Environmental stresses
~ d been cleared for
also arise from more traditional form of production. More l a ~ has
cultivation in the past 100 years, than in all the previous centuries of human existence. The
loss of forests and other wild vegetation wipes out whole species of plants and animals, and
drastically reduces the genetic diversity of the world's ecosystems. This process robs present
and future generations of the genetic material to improve crop varieties, such as to make
them less vulnerable to weather stress, pest attack and disease. The loss of species, many of
which have not yet been studied by science deprives us of important potential sources of
medicines and industrial chemicals. The loss of forests could also bring in its wake
disastrous effects such as erosion, siltation, floods and local climatic changes. Massive
dams, most of them built after 1950, impound a large proportion of the river water,
submerge agricultural land and drive away wild animals.
'

Many of the risks arising from productive activity and the technologies we use, cross
national boundaries. Many of them cause global risks. Though the activities that give rise to
these dangers tend to be concentrated in a few countries, the risks are shared by all, rich and
poor. those who benefit and those who do not. A variety of air pollutants are killing trees
and lakes and damaging buildings and cultural treasures, close to. and sometimes thousands

of kilometers from the points of emission. The acidification of environment and the
greenhouse effect etc. are threats to life-support system. It springs up directly from increased
use of resources. Another threat &risesfrc~nithe depletion of atmospheric oLone layer, by the
gases released during the production of foam, and the use of refrigerants and aerosols. A
substantial loss of ozone could have catastrophic affect on human and livestock health, and
effect on other life forms.
Political and technological amibitions have led to dangerous arms race which is not confined
to the two big powers only. Even the production and testing of armaments affect the
environment. The missiles, aircraft and space rockets leave burnt fuel in the upper
atmosphere, which affects the ozone layer adversely. A war involving the use of nuclear
weapons by the big powers can be totally destructive to all living beings including humans.
It can cause so much destruction to the atmosphere, the earth and the oceans, that they
cannot, probably, recover their original state.
In many cas.es, the present practice of disposing off of toxic wastes, such as those from
chemical industries, involves unacceptable risks. Radioactive wastes from nuclear industry
remain hazardous for centuries. Many people, who have to actually bear the risks of these
harmful wastes, do not benefit in any way from the activities that produce the wastes.
All the above-mentioned environmental stresses are linked to one another. For example,
deforestation is linked to increasing water runoff, it accelerates soil erosion and silting of
rivers and lakes. Air pollution and acid rain may kill forests and destroy life in the lakes. Such
links mean that several problems must be tackled simultaneously. Success in one area,

such as forest protection, can improve chances of success in another area, such as soil
conservation.
Industries, that constantly burden the environment with pollutants, also pose another kind of
danger, namely that of industrial accidents. These of course, are rare, but can additionally
endanger people far and near. We shall discuss here two such instances that most of you
might be familiar with.

Bhopal Disaster
All of you must have heard of the Bhopal disaster that occurred on 3rd December, 1984. It is
considered to be the worst industrial accident till today. Poisonous MIC (methyl isocyanate)
vapours, leaked out in large amounts, from a pesticides manufacturing plant owned by a
multinational company called Union Carbide. About 2,50,000 people were exposed to this
gas, and thousands of human beings and animals died after inhaling large quantities of this
gas. The surviving people who had lesser exposure, now suffer miserably with respiratory,
eye, gastrointestinal, neuromuscular and gynaecological problems. The plant, handling
highly toxic and poisonous substances, was situated right in the midst of a populated area.
Besides this, there are other possible Bhopals in India. Baroda with a population of a
million, has the country's single largest concentration of heavy petrochemical industries. In
West Bengal, too, there are 400 chemical factories that deal with poisonous gases. Even
though such factories manufacture chemicals which may be very useful, they should have
been installed at safer places, away from centres of population. In addition to this, the
factories must be well equipped with safety devices which would automatically minimize
the untoward effects of an accident.

The Chernobyl Disaster

This disaster that has happened in the Ukraine (USSR), has highlighted the dangers of
nuclear radiation. On April 26th. 1986, one of a cluster of four power reactors got overheated and is reported to have melted. As a result, radioactive material from this reactor
evaporated and spread into the atmosphere.
Places as far as Western Europe were soon showered with radioactive dust. It is the biggest
disaster in the history of nuclear power generation resulting in the death of 31 persons in the
vicinity and affecting a large population which was exposed to radiation. According to some
estimates, over 6000 additional deaths are likely from cancer, over the next 70 years.

Problem of Disposal of Industrial Eftluents

Rapid population growth, in combination with industrial and technological growth,
represents the potential danger to earth's ecosystems. It is believed that by the year 2000, the
production of various basic items like petroleum products, nitrogen fertilisers, coal, cement
and steel will increase by 6 to 20 times. If technologies and present practices remain the
same, the pollution of air, water and soil will also increase to an unbearable extent.

The Changing Environment

Envkomncnt and Rcsoums

Ganga Action Plan

Of all the environment protection measures India has taken, the Ganga project is the
biggest and the boldest. The water of the Ganges, once considered the purest and
sacred, has over the years become polluted with industrial effluents and the other
wastes like garbage from the cities, partially burnt human bodies etc. Even mass
bathing of thousands of people leave a load of infectious material in the water.
Efforts are now being made to make it fit for human, industrial and agricultural
consumption.

The Rs. 292 crore project is planned to be carried out in different phases. In the first phase,
treatment of sewage from big cities on the bank of the river is planned. It is also being '
planned to control the discharge of industrial effluents, which are the other major sources of
pollution. As many as 4159 large and medium-size industrial units are responsible for
causing pollution.

SAQ 8
Match the items of the first column with that of the second. Write the number of the
appropriate match from the second column, in the bracket of the matching statement of the
first column.
Column 2

Cdumn 1

a) Ganga Action Plan

b) The Chemobyl Disaster
C) Disposal of industrial
wastes on land
d) Bhopal Disaster
e) Improved living standards
and quality of life

[
[

1
1

1 1
1 1
[

a) methyl isocynate vapours

b) application of technology
C) to restore the quality of water
for human, industrial and agricultural use.
d) radioactive material evaporated
and spread into the atmosphere over large areas
e) pollution of ground-water

16.4 IMPACT OF POPULATION INCREASE ON

ENVIRONMENT
Early human hunted and killed wild animals for food, and they also gathered and ate many
plants. When they discovered that. food crops could be grown and animals could be confined
and bred, their nomadic life came to end. Smaller areas could support more people, and
human populations began to increase. Since the number of children born was proportional to
the size of $e population, the increase in population every year became greater than in the
previous year. From an estimated world population of about 10 crores in 3000 B.C., we
increased five times by the year 1650 A.D., or in about 4600 years. The next increase by a
factor of five took only about 300 years. or in about 1950. Today world population has
already exceeded 500 crores. The remarkable fact is that much of this irlcrease takes place in
the poorer countries such as Asia, Afiica and Latin America. Population of USA or U.K. is
not increasing as rapidly as that of China or India. If we examine increase of population in
India, we find that family size is smaller among the well to do people than among the poor.
Again, among Indian states, those with high level of education have a lower rate of
population growth than the others.
There is a high correlation between rate of growth of population, poverty and lack of
education. This is understandable because education would lead to better understanding of
one's own difficulties about providing food, shelter, clothing and education to children if
there are too many children to share an income. Education would also lead to knowledge
about how birth control can be achieved without too much expense or trouble, overcome
cultural factors which lead to large families, for example too much importance to male
children. In search of having one boy, a family may sometimes produce 3.4 morechildren.
Education would also lead to better health care of the children, so that those who are born
have a greater chance to survive. Educated population would also increase economic
productivity 'which could lead to removal of poverty, and greater pressure to improve
benefits of production so that social justice is achieved. .
However, here our concern is the strain which increasing population puts on the resources of
the world, including the environmental resource. All the things we dig out of the earth such
as coal, iron, petroleum, copper, and so on, are available in limited supply and all of them

are going to be exhausted within a limited number of years-and if population keeps

growing, world consumption of these materials will keep increasing, advancing the date of
resource exhaustion. Already there is a world crisis of energy, and we are obliged to
examine how to use renewable sources of energy like solar or wind energy, etc. We have to
use more of nuclear energy, rather than energy obtained from coal, diesel or petroleum.
Larger and larger population also requires more production of food. Agriculture requires
land and in 6any countries land is not available to grow the crops needed for the doubling or
tripling population. There is tremendous strain in resources of drinking water, and on
facilities to remove filth and muck. Larger population could mean shortage of housing,
congestion on roads, slums going from bad to worse, and pollution-which we have
described in this unit, becoming increasingly active. Are we to keep poisoning the air we
breathe, polluting the water that we drink or otherwise use, and polluting the soil at an
increasing pace? The rich countries have to cut down on excessive consumption of world's
resources and their technologies must evolve so that they do not poison the air we breathe
and the water in which vast resources of food and medicine flourish. The poor countries
have to make massive efforts to educate their people, to control growth of their population
and to evolve a society which does not make the rich, richer and the poor, poorer. They have
also to evolve a technology that doesn't just copy what has been done in the past when
pollution and limitation on resources was not a looming danger, and a technology which
increases harmony between environment and living style.

SAQ 9
What factors do you think could motivate persons to have smaller families?

---

16.5 SUMMARY

--

--

In this unit you have learnt that:

Wherever organisms live, the environment is affected. The wastes from human
community, and the industry are eventually deposited in water, air or soil.
Persistent pollutants are those that remain in the environment for many years in an
unchanged condition. Many of these are toxic. The non-persistent pollutants break down
into simpler forms. Many a time, the break down is brought about by living organisms,
and we say such pollutants are biodegradable.
Carbon monoxide, hydrocarbons, particulates, sulphur dioxide ;uld nitrogen oxides are
the primary air pollutants, which combine to form secondary pollutants, some of which
are dead1y .
The major sources of water pollution are municipal sewage, indusmal wastes and
agricultural runoff. Organic matter in wastes, requires oxygen for their decomposition.
Oxygen depletion can result in the death of fish and other aquatic organisms. Addition of
excessive nutrients to a water body, in the form of wastes such as sewage etc., results in
problems like eutrophication.
Hazardous wastes from industry have become a threat to fife. These wastes require
special treatment to render them harmless or to isolate them from human beings.
Radioactive wastes are another special category of wastes that require special handling to
protect the public. Because of the high levels of some dangerous pollutarits th,~:irsvc
accumulated in the environment, the very existence of mankind is in danger. Inlmediate
attention orland remedial measures are required to tackle the problems such as: depletion
of ozone layer, change or suspended particles in the atmosphere, and consequences of
nuclear winter.
The developments in technology have made our life easy and comfortable but it has
happened at the cost of the environment. Pollution from the industries has caused
maximum damage to environmental quality. The acc~dentslike those of Bhopal and
Chemobyl have not only resulted in heavy casualities, but also caused long term damage
to the environment.
The reasons for tremendous increase in population in our country are : economic
backwardness, illiteracy, socio-cultural attitudes, and the increasing difference between
death and birth rate. Now a growing number of people are becoming aware of the critical

The Changlng Envlronmcw&

En-t

end Resources

state of our environment. It is hoped that use of modem technology, and educating people
would take us towards the preservation and improvement of the environment.

16.6 TERMINAL QUESTIONS

1) How much do you and your family contribute to the pollution of your environment?
Look carefully around your house, make a list of every thing that your family adds to the
air, water or soil. What suggestions can you make to reduce your family's contribution
to the local pollution?

2) In the space provided put a tick mark for the correct statement and cross for the wrong
statement.
i) Tall smoke stacks contribute to the acid rain problem.
ii) Eutrophication is caused by the inhibition of algal blooms.
iii) Water pollution is related to agricultural practices.
iv) The level of dissolved oxygen decreases in the ponds or any standing
water body that receives organic wastes.
v)

Technological developments are in no way responsible for increased

pollution.

vi) Photochemical smog belongs to the category of primary pollutants.

vii) There is a positive correlation between the rate of growth of
population and lack of education.
viii) Air pollution decays instantaneously whereas noise pollution does
not.
ix) Many of the hazardous wastes in the soil tend to accumulate in the
bodies of organisms.
X)

The air in most of the rural areas in India have a very high level of
particulates.

16.7 ANSWERS
Self Assessment Questions
1 ) a)

pollution

b)

carbon monoxide, sulphur dioxide, hydrocarbons, particulates, nitrogen oxides

c)
d)

nitrogen dioxide, ozone, peroxylacetyl nitrate

acid rain

e)
f)

carbon dioxide, warming

nitrogen oxides, chlorofluorocarbons

2) headache, eye membrane affected, respiratory diseases such as lung cancer etc.

3) municipal sewage, industrial wastes, agricultural runoff, oxygen, oxygen, nutrients,

eutrophication, non-flowing.
4) Heavy metals, plastics, agrochemicals.

5) food chain, trophic level, damage, pesticides.

6) textile loom, newspaper press, metal product fabrication plant.

7) a)
b)
c)
d)
e)

F
T
F
T
T

8) a) lcl
b) Id1
C) lel
d ) la1
el [bl

9) education and sound economic conditions.

Terminal Questions
1 ) Your choice
Hint:While cooking food by various means. pollutants are added to the air. Similarly,
we add pollutants to water when we take bath or brush our teeth. If you have a small
garden or a farmland, surely you must be adding fertilisers or pesticides etc. from time to
time:If these agrochemicals, are added in excess, they may also cause soil pollution. .

2)i)
4
ii) x
iii) 4
iv) d
v)

vi) x
vii) d
viii) x
ixj

x)

The Changing Environment

UNIT 17 NATURAL RESOURCES

Structure
17.1 Introduction
Objectives

17.2 Natural Resources

Renewsblc Rcsourees
Non-renewable Resources

17.3 Energy: A Non-Conventional Renewable Resource

17.4 Exploration of Resources
Conventional Methods
Remote Sensing Method
Type of Resource Maps

17.5 Summary
17.6 Terminal Questions
17.7 Answers

17.1 INTRODUCTION
In Unit 16, you have studied changes in the environment due to greater pressure on natural
resources to meet the demands of present day world. Now you would be interested to know,
what our natural resources are. There are both living and non-living resources on land as
well as in the ocean. The living resources include forests, wild life, and creatures living in
water or on land. The non-living resources are water in the rivers or under the ground, soil
and mineral deposits. Some of these resources are found in abundance, while others are
found in limited quantities and that too in some restricted parts of our land or the ocean.
study
Here you would study how these resources are explored. In the next unit you ~l~ould
how best they can be utilised.

Objectives
After studying this unit you would be able to:
define renewable and non-renewable resources
describe types of natural resources available on our earth
describe the non-conventional sources of energy and explain how they can be tapped for
the production of energy for domestic and industrial use
outline different methods for resource exploration and various ways in which resource
mapping is done.
--

----------

A
-

17.2 NATURAL RESOURCES

--

Resources, or the wealth nature has bestowed on us are essential for civilised living, and
therefore, they have to be wisely used. However, it is believed that these resources are being
used indiscriminately. This is partly because of the tremendous increase in population and
partly because there is insufficient realisation that these resources will one day be exhausted.
Industrial and technological progress which the world has experienced has increased the rate
at which these resources are being used. A significant factor has been that, for centuries, the
resources of some countries have been exported as raw materials to the dominant or imperial
countries. The poor countries still have to export some precious minerals to the same
countries which are now called developed countries. For example, we are now-a-days
exporting cadmium, a soft silvery metal, to foreign countries so as to earn foreign currency
to meet our other necessities. The metal is extremely useful and is used for a variety of
purposes like making cadmium rods for nuclear reactors and cadmium-silver cells for
electronic watches etc. At present, we are not able to make much use of this metal in our
country because of the low level of technological development. If tomorrow our mineral
reserve of this metal is exhausted, we may be forced to import it at a much higher cost.
Some countries which are importing this mineral may be stock-piling it and they will sell it
at exorbitant price when our stocks are exhausted.

We should, therefore, know what our natural resources are, what their uses are and how
judiciously we can make use of these resources. Careful and planned use will no doubt
increase the life span of our resources. For this it is necessary that we are able to explore our
natural resources and estimate their reserves. Modem technology has made scientific
exploration of natural resources possible.
Our resources are basically of two kinds, viz, renewable and non-renewable. Let us see what
they mean.

Some of the resources of the earth are replaced from time to time by natural multiplication
as for example, is vegetation. In other words, these resources are inexhaustible and are
therefore called renewable resources. Forests, pastures, wild life. and aquatic life are
renewable resources. Water is also a renewable resource because it recycles. There are some
other resources, such as minerals which once used are lost for ever. They cannot be
regenerated. Mineral deposits were formed slowly in millions of years. Once a deposit is
used, it cannot be regenerated. For example, petrol gets burnt up and cannot be recovered.
These are known as non-renewable resources. Similarly, the formation of soil is a very
slow and long term process and it takes thousands of years. It is, therefore, not renewable in
the life span of even several generations of people. Hence it is also a non-renewable
resource.
Let us look at some of these resources of our country in detail. To begin with let us see what
our renewable resources are.

17.2.1 Renewable Resources

As stated earlier, renewable resources are in principle inexhaustible, because they get
regenerated naturally. However, through misuse we can interfere in this natural process and
cause irreparable damage to these resources. Water and forests are our main renewable resources.
Jammu and Kashmir

1% 0.113%

Arunachal Pradesh

% in rust, usable water potential

% In black, water being used
a

Fig. 17.1: Ground water potential in the Indian Sub-Continent

Natural Rosw-

Environment and Resources

Water Resources
Water, as you know, is the most essential component of life. Our water resources are
limited, though apparently, water is available in an abundant quantity. There is scarcity of
usable quality of water in large parts of the world. You will be quite amazed to know that
only 2.7% of the total water resources of the earth consist of fresh water, fit for drinking,
irrigation and such other purposes. Water flowing in the streams and rivers is only 0.0001%
of the total water resource on the earth, i.e., one bucket in 10,000 buckets! Fresh wate~lakes
contain only 0.009% of total water. Ground water upto a depth of about 150 metres accounts
for only 0.625%. Water found in the frozen state as snow on high mountains, which cannot
be directly used, accounts for about 2.15%.
The total volume of water found in underground reservoirs, called aquifers, which can be
pumped out is estimated to bi: 42.3 x 10'%cbic metres, of which only a quarter is being
used, and the rest can be utilised in future for irrigation, industries and homes etc. The
hydrological map of India given here (Fig. 17.1) shows that there are many regions of the
country, such as parts of Andhra Pradesh and Tamil Nadu, which have a low ground water
potential. That is, the amount of ground water is in small quantity in these regions.
From the above, we can cee that water which is required for various purposes like irrigation,
navigation, generation of hydro-electricity and domestic and industrial needs is rather
scarce. It is, therefore, necessary that water resources should be exploited judiciously.
Forest resources
Forests are our treasures, which provide us a wide variety of commodities we use in the
form of fuelwood, fodder, fibre, fruit, timber, herbal drugs, cosmetics and many raw
materials that are used in wood-based industries. A great many types of animals and birds,
which live in the forests, serve as useful living resources. Forests play a great role in
maintaining oxygen supply in the air we breathe, and they affect the climate.
Analysis of satellite photographs shows, that in 1982, about 14% of the geographic area of
our country was covered with forests of which nearly I I% were closed forests and 3%
degraded forests (Fig. 17.2). As a result of increased utilisation of wood and other forest

Fig. 17.2: Area underlorest cover as percentage of total area

products, without putting in adequate efforts to regenerate them, the forests are known to be
fast disappearing. This has caused an environmental imbalance. For example, rain water
flows unimpeded over the mountain Slopes and often causes floods. The excessive washing
away of top soil results in low fertility and decreased production of crops. It is because
of these evil effects of deforestation, that a strong policy has been adopted by our
government to protect forests and to plant more trees.

Natural Re~nurces

17.2.2 Non-renewable Resources

After learning about the renewable resources like water, forests etc., you would like to know
what our non-renewable resources such as land, mineral, oceanic resources are. These
resources can neifher be regenerated nor expanded.
Land resources
Land is a basic resource for us. As you have learnt in the previous unit, it is, in fact, the
foundation on which the entire ecological system rests and it is the living ground (habitat)
for all terrestrial plants and animals. The capability of land to support life and various
activities of man and animals is dependent both on its biological productivity, and load
bearing capacity of the soil and rocks.
Land is under great pressure due to increase in population. Our land mass which was, in
1901, inhabited by 238 million people, is now shared by more than 780 million people.
Mismanagement of the land resource as a result of indiscriminate cutting of trees or
deforestation has caused considerable damage to the quality of the soil and landscapes.
Today, per capita land resource available in India is less than 0.4 hectare and it is presumed
that with the present rate of population growth, it would be reduced to about 0.33 hectare by the end
of twentieth century. Thus, you can realise the magnitude of the pressure on our land resources.
Soil resources
Soil, which forms the uppermost layer of the land, is the most precious of all resources,
because it supports the whole life system, provides food and fodder in the form of vegetation
and stores water essential for life. It contains sand, silt and clays, mixed with air and
moisture. It possesses rich organic and mineral nutrients.
The type of soil varies from place to place. Those soils which are rich in organic matter are
fertile. Fertility is also dependent on the capacity of the soil to retain water and oxygen. The
following major types of soil are recognisable in the Indian sub-continent (Fig. 17.3).

2. Black Soils
3. Desert Soils
4. Alluvial Soib
5. Laterite Soils
6. Mountainous Soib

Fig. 1 7 3 Type of soils found in the Indian sub-continent

51

Environment and Resources

Deep red soil is found on plateaux and lowland areas of Eastern Bihar, Madhya
Pradesh and North Andhra Pradesh, where rainfall is 100-300 cmlyear and temperature
remains above 22C. The soil supports rail1 forests and grasslands and is good for
cultivation of potatoes, bananas, pineapples and rubber etc.
ii) The type of soil found on the Deccan and Malwa plateaux of western and central India
has a cover of clay and is loamy and black. It is very fertile and supports mixed
grasslands, forests, crops of sugarcane, groundnut, soyabean, cotton and rice etc.
iii) The soils of the desert region of western India are low in organic matter and generally
considered to have low fertility. However, if water is provided they can be made very
fertile. Over-irrigation, on the other hand, leads to salinity of these soils, thus reducing
their productivity.
iv) Another type of soil, forms part of the Indo-Gangetic plain extending from Pakistan to
Assam. It is found in the delta regions on the coasts of Bengal, Orissa, Andhra Pradesh,
Tamil Nadu, Kerala and Gujarat. This soil is characterised by loamy texture, dry
composition and variability of thickness from place to place. The soil is highly
productive and supports crops of all kind. In the arid conditions, it becomes locally
alkaline or saline and is not v e y productive.
v) The soil that forms part of the low-lying wet land or marshy land in the deltas of
. Ganga, Godavari, Krishna, Kaveri and in the river basins of Kerala, contains rich
organic matter such as decomposed farmyard manure (dung) and plant material (wood
peat), and as such is very fertile.

i)

vi) Another type of soil found on the mountainous Himalayan region, which is ash grey to
pale yellow-brown in colour, has low fertility and supports coniferous plants such as
pines, deodar and oak etc.
The system of soil classification that you have read above is based on their general
characteristics. There are many differences within these types of soil which are due to
differences in climate and natural vegetation.

Mineral resources
Minerals, natural substances got from the earth by mining, are the backbone of our
industries, and hence of commercial and economic use. Now-a-days, minerals such as
uranium are also used for generating atomic energy as an alternate source of energy. A grear
variety of minerals like coal, iron, copper, aluminium, petroleum etc. are indispensable to
meeting our day-to-day requirements.

Flg. 17.4: Mineral producing Zones of Indla

We are predominantly dependent on petroleum for generating energy for all purposes, but
the world stock of underground resources of this fuel is believed to be exhausting.
India is self-sufficient in 35 minerals, which are used as raw materials in basic industries.
We have iron, aluminium, coal etc. in enough quantity, but for the requirement of
phosphates which are used inmaking fertilisers, crude oil and non-ferrous metals like cop
per, zinc and lead, we are dependent, to some extent on imports from foreign countries.
Our mineral producing states are'Bihar, Madhya Pradesh, Bengal, Gujarat, Rajasthan and
Andhra Pradesh (Fig. 17.4). With the introduction of modem technology, it is now possible
to locate the reserves of petroleum on the land as well as in the ocean bed. Picture9 sent by
the satellites, satellite imageries, help us to pin point the area where mineral deposits are
likely to be found in abundance. Earlier, before we had the satellites in space, this was not

Oceanic resources
Various minerals are found in the sea basins. Among the minerals found at a depth of
4000-5000 metres below sea level are the "nodules" or lumps of manganese oxides
(Fig. 17.5) and sulphides of cobalt, nickel, copper and iron. India is also trying to exploit this
resource. Today more than 115th of the world's oil and natural gas production comes from
offshore wells. The Bombay High, for example, has petroleum reserves of the order of 7,400
million tonnes. Deltas of the Kaveri, Godavari and Mahanadi are also found to have big
deposits of natural gas and oil. The coastal sands of Kerala and Orissa contain many
valuable minerals such as monozite (raw material used in generation of atomic energy) and
zircon. Many other metals like tin, gold, platinum etc. are also found in the deposits on the

(a)
Fig. 17.5: (a) Dbtrlbutlon of mangane~enodulesin the Indian
Ocean; (b) Technique of ocean bedding.

'

The living resources of the ocean such as fish and plants serve as good food to meet thc
needs of the people or as a source of some medicines.
-

a) Complete the fallowing statements:

Resources which are inexhaustible are called. . . . . . . . . . and the resources which
i)
once used are lost for ever, are known as. . . . . . . . . . .
ii) Forests, pastures, wildlife and aquatic life constitute . . . . . . . . . .
iii) The capability of land to support life and various other activities depend on its
.......... and ...........
iv) The uppermost layer of the land forms . . . . . . . . . . .
i soil depends on the capacity of soil to retain . . . . . . . . . .
v) ' ~ e r t i l iot ~

vi) l'he deep red soil found on plateaux and low-land iueas of Eastern Bihar, Madhya
Pradesh and North Andhra Pradesh is good foi the,cultivationof. . . . . . . . . . .

Natural Resources

Environment and Resources

vii) The type of soil found in tire mountainous Himalayan region is .......... in
colour.
b) Answer the following questions:
i) Why is there a scarcity of usable quality water?

...................................................................
...................................................................
...................................................................
ii)

What are the two major environmental imbalances caused by deforestation?

...................................................................
...................................................................
...................................................................
iii) Name four important minerals which are used as raw materials in the industries of
our country.

...................................................................
...................................................................
...................................................................
iv) Give two reasons for increasing the importance of the exploitation of oceanic
resources.

...................................................................
...................................................................
...................................................................

17.3 ENERGY :A NON-CONVENTIONAL RENEWABLE

RESOURCE
The demand for energy doubles every 14 years and is taken as one of the indicators of
development of a country. India, with 16% of the world's population consumes only 1.5%
of the total energy produced in the world, in comparison to USA which has 6.25% of the
world's population and utilises 33% of the energy produced. This gives us an idea of the low
level of our development and should be an incentive to better utilisation of our resources for
generating more energy, so that we can meet our growing demands of energy. Even today.
about 80% of our population continues to depend on fuelwood, dung and agricultural
wastes. We know that non-renewable reserves such as fossil fuels, coal and petroleum, are
not going to last for long. Forests are also being depleted at a fast rate due to indiscriminate
felling of trees. Therefore, it has become necessary to think of alternative, non-conventional
sources of energy. Some of these sources of energy are discussed here.

Solar energy
The energy we get today from the fossil fuels like coal, is in reality sun's energy, trapped in
them millions of years ago. Plants make their food and grow because they use solar energy
for photosynthesis. Millions of years ago, huge forests got buried in the earth's crust and
under great pressure and temperature, they were converted into coal or oil. Hence coal and
oil are called fossil fuels. Solar energy is the great source for production of vegetation which
serves as food and fuel for us.
Solar run refrigerators have been
developed for rural areas. These
keep vegetables, fruits fresh for a
longer,period.

However, nowadays, we have learnt to trap solar energy for various purposes. Solar energy
can be used directly to give us hot water during winter (Fig. 17.6), or run a refrigerator. It
can be used for heating rooms (Fig. 17.7) in colder regions. It can also be used, with the help
of a "photocell" to produce electricity for driving vehicles and illumination of streets
(Fig. 17.8). In a desert like Rajasthan, the earth's surface receives solar energy at the rate of
200 watts per square metre per hour. Since this is an unfailing source of energy, it would be
a great advantage to develop cheap and efficient photocells or photovoltaic devices to
harness solar energy. A feature of using solar energy is that it can be generated where
needed. Solar cookers are being used in many homes to cook food. Photocells are also
becoming common, though their efficiency has to be improved and their price brought
down.

Natural Resources

r"

Solar ray

Tower

Mirror

overha& f o r y
summer sunshading
Fixed Glass

I (1

Roof Radiation tra

Earth roofing

Electrical power
transmission network

water in
Insulating Curtain

Fig. 17.6: Solar energy being

used for heating water

Steam Electric
turbine generator
A field of thousands of mirrors concentrates sunlight on a boiler
mounted atop a 300 foot tower to produce steam, which is used
to generate electricity.
Fig. 17.8: Method of tapping solar
energy for electricity

Fig. 17.7: Solar h@

room

Fig. 17.9 A wind mill

W mu energy
Like solar energy, wind flow can also be harnessed to obtain mechanical energy for fetchin
water from the wells or from rivers. Once the windmill (Fig. 17.9) is turning due to force of
the wind, it may as well run a generator to get electrical energy. In the coastal and hilly
regions, where wind blows at high speed, a wind mill can be used for the supply of
electricity to a small town. Windmills have been used since long in many countries, but in
India they have only been recently introduced.

Wave and tidal energy

Waves and tides are another source of energy which is perpetual and can be converted into
electric energy, particularly where sea water can move into a narrow cut, such as is provided
naturally where rivers flow into the sea. Energy carried by water has also been widely used
in India's hilly regions, since a wheel with pedals can be made to turn when it is put in a fast
flowing strehm. Flour mills of small size built on this principle were used in Kashmir for
long time. In fact, large "hydroelectric" power stations work on the same principle. A
natural or artificial water fall is made to turn a modem kind of pedal wheel, called a turbine,
which rotates and causes electricity to k generated.
Geothermal energy
Hot water and superheated steam of hot springs are a natural phenomenon and can be used
to generate electricity. In our country there arc 46 hydrothermal areas where the temperature
of the spring water exceeds 15DC.These hot springs can be used to generate electricity for
heating homes, or glass-houses to prow vegetables.

Envirwment and Rcsoums

Atomic energy
In view of the fast depletion of our non-renewable resources like coal and petroleum, and
because of pollution which power stations burning coal cause, there has been a move to use
other means of obtaining energy. Since the energy of the atom had already been unleashed
in the form of a bomb, efforts were made to release atomic energy in a controlled manner.
The device used for this purpose is called an atomic reactor (Fig. 17.10). Nuclear reactors
produce heat, which is commonly used to raise steam, which rotates turbines and generators
of electric power. It is estimated that 1 kg of natural uranium, written as^^^, generates
energy equal to that produced by 35,000 kg of coal. Thus production of energy from nucrear
fuel like uranium is efficient, and since great loads of coal or diesel are not consumed daily,
this energy is convenient. Nuclear reactors need to be situated at places far away from
habitations. They have to be operated under strict safety control, so that there are no
accidental leakages of radioactive material. The radioactive wastes have to be carefully
disposed off. India is very short of energy and all of you may have heard or experienced
power cuts or load-shedding. We have plans to set up several nuclear reactors to generate a
good position of our total power requirement.

Fig. 17.10: A view of Narora Atomic Power Station

Biogas
You may have heard of the use of cattle dung for production of biogas which is used for
cooking (Fig. 17.1 1). Water weeds like water hyacinth, water lettuce, salvinia, hydrilla, duck
weeds and algae are found to be useful supplement to cattle dung. Biogas can be used not
only as cooking gas, it can also be used to raise steam, which can be used for running
engines or machines in the factories or for running turbines to generate electricity. It has
been found that large biogas plants can supply the needs of a number of families or even
small villages. What is left over after generating the gas, can be used as manure. Hence this
is also an economical way of getting more energy. That is why in countries like China or
India, great efforts are being made to instal tens of thousands of biogas plants in rural areas.
Now that you have studied about various kinds of resources, you would like to know about
the methods used for exploring these resources. But before that, you may try the following SAQ.

Fig. 17.11: A village lady using biogas burner for cooking food.

SAQ 2
Tick mark (4)the correct answers in the statements given below:
i) Solar energy is a:
a) renewable resource
b) non-renewable resource
ii)

Plants manufacture their food by using:

a) energy from fossil fuels
b) solai energy
C) energy from organic nutrients

iii) Use of non-conventional source of energy like solar energy, biogas, wind energy is
gaining importance over conventional sources such as wood, coal or other fossil fuels
because it is:
a) cheap
b) pollution-free
C) both cheap and pollution free
iv) Reactor generates:
a) Biogas
b) Geothermal energy
c) Atomic energy
d) Tidal energy

17.4 METHODS OF EXPLORATION OF RESOURCES

Exploration of resources involves complex techniques which depend on the physical,
chemical and biological properties of a particular resource. Now-a-days, in our country,
much of the exploration is done by analysis of photographs taken from air raft or spacecraft
(satellites) and other data supplied by the sensors mounted on these vehicle by a method
called' remote sensing'. You may like to know something about the methods used for
exploration of resources.

17.4.1 Conventional Methods

In olden days, discovery of minerals or of petroleum wis purely accidental. People used to
know about the hidden treasures of the Earth, when they used to dig out land for water or for
construction of houses. Sometimes, while tilling land, fanners struck luck and discovered
precious metals and minerals. However, in this way, they could only hit upon the mineral
wealth which lay close to the surface. Now, many techniques are used for systematic
exploration of the hidden resources, and drilling or digging is undertaken when preliminary
surveys have clearly indicated what is underneath and how much is likely to be found.

17.4.2 Remote Sensing Method

Principle
Remote sensing is a method of collecting information about ground objects like soil, water,
vegetation and minerals, from a remote place, such as an aircraft or a satellite. This
technique not only enables us to locate various resources, but also helps us to know about
their quantity and quality. The simplest device could be a camera canied by an aeroplane to
photograph large areas of land systematically. Television cameras could be mounted on
satellites and they could take pictures showing details of clouds, water, forests or buildings
on the earth. Both these are "optical" methods of remote sensing because visible light is
used by the cameras. But one could send out radio waves from the satellites and observe
how they are reflected or absorbed on the surface of the earth. Usually radio waves of
wavelengths as small as a few centimetres called 'microwaves', are used for such studies,
because these waves penetrate through klouds and their reflections also go through the
clouds to reach the satellite. Similarly, infra-red signals can be sent from the satellite and
reflections studied to reveal the nature of the reflecting surface.
,

Remote sensing of water resburces

Radio waves of the shortest known wavelengths are called 'gamma rays'. These are given
off by atoms of several elements. As a result, the ground soil sends out gamma rays which

Environment and Resources

can be picked up by aetectors in the aeroplanes or satellites. This emission is affected by the
presence of moisture or water in the soil and hence, it can be easily detected whether or not
the soil holds water. Moreover, in the pictures taken from space, the wet soil will have
altogether different appearance compared to dry or waterless soil. Due to the presence of
moisture, the water rich soil will not only show day time (diurnal) variation in temperature
on its surface, but will also have a cover of vegetation. Analysis of the type, density and
pattern of the vegetation growing on the wet soil helps us in locating the areas of potential
ground water. Similarly. the belts of hotsprings may be identified and will show up in
thermal or infra-red detectors.

Survey of the vegetation cover

Forests of deciduous trees which shed leaves in a certain season can be easily identified with
the help of pictures taken from the spacecraft specially during autumn when the deciduous
trees shed leaves and there is no snowfall as yet to conceal the vegetation.
Vegetation cover can be surveyed by measuring and analysing infra-red reflection, or with
the help of photographs. The density of vegetation, shape and size of the plants and even
size, orientation and health of the leaves can be studied from afar. The pattern of seasonal
growth of deciduous trees is different from that of the coniferous trees like pine and deodar
and thus the difference can be detected in the photos taken by the spacecraft.
Plants absorb solar energy to make carbohydrates. A part of the absorbed energy is given out
and therefore the leaf temperature remains 10-15Chigher than the surrounding air
temperature during sunniest part of the day, and about 5OC below the air temperature at the
coolest hour of the night. So by measuring ground temperature from a distance, the presence
or absence of vegetation can be detected.

Search for mineral deposits

Aerial photos and satellite pictures show very clearly if there is a break in the continuity of
layep of rock. or other unusual features on the surface of the earth. The distinctive linear
features are found to be very common centres where mineral deposits and ground water are
accumulated. Radio waves and magnetic measuremcuts also pro.vide infomtion about
..
minerals and oil under the surface.

17.43 Types of Resource Maps

~ e n e r a l lseveral
~,
types of maps, based on the type of.resburces, are prepared. Some of
these are:

Soil Maps showing the types of soil (Fig. 17.3), their composition and biological
productivity.
Mineral Maps showing locations of various kinds of mineral deposits in relation to settings
of the earth's crust.
Hydrological Maps show presence of underground water aquifers, i.e., rock formation
containing water in recoverable quantity, in terms of the depth of water table (Fig. 17.1).
Snow Cover Maps demarcate the extent of snow packs on high mount+ns.
Resource mapping
Using various techniques, Resource Mapping is done to locate different resources like water,
minerals, forests. vegetation as well as the types of land. Mapping of resources makes it
possible to visualise how land use could be managed to best advantage. The rural land use
map tells us about the health of forests and the state of deforestation, about pastures, and
agricultural crops. It also tells us how much land and of what kind is unutilised. The urban
land use maps shqw housing, commercial buildings, sports facilities, esseitial services such
as roads, water supply and disposal of waste etc. Likewise, the preparation of regional land
use maps will focus upon the broader aspects of development such as land used for
agriculture, industrialisation and urbanisation, for obtaining natural resources (forestry,
mining etc.), water resource development (dams, reservoirs and canals), transportati~nnet
work (rails, road etc.) and also the zones prone to natural hazards like floods, cyclones,
earthquakes, landslides and avalanches etc.
SAQ 3
Which of the following sktements are true-and which faise. Write (T) for true and (F)for

faise.

i)

In remote sensing, visible light can be used by the camera for collecting
information from the surface of the earth.
[

ii)

Analysis of density and pattern of vegetation growth on the wet soil

helps us in detecting areas which have potentials of ground water.

iii) Deciduous forest, which does not shed leaves, can be identified with the
help of the pictures taken from the space-craft during winter when trees
are concealed by snow.
[

iv) The linear features on the surface of the earth are very common centres
of mineral deposits and accumulation of underground water.

The preparation of urban map helps us in identifying the health of

forest and the state of deforestation, about pastures and agricultural crops. [

v)

17.5 SUMMARY
In the present unit you have studied about two categories of natural resources viz.
i)

Renewable resources, such as water and forests.

ii) Non-renewable resources, like minerals, fossil fuels and land.

You have learnt that it is important to make best use of the limited resources we have got
on our earth. Besides this, you have also learnt about various sources of energy like the
sun, wind, waves, hot springs, atomic energy and biogas etc. which can be used as
alternate sources of energy.
You have also studied various ways through which exploration of resource is done,
particularly with the help of aircraft and satellites, which are able to "see" large tracts of
the earth's surface at once. This helps in locating new resources and monitoring
deforestation.

You have been acquainted with various types of maps, indicating the type of resources, their
quality, quantity and more precisely their location.

17.6 TERMINAL QUESTIONS

Answer very briefly the following:
1 What do you understand by renewable and non-renewable resources?

2 What are the various mineral resources which c& be recovered from the ocean?

3 How is biogas helpful in meeting the energy crisis of people living in rural areas?

........................................................................
4 What are the methods used for resource exploration?

Environment and Rcstmms

-\

How are hidden resources of water investigated?

........................................................................

........................................................................
6 How is the quality of a forest surveyed through satellite imageries or air photos?

........................................................................
........................................................................
.........................................................
i . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

17.7 ANSWERS
Self Assessment Questions
1) a) i) renewable resources, non-renewable ii) renewable resources, iii) biological
productivity, load bearing capacity of the soil and rocks, iv) soil, v) water and
oxygen, vi) potatoes, bananas, pineapples, rubber etc., vii) ash grey to pale
yellow-brown.
b) i) only 2.7% of the total water resources of the earth is fresh water which is used
for drinking and other purposes.
ii) Oxygen supply in the air is lost and due to rain soil erosioh and flood occur.
iii) Coal, iron, aluminium, tin etc.
iv) Firstly various minerals like nodules of manganese oxide and sulphides of cobalt,
nickel, copper, iron etc. are found in the sea basin. Secondly there are big
deposits of natural gas and oil in the sea.
2) i) a, ii) b, iii) c, iv) c.
3) i) T, ii) T, iii) F, iv) T, v) F.
Terminal Questions
1 Some of the resources of the earth grow and go on multiplying naturally such as
vegetation, forests, pastures, wild life, aquatic life etc are renewable resources. Whereas
the other resources like minerals, coal, petroleum etc which are once used are lost for
ever, are known as non-renewable resources.
2 Various minerals like nodules or lumps of manganese oxides and sulphides of cobalt,
nickel, copper, iron are found in the sea basin. Besides, petroleum, natural gas and oil
. are extracted from the sea.
3 The raw materials such as water weeds, cattle dung etc which are used for the production
of biogas, are found in abundance in rural areas. If the use of the biogas for kitchen
cooking is encouraged, the fuel or energy crisis can be solved to a greater extent.
4 In olden days discovery of minerals and oil was purely accidental. People used to come
across the hidden treasures of the earth while tilling land for agriculture or construction.
These days remote sensing device is used to locate resources like soil, water, vegetation,
minerals etc.
5 The ground soil sends out a kind of radio waves of the shortest known wavelengths,
which can be picked up by detectors in the aeroplanes or satellites. The emission is
affected by the "pesence of moisture or water in the soil and hence it can easily be
detected whether or not the soil holds water.

6 The quality of the forest cover can be surveyed by measuring and analysing infra-red
reflection or with the help of photographs takkn from aeroplanes or satellites.

UNIT 18 RESOURCE UTILISATION,

PLANNING AND MANAGEMENT
Structure
Introduction
Objectives

Use of Natural Resources

Recycling of Used Resources and Waste
Resource Planning and Management
Land Use Planning and Management
Soil Management
Management of Forest Resources
Management of Water Resources

Conservation of Mineral Resources

Summary
Terminal Questions
Answers

18.1 INTRODUCTION

In Unit 17, you have studied about different types of natural resources and methods for their
exploration. In this unit, you will study how best some of the limited and non-renewable
resources such as water, soil, forests, and minerals etc. can be used.
You will also briefly study planning and management of resource utilisation. Resource
planning is necessary to make the limited resources last longer and management is required
to conserve and make most effective use of the available resources for national
development.

Objectives
After you have studied the present unit, you should be able to:
explain how, with wise and careful planning, various natural resources can be utilised for
the betterment of mankind and how best our limited resources can be maximised
describe various aspects of conservation of water and mineral resources
describe how the forest resources can be used without depleting our forest stock
outline some methods of utilising wastes such as municipal waste, slag, flyash etc.

18.2 USE OF NATURAL RESOURCES

In Unit 17, you studied about various natural resources such as land, water, soil, minerals
etc. You know that these resources are limited and precious. Therefore, they should be used
more efficiently. We will now discuss how various resources are being currently used in our
country.

Land
Land is the most precious resource, because its produce supports human population and
other living beings on land. Nearly 44% of land in India is used for agricultural purposes, of
which 11-14% is covered with forests that include good as well as degraded forests, and 4%
of the land is used as pastures and grazing fields. The remaining 8% is used for various other
purposes such as housing, agroforestry, establishment of industries, development of roads
and reservoirs etc..
About 14% of our land is barren i.e. it cannot be used for the cultivation of crops. Nearly 113
of the barren land has lost its productivity due to alkalinity or salinity of the soil, and water
logging etc. Soil erosion causes a great harm to productivity of our land, because in this

Environment and Resources

process soil is broken up and washed away by water or swept away by wind. These facts
indicate careless and unwise use of land and is a reflection of the mismanagement of our
land resources.
Today, nearly 24% of our population lives in urban areas. The rapid increase of urbanisation
and migration of population from rural to urban areas lead to two serious consequences.
Migration of people to towns increases their population and expands their size, thus
necessitating conversion of agricultural land to housing, office and factory buildings, roads
and bridges etc. Rural land, on the other hand, may remain underutilised. The conditions of
life in the cities often deteriorate due to increased population. Sewage and water supply
come under strain; more vehicles cause more pollution; or the poor end up in unhygienic
slums. Migration can be checked only if the living conditions in the villages are improved.
Particularly transport and communication, health care, education, and other basic amenities
like clean water and good sewage disposal should be provided in rural areas. Setting up of
rural industries can lead to employment of growing numbers, so fewer people would leave
their villages for urban areas.

Water
Water, used for irrigation of fields or for drinking, is obtained from rivers and streams and
from wells which give access to the underground water reserves. In spite of the abundance
of the water flowing down the rivers or s t ~ r e dunderground, most of the villages, even
today, do not have adequate supply of good quality drinking water. Quite often, in rural
areas, drinking water has to be brought from a distance of a few kilometres. Even all the
towns do not have a municipal water supply system. On the other hand, a lot of water is
misused or wasted. Ground water accounts for about 48% of the irrigation water. Ground
water often remains under-utilised. If necessary equipment and energy are available to pump
it out, it could provide assured irrigation to sizable part of our land.
Forest cover
An analysis of satellite imageries and air photos indicates that in 1982 about 1 I%of land
area in India was thick forests and the remaining 3% degraded or thin forests (Fig. 17.2).
The world figures are much higher than this, and a higher figure is considered necessary
from the point of view of climate as well as maintenance of the composition of the air we
breathe. In India, most of the forests resources are used as fuel by people living in or around
them. A good deal of forest trees arb felled for timber, and for packing fruit and for making
paper. Besides, forests are being overgrazed by the increasing number of cattle. During the
last 30 years, approximately 4.3 million hectares of forests were converted into agricultural
fields or lost in construction of dams and roads. This is quite a good fraction of the 75
million hectares of total forest area. According to the latest information, the country is losing
its forests at the rate of 0.16 million hectare every year. If the present rate of deforestation
continues, a good deal of the country would become a mere grassland within a hundred
years, with drought and floods becoming a regular feature in India.
Minerals
Minerals like coal, iron, copper, steel etc. are used in all kinds of industries and in every-day
life. The rate of consumption of minerals is increasing every year. Although the per capita
consumption of some minerals like lime stone and iron ore is higher than some other
minerals like bauxite, clay. gypsum, silica, sulphur, coal etc. Our per capita mineral
consumption is very small compared to that of the developed counhies like USA, USSR or
Japan. A major proportion of minerals produced in our country are exported to other
countries as raw material to earn foreign exchange. However, quite a few minerals, like
uranium, diamond, some kinds of steel, copper, non-ferrous alloys, crude oil etc. are
imported in one form or another.
An important issue in the utilisation of resources is how to handle waste, so as to extract the
useful resources from it. Let us now consider the recycling of waste materials. But before
that you may like to try the following SAQ.

SAQ 1
Statements regarding the use of various natural resources are given below. Match the
statement given in column B with the resource in column A.

Land

i)

The world figures are much higher than this, and a

higher figure is considered necessary from the point of

view of climate as well a\ maintenance
of the c~mpositionof the air we breathe.

r
I

Water

ii)

A major proportion produced in our country is exported

to other countries as raw material to earn foreign
exchange.

Forest cover

iii)

If necessary equipment and energy are available to

pump it out, it could provide assured irrigation to
sizable part of our land.

Minerals

iv)

The conditions of life in the cities often deteriorate due

to increased population. Sewage and water supply come
under strain, more vehicles cause more pollution.

Resource Utilization.
Planning and Management

18.3 RECYCLING OF USED RESOURCES AND WASTE

Some of the materials once used need not go waste, these can be re-used. The process
through which the waste resources are again made usable is known as recycling.

Scraps and used metals

Scrap metal is produced in large quantities in mills and factories. Old used metal of
discarded vehicles, machine, aircrafts, ships, buildings etc. can be melted and recycled for
useful purposes. Used aluminium utensils, for example, can be collected, melted and shaped
into new utensils. We can meet the growing demand of such scarce metals as copper, zinc,
lead, platinum etc. by recycling the used materials.
Waste water
Domestic and municipal waste water is rich in organic nutrients. If this kind of water is
made free from disease carrying germs and poisonous elements, it can be used for irrigation
of farms, gardens and other vegkations.
For the removal of germs and toxic elements, the waste water or sewage is treated in a tank
or in ponds for several days. In doing so, the heavy particles settle down to the bottom by
themselves, while the finer particles are made to settle down by adding alumand caustic
soda. The clear liquid is then allowed to pass through filters or sand or earth and finally air is
blown through it. This treatment not only removes carbon dioxide and hydrogen sulphide
which is generally dissolved in waste water, but also adds oxygen to the filtered water, thus
helping in purification. Treatment of water with appropriate doses of chlorine, known as
chlorination, kills all the harmful germs and makes water usable.
Growing of algae or water hyacinth, a wild plant that grows in floating masses in rivers,
lakes etc. serves a double purpose. It cleans the water of pollutants like phosphates and
nitrates that act as nutrients for these plants, and these plants can also be utilised for the
production of biogas about which you have already studied in Unit-17.
Solid waste
Solid waste in some cases can be a resource. A good example is the factory at Yokohama in
Japan which is engaged in converting waste paper into toilet paper. In our country, the main
street of Patna city is being illuminated by biogas produced from nightsoil of the city
dwellers. In Delhi, the sewage treatment plant produces cooking gas. Fermentation of wastes
such as cattle dung, human excreta, garbage and aquatic weeds like algae and water
hyacinth, produces biogas which can be used for a variety of purposes. Fermentation takes
place at temperatures between 28" and 40C and gases produced are predominantly methane
and carbon dioxide with a small quantity of hydrogen sulphide and nitrogen.
Slag, a waste product left when the metal has been extracted from its ore, can be powdered
and added to cement for construction. Flyash is another material used as a valuable
cementing material.
It is clear from the above that the solid wastes can serve as very useful resource for
providing raw material for our industries, for generating energy and for the production of
manure. You can try the following SAQ to test what you have learnt.

Fermentation is a chemical
change in the organic bodies in
which complex compounds are
broken down into simpler ones

Environment and Resources

SAQ2
Complete the following sentences:

i)

Scraps and old used metals can be remelted and. ......... for useful purposes.

ii)

Treatment of water with appropriate doses of chlorine kills the harmful. ........
present in water.

iii) Domestic and municipal waste water can be used for. . . . . . . . . .

iv) The process through which waste resources are again made re-usable is known
as.
v

..........

Flyash is used as valuable . . . . . . . . . . .

vi) Solid waste serve as useful resource for providing .......... for our ihdustries.

18.4
RESOURCE PLANNING ANDMANAGEMENT
-A

You already know that our resources are limited and if they are not used properly they will
get exhausted soon. It is, therefore, necessary for us to study, how with wise and careful
planning, we can make use of our limited resources.

18.4.1 Land Use Planning and Management

People see land everywhere and get an impression that plenty of it is available. Besides, they
do not care how it is being used, unless of course, it is their own property. Lack of concern
on the part of the public and official agencies has led to widespread erosion. soil sickness
and other damage to land resources. Land is an exhaustible resource and is very sensitive to
changes in climate and physical processes in nature like rain, sunshine, vegetation, erosion,
land slides etc.
Land should be used according to its suitability and capability. As you have studied in
earlier sections, suitability and capability of land is assessed in terms of its load bearing
ability and fertility.
Since food for an increasing population requires more land for cultivation, the encroachment
of fertilsagricultural lands for non-agricultural purposes like construction of roads and
buildings should be reduced to the minimum. Extreme care should Se taken in selecting sites
for development of industries, construction of dams and water reservoirs etc., so that the
environment and socio-economic conditions of the people living in that area are not
disturbed. In locating sites for the development of urban centres, the need for housing, water
supply, disposal of waste and garbage etc. should be taken into consideration.
Hill areas, as far as possible, should be put under forest cover because forests serve as a
resource for fuel, fodder, and timber, and provide space for animal farming (Fig. 18.1).
Besides, forests help in increasing the ground water, since they impede the free surface runoff, thus allowing water to be absorbed by the ground. In this process, soil erosion is
minimised and flooding can be avoided. Forests help to maintain a balance in the ecosystem,
that is, among animals, plants, air and water etc.

FIB.18.1: An Meal land w e In the bin region

Resource Utilization,
Planning and Management

Let us see what are the essential components of land management.

Essential components of land management

There are five essential components of land management:
i) Drawing up of a land capability map indicating soil productivity and ability to support
various human activities.in rural and urban areas. This kind of map is prepared with the
help of aerial photoh and satellite imageries. The map can also give information
regarding the properties of rock and soil and underground potentials of water reserves.
ii) A detailed study of various aspects of land, such as type of soil, physical features of the
earth's crust, water resource input, its distribution, utilisation, surface flow, surface
storage, for example in ponds and ground water. A programme of land use can be
worked out on the basis of such information.
iii) Changes resulting from land use have to be monitored. This can be done by remote
sensing.
iv) Tnvestigation and estimation of anticipated intensity of natural hazards likely to
threaten a particular area or region.
v) A comprehensive study of the programme and plan of land management with a view to
preserve the land by-reducingor checking the intensity of erosion or soil sickness.

18.4.2 Soil Management

As we have said before, soil is a precious resource which takes millions of years to form,
and hence proper management of soil is very necessary. The management of the soil is twofold, i.e. (a) to minimise or check soil erosion and (b) restore productivity of the soil.

Stilling Basin
Fig. 18.2a: Drainage system for preventing uncontrolled flow of water. Fig. 18.2b, c; check dams for
prfventing the flow of running water

Control of soil erosion

The most significant measures of erosion control include (i) growth of grasses, shrubs and
trees on soils and (ii) construction of a drainage system which can prevent free, uncontrolled
flow of water (Fig. 18.2 a). Water flow causes formation of narrow channels o r gullies and
leads to development of deep narrow valleys leading to ravine land. The famous Chambal
ravines have been formed as a result of deep soil erosion and the process is still continuing.
This can be controlled by constructing a series of check dams which prevent the flow of
running water and widening of gullies (Fig. 18.2b, c). Formation of a broad wall of stone
along the coasts of Maharashtra, Kerala, Andhra Pradesh and Orissa has proved to be very
effective in controlling erosion by sea waves and currents. Movement of sand by gusts of
wind in the deserts and sandy coasts can be prevented by putting barriers of trees and shrubs
across the path of wind (Fig. 18.3). In the mountain and hilly areas, planting of stems and
branches of self propagating trees and shrubs, not only strengthens the slope of the terrace
but also provides fuelwood and fodder to the farmers. Alternation of beds of crops with
strips of erosion resistant vegetation like grasses, shrubs. trees, maize, sugarcane, cotton and
tobacco etc. brings about stabilisation of the terraced fields on mountainous and hilly areas.
The most effective step in controlling erosion and mass movement, such as landslides in the
hills, is the construction of a network of the drainage ditches which are filled with fragments
of stones or bricks so that water flows out through them. The hill slopes are stabilised by
constructing walls around them which allows the free passage of water. On the vulnerable
slopes, a cover of vegetation is provided and in the beginning, seeds are covered with coir
netting pegged firmly to the ground (as shown in Fig. 18.4). Netting checks erosion, holds
the soil material together and adds nutrients. The quick growth of grass stabilises the soil.

Fig. 18.3: Checking

of
sand gust by erecting barriers of
trees and shrubs

65

--

Environment and Resources

Sprouted post

Earth and
boulder filling

Mulch

Fig. 1 8 4 : Plantationo f vegetation cover and brush wood or coir netting on tk do+

of mountain

Treatment of soil sickness

Due to overuse without rest, soil becomes deficient in the requisite nutrients and loses its
fertility. Rotation of crops and vegetables, such as peas and beans, helps to remove the
deficiency of nutrients. Plants such as peas add nitrogen to the soil and thus increase its
binding property as well as productivity. The roots and off-shoots of the crops and their
remains are left in the field for a certain period of time to protect the soil from erosion.
It is found that excessive irrigation causes complete saturation or water logging of the soil,
which consequently loses productivity, partially or completely. As a result of over irrigation
in some areas, salinity and alkalinity of the soil increases, making it "sick". This kind of'soil
sickness can be controlled by, first of all, sealing off all points of leakage from canals,
reservoirs, tanks and ponds, and use of only the required amount of water. Alkalinity and
salinity of the soil can also be reduced by application of some chemicals like gypsum
(a chalk like substance, from which Plaster of Paris is made), phosphogypsum (gypsum with
phosphates), pyrites (sulphides of copper, iron etc.) in addition to organic manures and
fertilisers. Planting of salt resistant plants such as barley, millets, soya, cotton, spinach, date
palm is another way of overcoming the problem of salination of the soil.

18.4.3 Management of Forest Resources

Considering the ever growing demand of wood and realising the importance of conserving
our forest resources, it has become necessary to find alternative fuels as well as raw
materials to manufacture paper, sports goods, packing cases, furniture and beams used in
buildings. Research is going on to discuss alternate sources; in some cases, plastics and
composite materials have been developed, though they are not widely used as yet. The other
way is to cultivate quick growing trees and herbages in large numbers in selected farms of
degraded or wastelands. This will provide us fodder, fuelwood, timber, fruits and seeds. If
deforestation has to be stopped. some necessary steps have to be taken:
i)

adoption of a scientific method of harvesting forest stocks,

ii)

developing a mechanism of monitoring forest growth rate and depletion,

iii) establishing an effective system of fighting forest fires,

iv) strictly enforcing laws to deal with unauthorised cutting of trees.

Tree plantation
Plantation, on a mass scale, of fast growing trees such as poplar, casuarina etc. should be
undertaken. The productivity of tree plantation is found to be greater than that of natural
forests. In a well irrigated tree farm, the productivity may be as high as 45 tomes per hectare
per year.
Social forestry
A farmer can partly meet his needs of wood from the fast growing trees planted within the
limits of his village, along the footpaths, roadsides, alongside railway tracks, side roads or
canal,, and streams, boundaries of fields and empty spaces. The aim of social forestry is to
meet the needs of fuel, fodder, fruits, timber and other requirements.

18.4.4 Management of Water Resources

Management of water resources means a programme to provide an adequate supply of good
quality of water for various uses without endangering the life of the source or the reserve of
water. In other words, efforts should be made to see that: (i) water of the right quality is
available for all kind of Uses and (ii) there is no misuse or wastage of this precious resource.
Water management includes recharging the reserves of groundwater and d~vertingsupply
from an area of surplus to the region of scarcity.
Recharging of groundwater is the most important aspect of the water management. In the
mountains and hills, the watersheds are covered with vegetation. The litter-covered soil of
the watershed allows infiltration of rain water, which finds its way to the aquifers.
In urban and rural areas, storm water, used water or domestic drains can be fed into pits,
trenches, or any depression, where it can filter underground. Flood water can be injected into
aquifers through a series of deep pits or it can be spread on the fields through a network of
ditches.
The excess flow of normal as well as flood water can be diverted to areas where there is
scarcity of water. This will not only remove the danger of damage caused by floods but will
also benefit the regions of scarcity.
By proper treatment of the domestic and municipal waste water, one can obtain a supply fit
for many industrial and agricultural purposes. The treatment of waste water involves.
removal of pollutants, germs, and toxic elements as you have already studied in the previous
section.

Desalination of sea water

By use of solar energy, sea water can be distilled, thus fresh water of good quality can be
obtained. This method of desalination of sea water is being used in our country at places like
Bhavanagar in Gujarat and Chum in Rajasthan.
Reducing over consumption
Using more water than necessary is an unpardonable waste of the precious and scarce
resource. In our country, a lot of water is wasted due to leaking taps and bad plumbing.
There is also need for a check on excessive irrigation.
So you see, there are ways in which we can better manage our limited resources. Before
going on to the next section, you may like to check what you have learnt.

SAQ 3
Give very brief answers to the following questions:
i) What type of resource is land?

......................................................................
......................................................................
ii)

Why should we take extreme care in selecting the site for development of industries,
construction of dams, water resources etc.?

......................................................................
......................................................................

Environment and Resources

iii) Why should hill areas be put under forest cover?

......................................................................
iv) What does flow of water do to the land?

.......................................................................
......................................................................
v)

How do plants like peas help the soil?

......................................................................
vi) Why is social forestry important for a fanner?

............. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . .
vii) How is ground water recharged?

18.5 CONSERVATION OF MINERAL RESOURCES

In the previous unit you have studied that mineral reserves are present in a limited quantity
and they can be exhausted. At the present rate of consumption many of them will not last
long. Conservation means that there should be judicious use with minimum wastage. One
way of minimizing or reducing wastage is recovering as much as possible and leaving
nothing as waste. The quality of lower grade ore can be improved by processes which
remove undesirable materials like earth, rock etc. and give enriched ore.
As described in the previous ~ection,scrap$ of used metals can be recycled or used again.
This will reduce the pressure of demand on many mineral reserves. The alloys of
magnesium are fast replacing steel and are also reducing the demand for copper, lead and tin
which are in short supply. There is a need to find substitutes for metals like mercury, gold,
silver, platinum etc. and also for asbestos.
Further, the natural environment of the area from where the mineral ores have been taken
out needs to be protected from deterioration. The dug out parts are devoid of nutrients.
Hence, they remain barren and do not allow the growth of any vegetation. Such waste or
damaged lands can be covered by fresh topsoil (Fig. 18.5). Use of fertilisers, sewage water,
domestic or municipal waste, farmyard manure, etc. will help in restoring the fertility of
these degraded lands.
Strip Mining

Undisturbed land

Fig. 18.5: After scrapping off top soil, the excavated parts are covered with soil and afforested

Monitoring of resource utilisation

Continuous recording of the changes in the quality and quantity of various.resources is as
imyortant an element of resource planning as evaluation of original reserves.

The monitoring of resource utilisation is best done through remote sensing. It involves
studying the nature and size of reduction or deterioration of the forests, soil, land, mineral
deposits, water W i t s rind snowpaib~.For cxmple rnon~toringof r h bzhakjmr ofri\tr7
will help us in averting or reducing the menace of tloods and erosion. Monitoring has also
demonstrated that over-imgation of arid or semi-arid areas causes salinity or alkalinity of
the soil. Such harmful effects of over-irrigation are witnessed in southern Haryana and
adjoining Rajasthan.

SAQ 4
Given below are some statements. Write true (T) for correct statement and false (F) for
incorrect statement.
i)

Conservation means that there should be no use of the resource.

ii)

The dug out parts from where minerals have been taken out are full of numents and as
such these areas are very productive.

iii) Use of sewage, domestic or municipal waste, farm yard manure etc. will decrease the
fertility of the degraded'lands.
iv) Monitoring of resource utilisation is best done through remote sensing.
v\ Monitoring has demonstrated that over-irrigation of arid or semi-arid areas increases
the fertility and productivity of the soil.

18.6 SUMMARY
In the present unit, you have studied how best we can make use of our limited and nonrenewable resources like soil, water, forests, minerals, etc., and if we use our limited
resources with wise and careful planning, they will last longer and can be spared for future
generations. For example:
8 a comprehensive programme and plan of land management will enable us to preserve our
land resources by lessening or checking the intensity of soil erosion or soil sickness.
by adopting scientific method of harvesting forest stocks, monitoring the growth of
forests, establishing a system of controlling and preventing forest fires and enacting
stringent laws for protecting forests, we can preserve our forest resources.
by recharging ground water reserves, diversion of excess water from the area of
abundance to an area of scarcity, recycling used water and desalination of sea water, we
can provide good water in adequate quantities to our people.
by recycling wastes, the utilisation of resources can be improved and also pollution can
be reduced.

18.7 TERMINAL QUESTIONS

Give brief answers for the follo~iing:
1 HOWcan you ube sewage Hater iar irrigaticr?'?

2 What is recycling of a metal? What purpose does it serve?

3 In what way can you check soil sickness'?

Why is conservation of mineral resources necessary:'

Resource Utilization,
Planning and Management

--

Environment and Resourres

18.8 ANSWERS

p
p
p
p
-

--

Self Assessment Questions

1) i) Forest cover, ii) mineral, iii) water, iv) land.
2) i)

3) i)

recycled, ii) germs, iii) imgation, iv) recycling, v) cementing material, vi) raw
material.
land is an exhaustible non-renewable resource.

ii) Because encroachment of fertile agricultural and forest lands for non-agricultural
purposes will disturb the environment and socio-economic conditions of the people
living in that area.
iii) Because forests serve as resource for fuel, fodder, timber and provide space for
animals. Forests also help increase the ground water and check soil erosion.
iv) Water flow causes formation of narrow channels or gullies and leads to formation of
deep narrow valleys converting it into ravine land.
v) Plants like peas add nitrogen to the soil and increases its binding property as well as
productivity.
vi) Growing trees within the limits of village can meet the needs of fuel, fodder, fruits,
timber and other requirements of the farmer.
vii) By plantation of vegetation and trees, the underground water reserves can be
recharged.
4) i) F, ii) F, iii) F, iv) T, v) F.

Terminal Questions
1 The sewage water is rich in organic nutrients. It can be made free from germs and
poisonous elements for imgation by removing them.
2. The process through which the waste resources are again made reusable is known as
recycling. Scrap and old used metals can be remelted and recycled for useful purposes.
3. Soil sickness can be checked by rotation of crops such as peas and beans which help to
remove the deficiency of nutrients. Salinity and alkalinity of the soil can be controlled by
sealing of all points of leakage from canals, reservoirs, tanks, ponds and use of required
amount of water.

4. Mineral reserves are present in limited quantity and if they are used carelessly they will
be exhausted soon. That is why there is necessity of conservation of mineral resources.
Conservation means that there should be judicious use with minimum wastage.

GLOSSARY
Abiotic factors: non-living parts of an organism's environment
Acid rain: rain or snow having pH less than 5.6
Aquifer: a deposit of rock that yields economic supplies of water to wells or springs
Aerosol: suspension of small, liquid or solid particles (0.1 - 100 microns diMeter) in a gas,
e.g., smoke (solid particles in air). Aerosol sprays are widely used for insecticides, air
fresheners, paints, cosmetics etc.
Aerosol propellants: compressed gas or vapour in a container which upon release of
pressure and expansion through a valve carries another substance from the container. These
are used for cosmetics, household cleaners etc. butane, propane, nitrogen, carbon dioxide,
chloroflourocarbons, are common aerosol propellants
Agrochemicals: chemicals used in agriculture
Algae: simple plants, found in places where abundant moisture is available, these grow on
walls that are constantly wet, or on moist soil, ponds, and other water bodies including the
sea
Amphibians: animals like frog, salamander etc. their young ones live in water, whereas
adults are terrestrial
Arid: land area.having not enough rainfall to support vegetation

~tmosphericpressure: the pressure at any point in the atmosphere, due to the weight of the
atmospheric gases above the point concerned
Bark: the outer portion of the stem. It consists of cork, which is largely a dead tissue; and
also some living tissue of the stem
Bauxite: clay-like substance from which aluminium is obtained
Biodegradable: a substance that can be broken down by living beings such as
microorganisms etc.
Bioluminescence: the emission of visible light by living organisms
Biomass: the total weight of all or selected group of living beings in a particular area
Biotic factors: living components.of an organism's environment
Bog: wetland ecosystem, having acidic conditions, and lot of peat and moss
Buoyancy: power to float or keep things floating
Camouflage: any device used to deceive or mislead an enemy, e.g., many insects living on a
plant, resemble its leaves in colour, shape, size etc. and is difficult to locate it easily
Canopy: a covering at some distance from the level of ground, formed by branches, twigs,
and leaves of woody plants.
Carnivores: those animals that eat other animals
Cell: the structural unit of life. It consists of cytoplasm and genetic material, that are
enclosed in a membrane that allows selected materials to pass through
i

Combustion: the burning of gas, liquid or solid evolving heat, and often light also
Consumers: organisms that obtain energy in the form of organic matter
Corrosive: substances that corrode. Corrosion means slow destruction by chemical action
Currents: a type of water movement
Deciduous: plants that lose their leaves during one season of the year; are not evergreen
Decomposers: organisms that use dead organic matter as a source of energy
Ecology: a branch of biology that studies the relationships between organisms and their
environment
Ecosystem: an interacting collection of organisms and the abiotic factors that affect them
Environment: anything that affects an organism during its life time
Estuary: where fresh water and sea water meet and mix
Fern: small, tender plants having few leaves, large in proportion to the stem, and bear spore
containing structures on the under surface or margins; many of these grow at high altitudes
Fertiliser: material that is added to soil to supply chemical elements needed for plant
nutrition
Filter: a device to separate any undesirable substance
Food chain: a sequence of organisms that feed on one another resulting in the flow of
nutrients and energy from a producer through a series of consumers
Food web: a system of interlocking food chains
Fungi: (singular-fungus),e.g., yeast, mushrooms, molds, mildew, puffballs

I
I

Gamma rays: electromagnetic rays of very short wave-length emitted by radioactive

substances
Gastric secretion: these are the digestive fluids secreted by the wall of the stomach
Gastrointestinal: conceming the digestive system that includes stomach, intestine and all
the accessory organs
Genetic: conceming heredity
Geothermal energy: heat within the earth's interior that is a potential source of energy
Gills: the breathing organ of animals that live in water
Gravity: the force that attracts objects towards the centre of the earth
Greenhouse: glass-enclosed, climate controlled structure in which young, or out-of-season
plants are grown and protected

Resource Utilization,
Planning and Management

Environment and Resources

Gynaecological: dealing with the diseases of women, particularly those affecting the sex
organs
Habitat: it includes land, water or vegetation, which is the natural home of any living being
Heavy metals: a metal whose specific gravity is approximately 5.0 or higher
Herbivores: those animals that feed directly on plants
Hibernation: a condition of partial or complete torpor into which some animals relapse
during the winter season
Humidity: water vapour content in the atmosphere
Insecticide: a chemical agent that destroys insects
Leaching: washing away of elements that are necessary for plants by rainfall etc.
Leaf mottling: appearance of spots or areas of different colours without a regular pattern on
the leaves
Limestone: a rock made up largely of calcium carbonate, known as calcite, e.g., chalk
Mammal: animals which are characterised by the presence of hair, a muscular diqphragm,
milk secretion, and placenta development, e.g., cat, cow, human beings
Microbe: any small organism such as bacteria; yiast*etc.(also called micro-organism)
Microscopic: things that are not visible to unaided eye, and can be seen clearly under the
microscope. Microscope is an instrument that produces a large image of small object
Moss: tiny green plant, occurring in nearly all damp habitats except oceans
Neuro-muscular: pertaining to both nerves and muscles, functionally and structurally
Non-persistant- pollutant: pollutants that do not remain as such in the environment for a
long time, that is, they are broken into simple forms
Nuclear reactor: a device in which a controlled nuclear reaction is carried out to generate
energy
Omnivores: those animals that are carnivores at times and herbivores at others
Ores: rock earth, minerals etc. from which metals can be mined or extracted
Organic substances: substances containing carbon, hydrogen, and sometimes oxygen,
nitrogen and other elements
Pesticides: these are chemical.substances that are deliberately introduced into the
environment, to kill organisms that are considered undesirable
Pastures: grassland for cattles
Photovoltaic devices: device used in producing electric signals in response to solar
radiation
Phytoplankton: minute photosynthetic organisms floating in the upper layers of a body of
water (marine or fresh waters)
Plateaux: level land high above sea level
Pollen grains: (Latin-pollen dust) appear dust-like. A pollen grain is the male reproductive
unit of plant. It unites with the egg, and together they form a seed
Pollution: destruction of the purity of the environment
Precipitation: any or all the forms of water, whether liquid (rain) or solid (snow) that fall
from the atmosphere and reach the ground
Precipitator: a device that separates an undesirable substance from a mixture, by making it
settle down
Primary pollutant: pollutants like carbon monoxide, oxides of sulphur, and nitrogen,
hydrocarbons and particulates
Producers: organisms that produce new organic material from inorganic material with the
aid of sunlight
Propellant: a combustible substance that produces heat and supplies ejection particles as in
a rocket engine
Radioactive: substances like radium, uranium etc. having atoms that break up, and in doing
so, send out rays in the form of electrically charged particles capable of penetrating opaque
bodies

Ravine: deep, narrow valley

Recycling: returning to an original condition
Refrigerant: a substance that by undergoing a change in phase, i.e., liquid to gas causes
cooling effect
Reptiles: animals with dry scaly skin, they lay their eggs on land, e.g., snake, lizards, turtles,
alligators, crocodiles
Rodents: mammals (see also mammals), e.g., rats, mice and their relatives
Rotation of crop: varying the crops grown each year on the same land to avoid exhausting
the soil
Salubrious: good for health
Satellite imageries: photos taken from satellite
Scrubber: also known as wet collector. It is a device for the removal of undesired
components from the gas evolved
Semi-arid: land having better rainfall in comparison to arid area
Sensors: receptors that are sensitive to specific stimuli, e.g., sound, light, pressure, heat
Silica; a hard, white or colourless substance occurring abundantly in nature, main
constituent of sand
Silt: rock fragments or a mineral particle in soil having a diameter of 0.002-0.05 millimetre,
and are smaller than fine sand.
Skeleton:the rigid or elastic, internal or external, framework which gives support and
protection to the soft tissues of the body and provides a basis of attachment for the muscles
Slag: waste matter remaining when metal has been extracted from ore
Snowpacks: frozen snow on mountains
Social forestry: tree raising programme to supply firewood, fodder, timber and minor forest
produce to rural population
Soil erosion: the detachment and movement of top soil by the action of wind or flowing
water
Species: closely related individuals that resemble one another, and are able to inter-breed
with OF': another, e.g., human beings
Spectrum: image as a band of colours (red, orange, yellow, green, blue, indigo and violet,
as seen in a rainbow) formed by a ray of light when it passed through a prism or any such
substance
Spore: reproductive cell that can grow into a new individual, as seen in bacteria, fungi etc.
Bacterial spores form when an individual cell encases itself in a protective covering, when
conditions are unfavourable for growth. It is a resistant structure, that is capable of standing
unfavourable environmental conditions.
Tanning: a process of preserving animal hides by chemical treatment to make them immune
to bacterial attack, and subsequent treatment with fat and greases to make them pliable
Terrestrial: living or growing on land
Tide: the periodic rising and falling of the oceanic waters resulting from lunar and solar
forces acting upon the rotating earth
Tissues: a group of cells that perform a particular task in an organism, e.g., cartilage,
muscles etc.
Trench: a long narrow, deep depression of the sea floor, with relatively steep sides
Trophic level: the level in the food chain at which an organism functions, e.g., herbivores,
members of second trophic level, eat plants that are the members of first trophic level
Ultraviolet light: also known as ultraviolet radiation. electromagnetic radiation having a
shorter wavelength than visible light and larger than X-rays, including wavelengths
normally invisible to humans but visible to bees, humming birds etc. It is destructive to skin
tissue and genetic material
Vine: a plant having a stem that is too flexible or weak to support itself
Water logging: land thoroughly soaked with water
Zooplankton: the minute animal life drifting near the surface layers of a body of water
(marine or fresh water)

Resource Utilization,
Planning and Management

Environment and Resources

FURTHER READING
General Geography of India Part - I , NCERT - Publications
Geography of India'Part - 11, NCERT - Publications
Human and Economic Geography, NCERT - Publications
The State of India's Enviroi~ment,The first citizen's report Centre for Science and
Environment
The State of India's Environment, 1984-85, The second citizen's report Centre for Science
and Environment

COURSE CONTENTS
Block 1 : History of Science
Unit 1 Science as a Human Endeavour

Unit 2

Science in the Ancient World

Unit 3

Iron Age

Unit 4

The Golden Age of Science in lndia

Block 2 : Emergence of Modern Science

Unit 5 Science in the Medieval Times
Unit 6

Renaissance, the Industrial Revolution and After

Unit 7

Science in Colonial and Modem lndia

Unit 8

The Method of Science and the Nature of Scientific Knowledge

Block 3 : Universe and Life -The Beginning

Unit 9

Universe as a System

Unit 10 Exploring the Universe

Unit 1 l Solar System

Unit 12 Origin and Evolution of Life

Unit 13 Evolution of Man
Block 4 : Environment and Resources
Unit 14 Ecosystem
Unit 15 Components of Environment
Unit 16 The Changing Environment
Unit 17 Natural Resources
Unit 18 Resource C tilisat~on,Planning and Management
Block 5 : Agriculture, Nutrition and Health
Unit 19 Food and Agriculture
Unit 20 Scientific Possibilities and Social Realities
Unit 2 1 Food and Nutrition
Unit 22 Health and Disease

Block 6 : Information, Knowledge, Insight

Unit 23 Mind and Body

Unit 24 Psychoiogical Aspect of Behaviour

Unit 25 Informarlor, 2nd Comm~~nicatlon
Unit 26 Modes of Cornn~unicatlon
Block 7 : Science, Technology and Development
Unit 27 Science and Technology in Industry

Unit 28 Technology and Economic Development

Unit 29 Modem Development in Science and Technology - I
Unit 30 Modem Development in Science and Technology - I1
Block 8 : New Perspectives

Unit 31 Perceptions and Aspirations

Unit 32 Science

-The Road to Development

RudioNideo Programmes
Audio :

1)

Science and Society (Block 1)

2) Astronomical Development in India (Block 3)

3) Measuring Astronomical Distances (Block 3)

4)

Evolution of Man (Block 3)

5)

The Forest Ecosystem (Block 4)

6)

Population Pressure (Block 4)

7) Common Misconceptions about Health (Block 5)

8)

Human Factors in Engineering (Block 6)

9) New Information Order (Block 6)

10) Technology and Self-Reliance (Block 7)

11) Nuclear Disarmament (Block 7)

Video :

1) Method of Science (Block 2)

2)

A Window to the Universe (Block 3.)

3) The Story of a ~ i v e (Block

r
4)
4)

Green Revolution (Block 5)

5)

Infectious Diseases (Block 5)

6) Jean Piaget Development Stages of a Child (Block 6)

7)

INSAT (Block 6)

UNIT 15 COMPONENTS OF
ENVIRONMENT
Structure
15.1 Introduction
Objectives

15.2 The Oceans

Some Physical Features of Oceans
Llfe In the Oceans
Ecological Crises

15-3 The Atmosphere

Some Physical Features of the Atmosphere
Life in Atmosphere
Ecological Cr~ses

15.4 The Forests

Some Features of the Forests
Life in Forests
Ecological Crises

15.5 Summary
15.6 Terminal Questions
15.7 Answers

15.1 INTRODUCTION
--

--

In Unit 14 you have studied some basic aspects of existence of life on earth. You have seen
that the living beings together with their environment constitute an ecosystem. In this unit,
we shall discuss three important components of earth's environment, namely: oceans,
atmosphere and forests. Each of these components constitutes an ecological system having
distinctive features. Their environmental conditions are very different, accordingly the forms
of life occurring in these systems are also unique. We shall also discuss how, over the years,
these systems have been affected by several of the human activities.

Objectives
After studying this dnit you should be able to :
describe three components of the earth's environment, that are: oceans, atmosphere and
forests; and compare their features,
explain some of the salient ecological processes associated with oceans, atmosphere and

forests.
identify and lis! the kind of damage done to the above mentioned environmental

components by industries, transport, agricultute and @herb u m activities.

15.2 THE OCEANS

Every year, millions of people all over the world make their way to the sea-shore to enjoy
the cool sea breeze, to bathe and swim. Ecologically speaking, oceans are the oldest and the
largest ecosystems of the earth. The Atlantic, the Pacific, the Indian, the Arctic and the
Antarctic are the major oceans of the world. Though they cover varying geographical areas,
these are all interconnected and have certain common features. Before discussing these
features, we would like to point out that in this unit, we would be using the terms sea and
ocean interchangeably.

15.2.1 Some Physical Features of the Oceans

The oceans are so vast that they stagger one's imagination. They cover more than 70 per
cent of the earth's surface. The depth of oceans varies, from shallow near the coasts to deep
in the middle. There are trenches, valleys, and what may becalled hills under theocean
waters. Tlie deepest part happens to be in middle Pacific Ocean and its depth is greater than
the height of Mount Everest-the highest peak in the world.

Ocean waters are never still. Wind exerts frictional force on the surface of water and
generates waves that keep the surface water in motion. Tides are another type of movement
of the oceanic water, noticeable in coastal regions. Water level of sea rises and falls twice a
day. The gravitational pull of the sun and the moon, is the principal cause of the formation
of tides. Coastal waters rise to a high point called the high tide, when the sun and the moon
are on the same side of the earth, and the tide is low when the sun and the moon happen to
be on the opposite sides. Ocean currents are yet another form of water movement. Currents
are generated in several ways : by changes in the density of sea water, due to temperature
differences, by the effect of earth's rotation and also prevailing winds. These currents
transport sea water over long distances, more or less like rivers on the surface of the earth.
Ocean water is salty. It has about 35 parts of salt (by weight) per 1000 parts of water.
Ordinary salt or sodium chloride is the major salt component of the oceanic water. Salts of
magnesium, calcium and potassium are also present. This substantial amount of salt in sea
water, is the result of accumulation of small bits of salt that are carried by rivers from the
lands they drain.
Oceanic waters have a minimum temperature well below zero Celsius, near the poles, and a
maximum of about 28 Celsius in the tropics.
Another aspect of marine environment is pressure. The atmosphere exerts a pressure of
about 1 kilogram per square cm (= 1 Atmosphere Pressure) at the surface of the sea or land.
This pressure increases due to the weight of water by 1 Atmosphere, for every 10 metres of
the depth of water. Thus, if you are at a depth of 3000 metres in the ocean, the pressure there
would be 300 times that at the earth's surface. It would be quite impossible for human
beings to survive at this depth without very special equipment.

15.2.2 Life in the Oceans

Oceans are known as the largest and the thickest ecosystem. Tiny plants and animals exist in
it, in immense numbers. A cubic meter of sea water may contain as many as 200,000 .
organisms. Living forms occur, more or less, throughout the depth of the oceans, but they
are more dense around the margins of continents and islands.
The major factors that limit the quantity, and type of life in oceans are energy and nutrients.
You have already studied that for all forms of life, energy is provided by sunlight either
directly as in the case of plants, or indirectly to other forms of life ;ia the plants. In meadit
waters, the intensity of light decreases rapidly with depth. Even in the clearest and the purest
water, there is hardly any light available at a depth of 200 metres, and photosynthesis cannot
be sustained. Therefore, plants are only found in under water zones whex;e light is available.
You must be wondering as to how do the plants keep themselves in the lighted zone? They
have developed certain floating devices such as oil droplets in their cells or air filled sacs
that help them to float in the upper layerspf water. These plants are of numerous kinds,
some are tiny and microscopic, free 11oating (see Fig. 15.1) and tiley drift with &a,=,,
whereas others are comparatively large and are fixed to the substratum. One of the factors
governing their distribution, is the quality of light. We have just seen that sunlight penetrates
to only a certain depth in water. In the spectrum of colours which sunlight has, red is
absorbed in the top layers of water, and then green; blue penetrates farthest. Naturally algae
of complementary colours exist at various depths in water. Green is complementary to red,
hence green\ algae predominates in the upper layers of water; similarly brown algae are a
little deeper down, and red algae prevail in regions reached by blue light.
What about the animal life? They too exhibit zonation, i.e., they are also distributed zonewise (also see Fig.lS.1). In the upper layers, small animals (zooplankton) co-exist with
phytoplankton and derive energy from them. A little below, the energy for animal life is
obtained from wastes and dead bodies of organisms that sink, or from the living animals that
swim down.
The dead bodies that drift down from above, fall very slowly. For example, a small shrimp
may take a week to reach 3000 metres. The rate of descent of organic matter, except for
larger ones, is so slow that it is either consumed, decayed or dissolved before it reaches the
deep waters or the bottom of the sea. Thus, as we go down in the ocean, the food becomes
scarce. Beyond the depth of 200 metres or so, light does not penetrate and plants do not
grow there. Hence the plant feeders have to be good swimmers, to get their food. Some of
them come to the upper layers of water, take their food and go back. As you descend further,
or below 600 metres, not only is sunlight absent but also the temperature drops, and the

Components of Environment

F'jg.15.1: Life i n orton. Most of the bask organic niaterial, 'food', that fueis and builds life i n the sea is
synthosiscd by phytoplankton (phyto=plan~
plankton=wandering) wlthin the surface layers of sea water
where light is available. These micnrsropic plant cells a n eaten by the herbivorous zooplankton
( z o o - s n i i phnkton=wandering) andby k
m
esmall fishes, which i n turn a n eaten by the other
carnivores. The 'rain' of the wastes and dead bodies of organism occurring i n the upper layers of water,
shown by dots and short downward arrows, serves as the principal soum of food for the varied inhabitants
nf the lower oceanic depths. I n the slwllower zone, food is available from the growing, large, flxed plants,
and the drainage from the Land. The typicai coastal upweliin~(long arrows at left) refertilises the surface
waters with nutrients of organic matter, by the decomposer organism such as bacteria etc., from near the
bottom. This process keeps the surface waters continually supplied with nutrients, leading to the survival
and growth oP phyto-, and zoo-plankton in the upper layers.
Notr: the orlpmisms, and depths are not drawn to the same scale.

pressure increases. Here too. life exists. There are more than 2000 species of fish and other
animals living at this depth. Let us see how these organisms have adapted to these difficult
conditions.
In this totally dark zone, many organisms produce their own light and this phenomena is
known as biolumninescence. This helps them to capture their prey or lure the opposite sex.
Certain sponges, jellyfish, combjelli~s,snails, worms, brialestars, squids, deep-sea shrimps
and prawns emit light. These light emitting organisms harbour certain bacteria, which are
the source of light. Colonies of these bacteria live in special pouches on the organism's
.
body. For example. in a fish, they exist on the side of the head, at the and of their tail or on
the sides of their body. When light is not required, the fish raises opaque shutters, or restricts
the supply of blood to the light-producing bacteria. The light produced by these bacteria are.
usually of blue, green or yellow colour.
Besides the adaptations to cope with the scarcity or absence of light, some of the organisms
have also developed ways for counteracting high pressure at greater depths. At such high
pressure, bones and shells containing mainly calcium, like in the surface animals, would
disintegrate. So, the skeleton of organisms is made up of silica which enables them to
withstand this high pressure. Ear bones of whales, jaws of squids and teeth of shark contain
silica, so that they are more sturdy.

m
Camponents of Environment

In a world that lacks any sort of protection, or defense against predation, the living beings
have acquired various bodily features and means of self defense as well as means for
securing prey. Among them, are the remarkably stream-lined body that enables them to
move with speed both for escape and pursuit, unusual colouration and highly developed
sense of smell and hearing.

Availability of Nutrients
The nutrients in the upper layers of water are constantly being taken up by the
phytoplankton, who are the producers, and then these pass on to the herbivores, and the
carnivores. When these latter organisms die, they are either eaten up by other animals or
they get decayed by the decomposers. Some of the decomposed matter sinks to the ocean
floor. It means, the nutrients taken up by the producers from the upper layers of sea water
are constantly being drained to the lower layers of sea water. Do you know what would
happen if the nutrients in the upper layers of water are not replenished? There would be no
phytoplankton and photosynthesis; no production of food to sustain other animal life. Hence
all the organisms would die. Actually, in nature such a situation does not arise. Let us see
how a constant supply of nutrients in the upper layers of water is ensured. There are two
ways: (i) As riversend in the seas, they bring along a lot of refuse and nutrients from the
land to the water. (ii) 'Upwelling' takes place, which is a process by which dwp, nutrient
rich waters are brought to the surface. What actually happens is that wind blows surface
water on to the shores. The watex which now comes to the surface is from below. It is cold
and high in nutrient content. Regions where upwelling takes place are very productive.
That's why important commercial fishexies in the world are situated in such regions.
Do you know why same oceanic waters appear blue and other gr-en? The cl*, blue
waters are usually poor in nutrients and hence there is less concentration of plankton in the
water. Nutrient-rich waters that support a large plankton community are greenish and
relatively murky, as sunlight is scattered by the microscopic bodies of numerous, small
living beings in water.

15.2.3 Ecological Crises in Oceans and Coasts

Coastal and marine areas all over the world including those in India are under stress,
because two thirds of the world's population lives near the coasts, and 60% of the marine
food is harvested from the zone near the coasts. Most of the sewage, garbage and industrial
- wastes find their way into the sea. Ever since the lndustrial Revolution, technology has been
developed to increase production of various kinds of goods, without regard to where the
smoke from the chimneys would go, or where various kinds of washed chemicals-many of
them poisonous would flow to. So industry produces massive amounts of "waste" which is
allowed to reach the sea. It was also thought in earlier times that the sea is so big, you can
throw anything into it without affecting it. Now, however, even in India, it has come to pass
that huge quantities of dead fish were found floating in the Arabian sea on the western coast.
due to poisonous outflows from a fertiliser factory. Such happenings are not rare, and
industrial wastes must be treated to remove harmful chemicals, before allowing them to go
into the sea. The same should be done to sewage, which carries harmful chemicals and
bacteria into sea water.
The rivers, which join the seas, bring sand from the hills and plains, and thus lot of silt
gathers near the coasts. Rivers also bring to the sea water, runoff from the fields, which,
today. means a certain amount of fertilisers and pesticides.
A new factor has recently come to light and that is chemicals from nucle'ar power plants and
nuclear industry. This waste has radioactive chemicals which can demolish and destroy
living organisms in ocean waters. Huge amounts of such waste is generated every year.
particularly, in the advanced countries of the world, who have found ways of dumping this
waste in the coastal areas of the poor countries.
A number of times it has been reported that ships, particularly tankers, transporting oil leave
a trail of oil along their routes. A thin layer of oil thus covers wide areas of the surfae sea
water, depriving living organisms of oxygen. We mention below in Table 15.1, the position
in this respect on the Indian Coast.

21
I

Envlronment and Resources

Table 15.1: Marine Pollution in India

S.No:

Area

Type of pollution

1.

Gulf of Kutch
and coast of
Gujarat

Natural sedimentation due to erosion

of coast. Deposition of wind-borne
sand. Pollution from salt-making industry. Destruction of
plants growing on coasts, for firewood and fodder.

2.

Western Coast
(from Bombay
to Kerala)

Oil drilling and oil spilling from

tankers. Pollution from factpries.
Runoff from uplands. Invasion of weeds like Salvinia which is
common in Kerala. Destruction of mangroves, exploitation of
fossil fuels, and dredging for deepening the navigation channel.

3.

Gulf of Mannar
and Palk Bay
along the
southeast
coast

Quarrying of corals for industrial

uses.

4.

Lakshadweep

Excessive siltation in lagoons. Consauction along the coast.

Deforestation as in Minicoy. Increase in predators like
Aconthaster plonci on coral polyps.

5.

Hoogly Estuary

Untreated industrial wastes from more than 150 major factories

around Calcutta, including 87 Jute mills, 12 Textile mills, 7
Tanneries, 5 Paper and Pulp factories and 4 Distillaries, pours
into the river continuously.

We must remember that the seas are precious ecosystems for marine life and they provide
food and livelihood to millions of people in the world. Medicines are also being developed
from ocean flora. It is natural, therefore, that every step be taken to protect marine life and
reduce pollution going into the sea. Recently large ball-like concentrates of minerals called
nodules have also been found on sea bed. Some of these nodules are rich in economically
important minerals like nickel and chromium. However, 'mining' for these nodules m e s e
great depths needs high technology. India has already started taking initiative in this area.
SAQ 1
Fill in the blanks selecting appropriate words given below:
i) .......... are the largest and the thickest ecosystems of the earth.
ii) .......... , .......... and. ......... are the types of water movements
commonly seen in the seas.

iii)
'

.......... and .......... are the major factors that govern the quantity and type of
life occurring in oceans.

iv) The .......... bring minerals and essential substances from deep water to the
surface.
v)

Oceanic waters that have high nutrient content, and support large variety of planktons
appear ...........
(tides, energy, waves, greenish, nutrients, oceans, currents, upwellings)

15.3 THE ATMOSPHERE

Atmosphere is an envelope of the most useful gases that cover the planet earth. It makes our
planet unique and enables life to prosper. If the earth did not have an atmosphere we
wouldn't have oxygen to breathe, and the plants wouldn't have carbon dioxide to make food
from. The rays from the sun would have scorched our planet during the day, and
temperatures would have fallen far below.the freezing point at night. No living organism
would have survived in such a situation. You have already studied how earth's atmosphere
has evolved. L t us see, what are the important features of the atmosphere.

15.3.1 Some Physical Features of the Atmosphere

i)

The atmosphere is a mixture of gases. It is made up of 78.08% nitrogen; 21% oxygen

by volume. There is only 0.03% of carbon dioxide, and small amounts of a few other
gases. The presence of a thin layer of ozone is important for life on the earth. We also

find in the atmosphere, a considerable amount of water vapour that evaporates from
oceans, lakes and rivers etc. Now, let us talk in detail about some of the important
gases constituting our atmosphere.
Oxygen, a constituent of air is also called the breath of life. Without it, the
chemical processes that sustain life are not possible. Human beings can live without
food and water for some time, but not without oxygen for more than a few minutes.
It is only oxygen in the air that makes combustion or burning possible. Burning of
fuel produces heat, that is used for cooking food, for running automobiles, in
industry and for various other purposes.
Nitrogen is another important constituent of the atmosphere, and forms the great
bulk of air we breathe. We cannot breathe pure oxygen for any length of time. If fire
ever breaks out in an atmosphere of pure oxygen, it would be difficult to put it off.
Thanks to the presence of nitrogen in air, such disastrous situations do not arise.
Another very crucial constituent of the atmosphere is carbon dioxide. In Unit 14,
you have already studied that plants utilise this gas in the manufacture of food
through the process of photosynthesis. The food thus produced serves as a source of
energy for other organisms.
The other gases, namely, argon, helium, krypton etc. are also present in the air.
These are called inert gases, because they do not react with other substances.
As we have already said in Unit 12, there is an ozone layer about 25 kilometers
above the earth's surface. Ozone is a form of oxygen. Each molecule of ozone
contains three atoms of oxygen (0,)while there are only two atoms in the ordinary
oxygen (0,) molecule. The ozone layer plays a protective role, as it absorbs a great
deal of ultraviolet rays of sunlight coming to the earth, and saves us from skin bums
and other harmful effects.
ii)

Besides gases, dust particles and smoke there are numerous forms of life in the
atmosphere (see Subsection 15.3.2 for more details).

iii) The density of the air decreases as one goes up from the surface of the earth and at
around 4000 meters it is difficult for man and many other animals to survive without
supply of additional oxygen.

15.3.2 Life in Atmosphere

Just like the earth, the atmosphere also sustains life. Various types of insects and mites,
birds, bats and other organisms are some of the forms that you all might have seen. They
effectively use air as a medium for several of their activities, such as, flying and catching
their prey. Organisms like bats and birds are skilled aeronauts. In order to remain in the air,
they have developed wings and powerful muscles to move them. Some of the birds have
very good eyesight. They also have other well developed structures such as claws etc. for
grabbing and holding their prey. Have you ever seen large birds like an eagle, catching small
birds flying in the air? It is worth watching. The eagle comes flying from a distance, dives at
great speed and pounces on the prey, holds it firmly in its claws and flies away to a quiet
place, to sit and eat it. Birds usually fly too close to the land in search of food, but
sometimes, they even fly at heights of about 1500 metres. The migratory birds that travel
long distances while moving from one continent to the other, fly at an unbelievable height of
about 6000 metres. They come to this height, to take advantage of the winds that are usually
stronger and steadier there, than those at lower altitudes. These birds fly along the wind
currents, and thus save a lot of energy and effort.
Besides the large organisms that we can see with our naked eyes, the air also cames a very
large variety of life forms that we can only see with the help of a microscope. Spores of
plants such as fungi, mosses, ferns, pollen grains of various types, bacteria and viruses are
also found floating in the air. Also there are tiny seeds of many plants. The presence of
fungal spores in the air can be demonstrated by leaving a piece of bread in open for a few
days. It would show small, sometimes velvety patches of various colours. All these are fungi
of various kinds, whose spores were floating in the air, and have started growing on the
bread.
Similarly, in places, where there are no human settlements nearby, we find small plants of
different types occumng in groups. And also, soon after volcanic eruption, when the lava
cools, many kinds of plants appear on this lava. You may wonder how did these plants
amve here. Their seeds or spores that are present in air, establish on these new areas where
favourable conditions for growth are avmlable, and they form small groups.

Components of Environment

Environment and Resources

The fungi and other plants whose spores or seeds are carried by the air, produce in huge
numbers so that at least a few of them can reach places where the righ1,kind of conditions
for growth, such as water, sunlight etc. are available and these seeds or spores are,able to
develop into adult plants. This is an adaptation to ensure the survival of species. Seeds
which are dispersed by wind have special features such as hairs on their surfaces, wing-like
structures and light weight (see Fig.15.2). Having well developed mechanisms to float in air,
some of the spores, seeds or pollen grains are taken to great heights by the air currents. So
one can also find life forms even at great height.
You may have noticed sometimes, that some people are suddenly seized with a fit of
sneezing, watery eyes, rash on the skin and even difficulty in breathing. This condition is
referred to as allergy. What causes it? Some forms of allergy are caused by certain spores or
pollen (see Fig. 15.3) present in the air, that cannot be seen with unaided eye. Hay fever - a
form of allergy, develops by inhalation of pollen of certain trees, grasses or weeds. All these
are carried by wind and affect the sensitive persons.

li'lg.lS.2: Seeds with wings (a, b)

and haiis (c, d). (a) Drum stick,
(b) Crtpe tm. (c) Madar,
($1 Devil tree.

Having talked of some physical features of atmosphere and the kind of life it sustains, we
shall now briefly discuss the kind of damage done to this ecosystem.

15.3.3 Ecological Crises

The natural atmosphere which man has inherited from the past, with healthy and fresh air,
shielding from excessive radiation of the sun, has been deteriorating both under the impact
of increased population and industrialization. Factories pump millions of tons of dust and
smoke into the air, cars and buses spread fumes and stir up dust from the roads into the air,
and sprays used to kill agricultural pests all combine to change the idealpicture. The
pollution of the air has become a matter of great concern because it continues to increase as
"civilization" spreads. Near big cities and heavily industrialized areas;the situation has
become so bad that the birds have become rare, and the air is not fit for breathing. Rural
areas are beginning to be affected. Society will have to move towards strict pollution
control, and protection of the atmosphere as it is a great and irreplaceable resource for
living. In the next unit you would study in detail the type of damage done to this component
of the earth's environment.

SAQ 2
Fill in the blanks, selecting the right word from the list given below :
i) .......... is a blanket around the earth, that protects it from scorching during the
day and freezing during the night.
ii)

A layer o f . ......... present about 25 km from earth's surface absorbs a great deal
of incoming. ......... rays of the sunlight.

iii)

.......... also known as the breath of life, is essential for the chemical processes
that sustain life.

iv) The life found in the atmosphere includes several kinds o f .

.......... and.. . . . . . . . .
V)

fig. 15.3 Some pollen grains

I

that cause allergy

.....................

At a height of about 4000 metres, it is a difficult for people to survive without the
supply of additional ..........
(pollen grains, oxygen, atmosphere, seeds, ozone, microbes, ultraviolet, spores, oxygen.)

15.4 THE FORESTS

Forests represent a well-organised, dominant and highly evolved community of living
organisms on this planet. Over one third of the total land area of the world is covered by one
or an other kind of forest. Forests represent nature's major processors of solar energy and
about 90% of the total global biomass. These are located in all the geographic regions of the.
world, except in the polar areas.

15.4.1 Some Features of the Forests

Forests are the most widespread stretches of vegetation, harbouring diverse kinds of life
forms. They are dominated by trees. Besides trees, forest ecosystem includes various types
of small plants, mosses, ferns, fpngi, several kinds of micro-organisms, insects, reptiles,

birds, mammals and animals of diverse kinds. All these live under the soil or on it, and in the
water and air of the forest. Each organism is a part of the forest ecosystem, and each reacts
with all the other organisms. But all require the energy to survive, which is provided by the
sun and trapped by the foliage. Forests possess multi-layered structure termed as
stratification (Fig. 15.4). This makes available space for living for a wide variety of plant
and animal species. For example, there are small, tender plants, that form the lower most
layer. Them there are small shrubs which form the second layer. A third layer may consist
of small trees. And the tall trees that form roof or canopy of the entire vegetation may
constitute the fourth layer. Various kinds of animal life, depending on their living habits,
occur in different layers,of vegetation.

Components of Environment

15.4.2 Life in Forests

Trees are the pillars of the forest upon which much of the other forest life is shaped.
Associated with them, there may be more than a thousand kinds of shrubs, vines, herbs,
ferns, mosses, and toadstools, even in a small area of a forest. Using trees as support, the
smaller plants grow in their shade, and depend on the high humidity that the canopy of
leaves maintains. As we have said above, all these constitute different layers of vegetation.
In addition, the forest consists of all sorts of animals such as, birds, amphibians, reptiles and
mammals. Forests are also the house of a variety of insects, mites etc. Some seek nectar
fr6m the flowers, others feed on green leaves and tender parts of plants, some bore deep .
holes in the wood, some form mines in the plant tissue and so on. Ants and termites are
everywhere. It is a very rare forest that'does not harbour a dazzling collection of beetles,
butterflies, grasshoppers, spiders, scorpions and other insects. The abundant insects
constitute the prime food for birds. Man too is a member of the forest community -and
probably is the most destructive of all! Men are mostly, intruders, who go into the forest for
collecting wood or even for cutting down trees to prepare land for cultivation. There are,
however, small segments of human population known as tribes, who live in the forests. They
have perfect adaptation to the environmental conditions of forest life.
Let us have a closer look at the forest and its life. First we shall see what is there on the
forest floor. The dead leaves, twigs and fallen branches lie in heaps on the forest floor. At a
casual glance, they appear as a lifeless rotting mass. But actually they form the cover of a
hidden world of forest soil. These heaps enclose and shelter more life than can be found in
any other layer of the forest. Under these, the inhabitants live, in numbers that stagger one's
imagination. There are very tiny organisms such as bacteria, protozoa, algae, fungi, mites,
and bigger ones like millipedes, beetles, many forms of insects and earthwoms. By the
activity of the micro-organisms, the dead organic matter isbroken dawn simpl$.fwms
that mix with soil and thus become available for the plants. The occasional fires in forests
due to lightning or other reasons, also help in the recovery of nutrients from the dead organic
matter. Fire bums dead matter, and the resultant ash containing minerals, eventually mixes.
with the soil.

Besides the small creatures in the forests, ther,e are other life forms that are much bigger in
size and can be easily seen. All these have remarkably ingenious specialisationsfor life in
forests. For example, various-typesof birds live on tree tops and feed on fruits or tiny insects
living on plants. For this purpose, they have highly specialized beaks and claws, some of
which are shown in Fig. 15.5. Woodpeckers climb on tree trunks and extract insects hidden
under the bark with their strong and pointed beak(Fig.15.5b). For this purpose, they also
have shak and curved claws to hold firmlv to the tree trunk (Fie.15.5h).
In addition
. "
different'animals have adapted to noctural or diurnal habits depending on when they can
easily feed and also remain protected. The owls, for example, hunt at night because that is"
when the rodents (rats etc.) they eat, roam about in open in search of food. The mesh of
branches in the forest makes rapid movement difficult for many animals es~eciallythe large
ones, like the elephant, buffalo, leopard and several others. Each of them possesses one or
more adaptations for moving through the undergrowth. Some of these are: strength, weight
of body, stout limbs and wedge-shaped head. Creatures like the owl, that hunt at night haw
Iarge, sensitive eyes and acute hearing power. Bats, which also fly at night, locate their prey
with the help of high pitched sound which they produce. This sound on reflection from
even small animals, discloses their position to the bats.
Forests in Different Regions of the World
Since forests occur in different parts of the world and in varying climatic conditions, we
shall now see as to what kind of life occurs in the forests situated in different regions and
climatic conditions of the world.

Fig.15.4: A segment of a forest

showing several layers of vegetation.
There are tall trees, small shrubs,
tender plants near the surface, and
c"mbers that around the tree
trunks.

Forests where the temperature drops to 40C,have little diversity of life. The extreme
cold not only threatens the tissues of trees, but denies them one of the essential supplies
of life, that is water, as it gets frozen into ice. So how do these plants cope with the
cold? In these regions, plants such as pines etc. are found. They have long, needle-like
leaves, (Fig. 15.6a), that are coated with wax. This is an adaptation to avoid snow
settling on the leaves, pnd weighing them down. The thick wax-coating prevents loss of
water, which is hard to replace in these conditions These plants also have dark leaves,
b
WOODPECKER that absorb maximum amount of heat from even the feeble sunshine. Depending on the
wood chiselling
plants present in the area, diversity of animal life too varies. As the leaves are hard,
resinous, not easily bitten, so many insects do not touch them. But several birds extract
seeds from the cones (Fig.15.6) of such trees and enjoy eating them.

ecq@
SPARROW

ucd cruhing

PARROT
fruit scooping

'

HAWK

learing and pierring

H ~ P O E

ii)

SUNBRID
m a r suchng

csnh digging and

insex crlehong

The animals in such'forests, have developed equally remarkable ways to survive the
harshness of winter and long periods of food shortage. Some birds migrate thousands
of miles, to areas where food is not a problem and temperature is to their liking. Some
birds do not migrate, but remain inactive, lower their heart beat and breathing rates
considerably. Thus they conserve a lot of energy. Some animals do not migrate but go
to sleep or hibernate, for example bears curl up and sleep. The duration of sleep varies
from animal to animal. During hibernation, the sleep is so deep that some of the
animals will not wake up even if they are prodded and shaken.

OSTRICH

N"w

iii)
Fig.lS.5 (aHF): A variety of
beaks suited to particular
modes of feeding of birds.
(gHk): Some adaptive
variations in the feet of birds.

.
.
(Aler SJlm All)

Fig.15.6(a): A pine twig with a

cone, and needle-like leaves.
(b) A cone cut longitudinally,
shows woody scales enclosing
seeds. (c) A scale with seeds has
been taken out a n q p l a d in a
way that it laces us.

Now, let us see the type of life forms occurring in the areas having long winters. Most
of the water tends to freeze in such conditions, and thus is not available to plants. This
situation is the same as that of a drought. So what do the plants do in such a situation?
Most of them simply shut down. They do this by shedding off their leaves, thereby
preserving the moisture contained in the cells of their roots, trunks and branches. Plants
having developed such life saving mechanisms are termed as deciduous,-a Latin word
that means 'to fall off'. In such forests, during the autumn season heaps of fallen leaves
may be seen everywhere in the forest. During this period, plants do not produce any
new leaves, flowers or fruits.

Thick forests occur in areas that receive plenty of rain and have high temperatures
throughout the year, as these are the ideal conditions for abundant growth. Such forests
have the richest and the most varied types of plants and animals found anywhere on the
earth. In one hectare of such a forest, it is common to find over a hundred different
kinds of tall trees and several kinds of small plants. The richness is not restricted to
plants only. Over 1600 species of birds live in these forests, and the number of insects
is uncountable. The canopy of such forests is a deep continuous layer of greenery that
is, about 6 to 7 metres deep. Each leaf is so angled that it will collect the maximum
amount of sunlight. As a result only little direct sunlight reaches the forest floor and so
it is much darker there. Similarly because of the intense vegetation, strong winds are
reduced to a gentle breeze inside the forest. Much of the rain is intercepted by the
canopy. Only when the leaves are thoroughly wetted, does water drip gently to the
forest floor. There are no well defined seasons, so that all the trees do not shed their
leaves simultaneously. Each species has its own season for shedding leaves. Some shed
leaves after every 6 months, some after more than 12 months and so on. Similarly
flowering period also varies. Some plants bear flowers after 10 months, others after 12
months and so on. Therefore one finds flowers of different kinds all the year round.
The aerial plants, such as orchids and bromeliads (Fig. 15.7), and intertwining vines are
interesting plant types found in such warm and humid forests. These plants reach for
light by climbing on taller trees, whereas intertwining vines, reach the place where
sunlight is available, by supporting their trailing branches along the long tree trunks.
Tiny plants also grow near the forest floor. Such plants have large and dark leaves, to
trap whatever little light is available.
Because of the relative scarcity of edible plant material close to the ground, much of
the animal life in such forests lives high above the ground, in the green world of the
canopy. This includes numerous birds, monkeys, insects and other animals. In fact, the
tree tops are alive with noise and colour of countless birds. The animals have
developed certain adaptations for tree life. They have slender shapes, necessary for
agile movement. These animals hunt, thieve and scavenge food materials; breed and
die within the forest, without ever leaving them. The insect population flourishes in
these forests, despite the intense competition for food and constant threat of being eaten
by sharp-eyed birds. They have evolved several mechanisms in the fonn of a protective
strategy known as camouflage. Whereby they assume the colour of their surroundings,
and shape their bodies like leaves etc. So that they cannot be recognised easily.

iv) Forests in areas where temperature is very high in summers, have the danger of losing
too mu&hmoisture. The leaves of plants growing in such areas have a waxy, watertight surface and relatively few pores, often mainly on ths underside. Many leaves hang
downwards from the branches during the hotter part of the day so that they do not catch
too much of sun's heat. Such trees give little shade, because of the position of their
leaves and thereby most of the light reaches the ground.

Components of Environment

In brief, we have seen that plants and animals have acquired characteristics to fit them for
the different conditions in different types of forests.
Having discussed the life in forgsts, we shall now see what makes forests an important
constituent of earth's environment. Forests not only'add to the beauty of the landscape, but
make the climate salubrious and provide suitable habitat for the wildlife. They are also
described as environmental buffers. Forests consume large quantities of water through the
roots of plants and lose it through respiration by the leaves. Extensive forests, to some extent
also increase precipitation. They intercept heavy rainfall and release the water steadily and
slow.1~
to the soil beneath to prevent the soil running away with the rushing water. The roots
of innumerable small plants and trees hold the soil in place.
Fotests are also important, because they are the source of wood used for building purposes
andTor industry, that manufactures newsprint paper and plywood etc. The wood of about
one hundred or more species of trees are clipped, to produce pulp for paper. Forests also
supply food, fodder, fibres etc., which are the indispensable needs of people residing in or
near them. They yield a wide variety of products of commercial value, such as lac, resin and
essential oils. They are also the storehouse of medicinal plants many of which are yet to be
explored and fully utilized.

15.4.3 Ecological Crises

Forests have been over-exploited and are shrinking throughout the world. It is estimated,
that during the ten years, from 1963 to 1973, forest area has declined by 15 per cent,
affecting all regions of the world. India is losing forests at an extremely rapid rate.
According to the satellite data, India lost 1.3 million hectares of forest every year between
1972 and 1982. Arunachal Radesh. Manipur and Andaman & Nicobar islands are the only
areas which fulfil-thestipulation of forest cover in hill regions laid down by the National
Forest Policy in 1952. The maximum deforestation has occurred in Madhya Radesh, which
lost nearly 2 million hectares, Maharashtra lost one million hectares, Orissa, Andhra Pradesh
and Jammu & Kashmir lost nearly a million hectares of forest land each during the above
said period.
Now let us see, what has led to the destruction of forests in our country?
i) Shifting cultivation, i.e., the process of slashing and clearing of the forest, burning
much of the fallen vegetation and cultivating a mixture of crops for two or three years,
until the soil loses its productivity. Then this process is repeated elsewhere. Shifting
cultivation is practiced in many hilly areas of India.
ii)

The conversion of forests to pastures for cattle.

iii) ' Overgrazing - Grazing intensity is high in most of the forest areas of India. This has
depleted vast forest areas. In addition to.depletion of vegetation cover, trampling by
cattle, hardens the soil, preventing forest regeneration. When there are no plants, the
soil becomes loose, and is lost by winds or ismwashed.offby heavy rains.
iv) Commercial exploitation of timber is one of the main causes of forest destruction.
Wood (for building for making boxes to tiansport fr,uits,for making paper, andjustfor.burning)
is in great demand, and thkrepresents a major threat to our lush green forests.
The restrictions, which the government puts on cutting trees are circumvented by
greedy contractors and those who share the profit. At this rate, forests will perish one
day. New plantations will help, but they cannot replace the present forests for a very
long time. It will take at least a hundred years for a plantation to become a forest. It
must be remembered, that reducing forests to barren land not only disrupts animal life
and its balance but also the lives of tribal people who have been existing for centuries
in hannony with the forests.
activities such as irrigation projects, building of roads etc. have led to
v) ~eveld~mental
a good thing, like roads, by losing
the destruction of forests. This amounts.to~acquiring
something which is even better.
Now that we know the causes of deforestation, let us discuss its consequences. Removal of

Fig.15.7: Aerial plants. An orchid

(a), and.a bromeliad (b) on the,
trunks oftrees. These plants fulfil
thelr-termquirementsfmm
~
~
~
y
~
trees, that support them, also oUer
an additbnal supply of nutrients.

Environment and Resources

forests causes soil erosion, silting of lakes and.rivers, resulting in devastating floods and loss
of thousands of species of plants and animals forever. Some of these effects have been
depicted in Fig.15.8. If one plant species becomes extinct, it takes with it many dependent
organisms, sometimes as many as 30.

lakes and rivers choked with

s~lt,resulting in floods

\ . . .\ .'
\

sloping arable land terraced

streams clear

'

'

Iii&l

chances of flooding lessened

Fig.15.8: (a) Consequences of deforestation, (b) Conservation

rrees can grow on hillsides, even when the soil layer is quite thin. When the trees are cut
down to clear them for cultivation and the soil is ploughed, there is less protection from the
wind and rain. Heavy rainfall washes the soil off the hillsides into the rivers. The hillsides,
thus, are left bare and useless, and on the other hand, the rivers become choked up with mud
and silt resulting in floods. The disastrous floods in our country have been attributed largely
to deforestation. According to the National Commission of Floods (1980), the annual
economic loss due to floods during 1977-78, was more than 1000 crores. The total areas
affected by floods has doubled during the last decade.
~ e ~ r a d a t i bofnforests leads to the destruction of habitat for many wildlife species.
Presently, over one hundred species of wild animals need immediate protection as their
population has dwindled to dangerously low levels. Similarly, many plants, too, have
suffered from the onslaught of human activities. In a recent list prepared by the Botanical
Survey of India, 135 species of Indian plants have been listed, which need immediate
protection for their survival. Similarly, over 200 species of animals all over the world have
become extinct. Atleast one species has ceased to exist each year of this century. Presently.
eight hundred species of animals distributed in various regions of the world, are in great
danger of extinction. The list includes orang-utan, the pygmy chimpanzee, the mountain
gorillai the leopard, eight species of whales, five species of rhinoceros, the polar and grizzly
bears and many species of birds.
Don't you think, that the situation is grave! Many people have realised that concrete steps
should be taken towards conservation, to slow down the destruction of the environment. It is

hoped that, if these steps are taken even now, it will go a long way to bring a halt to the
extermination of species and to preserve the beautiful areas of the world. In our country, too,
a number of people have become aware of the situation, and several steps have been taken in
this direction. Quite a few forest protection movements have been started by the people
residing in or near the disturbed areas.

The Chipko Andolam- the movement to hug trees, is a well known movement for
conservation. The story about how this movement started is this. In the year 1970,
Gopeshwar in the Garhwal area of Uttar Pradesh and nearly 20 nearby villages were
devastated by a flash flood in the Alaknanda river. There was clear evidence, that these
floods had been caused by man-made erosions. The people of this area realised that if thess
destructive activities of man continued, it would ultimately wipe off the hill people. The
people of Gopeshwar and their leader Shri Chandi Prasad Bhatt organised a movement and
pledged that no more tree felling would be allowed in the area. So, whenever, the
contractors approached forests for felling trees, these local people used to go and hug the
trees. They said that if the contractors have to cut a tree, their axe will have to fall on them
first. So the contractors had to give up, and the local people were successful in saving a lot
of trees and plants.
Like a migratory bird, the Chipko Andolan flew from the Himalayas to various comers of
the country, such as the hilly districts of Karnataka, the hills of central India, and to Aravalli
hills in Rajasthan. This movement is also spreading to other areas of the Western Ghats.

SAQ 3
Given below are some words. Place them appropriately in the blank spaces of the statements
given below:
i) . . . . . . . . . . are the major processors of solar energy.
ii) . . . . . . . . . . are the dominant life forms of forests.
iii) Forests occur throughout the world except the . . . . . . . . . . areas.
iv) In a forest, plants of different kinds and heights are arranged naturally in such a way
that they form distinct layers. Such a situation is referred to as . . . . . . . . . . .
V) . . . . . . . . . . and. . . . . . . . . . are the plants found typically in warm and humid forests.
(polar, stratification,forests, orchids, trees, bromeliads)

15.5 SUMMARY
In this unit you have learnt that:
Oceans, atmosphere and forests are three significant components of earth's environment.
Oceans, contain an immense amount of salty water and form a continuous water body
over the earth's surface. One can find living beings all along the oceanic depth.
Phytoplankton, however, occur in the water layers near the surface, where sunlight is
available. Life forms occumng in various depths of oceanic water have special adaptive
features that enable them to withstand the harsh conditions, such as poor light, higher
pressure due to the water above, low temperature etc. The life forms become less and less
in number, as one moves away from the sea shore.
Today we find that the ocean ecosystem is very much disturbed. This is because of the
pouring of untreated wastes by various industries directly into the ocean or into the rivers;
sedimentation due to erosion of coasts; destruction of mangroves; quarrying of rocks etc.
Atmosphere provides a protective covering to the earth, and generates conditions that
enable life to prosper on the earth. A variety of life exists in the atmosphere -from
microscopic organisms to birds of various kinds.
The quality of atmospheric air is deteriorating by activities like the addition of smoke and
dust by the industries and automobiles, sprays used to kill agricultural pests etc.
Forests, cover over one third of the total land area of the world. These are located in all
the geographic regions except the polar areas. Depending on the availability of food,
sunlight and water, different living beings live in different layers of the forest. Forests
perform important ecological role. They have been found to regulate precipitation.
During rainfall, a large quantity of water is absorbed by forests, and then is slowly
released to the soil beneath, and to the streams and rivers that flow through the forest.
Recent surveys have shown that all over the world, the area under forest cover is
decreasing day by day due to thoughtless commercial activities of man, and various other

Components of Environment

Environment and desources

reasons. The consequences of deforestation, in the long run, are deleterious for the life on
earth. Quite a few forest conservation movements have been started. But all this is just
like a small drop in the ocean. We must do our best to conserve earth's environmental
components.

15.6 TERMINAL QUESTIONS

1) Although all organisms require essentially the same resources from their physical
environment to survive, certain resources are more plentiful in some ecosystems than in
others. Give examples of two ecosystems in which each of the following is plentiful :
light, water, oxygen, nutrients, and space.

2) Answer the following in four or five lines.

i) Where is life in the oceans more abundant and why?

ii) Describe what happens to solar energy reaching the earth's atmosphere.

iii) What is the major reason of stratification in forest ecosystem?

.......................................................................

3) Given below are some aspects of the ecological crises, in oceans, atmosphere and forest,
that you have just studied. What you have to do in this exercise is to match the
statements of the first column with those of the second column. Write the number of the
appropriate match in the given box .

I Column
1 Erosion of coasts
2 Depletion of vegetation cover,
trampling and consequent
haidening of soil, preventing
regeneration of plants
3 Enormous amount of dust and
smoke pumped in the air
4 Silt gathering near coasts

5 Slashing and clearing the

vegetation in an area,
burning the fallen plants,

II'Column
1 By rivers and from surface runoff
2 Shifting
cultivation

L1
-

'd

3 Spilling during
drilling operations, and from tankers
4 Automobiles, industries and excessive
use of fossil fuels
5 Deforestation

and cultivating crops for a

couple of years. Then after
repeating the same process
elsewhere
6 A film of oil spreading over
large area of sea water
7 Soil erosion, silting of
lakes and rivers, and
consequent floods

6 Overgrazing
-7 Destruction of

plants growing in
the coastal
regions for fuel,
fodder etc.

15.7 ANSWER
Self Assessment Questions
1) i) oceans
ii) tides, waves, currents
I

iii) energy, nutrients

iv) upwellings
v) greenish
2) i)
ii)
iii)
iv)
V)

atmosphere
ozone, ultraviolet
oxygen
pollen grains, seeds, spores, microbes
oxygen

3) i)
ii)
iii)
iv)
V)

forests
trees
polar
stratification
orchids, bromeliads

Terminal Questions
1) i) Light-atmosphere, grassland
ii) Water-lake, oceans
iii) Oxygen--atmosphere, forest
iv) Nutrients-forests, estuary
V) Space-atmosphere,
desert
Life in the oceans is abundant around the margin of the continents and islands,
because here plenty of nutrients are available. This enables the luxuriant growth of
producers, and of other organisms dependent on them.
ii) When sunlight, reaches the upper atmospheric layers consisting of ozone, mmy of
the sun's harmful rays, such as the ultraviolet rays are absorbed, thus making it safe
for the life.
iii) Stratification enables the various kinds of organisms occumng in a small area of the
forest, to obtain the basic necessities of life such as light, temperature etc., according
to their requirements.
3) 1 7
2 6
3 4
4 1
5 2
6 3
7 5
2) i)

UNIT 21 FOOD AND NUTRITION

Structure
2 I. 1

Introduction
Objectives

2 1.2
2 1.3
2 I .4
2 1.5
2 1.6
21.7
2 1.8
2 1.9
2 1.10
2 1.1 1
2 1.12
2 I. 13

Importance of Nutrition
Nutrient Groups and their Functions
Essential Nutrients
Food as Fuel for the Body Machine
Balanced Diet
Food Fads
Food Allergies
Adulteration of Food
Malnutrition and 111 Health
Summary
Terminal Questions
Answers

21.1 INTRODUCTION

.
.

In the previous unit you have studied the limitations regarding availability and distribution
of food in India. A large section of our population is under-nourished. Apart from not having
enough to eat, their diet is generally deficient in certain components essential for health. An
additional factor is the lack of awareness about.proper nutrition. In this unit we will learn
how we can improve our health by making the best use of the food available to us.
A dinner table with a variety of mouth-watering preparations appears far more tempting than a
simple meal of rice, chapati, dal, vegetables and curds. Yet. the former may be inferior and
incomplete from the point bf view of what the body needs for survival, growth and activity. It
may lack many important ingredients necessary to keep our body fit and healthy. Again some
foods look different, but are similar in their nutritional value, e.g.. milk, egg, meat, fish etc.
One may consume large quantities of food without getting proper nutrition, because it may
lack one or more essential components. How can we find out whether a meal is complete or
not? In this unit we will learn to classify nutrient groups of food, the amounts necessary for
our body and how to get.these from different foods available to us. We will also learn the
concept of a balanced diet.
It is true that food choices of people are influenced by economic, social, educational and
cultural factors, but nutritional awareness, i.e. learning to choose food wisely is also an
important factor. You can possibly use the knowledge given in this unit, to modify your food
habits and enlighten others about it. We often find that families with large income are poorly
nourished and some families with small income are better nourished. This is because of a
more intelligent use of money on the part of the low income groups to obtain proper
nourishment. In addition, these simple concepts will enable you to realise the complexity of
social problems related to availability of proper food for all our people. We will also discuss
the problems of malnutrition and its magnitude.

Objectives
After studying this unit you should be able to :
idedtify various nutrient groups in a given food,
judge your daily intake of food and see whether it fulfils your nutritional needs.
practise dietary habits which contribute to a healthy, attractive individual with an alert
mind.
compare food requirements of individuals according to age, sex, activity, body weight
and climate,
recognise the dangers of faulty food habits and food fads, .
list the diseases caused by malnutrition and deficiency of vitam~nsartd mlnerius,
realise the hann caused by adulterated food stuffs,

recognise the importance of safeguarding food from spoilage and waste at home, and in
stores and godowns.
In this unit, there are many tables. You are not expected to memorise them. They have been
compiled for reference when necessary.

21.2 IMPORTANCE OF NUTRITION

We cannot live without food. Our hunger can be satisfied by any kind o? meal, but to remain
healthy and free of disease, our body requires certain kinds of food. The health of an
individual is largely determined by the quality of food taken. Moreover, food makes a
difference in our appearance, activity, behaviour, and in the quality of life.
Foods vary in their composition and no one type of food contains all we need, in the
amounts that we need. A meal lacking in a particular requirement of our body for a
prolonged period can result in disease, and even in death. Therefore, a knowledge of the
food requirements of our body and various sources of obtaining them is essential. Studies
carried out in many countries show that a good diet has promoted proper growth in children
and has improved the general heahh ofthe people. A study of Japanese children has shown
that an improved diet has increased the average height of children, from what it was a few
decades ago.

A majority of the children of the developing countries of Asia, Africa and Latin America are
generally poorly nourished. some of them do not get enough to eat, while the diet of others
is deficient in some foods that are essential for the body. So, we find a steady retardation in
the physical and mental growth of these children and they suffer from various deficiency
diseases.
The science of nutritioo is a well developed discipline today. We know enough about what
kind of nourishment is necessary for our child and adult population. The main problem is to
make this information available to our people and to ensure that the food contains d l the
necessary ingredients. Of course, the foods must be available to the people.

21.3 NUTRIENT GROUPS AND THEIR FUNCTIONS

We should know that our body is made up of different chemical substances which are related
to the food we take. Scientists have determined the chemical substances present in different
foods and their role in the body. They call these substances "nutrients" and have classified
them in different groups.
In order to get an idea about the nutrients of food, let us examine a familiar dish of peas and
potato curry prepared in our homes. For preparing it, besides oil or ghee, onions, tomatoes
and some spices are used. What these ingredients provide in terms of nutrients are listed below:
Ingredients

I Potatoes
2 Peas
3 Gheeloil
4 Onions
5 Tomatoes
6 Spices
7 Water

Class of Nutrients
.Carbohydrates
Roteins and carbohydrates
Fats
Minerals
Vitamins and minerals
Minerals
Water

This dish is given as an example in order to illustrate how all the classes of nutrients
required by our body can be included in our meal. These six classes of nutrients, namely,
carbohydrates, proteins, fats, vitamins, minerals and water, must be included in our meals in
correct proportion. This need can be fulfilled from a single dish or from a combination of
dishes, prepared from a wide variety of food sources. If one of the ingredients of this recipe
is deleted, we lose the corresponding nutrient. This is how we evaluate every food
preparation.
You know that f d habits vary from place to place all over India. Chapatis are the staple
food in many parts of north India and rice is the staple food in south and east India. People
in other countries also have their preferences in food. These habits are mostly due to the
availability of a particular tyfe of food stuff. Anyway, no particular food is absolutely
necessary, because many alternativesto it can provide the same nutrients. Here, we must
note that no single item of food contains exactly the same nutrients as any other singIe item.

Foods which have common nutrients can be put together as a Food Group. This provides us
with a wide choice of alternate food items. Table 2 1.1 gives these food groups and their
nutrient composition.
Table 21.1: Food Groups and Their Major Nutrients

Food Group

Nutrients

Carbohydrates. Roteins;lron and Vitamins of B group

Crmls ud Millets

Roteins, Carbohydrates, Iron and Vitamins of B group

PUIRS ad legume^

Nuts ad Oilseeds

Fats and Roteins

Milk md Milk products

Fats, Roteins and Vitamins

Mcata. Fish and Eggs

Proteins and some V~tam~ns

43

a=

Carbohydrates

Roots and Tubers

Vegetabks and Fruits

Carbohydrates

Vitamins and Minerals

 agriculture, Nutritionand
Health

Some foods have a great deal of one nutrient and very little or none at all of others. For
example, oils and fats contain mostly fat, sugar is purely a carbohydrate. The six nutrients
are present in various food stuffs in varying proportions. Depending upon the relative
concentration of the nutrients contained, foods are chssified as protein-rich, carbohydrate.
rich or vitamin-rich foods. For good nutrition, we need to eat a combination of many
different kinds of foods.
SAQ I
List the food items you had for lunch today, and using Table 2 1.1 classify them into food
groups and give their major nutrients. The first item has been worked out to give you an
idea. Check whether all the nutrients were present in your lunch.
Food Items

Food Groups

Major Nutrients

I . Chapati

Cereals and Millers

Carbohydrates. Proteins. lrori and

Vitamins of B Group

2. Rice

........................

......................

........................

......................

................

Note: While considering the nutrients of a cooked item, you must account for all the ingredients used in a recipe.
For example. in finding the nutrients present in a biscuit, you should account for flour. milk. sugar, fat etc.
used in making it.

Functions of Food
What do you think is the function of food?
Before you read on, write down the functions of f M n the space below.

The fwd we take performs the following functions :

i) Food gives our body fuel to bum for warmth andenergy. The energy is used to cany
on both the internal and the external activities of the body. Examples of internal
activ~tiesare : functioning of the brain, beating of the heart, breathing, digestion of
food, excretory processes etc. They go on non-stop as long as we live. The external
activities consist of all kinds of work, play and exercises.
ii)

Food is also necessary for growth and development. mainly in children. Food gives us
material to build strong muscles and to produce blood. It is also used for continual
repair of body tissues.

iii) Food has a protective function also. It helps our body to fight infection and enables us
to live to a ripe old age.
Let us now see, which of these functions of food are assigned to the nutrients we have listed
earlier.
i)

Carbohydrates and Fats are the mgin energy source for the body. Carbohydrates are
easily available and are the cheapest source of energy. Fats also serve as an
"emergency energy store" in the body, to be used, for example, when enough food is
not available due to fasting or starvation. Therefore. carbohydrates and fats are called
Energy Foods.

ii)

Proteins are the raw matt?rial used for building muscles, skin, blood and bones. They
repair the tissues which are constantly worn out. Therefore, we need to have proteins
everyc!nj and cannot 11vewithout them. Proteins can also serve as an energy source, if
the energy rrz+d ot the M y is not met by carbohydrate!, and fats. They also help us to
I ,pht ~nfect~ctn.
i'rotr:i:i . dre called Body Building Foods.

iii) Minerals and Wtamins are not a source of energy but they are necessary in many of
the steps involved in the release of energy in the cells. Thus, they help the body to
make good use of food. They protect us from illness. Minerals, such as calcium, are the
basic components of bones and teeth. Iron is a component of the red pigment of blood
called haemoglobin. Minerals are important in transmission of nerve impulses and for
muscle contraction and relaxation. Vitamins and minerals are called Protective Foods.
iv) Water is a component of all body fluids such as blood, digestive juices, ete. Water
accounts for about 50 to 70% of thebody weight. It is essential for various metabolic
activities. In fact, our body cannot utilise any substance, unless it is first turned into a
form soluble in water. Digestion converts food into a soluble form, so that it is readily
absorbed and is carried by the blood to the sites where it is needed. The waste products
like urea are carried by the blood to the kidneys from wherediey are excreted. Water
also plays a role in regulating the body temperature, through perspiration. The daily
water requirkment of the body depends on the climate, activity and the kind of food one
takes

I:
\

SAQ 2
Give examples of various.typesof foods in the space indicated below :
Body buildingfoods ..........................................................
*

...........................................................................
Energygivingfoods...........................................................

'21.4 ESSENTIAL NUTRIENTS

Our body is a biochemical factory which can make many compounds for its needs.
However, there are limits to this, and what our body cannot make has to be provided by a
suitable choice of food. Such compounds are called essential nutrients. Each one of the
nutrients has many components. For example. most proteins are composed of twelve to
twenty different amino acids. Ten of them cannot be manufactured by the body and have to
be supplied through diet. They are called essential amino acids. The remaining are nonessential amino acids, in the sense that they can be made in the body from any protein food
we take. Similarly, a large number of vitamins and minerals and some fatty acids cannot be
made in the body. So they must be included in the diet.
Plant Proteins vs Animal Proteins
Proteins can be obtained from a variety of sources, such as grains, pulses, nuts, milk, fish,
meat:eggs, etc. But the nutritive quality and digestibility of these proteins is not equal. They
are present in different amounts in different food stuffs and their quality and the ease with
which they can be digestedcalso differs with their so,urce. Animal proteins have all the
essential amino acids and are called complete or high-quality proteins. They also have much
higher digestibility. Plant proteins lack one or more essential amino acids an+re called
incomplete proteins. Their digestibility is about 60%. Proteins, obtained from a variety of
plant sources can together be made as good as a single animal protein, because what is
missing in one plant protein may be compensated by another. For instance, in a meal of
cereals and pulses plant the essential amino acids missing in cereals are found.in pulses and
vice versa. Surprisingly ,we Indians have been eating a combination of chapati-dal, or ricedal over the years, probably out of wisdom or experience. without any knowledge of the
existence of amino acids.

Remember, a mixed diet of various cereals, millets and pulses can fulfil the total nutritional
requirements of vegetarians. Soyabean is the richest source of plant protein. In comparison
to other legumes, it contains twice as much protein. Eggs are relatively a cheaper source of
high-quality proteins when compared to meat. In India, a large percentage of people can
afford only cereals which contain mostly carbohydrates. Protein foods are expensive, thou'gh
even the prices of vegetables are going up. Scientists all over the world are trying to find
ways and means of obtaining proteins from new sources. Methods of extracting proteins

Food srid Nutrition

Agkulture, Nutrition and

Health

from ordinarily uneatable green leaves, algae and other sources are underway. Proteins art
complex substances and; unlike vitamins, cannot be manufactured in the laboratory at
present. There may be a time in future when it will become possible.
We should also know that an excess of proteins should not be taken in a single day,because
only a ponion of it will be used in building and repair of the body and the rest will be burnt
up to supplyenergy, or convened into fat. Since, proteins cannot be stored in the body, they
are wasted. On an average, an adult requires one gram ofprotein per kilogram of body
weight. The energy needs of the'body are better fulfilled by carbohydrate foods.
Vitamins
You are, probably, familiar with the names of some of the vitamins. They can be obtained
from plant and animal foods. Vitamins are required in small amounts and their prolonged
deficiency in food results in various diseases. In order to correct this situatibn, sometimes
vitamins have to be giyen as tonics or medicine. Vitamins are not a source of energy
themselves but they help in the release of energy from carbohydrates, and fats. Therefore,
food must contain required amounts of vitamins. There are various types of vitamins. A
particular vitaminpr a group of two or more vitamins, protect the health and assist in the
work of a particular organ of our body. Each vitamin has a specific function and cannot
sabstitute for another. Table 21.2 lists various vitamins, their sources and functions. Vitamin
A is needed for healthy eyes, smooth skin and glossy hair. Many children go blind in our
country because of vitamin A deficiency. This could be easily prevented, because foods
containing vitamin A, like carrots and green vegetables, are easily available. You will notice
that vitamins of the B group have many sub-groups. These have different functions but their
source is more or less the same. Sometimes children or even'adults complain of lack of
appetite. They never seem to be hungry for meals. This is due to the deficiency of vitamin B
group, which leads to undernutrition and retardatiop of growth.
Table 21.2: Vitamins, their. Functions, and Sources
Vitamins

Functions

Sources

Vitamin A

Enables us to see in the dim light

Necessary for healthy eyes, smooth skin
and glossy hair
Required for normal bone formatiqn

Butter, ghee, milk. egg-yolk

Fatty fish
Dark.leafy vegetables
Deep )-ellowvegetable, fruits

Vitamin B complex
B.B,,B,.B,,B,,

Essential for the functioning of nerves.

bra~n,heart and other vital organs.
Required for normal growth and
development
Helps in preventing anaemia

Whole cereals
Pulses. sprouted pulses
Milk
Egg
Liver, brain, kidney

Vitamin C

Helps in rapid healing of wounds

Facilitates absorption of iron
Roper daily intake builds.resistance to
infections

Amla, guava, papaya

Citrus fruits
Green leafy vegetables

r ~ g21.1:
. Om year old Elmer
MacCollum suffered from scurvy
and there was no hope for his
survival. His mother happened to
feed him apple peel. On finding
improvement in his health she kept
' feeding him vegetables and fruits.
, Thus by keen observation she
found the antiscurvy diet.
hterestingly, Elmer MacCollum
grew to discover Vitamin A in
1913.

Vitamin D

Helps in the absorption of calcium and

phosphorus in the intestine
Required for the proper formation of bones

Egg, fish liver oil

Chicken
Butter, ghee
Milk
Exposure to sunlight

Vitamin E

Prevents vitamin A from destruction

Vegetable oils
Cereals. cereal germ oil
Nuts
Legumes

Vitamin K

Prevents bleeding in wounds by clotting of

the blood

Green leafy vegetables

Vitamin C is present in fresh fruits and vegetables, especially in citrus fruits and guava. It is
essential for the health of the mucous membrane which lines our mouth, nose and inner
organs. It helps in building resistance against infections like common cold. Vitamin D,
wh ch is present in eggs, milk, butter, etc., helps in proper formation of bones. Its deficiency
leads to weak bones or physical deformities like bow legs in children. This is the only
vitamin which our body can make in the skin, by the action of sunlight which is plenty in
India and costs nothing. Vitamin D is also called "sunshine vjtamin". Fig. 21.2 shows
various foods rich in vitamin C.
I '

.-

We should know that vitamins B and C are water sohble. Therefore, they cannot be retained
in the body and should be included in our daily m_eegls.Other vitamins are not water soluble.

Their excess is stored in the body. An overdose of vitamins can also cause illness. They
should be taken. as a tonic or medicine, only after consulting a doctor. It has recently been
found that indiscriminate use of vitamin B complex and vitamin C leads to wide range of
adverse effects on health, such as headache, im-tability,insomnia, nausea, etc.
Vitamins are susceptible to destruction under certain conditions. Therefore, great care
should be taken to retain them while cooking. For example, vitamin C and vitamins of B
group, being water soluble, are washed off when we cut or wash the vegetables or fruit.
Vitamin C gets destroyed in cooking at high temperature. Therefore, amla, green pepper,
lemon and other c i m s fruits which are rich sources of vitamin C, should be eaten raw,
instead of being cooked. Vitamin B,, which is present in milk, ceteals and vegetables, etc., is
destroyed by long exposure to sunlight.
In general, the following precautions should be taken while cooking, so as to retain
maximum amounts of vitamins in the food.
i)

Use as little water as possible for washing and cookin,

ii)

Do not throw the water used for soaking or cooking rice, pulses vegetables, etc. It
must either be used for cooking or consumed in some other way.

iii)
iv)

Vegetables should be washed before cutting, otherwise the vitamins will leak out from
the cut vegetables into water and get washed away.
Vegetables should be cooked soon after cutting.

v)

Cook for the shortest possible period and serve it immediately.

vi)

Do not use baking soda because it destroys vitamin C.

Ng 21.2 Vitamin C content pex

loog of food stuff.

Minerals
Our bones and teeth contain large amounts of calcium. An adult has a total of about 1 kg of
calcium and a baby has about 30g in their bones. So, during the period of growth from a
baby to an adult, a large amount of calcium has to be added to the bones. Therefore, doctors
prescribe calcium tablets to children and pregnant women. Calcium is always present in the
body in combination with another mineral. phosphorus. Milk and green leafy vegetables are
a very good source of calcium. It is also required for proper working of muscles and for .
clotting of blood.
Another important mineral is iron which is required for making haemoglobin in the blood.
Haemoglobin gives red colour to the blood. In comparison to 1 kg of calcium, the total
amount of iron in the body is about 3 g. Iron is necessary for growing children and pregnant
women. During the menstrual period, women lose iron and therefore, they need extra iron.
Fig. 2 1.3 shows various food rich in iron.
About 17 different minerals are necessary for healthy functioning of our body, though their
amount is insignificant in comparison to the bulk of food taken by us. Hence, these minerals
are often referred to as "micronutrients". Some of these minerals are constituents of the body
cells and the body fluids, and as such take part in chemical reactions in the cells. Have you
heard of fluoride toothpastes? Fluorine is essential to produce strong teeth that resist decay.
That is why the toothpastes containing fluorine are being promoted these days. But excess of
fluorine also is harmful. Water of some districts in Andhra Pradesh and Punjab has excess of
flourine. Consumption of this water results in lustreless stained teeth and weakened enamel.

all take common salt in every meal. It is essential for the proper working of the body.
Common salt is a chloride of sodium. A minute amount of iodine is an important part of the
hormone produced-by thyroid glandin the neck. Its deficiency causes thyroid gland to swell,
a condition knowcas goitre: Now iodised salt i$ available in the market which can provide us
1 with iodine. .
y'

~ A Q
I

:.a) Fill ii the blanks' :

I
i)
............................... are those which our body can not synthesise.

ii)' Plant proteins ...... ,..... in some ............. amino acids.

. iii) ............ is the richest source ofplant. ..................

iv)
V)

............. .........................a n d . . . . . . . . . . . .
quality proteins because they contain all the .......... ; ...

arehigh

Excess of proteins taken in a day is converted into ............. and. ...........

Fig. 213: Iron canmt in food stuff

per 100 g graded oa a.10 poinr scale

Agriculture, Nutrition and

Health

. . . . .. . . . . . . .
A mixed diet of. . . . . . . . . . . . , . . . . . . . . . . . . and . . . . . . . . . . . . provides as

vi) Energy needs of body should be met by

vii)

good a protein as meat.

b) Match the vitamins and minerals given in column 1 with their functions listed in column
2 of the following table :
Vitamins and Mlnerais

Functions

a)

Vitamin B

i)

Builds resistance to infection

b)

Vitamin A

ii)

Necessary for the formation of haemoglobin

of the blood

c)

Vitamin D

iii) Its absence may cause bow legs

d)

Vitamin K

iv)

For building strong bones and teeth

e)

Vitamin C

v)

Helps us to have healthy eyes, smooth'skin

and shiny hair

f)

Calcium

vi)

It prevents bleeding

g)

Iron

vii) Important for proper functioning of nerves

and brain

h)

Iodine

viii) Revents swelling of thyroid gland.

21.5 FOOD AS FUEL FOR THE BODY MACHINE

Oulloing Air

Incoming Air

We mentioned earlier that.the body requires food for internal as well as external activities
and for growth. Another way of looking at this is that the body requires energy for both its
internal and external activities. In this sense, the body can be compared with a machine and
food is the fuel which is required to run the body. Energy is produced in the body from food
by a process called metabolism which is comparable to combustion or burning of a fuel.
Oxygen is used up in this 'combustion' and carbon dioxide is produced. If the body does not
get at least a minimum of energy, it will not be able to carry on its normal internal functions
or undertake external work.
However, a major difference between a machine and the human body is that the latter is
combsed of the same fuel which it uses to provide energy. A machine cannot use itself as
fuel to run. But our body cah. Thus, during fast the body can bum its own fats to get energy,
resulting in loss of weight. If a body is supplied with more energy than is required to run it,
it is stored in the body in the form of fat for future use.

Flg 21.4: A key Nutritional

Experiment. In 1783 Antoine
Lavoisier and Pierre de Laplace
showed that body "bums" food
much as a fire does. In the
experiment shown above they
n~asuredheat output (as the amount
of melted ice) and carbon dioxide
produced by Guinea pig, and found
them in the same proportion as
produced by the burning of charcoal.

Energy requirements of the body are measured in terns of "calories" or kilo-calories (1000
calories), usually written as Calories, with a capital C. For example, a tea spoon of sugar (5
gm), when burnt, produces 20 Calories of heat. Scientists have studied energy requirements
of infants, girls, boys and adults of different ages and weights to find out how many Caloties
they use in doing different things. You would be curious to know how much food is required
to keep our body healthy and active. In order to calculate this, we need to know :
i)

energy value of different nutrients and

ii) factors influencing the energy requirement of an individual.

Energy provided by different nutrients is given below and may be compared with petrol.
Carbohydrates
Proteins
Fats
Petrol
The energy and nutritive value of Indian foods is published by the Indian Council of
Medical Research. In Table 2 1.3 we have listed some common food stuffs and their energy
and protein content.

Table 2 1 3 :Energy and Protein Contents of Some Common Foods

Food stuffs

Energy (Ce11100g)

Proteins (g)

Cereals

340

10-13

Pulses and Legumes

345

20-25

Soyabean

430

43

Milk-Buffalo

120

4.3

70

3.2

Cow
Skimmed

Paneer
Cheese
Butter
Vegetable oils & Fats
Egg
Sugar
Peanuts
Coconut (dry)
Almond

Banana
Guava
Mango
Orange
Spinach
Meat

Fish

Let us now find out what determines the energy required by a person in a day. The energy
requirement of an individual depends mainly upon:
i)

internal or basic processes of the body which is also called Basal Metabolic Rate
(BMR) and

-ii) physical activity.

Greater part of the energy. is spent for internal activities or for Basal Metabolism, which is
influenced by various factors like surface area of the body, sex, age, sleep, body
temperature, level of hormones, etc. For example, the BMR for different persons and states
is as follows:
Tall thin person > Short thin person,
Muscular person > Short fat person,
infant > Adolescent
Male > Female
Awake > Sleep
Young person'> Old person
During fever > Normal health
Cold climate > Hot climate
Physical activities depend upon the kind of work done by an individual, whether it is light,
moderate, or heavy work. The requirement for physical activities is generally lower than
BMR, except in case of persons engaged in very hard physical work like stone-cutting,
running, etc. You must have noticed that after hard physical work we feel very hungry arld
eat a lot more food than when we are sitting idle. The table below lists sedentary, light,
moderate and vigorous adtivities and expenditure of energy in Cal/hr.

~ ~ r i c u l t u rNutrition
e,
and
Health

Table 21.4: Approxlmte Energy Needs for Various Kinds of Adlvlties

Light work
150 CaUhr

Moderate work
150-250 CaUhr

Hard work
250-350 Callhr

Strenuous work
350 CaUhr

Reading

Mopping

Cycling

Hard labour

Writing

Scrubbing floor

Playing g p e s

Playing tennis, football, hockey,

Typing

Washing clothes

Sawing wood

Running fast cycling.

Dish ~ a s h i n g

Polishing

Ironing

Gardentag

Sitting

Carpentry

Serving

Walking

Fast swimming

Talking

The average total energy need of a moderately active person is often taken to be 2000
Calories per day.

21.6 BALANCED DIET

In the previous section's, we have dealt with quality and quantity of food. Both of these
should be balanced in a diet. A balanced diet is a combination of various foods which can
fulfil energy needs of a person and can provide proteins, vitamins and minerals in proper
quantity and proportion required to keep him healthy. Figure 21.5 shows the percentage of
Calories derived from different food stuffs in a balanced diet. Table 21.5 provides the
composition of a balanced diet for various age groups.
Table 21.5 : Balanced Dlet for Various Age Groups
Food Item
Fig. 21.5: Division of Calories
among Food Stuffs in a Balanced
Diet according to Nutrient
requirement.

Amounts required in g
Adult (Moderate
work)
Male Female

- F're-school children
Additional
Allowance
preg-Lactating
nant

Girls

Boys

1-3

4-6

10-12

13-18

13-18

1200

1500

2100

2200

25003000

Mixed cereals
Pulses and Legumes
Green leafy
vegetables
Other vegetables
Roots and Tubers
Fruits
Milk
Fats and Oils
Sugar and Jaggery
Total Calories

Fig 21.6

2800

2200

2200
+300

2200
+700

Fig 21.7

Obesity
Generally, fat people think that their overweight is due to their constitution andfor heredity.
It could be true in some cases. But have you ever come across a fat labourer, coolie, athlete,
or mountaineer? Although, they eat a lot more than obese people, they do not gain-weight.
Why? Because they use up the calories in physical activities. When the intake of calories is
more than what is needed, the excess is deposited in the form of fat on the body and the
person gradually becomes over-weight. Right weight and active habits are good for health.

Fig 21.8

Dietary Requirement during Fever and Infection

During fever, there is a break down of tissue proteins, and water and salts are lost. The BMR
increases with the rise of every degree of temperature. What kind of diet is desirable under
such circumstances?
With an increase of BMR and break down of tissue proteins, a diet rich in proteins and
c&x.ies is desirable. Patients should be given easily digestible foods such as milk, eggs,
custard, pudding, fruit jlrices, etc. Glucose and sugar can fulfil immediate energy demands.
Dlrring fever, fats like butter, ghee and vegetable oils should be avoided, but once the fever
has gone they should be included in the diet, becausethey are a rich source of energy.
Now thatyou have learnt so much about food, you must be feeling hungry. Have a break
and treat yourself with a snack you fancy, and then attempt the following SAQ.

SAQ 4
a) Strike off the wrong word(s) from those given within the! brackets.
i)

Twenty grams of fat provides energy equivalent to (20g/45@@) of carbohydrates.

ii) Children require (low energyhigh energy) and (low pmtein/high protein) diet.
iii) A young person needs (monlless) energy than an old person.
iv) A person becomes obese because of (heredity/constitution/excessivtinlake of
energyhigh BMR).
b) A meal consists of the following items. Calculate its energy contents,;use the datagiven in
Table 21.3.

2 Chapatis (25g each)

1 Plate rice (5Og) .
2 Servings dal(25g)
1 Serving spinach (50g)
1 Serving potatoes (90g)
1 Mango (15Og)
1 Tabk spoon of fqt (1%)

..................................................
.................................................
.................................................
.................................................
.................................................
.
.................................................
.................................................
,

Food

Agrkulture, Nutrltlon and

Hcnlth
'

---

21.7 FOOD FADS

You may have picked up the idea from your family or friends that certain combinations of
food can be dangerous for your health. For example, fish and milk or radish and milk taken
together are dangerous because they result in a skin disease called leucoderma or white
patches on the skin. Milk should not be taken immediately after eating curd or with fruits
because it will curdle in the stomach. In fact, there is no scientific basis for such beliefs. Do
you know what happens to milk in the stomach? Our stomach contains gastric juices which
curdle milk before it is digested.
Some people also recommend certain food combinations to cure some illnesses. Such
suggestions may come from well-meaning friends, but they may not be safe to practise
because the diet may lack in some essential food nutrients. At such times we should take the
diet prescribed by a physician.
- - - -

21.8 FOOD ALLERGIES

-

Food allergies are different from food fads. Certain f d s seem to have strange reactions on
some people. Probably, you have come across a person who got skin rashes everytime he ate
eggs. Certain substances in food cause "allergy" to some people. Allergy is the scientific
name given to a disturbance which arises when a person is sensitive to a substance. Some
people are allergic to pollen, others are allergic to skin-contact with some materials. Allergy
to medicines is also common. In fact, before giving a penicillin injection, doctors first test
whether the patient is allergic to it. Foods which cause allergies are, fish, eggs, milk and
milk products. Substances that cause allergy are protein in nature.

Food allergies are manifested in the form of skin rashes, skin eruption called eczema.
asthma, frequent sneezing, one-sided severe headache called migraine, vomiting, diarrhoea,
etc.

21.9 ADULTERATION OF FOOD

We live in a society where some times foods and even medicines are sold in an adulterated
form by mixing it with other materials, which are neither food nor medicine. For example,
pure ghee may be adulterated with dalda or cooking oils may be mixed with cheaper oils or
mineral oils. They are also flavoured with chemicals. Pulses may be sold with stones and
wheat flour may contain chalk powder. Similarly, ground spices, tea and coffee are also
adulterated. Commonest example is adulteration of milk with water, sometimes unclean
water! All these are practised by traders to gain more profit. Out of greed, traders fail to
realise that these acts are injurious to the health of the people. For example, adulteration of
mustard oil with argemone oil results in paralysis. Bengal gram dal is mixed with Khesari
dal which causes lathyrism, a crippling disease characterised by paralysis of the legs.
Turmeric is often adulterated with a poisonous substance called "metanil yellow" which can
cause cancer.

Food advertising agencies also mislead people by making false claims a b u t their products.
A close guard against such propaganda is also necessary. What can be done to stop such
practices? Government should enforce strict rules against adulteration of food items, and
give exemplary punishment to the guilty. The consumer can also form consumer welfare
society through which they can give expression to their grievances and also build public
pressure against such practices. In USA such societies are very powerful and they closely
monitor various products in the market.

21.10 MALNUTRITION AND ILL HEALTH

In section 21.6 we have learnt about balanced diet. Now, we will turn our attention to the
health problems resulting from inadequate nutrition.
Are you familiar with the term malnutrition? Malnutrition means either lack of sufficient
food or imbalance of nutrients in the diet, resulting in the impairment of health. Protein-

calorie deficiency and the resulting malnutrition are prevalent in India and in other
developing nations of Asia, Africa and Latin America.
What are the causes of malnutrition in India?
Some of .the causes are as follows :
I

Poverty

2 Large population

Inadequate production and inequitable distribution of food

Can you add some more to this list?

Well, lack of education, ignorance and faulty food habits aIso contribute to malnutrition.
As you know, population and poverty are distributed unevenly on this planet. Affluent
countries like USA, Canada, USSR, Australia, etc. have smaller populations and higher
standards of living than developing countries in Asia, Africa and Latin America which have
70% of the world population and a lower standard of living. Approximately, three quarters
of the under-nourished people of the world live in the Indian subcontinent.
India is the second most populated country in the world. It is estimated that by 2000 A.D.,
the population may increase up to 1000 million. Rising population increases the total
demand of food. The Planning Commission has estimated that 48% of rural population and
4 1% of the urban population in 1977-78 were below the poverty line, that is, they were
unable to obtain a balanced diet of appropriate calorie value. So you see a large percentage
of our people are under-nourished. According to the latest estimates, the percentage under
the poverty line has decreased to about 39% but in the meantime, population has also
increased. So the total number of such persons, men, women and children, runs up to a good
300 million people! Our production of food has to be increased but actual availability
depends on the buying power, which means people should have money to buy a proper
meal, which means in turn, more employment and better wages. This is an uphill task and
requires considerable economic changes in the country.
At the social level, we should not waste food. We often find that in large festive gatherings.
whether of affluent or of poor people, substantial amounts of food are thrown away. We
should also avoid eating excess of food either in terms of protein or calories.
Let us continue with our discussion on the problem of malnutrition in India. The inadequacy
of food results in nutritional deficiencies and reduces the intake of one or more nutrients.
This results in poor health, increased susceptibility to disease and in reduction of the life
span. Money spent on treatment of ill health and disease could possibly have improved
nutrition to avoid disease!
Diseases due to Protein-CaIorie malnutridon
The developing countries of the world today are faced with diseases due to Protein-Calorie
malnutrition. The most affected group are the little babies and children of the poor and
uneducated class, which constitute a majority of our population.
Two severe diseases due to deficiency of proteins and protein-calorie are Kwashiorkar and
Marasmus, respectively. Millions of children die annually and millions more go through a
miserable life. They retard the child's physical growth and weaken its natural immunity to
various infections. In extreme cases, children are mentally retarded and they never reach
maturity and thus become a burden to the family and the nation.
Kwashiorkar
This disease was first recognised in 1935, in African children and it is named from two
words of an African dialect, meaning first and second, i.e. sickness that strikes the first
child, when he is soon displaced at his mother's breast by the second born.
Why do babies lose weight during weaning? On weaning, a child requires more than twice
as much protein in relation to body weight as do adults. In spite of the nutritional status of
the mothers, breast milk provides enough nutrition in quality and quantity for babies up to 6
months, and it IS free of infection. For proper growth, children, after six months, require
supplementary food which is not available due to some of the following reasons :

Food and Nutrltbn

Agriculture, Nutrition and

Health

1 Increased financial burden, if the next child is born.

2 Because of ignorance, the best food is usually given to men who are supposed to be
bread winners; children and women eat whatever is left.
3 Babies prefer breast milk, they are fussy about taste, and refuse new items included in
the diet.
4

As most Indians can afford only vegetarian diet, it, therefore, becomes very difficult to

. provide sufficient proteins to a child, unless the food is consumed in large quantities.
Due to meagre energy food and protein intake, the child gradually loses appetite and often
develops weaning diarrhoea. It is generally believed that diarrhoea is due to teething. This is
incorrect. In fact, diarrhoea during teething is due to infection. Because of sensation in the
gums, babies like to chew hard things and also pick up whatever is lying on the floor. Thus,
they get infection from dirt or from chewing unwashed vegetables, fruits, etc. This, often,
misleads the mother, who further restricts the diet mainly to carbohydrate gruels. Thus, the
child is deprived of the much needed protein diet.

Fig. 21.9: Marasmus: Severe wasting of muscle

and loss of subcutaneous fat is due to deficiency
of calories and proteins. The child looks like a
living skeleton.

Fig 21.10: Kwashiorkar: (a) The severe deficiency of

proteins is characterised by pot belly and oedemu fb) on
feeding high proteins oedema disappears but underlying
malnutrition becomes apparent.

Marasmus
This is caused due to the severe deficiency of both proteins and calories in the diet.
Nutritional surveys among pre-school (1 to 5 years) children show that more than 90% of
children of lower economic groups do not get required calories per day. Therefore, such
. ' children become victims of marasmus. This is manifested by severe retardation in growth,
loss of muscles and subcutaneous fat.
Deficiency due to iron and vitamin A causes anaemia and eye lesions respectively. There are
other diseases prevalent mainly among low income groups due to deficiency of other
vitamins and minerals. Some of the diseases can be cured by making certain foods available
to the people. Figs. 21.9 to 21.13 show deficiency symptoms of some of the diseases.
So we conclude that to curb malnutrition. our country needs to produce and distribute
sufficient food to meet the basic energy (calorie) requirements of our vast population. And
once this need is fulfilled, ways of supplementing the food with proteins, vitamins and
minerals can be worked out to improve its quality.

Fig 21.11: Rickets: Deficiency of

Vitamin D results in rickets in children.
Weekend bones curve laterally. These
early deformities of bones persist
throughout life.

Fig. 21.12: Pellagra: Deficiency of Vitamrn

Fig. 21.13: Goitre: Deficiency of iodine causes

enlargement of thyroid gland. Disease is
common in Rajasthan and Himalayan territories.

B, causes Pellagra characterlsed by typ~cal

th~ckeningand spottlng of the skin.

21.11 SUMMARY
In this unit we have tried to explain that the nutritive quality of a diet greatly determines the
health of an individual. We have provided you with the knowledge about the type of
nutrition necessary for us at various stages of our life. Due to insufficient fwd and its
inequitable distribution, the energy demand of most of our people is not fulfilled. The
. problem of malnutrition continues and severe deficiency diseases are prevalent in our
country. Thus, you have learnt that :
food consists of 6 classes of nutrients :
carbohydrates, proteins, fats, vitamins, minerals and water.
the bulk of the food we eat provides us with energy. It is used for growth, development
and maintenance of our body. A small but essential part of the food we consume is
vitamins and minerals. This helps in regulating the processes of our body and protecting
our body from infection.
food stuffs containing the same type of nutrients are put together into a food group.
According to the functions performed in the body, the nutrients are also classified as
energy foods (i.e. carbohydrates and fats), body-building foods (i.e. proteins) and
protective foods (i.e. vitamins and minerals).
energy value of food is expressed in calories. The calorie requirements depend on age,
sex, type of activity, climate, etc.
adulterated foods, and sometimes food fads, may affect our health adversely. Also, some
people may be allergic to certain protein foods.
millions of children of the world suffer from diseases such as kwasn~orkarand marasmus
which are caused due to protein-calorie malnuhition.

21-12 TERMINAL QUESTIONS

1) Write down the nutrients of the food items listed below.
Nutrients
Roasted gram

b)

Peanuts

d)

Boiled Egg

e)

Bread Pakora

f)

Orange

g)

Campa Cola

h)

Potato chips

I
--

--

~ g r h h r eNubltbm
,
.ad
Haltb

2) In comparison with an average adult what type($ of extra.foods would you mommend
for the following categories of people?
eawdpcopk

Typea of food

Body building foods

Energy foods

3) Arrange in increasing order the energy needs of the people of same weight involved
in various activities.
Cycling, coolie type work, washing clothes, typing
4) We have listed some diseases in column 1; write down the corresponding deficiencies in
column 2.
Deflckney

Meews
a) Night blindness
b) Goitre
C)

Kwashiorkar

f)

Rickets

g) Anaemia

21.13 ANSWERS
Self Assessment Questions

2) Body building foods--milk add milk products, egg, meat, fish, pulses, legumes,
soyabean, etc.
Energy giving f o o d d e r e a l s , millets, fats and oil, sugar, honey, jaggery, potatoes
Protective foods-green

leafy vegetables, deep yellow vegetables, fruits, etc.

3) a) i) Essential nutrients ii) lack, essential iii) soyabean, proteins iv) milk, fish,
eggs and meats, essential amino acids v) energy and fat vi) carbohydrates
vii) cereals. millets, pulses.
b) a) vii b) v c) iii d) vi e) i f) iv g) ii h) viii
4) a) (i) 45 g (ii) high energy, high protein (iii) more (iv) excessive intake of energy
b) 812Cal.

Termid Questions
I ) a) Carbohydrates, Roteins b) carbohydrates,' Fats, Proteins c) Carbohydrates, Fats
d) Proteins, Fats, Vitamins e) Carbohydrates, Fats f) Vitamin C g) Carbohydrates
h) Carbohydrates, Fats.
2) b) energy foods c) Body building foods, Rotective foods, Calcium and Iron d) Body
building foods, Calcium e) Body building foods, Energy foods, Calcium
3) typing < washing clothes < cycling <coolie type work
4) a) Vitamin A b) Iodine c) Protein d) Calories e) Calcium and Vitamin D f) Iron.

UNIT

SCIENTIFIC POSSIBILITIES
AND SOCIAL REALITIES

Structure
Introduction
Objectives

Agriculture in Special Areas

Arid zone

Drylands
Hills

Reclamation of Saline, Alkaline Soils

Problems Associated with Modem Agriculture
Mismatch Between Man's Scientific Ability to Produce and Social
Incapacity to Utilise
Biotechnology in Agriculture
Summary
Terminal Questions
Answers

20.1 INTRODUCTION
In the previous unit you have studied about food and agriculture. After studying that unit,
you might have realised that it was due to constant inputs from science and technology, that
we have had a number of breakthroughs in agricultural production. So, we presume by now
you have a good background on the subject. In this unit we intend to discuss with you
certain, rather specific, issues pertaining to agriculture. We also wish to impress upon you
that, though there has been considerable progress in this field, yet its benefits are not
available to a large section of our people. Even today, there are several million mouths that
are unfed. The challenge is far too big for us. Therefore, it is necessary that we know what is
it that hampers the benefits of our progress from reaching all sections of our people. And
also how the application of modem technology coupled with the changes brought about in
our social outlook can improve the prevailing situation.

Objectives
After studying this unit, you should be able to :
discuss how application of scientific knowledge has made better agriculture possible
under difficult conditions,
outline the problems associated with modem agriculture,
explain why there is a mismatch between man's scientific ability -to produce and social
incapacity to utilise,
realise the importance of biotechnology.

20.2 AGRICULTURE IN SPECIAL AREAS

A

Ours is a country of diverse climates and varieties of.soi1, affording scope for diversity in
agriculture. All the year round, agricultural activities continue in one or the other part of the
country. Because of the increasing demand for food, the regions which were once
considered difficult, if not impossible for agricultural purposes, are now being brought under
cultivation. In such regions, some of the factors such as moisture, right temperature, etc.,
required for the usual crops, are not available. Therefore, plants that could withstand these
difficult conditions are grown here, and similarly, the hardy animals are reared in these
areas. In this section, we shall discuss three such special areas.

Agricukure, Nutrition and

&alh

20.2.1 Arid Zone

The chief arid areas of our country are confined to Rajasthan, Gujarat, Haryana, Karnataka
and Ladakh. They cover an area of about 400,000 square kilometers. Of this, Ladakh has a
cold desert spread over 70,000 square kilometres.
Here, aridity and low temperature limit the agricultural season to about five months in a
year. Therefore, crops which require a short period to mature and can withstand severe cold
are grown. These are some cereals, oilseeds and fodder crops. Amongst animals, the
Pashmina goats, whose hair are in great demand for producing shawls and apparel, can be
profitably reared in Ladakh. It is also the only place where the two-humped, Bactrian camel
occurs in our country. The animal is used for short-distance transport and it provides milk,
meat and wool in the cold desert. It, however, needs immediate protection and special efforts
to breed, because hardly 56 specimens are now in existence.
In the hot desert regions, of Rajasthan, Gujarat and Haryana, there is abundance of sunshine
which causes high rate of evaporation. Many of these areas, however, have adequate
reserves of ground-water which need to be scientifically tapped. In these areas, the rainfall is
highly unpredictable and it varies from 100 to 450 mm. Nevertheless, many excellent breeds
of cattle, sheep andgoats are found in these regions. At many places, the cattle even
out-number human population. This region is alsocndowed with very well-adapted grasses
and trees, and the lands are amenable to management. While the population of grazing
animals is increasing every year, the area used for grazing is decreasing because more and
more of it is diverted for raising crops. There is a need to reverse this trend which is likely to
disturb the ecological balance. Now, let us see, how these areas can be utilised for growing
plants useful to us, and which plants are most suited for this place. In the arid zone, there is
also considerable scope for growing fruit-trees like ber and pomegranate and fuel-wood
yielding trees like Acacia (Kikar), Prosopis (Mosquite) and Eucalyptus (Safeda). In such
areas, large scale planting of shelter-belts will minimise soil erosion caused by wind. It will
also help in the establishment of pastures and grazing lands. Later on, this land can be used
for growing pearlmillet and mungbean.
Let us now discqss the other natural resources in this area. There is abundant sunlight in the
desert areas and it can be harnessed for heating, cooking and lighting purposes. By doing so,
the pressure to grow fuel-wood yietding trees can be considerably reduced. As said earlier,
there are a large number of cattle found in this area. Animal dung is mostly bumt as a fuel,
but its better use would be to mix it with the soil, so that the soil is enriched. Therefore, we
need to deviate from the traditional use of these resources. This would benefit our arid lands
and the people residing there, and the country in the long run. In the desert regions, solar
energy can be utilised in yet another way. Here, the water is generally saline. The
installation of solar stills can help us in the supply of clean drinking water, which would be a
boon to the people of the area.
In years, when rainfall is good in arid areas as wehave seen in 1988, a concerted effort
should be made to seed the land with grasses, shrubs a n dtrees that establish quickly when the soil is moist. We have Famine Codes that tell us how to minimise the suffering of people
and livestock when rains fail. It is time we prepared a Good Weather Code also, so that
people know what to do when the rainfall is good.

20.2.2 Drylands
Drylands are important to us, as they produce about 42% of our food. They supply us millets
and pulses, as well as cotton and groundnut, on which a'large proportion of our industry is
dependent.
Drylands constitute about 74% of our cultivated lands. These are entirely rain-dependent.
On these lands, crop fortunes are closely linked to the vagaries of the monsoon. Rains may
set in very early or very late, or may come on time but withdraw too soon. There may also
be large breaks between showers. When evaporation and loss of water by seeping in the soil
exceeds rainfall, these lands are plagued by drought, scarcity of drinking water, crop failure
and consequently unemployment and other human sufferings.
With the availability of good techniques of conserving water, and crops which grow quickly
with little water, there is considerable scope for stabilising crop yields from drylands.
Since water is a limiting factor in drylands, as much run-off as possible should be collected
:-

*..rod

--Ae

<,-

tho+ +ha ornnr oan hp nivpn life-cnvino irriontinn In rlrvlnnrlr

with red soil, deep ploughing helps in conserving water. In black soils, sowing two crops at
a time is possible with surface drainage and good water management. Leaves and crop
residues, when mixed with soil improve its texture, and water holding capacity. If crops like
pigeonpea and castor that have deep roots, are cultivated in these regions, the physical
condition of the soil improves further, as the roots of these crops add organic matter.
Now that varieties of sorghum, millets, sunflower, safflower, mustard, groundnut, various
pulses and cotton are available which grow within a shorter time and can withstand scarcity
of water, it is possible to diversify what grows in the drylands. A variety of crops and
cropping patterns allow the farmer to make a proper choice of what to grow in different
climates and soil types.

20.2.3 Hills
In the hilly regions of our country , tribals practise an age-old method of cultivation known
as jhum or slash-and-bum or podu cultivation. Under this system, a patch of land on the hills
is cleared of vegetation, and the plants are burnt. This ash eventually mixes with soil, which.
can support a crop of millet. This gives a modest yield to meet the immediate needs of the
tribal farmer. When the crop is harvested, the land is abandoned and the tribals shift to
adjoining areas, where the process is repeated. In about five years, the first piece of land put
under slash-and-bum cultivation, by and large, recovers its natural fertility and supports
shrub vegetation. The tribals come back to this land and start their primitive method once
again. All this sounds very good, but actually it is not so. This system worked well, in the
days when the population was small and shrub jungles were plentiful. Today, the tribals do
not have much land to shift to, with the result that they cultivate the same piece of land again
and again. Since practically no manure is applied, and the soils are given no time to r e ~ o u p
their nutrient losses in the natural way, their yields decline year after year. Soil erosion
further aggravates the problem.
You might be wondering whether there is a so!ution to the agricultural problem of our hilly
regions. Yes, there is. Based on a study of the slope and depth of the soil, and availability of
water, scientists have devised an interesting agricultural system (see Fig. 20.1) which
-requires low inputs, and puts the land to a most productive use, without disturbing the
ecosystem.

Fig. 20.1: Model land use, alternative to

slash-and-burn Uhum) cultivation, in Meghalaya

Under this system, the upper reaches of the hills are devoted to forestry. The next zone is
developed for growing fruit trees, perennial fodder grass and legumes. The roots of legumes
fix nitrogen and improve the soil. In the third zone, a mix of crops are raised on terraces
constructed with low-cost implements. Earthen dams are constructed with locally available
material. These collect enough water to be utilised for irrigation and fish culture. Poultry,
.piggery, bee-keeping, mushroom cultivation and related activities create a self-sustaining,
complete farming system that perfectly blends with the ecosystem.
So far, you have studied how the advancements in our knowledge have enabled us to
practice agriculture in difficult areas. Now, we shall take up a rather specific problem, that is
of degraded.soils. The saline and alkaline soils pose a lot of problems to our farmers. Let us .
nnw 9ee hnw thew are kin^ dealt with

Scientitic Possibilities and'

Social Realitid

kgrkulture, Nutrition end

Henlth

Saline and alkaline soils are the result of centuries of neglect and mismanagement of our
soils. About 7 million hectares of land is thus affected. These unproductive soils cover about
2.5 million hectares in arid Rajasthan and Gujarat, 1.4 million hectares in the black-soil
region, and 2.1 million hectares in the coastal regions. Alkaline soils contain high amounts
of carbonates and bicarbonates of sodium. Saline soils contain chloiides and sulphates of
. sodium, calcium and magnesium. In both the above types of soils, salts are present in
quantities large enough to interfere with crop growth.
As a result of research conducted since 1968, it is now possible to reclaim alkaline soils with
the cultivation of fodder grasses like Brachiaria rnutica (Para ghas), Panicum antidotale
(Neelon ghas) and Cynodon dacrylon (Doob), and tree species like Prosopis chidensis
(Vilayati khejri),,Acacia nilotica (Kikar) and hybrid Eucalyprus. The trees establish quickly
if they are planted in small holes filled with manure to which a little gypsum is added. In the
very first year after reclamation with grasses, this soil can be used for planting other crops.
Here, special varieties of rice can be grown as kharif, and wheat as rabi crop. T'hese crops
have been found to give excellent results.
The crucial factor in the management of saline soils is drainage. Saline soils have a high
water-table. Drainage channels one metre deep and 30 metres apart effectively bring down
the water table and help in reducing soil salinity. Drainage costs are no doubt high, but we
should itot forget our lessons from history. Increasing salinjsation caused by improper
drainage forced Mesopotamia to completely abandon wheat cultivation, and saline soils
played an important part in the break-up of Sumerian civilisation.
In the soils reclaimed in the above manner, sorghum, maize and wheat which can tolerate
salinity of soil can profitably be raised. Thoughearlier, that is, before reclamation, such soils
would not have supported any plant growth.

SAQ 1
Fill in the blank spaces choosing appropriate word or words from the list given below:
i)
ii)

The areas that were considered difficult for agriculture were so because of
non-availability of right kind of. ........... and

............
For the cold deserts. the ............ and ............ varieties are the most

appropriate for cultivation.

........................and. ........... can

iii)

Fuel-wood yielding trees like.

be profitably grown in the arid zones.

iv)

............ is the limiting factor in drylands, and this difficulty can be overcome
b:l suitable. ....................... techniques.

w)

Crops like. ........... and.

considerably improve the condition of soil.

vi)

The ............ method of cultivation is one of the important causes for the

........... when grown in the drylands can

d a m t i o n of the quality of.

........... in the hilly regions.

vii) Alkalinity of soils is mainly due to the pesence of high amounts of.
and.. .......... of sodium.
viii) Saline soils consist of. ........... and
magnesium in excessive amounts.
ix)
x)

............

...........

of sodium, calcium and

............ is one of the important factors in the management of saline soils.

Now it is possible to reclaim alkaline soils by the cultivation of. ........... and
several ............ species, the latter are planted in small holes filled with manure
and ............
(castor, cold resistant, bicarbonates, fodder grasses, temperature, safeda, pigeonpea,

tree,chlorides, drainage, early maturing, gypsum, sulphates, carbonates, water

management, moisture, kikar, slash-and-burn, mesquite, soil, water)

PROBLEMS ASSOCIATED WITH MODERN

AGRICULTURE
Modem agriculture aims at producing the maximum amount of food in the minimum
amount of time, space and energy so that our increasing population may have ample food
and other agricultural products.
A study conducted in the mid-1950s showed that Asian and African farmers required 2.5 to
10 working days to produce one quintal (=I00kg) of grain. The time required to produce the
same amount of grain was 3 hours in pans of France, and just 6 -12 minutes in parts of the
USA. This fact is responsible for the difference in earnings, purchasing-power and life styles
which exists between the developing and the developed countries.
On the other hand, the US farmer spends 65,0@ kilocalories of energy to produce 1 kg of
beef protein, and 2,860 kilocalories to produce 1 kg of wheat protein. He mostly uses
cKemicals derived from natural oil resources, and machines which again run on petrol,
kerosene or diesel. All these are non-renewable natural resources. In contrast, the Asian
farmer spends only 286 kilocalories of energy to produce 1 kg of rice protein. He mostly
uses renewable, agro-based and organic substances for energy, in addition to human and
animal energy. His technology is energy-thrifty, but it is labour intensive and time
consuming.
Some observers believe that the agricultural production of the industrialised nations relies so
heavily on non-renewable resources, that there is a clear danger of the oil and coal resources
of the earth running out, bringing mankind to ruin. If we modemised agriculture to the same
level as in the west, we could produce all we need, with perhaps a tenth of thetmanpower
engaged in agriculture. The question is, what would the rest do? Would they be pnemployed,
if so, how will they buy what agriculture would produce? Yes, low energy input agriculture
of the developing countries keeps nations precariously at the subsistence level, with
development retarded, and malnutrition rampant, but moving to the other extreme of
copying the industrialised countries could also be disastrous. The best course is probably the
middle path. We should use modem science and modem ideas to minimise the use of nonrenewable materials and energy, to use better seeds and cropping practices, and to reduce
wastes of all kinds, be it land, water or even leaves and stems of plants.
'Some enthusiasts contend that we should curtail the use of chemical fertilisers. But actually
in our country the consumption of chemical fertilisers is one of the lowest in the world, a
fraction of what it is in Japan or Europe. Field experiments have shown that chemical
fertilisers are superior to bulky organic manures, in some ways but they are energy intensive
and have to be uskd with due caution. Excessive use of fertilisers leads to a good deal of it
being washed away by irrigation or rain water, which then pollutes rivers and ponds. A
judicious combination of chemical fertilisers and organic manures is k i n g recommended by
our scientists. The challenge before our scientists is to retain the strength of traditional
agriculture while meeting the needs of changing times.
About 87,000 tonnes of atmosphere is above each hectare, and about 70% of it is nitrogen
that plants need. We must tap this abundant source by growing on a more extensive scale
plants such as the various pulses, beans and peas. You already know the significant role
played by such plants in fixing atmospheric nitrogen, and thus increasing the fertility of the
soil.
As in the case of fertilisers, the average consumption of pesticides in our country is so small
that there does notexist a situation similar to that prevailing in developed countries. The
high-yielding varieties recently introduced put up such a luxuriant growth that pests are
attracted to them much as we are attracted to tasty food. Plant-protection chemicals are safe
when used strictly according to scientific recommendations. Indiscriminate and excessive
use may, however, leave harmful residues, which may again pollute the environment
particularly our water resources. Research on biological control of pests is urgently needed.
There has been a lot of discussion in the country about recent agricultural developments
which have led to large tracts of land to be planted with high yielding varieties of wheat and
rice, most of which need fertilisers and a well-defined routine of watering. Rich, large fields

Sclentlflc Possibllitles and

Social Realitk

Agriculture, Nutrition and

Health

of the same crop attract more pests, and therefore pesticides are necessary. Fertilisers and
pesticides require, not only energy to produce them but also technology which has a large
import component and hence needs foreign exchange. The result is that we have a Green
Revolution and much greater agricultural production, but at the same time, greater
dependence on other countries.
The other dilemma is that such agriculture, with chemical inputs and strict regimes for
watering and protection of crops, can be managed much better by farmers with large fields.
Much of the land in our country belongs to small holders who cannot benefit from the recent
developments in equal measure. Hence-thisagriculture has, amongst other things previously
mentioned, led to the rich in rural areas becoming richer, and poor becoming relatively
poorer.
There is also a view that there was no alternative to increasing of total agricultural
production. And that the modem technology is neutral to the scale of farming, provided
proper practices are adopted by the small farmers too. This seems to be a rather difficult
thing in practice, with the prevailing poverty and ignorance amongst the poor.
In a vast country like ours, a 10% decrease in production creates a scare of starvation deaths,
and a similar increase in output brings in its wake problems of storage, grain-roSting,glut in
the market and distress sale by farmers. The problems are more acute in the production of
perishable commodities like vegetables, fruits, eggs, fish, milk and their products. The only
way to tackle this problem is by providing a minimum guarantee price to farmers based on
cost of production and ensuring that there are adequate facilities for efficient transport,
processing and packaging so that the product is available at the doorstep of the consumer. .
Once again if processing and packaging can be done with our own technology developed by
our research institutions, it would be excellent. Furthermore, if some of the food stuffs
processed by foreign (or shared) companies are exported, we would deprive our people of
the much needed foodstuffs like dried vegbables, fruit pulps and juices, and fish protein etc.
Prices, in the Indian market, of these items would also go up. Thus you see that science can
provide a package of practices for increasing production, and for meeting the needs of our
people. It can sustain a dynamic agricultural growth only if accompanied by a package of
appropriate public policies.

20.5 MISMATCH BETWEEN MAN'S SCIENTIFIC

ABILITY TO PRODUCE AND SOCIAL
INCAPACITY TO UTILISE
We now have the scientific and technological know-how to produce what our country needs.
But lot of our people are poor, as they do not have gainful employment. Thus food is not
available to them at the prices they can afford. Unless our scientific and technological skill
is suitably backed by a political and administrative will to implement the right kind of rural
and urban development programmes, poverty and malnutrition will continue to threaten us.
About 55.5 million people (22.7%) in our country are agricultural labourers who have
neither land to cultivate nor farm animals to keep. They are willing to work hard, and expect
to be paid by the evening, since they lead a hand to mouth existence. A vigorous
employment-generation drive alone can improve their lot. For a number of historical
reasons, however, employment generation is equated in our country with distributing doles,
and a job-seeker is treated as if he is a burden to the society when he is actually offering his
services, however modest, for his own benefit and the benefit of the country, At every level
from the policy-maker to the village-level worker, there is a need for an overhaul of our
social structure and outlook. Creation of job opportunities should be treated as a priority
item of national service. Employment can be generated through (i) developmental
programmes of the Government and (ii) group action backed by bank finance and village
cooperatives. Marketing, storage, transport, distribution, processing and customer service
are beyond the capacity of individual villagers. These can only be ensured by village
cooperatives, which, in turn, should be connected to the national marketing grid.
The Government can take up massive programmes dealing with irrigation, supply bf
drinking water and construction of permanent roads and well-planned houses in the

countryside. These permanent national assets will generate the much-needed employment
and provide purchasing power to villagers.
With the help of banks and insurance agencies, village cooperatives should pay special
attention to problems of national importance that can be solved only through coordinated
group action.
The twin problems of rapidly decreasing forest resources and extensive soil erosion can be
effectively checked by large-scale plantations on our cultivable wastelands and along
roadside in villages. Thisj s of utmost importance, since we are presently cutting off ten trees
for every one tree planted. Our duty is not over by just planting trees, but we should take
care of them till they reach a stage, when they can grow on their own.
Composite fish culture (also see Unit 19, Sub-section 19.9.2) and the cultivation of highvalue vegetable and fruits are highly remunerative professions. But our farmers are wary of
bulk production because they think that it would lead to a glut in village markets and result
in lowering the prices. A national chain of village cooperatives that attend to marketing,
storage and distribution,ne&ork will benefit both the producer and the consumer.
The precariously low amounts of protein and fat in our diet is a matter of great concern. A
well-organised marketing and processing network has a tremendous potential to increase the
cultivation of the protein-rich soybean which will prove a boon to our malnourished people.
Likewise, an all-out 'effort is needed to devote more attention to oilseed crops, including
oilpalm. We are now importing a lot of edible oil. In rich nations, excessive intake of fat is
discouraged as it would aggravate the problem of heart diseases. But in our country,
inclusion of more fat in the diet, barring that of a few affluent people, is not only desirable,
but is necessary because fats are not only a concentrated source of food calories but act as
important vehicle for some vitamins.
The low per head availability of cloth is another alarming trend. Even in our best cotton
tracts, the average yield of cotton is only about 370 kg per hectare compared with 700 kg per
hectare in Egypt, where cotton cultivation is managed co-operatively without infringing on
the rights of individual owners. In the management of pests of cotton, rice, groundnut,
sugarcane and plantation crops, as well as the control of the contagious diseases of cattle,
individual attention is futile and a community action of the entire village or block only, will
prove effective. Efficiently run cooperatives with adequate facilities for health care of plants
and animals is the immediate need of our villages. Conservation of runoff water in ponds,
proper utilisation of groundwater resources, finding uses of agricultural wastes, use of solar,
and wind energies and installation of bio-gas plants are areas in which village cooperatives
can play an exemplary role, create an abundance of employment opportunities, and usher in
an "antyodaya" of Mahatma Gandhi's dreams.
It would be a paradox if we produce enough food to eat but the majority of our people have
not enough money to buy it with.

20.6 BIOTECHNOLOGY IN AGRICULTURE

Production of enough food to meet the demands of an ever-increasing population in the
world is a major task and a challenge to agricultural scientists. The conventional agricultural
methods can no longer cope with the situation. In recent years, biotechnology has emerged
as an important discipline which may offer solutions to many problems presently being
faced by agriculture. Before we proceed any further, let us first understand what we mean by
biotechnology. It deals with the use of biological systems or their products in large-scale
industrial processes.
Today, agricultural biot&hnology has progressed to a stage that plants with several
improved characters can be produced. The examples of these improved characters are high
yields, resistance to diseases, improved nutritional quality, and adaptation to adverse
environmental conditions. An important aspect in the production of improved piants, is the
breeding process. This enables one to combine, one or more, favourable characters of the
parents to be passed on to their progeny. For this purpose, scientists use several methods for
raising the plants. The most common methods are: (i) the traditional method, in which seeds
and root stocks have been used as basic materials for raising plants, (ii) the other method
that makes use of the important quality of plant cells. &at is, any plant cell can give rise to a

Scientific Possibilities and

Social Realities

Agriculture, Nutritbn and

Health

complete plant. Based on this fact, any cell or a group of cells, or part of a plant such as a
piece of stem, leaf etc. can be grown on a nutrient medium under suitably controlled
bonditions in the laboratory. This method is commonly known as tissue culture. It, however,
enables us to get true breeding types without going through the stages of flowering,
production of seeds and their germination. This technique has a great potential in our crop
improvement programmes, and it has already been used in the improvement of varieties of
wheat, rice, com and several other plants. This method is useful not only for the
improvement of present-day crops, but also for the creation of novel plants and new crops,
which are of short duration, high-yielding-type,and resistant to diseases and other adverse
environmental conditions. One of the problems faced by the agricultural scientists engaged
in crop improvement is that the embryos of many new crops developed abort, i.e., they do
not survive in nature. Therefore, one is not able to obtain their adult plants. This difficulty,
however, has been overcome by the application of tissue culture, whereby, these embryos
are grown on a nutrient medium, under controlled conditions in the laborato,g and later
planted in the field.
-

-.

.,

,-*-

In the recent years, another technique known as genetic engineering has held the attention of
theagricultural scientists. It involves the alteration of genetic material of a particular plant,
by the substitution or addition of new genetic material from some other plants. You are
-already familiarwi& tIie'leguminous plants and their nitrogen fixing property. Presently, the
scientists, are trying to transfer this genetic material. that enables legumes to fix nitrogen, to
various economically important plants. If this is achieved, it would be a milestone in
agriculture.
If we apply the principles of biotechnology and raise orchards, the fruit trees will be of
desired, manageable height and form. The fruits will be of uniform size, shape, colour and
weight. They will have the same flavour and nutritional value, andwill ripen at the same
time. This will make harvesting, storage, packing, transport, canning and processing easy.
So far, we have discussed some applications of biotechnology in plant improvement.
Similarly, biotechnology, also offers a wide scope for the improvement of our animal
breeds. The embryo-transfer technology offers great scope to produce pedigree animals on a
mass scale within a short time. For this purpose, a cow of a good breed is induced to
produce many eggs through hormonal treatment. After they are fertilised, the embryos are
taken and planted in healthy cows, known as surrogate mothers. Ultimately we can get
many calves of a superior breed in a short time.
The new vistas opened up by biotechnology have attracted the attention of big business
houses, who have started pouring money into new projects. Some people even apprehend
that multinational companies may soon monopolise 'factory farming' and mass-production
of food articles at prices so cheap that the traditional farmers of developing countries may go
out of competition and become bankrupt. However, with international cooperation,joint
venture and adequate teehnology transfer, biotechnology will prove to be a boon to all
futuristic global agricultural strategies.

SAQ 2
Fill in the blank spaces choosing appropriate word or words from the list provided.
One of the foremost problem associated with modem agriculture is that of
i)
ii)

It is believed that the agricultural technology used by developed nations is

............. intensive, whereas that of the developing nations is ............
intensive.

iii)

The use of. ........... has become an integral component of modem agriculture,
and some of the problems arising due to their excessive usage can be considerably
avoided by using them in combination with the organic . . . . . . . . . . . . .

iv)

Various ............ chemicals should be used strictly according to scientific

recommendations, as many of them leave harmful ............ in the environment.

v)

We can minimise many difficulties associated with modem agriculture by the use of
............ resources for energy, better .........................
practices and by reducing ............ of all kinds.

vi)

In order to make best utilisation of the high production of perishable goods, we must
have adequate facilities for efficient . . . . . . . . . . . . . . :............... and
............ so that they are readily available to the consumer.

vii) There is not only a need to increase our agricultural ............ but also to
overhaul our. ........... stnrcture and outlook.
viii) All individual villager is unable to organise the ..........................
......................... and ............ of his produce. This however,
can be ensured by certain village ............ which in turn should be connected
to the national grid.
ix)

For the plant improvwent programmes, young plantlets can be taised from
......................... or by the use of. . . . . . . . . . . technique.

X)

............ technology, that involves the transplantation of. ........... from a

healthy mother to. ........... mothers, is a faster way of producing several calves
of the same type.
(social, renewable, surrogate, transport, marketing, production, seeds, chemical
fertilisers, wastage, embryos, root stocks, seeds, embryo transfer, storage, processing,
residues, manures, energy, labour, cropping, packaging, transport, tissue culture,
distribution, cooperatives, plant protection, energy, processing)

SUMMARY
Today we are able to profitably use the areas like the arid zones, drylands and hillv
regions for agricultural purposes. This has been possible because of the use of vmeties of
crops and breeds of animals that are most suited for these regions. We can further make
these areas more productive by slight changes in our traditional practices.
A considerable portion of our agricultural lands are affecied by the problem of alkalinity
and salinity of soils. In such soils, salts are present in large enough quantities that they
interfere with crop growth. Alkaline soils can be used as well as improved, by growing
suitable trees, and grasses. Later, alkali-resistant varieties of rice or wheat can be grown.
The key factor in the management of saline soils is drainage. If such lands are welldrained, saline-resistant varieties of sorghum, maize and wheat can be profitably grown.
Modem agriculture aims at pnxlllcing maximum amount of food with the minimum
amount of time, space and energy. There are number of problems associated with the
present day agriculture. The foremost is that of energy. There is considerable dependence
on our non-renewable resources. These resources being finite, would soon get depleted.
We should, however, achieve our targets of high production by ~~ppl:cation
of modern
science to minimise the use of non-renewable materials, using better :ecds and cropping
practices, and by the utilisation of chemical fertilisers and in combination with organic
manures in judicious quantities. The other main prohlenl IS the producrion
output. If it is less, there would be starvation deaths. Excessive output too has other set of
proolems. There is, a need to provide a minimum guarantee price to farmers based on
cost of production. Also, adequate facilities for efficient transportation, processing, and
packaging would help in making the products easily available to the consumers.
Today we have the'know-how. and technology to produce what our country needs, but
still a majority of people do not get food as they lack the purchasing power. A vigorous
employment generation drive can help in improving the situation. Besides that;a chain of
village cooperatives would attend to other problems of farmers such as marketing,
storage and distribution.
Biotechnology is fast emerging as an important discipline that offers new vistas in
agriculture.

20.8 TERMINAL QUESTIONS

1) Comment briefly on agriculture in the following special areas:
i)

arid zone

.......................................................................

.......................................................................
ii) drylands

.........................................................

U.............

iii) hilly regions

........................................................................

2) Mention in points, the salient problems associated with modem agriculhlre.

........................................................................
........................................................................
........................................................................

3) Thereis a mismatch between man's scientific ability to produce and social incapacity to
utilise'. Analyse the statement.

.........................................................................
........................................................................

4) In what ways can biotechnology play an important part in agriculture?

20.9 ANSWERS.
Self Assessment Questions
1)
i) temperature, moisture
ii) early maturing, cold resistant
iii) kikar, mosquite, safeda
iv) water, water management
V) castor, pigeonpea
vi) slash-and-bum, soil
vii) carbonates, bicarbonates
viii) chlorides, sulphates
ix) drainage
X)
fodder grasses, tree, gypsum
2)

i) energy
ii) energy, labour
iii) chemical fertilisers, manures
iv) plant protection, residues
vj renewable, seeds, cropping, wastage
vi) transport, processing, packaging
vii) production, social
viii) marketing, storage, transport, distribution, processing, cooperatives

Scientific Possibilities and

Soeial Realities

ix) seeds. root stocks, tissue culture

X) embryo transfer, embryos. surrogate

Terminai Questions
1)

i)

In the arid zones, where the temperatures are low and there is scarcity of water,
those crops that mature faster and can withstand cold are grown. Also, hardy
animals like goats, camels etc. are reared in-these regions. In places where
temperatures are high, suitable grasses and trees that yield fruits or fuel-wood are
grown. Excellent breeds of cattle. sheep and goats can be reared in such regions.

1'

ii) These areas are dependent on rains for their water supply. The recently developed
techniques for conserving water, make such areas suitable for agriculture. Such
varieties of crops that require less amount of sater are grown here. Crops like
sorghum, sunflower, safflower, mustard, groundnut, cotton and various pulses are
well suited for such areas. Due to the addition of organic matter from the crops,
the water holding capacity of such soils is increased.
iii) For a long time, in some parts of the hilly regions and even today, jhum
cultivation has been the only way of cultivation. This practice, however, has
caused considerable damage to the soil. Presently, a modem system of cultivation
is being practised in many areas, and is proving very useful. Under this system,
the upper mches of hills are devoted to forestry. In the next zone fruit-trees,
grasses and legumes are grown. In the third zone, a mix of crops are raised on
terraces. Provision for storage of water is made. Fish culture, bee-keeping etc.
make it a complete farming system.
2)

i)

Source of energy presently considerable pressure is on non-renewable resources.

that are feared to run out in the neat future.

ii) Too much mechanisation would no doubt increase production, but would also
result in unemployment and poverty, hence people would lack purchasing power
to buy food.
iii) Much of the technologies and methods used are quite wasteful. Some wastes such
as chemical fertilisers and pesticides build up in the environment causing long
term hannful effects.
iv) Many of the modem technologies can be applied to large fields. But most of our
farmers are small land holders and they cannot benefit from these recent
developments.
V)

In developing countries like ours even a 10%increase in production poses

problem of storage, glut in the market and distress sale. The problem becomes
acute, if these are perishable commodities.
I

3)

i)

Though we have the scientific and technological know-how to produce what

country needs, but most of our people are poor and cannot make use of it. A large
number of people do not have enough money to buy even food.

ii) About 22.7% of our people are agricultural labourers and have no land, and they
have hand to mouth existence.
iii) Facilities for marketing, storage, transport. distribution, processing and customer
service are beyond the capacity of individual farmers more particularly the ones
with small land holdings.
4)

Biotechnology can help tremendously in the production of improvcd varieties of plants

and animals. New techniques such as tissue culture, not only enable us to grow novel
plants. but also enables one to mass-produce plants in a shorter time wifhout going
through the steps of flowering, production of seeds, and their germination. By the
application of principles of genetic engineering, plants can be produced with desired
qualities. If we apply biotechnology to raise orchards, the fruits produced will be of
uniform siik, shape. weight etc. This makes their harvesting, storage, packing,
transport, canning and processing easier. The embryo transfer technology would
enable us to produce many copies of a good animal breeds faster.

UNIT 19 FOOD AND AGRICULTURE

-

Structure
Introduction
Objectives

Agriculture,_-in w-A
Way of Life
Basic Resources for Agriculture
Sunlight
Soil
Water

The Plant and Animal Wealth of India

Scientific and Technological Advancements in Our Agricultud Produce
Cereals and Millets
Pulses and Soybean
Oilseeds
Sugar Crops
Fibre Crops
Plantatih Crops
Potato and other Tuber Cmps
Fruits and Vegetables
Agmforestry

Agrotechniques
Cropping Systems
Input of Fertilisers
Crop Protection

Livestock
Cattle
Sheep and Goats
Pigs

Poultry
Fisheries

~arikFisheries
Inland F i s h e d

Summary
Terminal Questions
19.12 Answers

>

19.1 INTRODUCTION
1

As you have already studied in Block I, availability of food has considerably influenced
human societies in the past. It was with the advent of agriculture, that supply of food was
assured to man, and he could give up nomadic life. In this unit, we shall take up various
basic aspects of agriculture and its products.
in Unit 2, Section 2.3, there is a brief mention of the origin of agriculture and civilisauon.
You may perhaps like to look at that section again.'~avingdone that, now let us discuss
fdod and agriculhlre. You would find a lot of numbers mentioned in this unit. Yware not
expected to memorise all of them. These figures are meant to give you a more realistic
picture of the whole situation.

Objectives
After studying this unit, you should be able to :
describe the,%adc resources for agriculture,
list the various scientific and technological advancements in crop production,
discuss the various agrotechniques,
describe the alternate food resources, and advancements rm& in their production,
understaRBthat growth in agricutto#;trari resulted because of inputs from science and
technolo&

I
I

-No-.ad

Ham

19.2 AGRICULTURE IN INDIA-A

WAY OF LIFE

Agriculture is the bedrock of Indian economy. Of the approximately 245 million working
people in India, (1981 figures) about 93 million were cultivators and 56 million were
agricultural labourers. Together they constituted more than 60% of the total work-force. To
these 149 million people, agriculture is not only the chief occupation, but a way of life.
We have a total geographic area of about 329 million hectares. The net area under
cultivation is 142 million hectares, of which about 31 million hectares are cultivated more
than once a year, hence the total cropped area amounts to 173 million hectares. The land
under forests is about 67 million hectares.

Of our total net national product of Rs. 1,732,000 million at current prices, agriculture
contributes Rs. 570,660 million, fores'ky Rs. 15,970 million, and fishing Rs. 14,430 million.
Thus our farmers and agricultural labourers, who constitute 60.5% of work-force, contribute
34.7% of our total net national product. While reading these figures, we should keep in mind
the following points:
i)

The majority of our farmers are poor, hence they are unable to qake the inputs required
to get the maximum production from their land.

ii) Our agricultural technologies and policies should, for some time to come, be labourintensive to provide employment to the large number of people already engaged in
agriculture. The introduction of any drastic labour-reducipg technology will throw most
of the agricultural workers out of employment, and will create more rural poverty and
hence social unrest.
So you have seen that agriculture employs a large chunk of our manpower and provides
them means to earn their Ifvelihood. Now let us study the basic resources for agriculture.

19.3 BASIC RESOURCES FOR AGRICULTURE

Besides human endeavour, the basic resources for agriculture are sunlight, soil and water.
We shall now discuss them one by one.

19.3.1 Sunlight
You already know that only when sunlight is available, can plants manufacture food. On an
average, in a 12 hour day, we on the earth, receive 500 kilocalories of solar radiation per
square centimetre. Of these, only 222 kilocalories are used by plants for photosynthesis.
Theoretically it is possible to get 140 tonnes of crop yield per hectare in a year, if water,
carbon dioxide and nutrients are not the limiting factors. In practice, however, the maximum
yield, has been only 25 tonnes of grains, per hectare in a year. During monsoon, the wettest
season, the sky is overcast most of the time, reducing the availability of sunlight. In
summers, maximum sunlight is available. But unfortunately, it is the period when water
availability is at its minimum. Under such circumstances, we could perhaps collect the
runoff during the monsoon in storage tanks in the low lying areas (see Fig. 19.1). and use

Fig. 19.1: A storage tank to collect surface runoff during rains.

this water in summers when crops need it. This, however, requires cooperative community
action of the whole village, or block, as construction of storage tanks is beyond the ineans of
individual farmers. Winter, however, is the best period of the year, as there is enougt! of
sunlight and moisture.

19.3.2 Soil
Nature takes more than 5 0 years to build a centimetre of top soil. But every year, wind,
water and human neglect, cause worldwide erosion of over 6,000 million tonnes of soil,
along with 2.6 million tonnes each of nutrients like nitrogen and potassium, and 3.3 million
tonnes of phosphorus. The best way to check soil erosion is by providing adequate tree and
grass cover. If this cannot easily done in regions where there is an acute demand on land
for crop cultivation, we should reson to contour-bunding and gully-plugging on scientific
lines, followed by planting green-manure shrubs and trees on field bunds. The commonly
used green-manure crops in our country are sunnhemp, dhaincha, cluster-bean, senji,
cowpea, horse gram, pillipesara, berseem and lentil.
Though history has taught us that civilisations have vanished because of improper use of
soil, still we are diverting millions of tonnes of excellent soil for brick-making and roadlaying. This wasteful practice should be drastically curtailed by making use of alternative
and more durable materials for making bricks and roads.
Do you know that every person born today needs 0.4 hectare of land for food production and
another 0.08 hectare for housing, roads, waste.di>posal, power supply and other needs.
Today, our agricultural land is less than 0.33 hectare to a person, which is below the
prescribed limit. It is time we created a country-wide awareness of the value of soil and the
importance of scientific land use. We must understand that, if we neglect our soils, our
future will be in peril.
Let us now see the different types of soils found in our country. Indian soils are grouped into
25 different classes. For simplification, they can be sorted out into 10 major groups that are
given in italics in the following lines. Their maximum production potential, in terms of grain
equivalent, is estimated at 4,572 million tonnes: plluvial soils can produce 1,536 million
tonnes; black soils 1,236 million tonnes; red-and-yellow soils 669 million tonnes; red soils
530 million tonnes; and coastal and deltaic alluvial soils 413 million tonnes of foodgrain
equivalent. Brown, laterite, desert, hill and mounlain soils can produce another 176 million
tonnes.
We see that we are endowed with a wide variety of soils. Before growing crops or other
plants in any soil, it is essential that we first ascertain whether this soil is suitable for the
plants that we intend to grow. The soils should, therefore, be tested to check their nutrients
and physical characteristics. This is important because if the soil is not of the right kind, not
only wii1 the yield be poor but the soil would also be damaged.

19.3.3 Water
A major factor in our country's agriculture is its dependence on rain to fulfil the
requirements of water. Out of our net sown area of 142 million hectares, the net imgated
area is only 40 million hectares. The rest is dependent on rains.
Indian agriculture is sometimes described as a gamble on the monsoon. There is some truth
In the statement. In our country, which is situated in the mcinsoon belt of south-east Asia, the
rainfall is neither uniform, nor is it distributed throughout the year, therefore, we do not have
good growth of the rain dependent crops. You might be knowing that most parts of our
country receive their annual rainfall in less than three months, leaving the rest of the year
dry. But in places like Rajasthan, 3 days of rain may be followed by'3 years of dry period!
Every year, droughts or floods are common in one or another part of our country, often
upsetting our economy. Droughts are known to Indians from times immemorial. The
Mahabharata makes a mention of a famine that caused untold suffering to people. The great
granaries of the Harappan period (see Fig. 19.2) are indicative not only of good agriculture
but also of the need to store grains in large quantities to cover the lean years. In 1987, we
faced the worst drought of this century, but our comfortable grain reserves helped us pass
through the difficult period. In recently recorded history, the years 1877; 1899 and 1918

Contour bunding refers to the

ridges made out of soil in the field.
In gully-plugging, materials like
hedges, soil, sand bags etc. are
placed in water channels in the
field to reduce the speed of runoff
water. This results in the settling of
fine soil particles carried alongwith
running water, and an increased
seepage of water in the soil.

~
m
l
h
V
e
Nutrition
,
and
Hcrlth

iorrwm*u~ranmImN

I S O MPROJE&O,+
~IC

OF THE GREAT GRANAW

U A W A

Fig.19.2: The granaries of the Harapph Period

stand out prominently as years of country-wide drought and 1878,1892 and 1912 as years of
widespread floods. On an average, we face drought, in various parts of the country, once in
every 4 years, and country-wide droughts o c m once in every 20 years. There is, however,
no regular periodicity in the occurrence of droughts and floods. Since we cannot change the
geographic situation of our country we have to learn to live with our inconsistent monsoons.

On an average, we receive an annual rainfall of 370 million hectare-metres (one hectaremetre of rain is equivalent to 10,000cubic metres). The south-west mopsoon is responsible
for over 80% of the total rainfall in most parts of the country. An estimated 80 million
hectare-metres of water seeps into the soil, of which about half remains in the top soil layer
and supports plant growth. The rest seeps further down into the ground, and constitutes
ground water. Of this, three quarters may be re-utilised for crop growth. Currently, however,
we are using only one fourth of it. Here, we would like to @int out that the ground water
should be used only after careful study. There are salt deposits in the ground, in some places,
which make the water unusable for crops. These salts dissolve in ground water, come up
when water is pumped up, and form salt crusts on the soil surface, making the land
unproductive.
You have just seen that a large number of variations in these basic resources are found in our
country. In the next section, that follows SAQ 1, we shall describe some of the ecohomically
important plants and useful kimals found in India. We shall also see whether they are
natives of this country or !,hey have been introduced from elsewhere.
-

SAQ 1
a) Why is India referred to as an agriculture-basedcountry? Justify your answer giving two
or three reasons.

b) Fill in the blanks picking up the suitable word or words from the list given below :
i)

Nearly eighty per cent of the total rainfall in our country is due to ............
monsoon.

ii)

Of the total amount o f solar radiations received on earth, less than ............
are used by plants for photosynthesis.

iii) As a result of soil erosion, we not only lose soil but also many.
iv)

. . . . . . . . . . . . a

............soils have the maximum production potential as compared to the

remaining nine groups of soils.

V) Most of our agricultural land is dependent on rains and only a very small
proportion, that is, about'. .............. per cent is under irrigation.
(alluvial, south-west, twent$ eight, nutrients, half)

1
1
1
i

19.4 THE PLANT AND ANIMAL WEALTH OF INDIA

You might be surprised to know that over 20.000 plant species are found in our country?
number that is more than that found in countries with larger land masses. This is because of
the great diversity in our soils and climate. Of the 20,000 species. 500 av. used in one form
or another, and about 250 species are under cultivation, excluding ornamentals, shrubs and
herbs. About 35 of these cultivated species were first domesticated in India and the
adjoining countries. These include rice, minor millets, yam, taro, pulses, beans, mustard.
Asiatic cotton, jute. sunnhemp, mesta, roselle. brinjal, spinach, cucumber. a diversity of
gourds, black-pepper, long-pepper, cinnamon, ginger, turmeric, cardamom, hemp. mango,
banana, citrus, jackfruit, date palm, tamarind, amla. ber, wood-apple, phalsa, jarnun, and
several medicinal plants.
Amongst animals, the humped zebu cattle and the riverine buffalo have originated in India.
Motifs of domesticated hun~plesscattle occur on the seals of the Harappan period
(2400 B.C.) (see Fig. 19.3) that were found in Gujarat and Rajasthan.

Fig. 19.3: Humpless cattle of the Harappan period.

The prcsence of a feeding trough indicates that
the cattle was domestkated.

The earliest ploughed field. dating back to 2450 B.C. was discovered in Kalibangan,
Rajasthan. You might be surprised to know that all the world's poultry trace their origin to
the red jungle fowl (see Fig. 19.4) of Madhya Pradesh.

Fig. 19A: Red Jungle Fowl (Callus gallus).

Hlndl nam-Jangll murgh.
After Salim Ali, the Book of Indian Birds, Bombay Natural History Society, Bombay, 1972.

A-lture,
Hcalth

Nutrltlon and

Not all the plants or animals that we use here, in our country, are the natives of this place.
Some of them were brought here from different parts of the globe. Since India had trade ties
with other countries from ancient times, a large number of economic plants and domestic
animals have been introduced into our country both from the east and the west. From
western Asia, the following plants were brought and grown here: barley, wheat, lentil, pea.
broad-bean, onion, garlic, beet, carrot, radish, fenugreek, coriander, cumin, fennel, alfalfa,
flax, belladonna, poppy, black-psyllium, licorice and foxglove. From Africa came sorghum,
pearl-millet, finger-millet, cowpea, castor, sesamum, okra, guinea-grass, elephant-grass ,and
coffee.'Similarly, from China, proso-millet, soybean, tung, tallow, loquat, litchi, peach,
apricot, walnut and tea were brought. The introductions from southeast Asia and Pacific
Islands include breadfruit, bilimbi, carambola, lime, lemon, sweet-orange, sour-orange,
citron, tangerine, mangosteen, coconut, sago, sugarpalm, areaanut, betel and henna. From
the New World, i.e., America came maize, potato, tobacco, sweet-potato, arrow-root,
tomato, chilli, pumpkin, papaya, guava, custard-apple, groundnut, cashewnut, American
cotton, rubber, sunflower, grape, squash and sarsaparilla. These plants .once they reached our
land, quickly established themselves in our diverse climates and soils. Indeed, some of them
thrive much better in our country than in their native lands.
Some of these plants, such as wheat and many pulses etc. have since been grown on a large
scale to meet the food requirements of our people. As these plants are grown in varied
conditions in our country, certain improvements in them were essential, to get maximum
yields from them. Our agricultural scientists have developed high-yielding varieties, and
evolved disease-resistant crops. In the following section, we shall discuss some of these
advancements brought about in our cereals, millets.-oilseeds, pulses and many other crops.

19.5 SCIENTIFIC AND TECHNOLOGICAL

ADVANCEMENTS IN OUR AGRICULTURAL
PRODUCE
--

In the recent years, there has been a marked increase in our agricultural productivity. A
major factor responsible for this is the change brought about by scientists in the genetic
architecture of plants (such as dwarf and bushy) and their devefopmental rhythms (for
example, when the plant puts forth flowers). Let us see what this means. Supposing there is
a plant that grows knd gives optimum yield in a particular part of the year. By genetic
manipulations, the scientists have now made it possible that it can be grown profitably in
any part of the year. Examples are many. Perhaps you may not remember, but surely your
parents can tell you, that a few years back, plants like potato, dolichos-beans etc. were
available in local market only during certain months of t'he year. Now, one can find them
almost throughout the year. This is due to the change brought about in their developmental
rhythms.

19.5.1 Cereals and Millets

The crops sown during the south-westerly monsoon are cailed kharif crops. In north India
where there are distinct seasons, it is the period from July to October. The post-monsoon
crops, i.e., the ones sown between October and March are known as rabi crops. The kharif
crops include rice, maize, jowar, bajra, ragi and other small millets. On the other hand,
wheht,barley, oat, rye and triticale are the examples of our rabi crops.
Rice is the main cereal of the country, accounting for some 80% of the cultivated area. In
Section 19.4,.you have studied that, in our country rice was one of the first domesticated
plants. The rice varieties under cultivation up to the mid 1950s were tall and weak stemmed.
They were not efficient in making use of sunligh~or nutrients, and produced only a few $
grains on loose panicles (see Fig. 19.5a). In contrast, the present high-yielding varieties are
dwarf, stiff-strawed, and produce tillers profusely. They respond positively, to the fertilisers
and produce compact panicles bearing an abundance of grains. The flag leaf (the leaf
immediately below the panicle) remains erect (see Fig. 19.5 b) and green right up to the
harvest stage, manufacturing food and sending it for grain filling. Most of the new varietks
are not season-bound, and can, hence, be grown any time of the year. They can be fitted in
rotation with other crops in summer, winter or the rainy season.
.
b

Food and Ag~culturt

Fig. 19.5: A primitive rice variety (a) and an improved variety (b).

As a result of this breakthrough, rice production increased from 25 million tonnes in

1954-55, to about 59 million tonnes in 1984-85. In terms of yield per hectare, it increased
from 820 kg to 1,425 kg. Though the population in this period shot up from about 390
million to 75 1 million, the per head net availability of rice increased from 159 grams to 207
grams per day.
The story of wheat, our most important rabi crop, is even more spectacular, the yields per
hectare increased from 827 kg to 1,873 kg during the same period as above. This remarkable
increase has revolutionised the whole agricultural set up in the country. This is also
popularly known as the green revolution. Despite our population growth, the per head
availability of wheat has gone up from 80 grams to 130 grams per day.
With the release of high-yielding varieties, some of the area traditionally sown to coarse
grains were diverted to rice and wheat. Hence, the area under coarse grains declined from
44.7 million hectare in 1958-59, to 39.2 million hectare in 1984-85. Still, the production of
coarse grains during the same period increased from 23.2 million tonnes to 31.2 million
tonnes. This is mainly due to the use of the new, improved varieties of the coarse grains.
The concept of the new, improved plant type has been extended to most other crops also.
Based on the evolutionary history of the plants and using statistical analysis, scientists now
create ideotypes, i.e. plants with ideal frame and desirable physiological and biochemical
characteristics. Scientists select suitable type of characters, by scanning the wide variation in
the adailable germplasm. They, then, try to incorporate as many of the desirable characters
as possible into one variety.

19.5.2 Pulses and Soybean

Pulses occupy an important place in the diet of our population. These &e an excellent source
of protein. They meet the needs of a large majority of consumers who are mainly
vegetarians. Many of them belong to weaker sections of our population, who cannot afford
better protein sources, such as eggs or other animal products. Pulses are also important for
feeding livestock. Pulses are legumes, and you know that they play an important part in
maintaining soil fertility (see Unit 14).
Let us now talk about pulses that we iommonly use in this country. The most commonly
used pulse is pigeonpea or arhar. Some of its traditional varieties have too many leaves and
branches and too few pods and grains. These are being replaced by more compact,
manageable plants with more pods and seeds. Many present day varieties come to harvest in
less than 150 days, compared with more than 300 days required by earlier varieties. In
ch~ckpeaor chana the straggling plant type wgs changed to an erect type with many
branches, that produce pods from the base to the tip. A change in the developmental rhythm

Coarse grains also known as millets.

e.g., bajra, Italian-millet, sorghum,
finger-millet and other small miUets.

has now made it po\cihle to grow mungbean and urdbean in winter and summer. Such a
change has also made ~tpossible, now to grow rajmash in the plains, which was not possible
hitherto.
One thing that we would like to point out here is that, in the cultivation of pulses, crop
management is more important than the variety grown. A fortnight's delay in sowing may
mean all the difference between a bumper harvest and total crop failure. Just one imgation.
at a critical stage of crop life can boost yields considerably. Pulse crops have nodules on
their roots which harbour bacteria that fix nitrogen from the atmosphere. Hence, their
nitrogen needs are less. But they need adequate doses of phosphate, which must be applied
. only after getting the soil-tested.Proper spacing of plants, their watering and need-based
application of chemicals to control pests like the pod-borers, are the other very important
factors. Unfortunately, the management technology has not spread among farmers as fast as
the high yielding seeds. Consequently, pulse production.nas not made any significant
advance. Our total production of pulses in 1986-87 was 12 million tonnes, compared with
11 million tonnes in 1954-55. Meanwhile, our population has shot up so much that our per
head availability of pulses today is reduced. Presently, it is less than 40 grams (compared
with 64 grams in 1954-55),as against the minimum requirement of 80 grams a day, as
recommended by the World Health Organisation. This is an alarming trend because we have
a very large number of growing children, who need pulses in their diet for adequate musclebuilding. Protein malnutrition not only hampers physical growth but also has an adverse
effect on the mental development of growing children.
f

In this context, there is an urgent need to popularise soybean cultivation in our country.
Soybean has 43.2 grams of protein per 100 grams of seed, compared with only 22.3 grams
of protein in pigeonpea or arhar. Trials conducted throughout India have shown that soybean
yields 29.6 quintals to grain per hectare whereas pigeonpea yields only 16.60 quintals under
similar conditions. The protein-rich soytiean has also 19.5% oil in its grain and occupies the
top rank in world vegetabie oil production. Soybean can be cul~ivatedon uplands, on rice
bunds, and as a companion crop with cotton, maize, fingermillet and pigeonpea. It can be
cultivated throughout the country. It has been found that, the quality of soybean is better in
the cooler hilly regions. Soybean can thus be a boon to India. Though, presently, the crop is
grown mostly in parts of Madhya Pradesh and Uttar Pradesh, its cultivation can spread
dramatically if we acquaint people with its advantages and increase the marketing facilities.

19.5.3 Oilseeds
The traditional oilseed yielding crops of our country are groundnut, sesamum, niger, castor,
brassicas, linseed, and safflower. To this list are to be added new crops, soybean, sunflower
and oilpalm which are highly promising. The vegetable oils that we all use, are derived not
only from traditional oilseed crops, but also from cotton seeds, rice bran, maize (corn),
coconut, and several other oil containing herhs;shrubs and trees.
Though oilseeds contributed to 7% of our foreign exchange earnings in 1963-64, our oilseed
production has never really been high. Our per head availability of oilseeds increased from
2.5 kg in 1955-56 to 5.5 kg in 1984-85. The per head availability of vanaspati oil increased
from 0.7 kg to 1.2 kg during this period. But the availability of oils and fats is only about 15
grams to a person in a day, which is, half the recommended ~ k v eof~30graAs. Though an
essential item of balanced diet, fats have traditionally formed an item of low importance in
our food intake. This disturbing trend needs immediate correction, since malnutrition is
rampant in India.
For centuries, the cultivation of oilseed crops has been relegated to marginal and
submarginal lands that are poor in both soil nutrients and water supply. As a result, most of
our oilseed types are those that can survive in most adverse conditions but their production
is very low. Efforts are being made to rcmcdy the situation by evolving plant typcs capable
of giving high yields under better conditions of cultivation.
Groundnut is our most important oilseed crop. Our immediate target should be to produce
a%out 4 tonnes of pods per hectare and this would yield nearly a tonne of oil. In groundnut as
well as in mustard, rapeseed, castor and safflower, we have varieties that can more than
meet his target. The use of well-tilled pods with healthy seeds, optlrnurn plant population per hectare,
timely sowing, at least one irrigation at the critical stage of crop growth, and feriliser application

'

based on crop needs can give more than 80% of the highest attainable yie!d. The other
factors are timely ,weed control, need-based use of plant protcct~onrncasurcs and prevention
of post-harvest losses. There is also considerable scope for updating the present incfficient
village level methods of expelling oil from seeds. Not only that, our strategy should also be
to fit them in rotation with other crops, in areas where good soil, and assured rainfall are
available, aqd stabilise their yields with good management in regions receiving medium
amount of rainfall.

19.5.4 Sugar Crops

India has a history of producing superior varieties of sugarcane. Over 25 countries grow
sugarcane varieties bred in India, including the internationally popular 'NCO 310' variety.
The yields and duration of sugarcane show much variation in our country because of the
variations in our climates. Our effort should be to grow more sugarcane in regions where the
per-day productivity is high. We have several, good spring and autumn-planted varieties. If
the planting of these varieties is properly planned, we can produce enough sugarcane to keep
our sugar mills busy throughout the year. What is needed is some sort of guarantee for
remunerative price and assured sale for these crop. This assurance must come from the
sugarcane mills and the cooperative societies. They should also supply the farmers with
timely inputs in terms of fertilhers and crop protection measures, etc.
Sugarbeet, another sugar yielding crop, was introduced in India in the 1960s. It has an
excellent scope for cultivation on soils having very high amount of sodium, where no other
crop can profitably be cultivated. Sugarbeet removes the excessive sodium and improve the
texture of such soils.
In spite of increase of population, our per head availability of sugar increased from 4.7 kg in
1960-61 to 10.7 kg in 1984-85.

19.5.5 Fibre Crops

Of our fibre crops, cotton is the foremost. In fact, India is the first country that developed
hybrid cotton. Today we have a wide spectrum of varieties not only in the long-staple (see
Fig. 19.6) group but also in the med~umand short staple categories, for which there is a

Fig. 19.6: Hybrid cotton, L R A 5166

great demand in rural India. In spite o f o k research achievements. the availability ofcotton
cloth decreased from 13.8 metres per pelson in 1960-61 to 10.6 metres in 1984-85. The
increase in synthetic fabrics fro1111.2 metres to 3.9 metres perperson during the same period
did not ot'hiet this decrease. It is highly disturbing to note that an average Indian today, has
less cloth than his counterpart two and a half decades ago, even though, today. our area
under cotlon cultivation and our textile industry are the largest in the world. Since we cannot
bring any more additional land under cultivation. cotfbn in rotation with other crops should
receive a high priority together with adequate pest c6iitrol and crop management.

Food and Agrieultun

Agriculture, Nutrition and

Health

Jute is cultivated in regions where rainfall is high. In 1980-81, India exported 558 thousand
tonnes of jute goods valued at Rs. 3,991 million. But because of the world-wide changes in
materials used for packaging, storage and transporting which replace jute, our exports fell in
1984-85 to 160 thousand tonnes. There is, however, a good demand for jute products within
the country. Hence, our scientists have developed jute varieties that can be rotated with rice,
wheat, potato and mungbean.

19.5.6 Plantation Crops

Tea, coffee, cocoa, rubber, coconut, arecanut, cashew, cardamom, blackpepper and related
spices are grown on a plantation scale, and their produce has a good demand both within and
outside our country. Our scientists have developed technologies for multi-tier cropping
(Fig. 19.7) to make a more profitable use of the available space in plantations and orchards.
For example, pepper can be twined along the trunks of coconut and arecanut trees, and in the
space between arecanut trees, pineapple, fodder legumes and grasses can be planted. Such
multi-tier cropping increases the productivity per unit area per unit time.

Fig. 19.7: Multi-tier cropping. The tall, coconut trees are in the bskground,
cocoa plants in the middle row and the pineapple plants form the third tier.

19.5.7 Potato and other Tuber Crops

Potato is propagated by seed-tubers, which should be disease-free to raise a healthy crop.
Till recently, healthy seed-tubers could be raised onlyminthe hilly regions that are free from
aphid pests which spread virus diseases. Through detailed monitoring studies, our scientists
have identified different periods of the year when different regions of our country are free
from the disease-spreading aphids. With the development of sultable varieties, all the potato
growing regions of the country can now raise healthy seed-tubers during the aphid-free time.
The potato crop is traditionally raised from cut pieces of seed tubers, which are expensive
and account for the major cost of potato cultivation. Recently, scientists have developed the
technology to raise the crop from potato seed much the same way as we grow tomato or
brinjal. When perfected, this technology will considerably cut the cost of cultivation of this
energy-rich crop.
Cassava (tapioca), sweet-potato, Dioscorea and a variety of other yams constitute an
important source of food, especially among weaker sections of the people. Though, some of
the consumers may switch over to cereals when our development programmes make
headway, tuber crops will continue to be important to our agr~culturaleconomy as they are
a cheap source of food calories and can be raised on lands that cannot support other crops.

19.5.8 Fruits and Vegetables

Annually, we produce about 15 million tonnes of fruits from about 2 million hectare land
and 9 million tonnes of vegetables from about 1 million hectawJand. Our per head daily

Food and Agriculturt

consumption is only 6ograms of fruits and 75 grams of vegetables, much.below the

minimum recommendation of 85 grams and 200 grams respectively.
However, after the initial emphasis on self-sufficiency in foodgrains, research was
intensified in horticulture, and the past two decades have witnessed considerable
development of high-yielding horticultural crops with better quality produce.
Recently a Technology Mission-hasbeen constituted and a Ministry for Food Processing
established to'harness the best available technology for long-distance transport, packaging,
processing and canning of fruits, vegetables, and low-fat, high-protein mushrooms, so that
these important food items are readily available to buyers.

Fruits and vegetables are seasonal produce. When produced in abundance, they create a glut
in the market, and the prices go down. The product is also, sometime's, wasted. Drying,
canning, extracting juices etc. are methods by which the product can bring good returns to
the farmers, and fulfil the needs of the buyer.

19.5.9 Agroforestry
As a result of clearing forests so as to put the land to other uses, or of cutting trees to sell
wood for construction or other purposes like making packing cases, our forest cover has
diminished at an alarming rate. Presently, forests occupy a precarious 22% of our
geographical area against the recommended minimum of 33%. Shrub jungles and fuelwood
trees are vanishing so rapidly that one wonders whether a day would come soon when
common people may have enough food but not enough fuel. Between 1960 and 1984, the
prices of fuelwood shot up by 65%! This concern has prompted planners to think of large
scale p!anting of fast growing trees with some suitable crops in between. But, not all trees
and crops are compatible with each other, and even the best of the combinations have an
adverse effect on each other's maximum potential. However, a certain sacrifice in
productivity is considered inevitable to partly meet the shortage of tree cover.
In the Gangetic plains, wheat or rapeseed in rabi and sesamum or pearlmillet in kharif can
be grown in the interspaces of subabul (Leucaena latisiliqual trees. In the tropical region,
Casuarina is compatible with food crops in the first two years, after which the shallowrooted.fodder sorghum and cowpea fare better. In the humid and sub-humid regions, maize
is suitable for intercropping with Acacia and Stylosanthes (stylos) for fodder for growing
with Eucalyptus.
We have a great scope for tree plantation on our 60.09 million hectares of land that is not
being used for one reason or the other. Much of the roadsides along villages can also be
planted with trees, whose wood forms fuel.
'

You have just studied that improvements in our crops have resulted in better, healthy plants
with high yields. Here, we would like to point out that it is not only the use of improved
seeds which is important, but also other factors like cropping system, application of
fertilisers and pesticides. Let us now look into some of these factors, in the following
section. But how about trying a SAQ first?

SAQ 2
Fill in the blank spaces choosing appropriate word or words from the list given below.
i)

The diversity in ............and ............ in our country is responsible for the

great many types of plant species found herE.

ii) All the world's poultry trace their o,rigin to the Red Jungle Fowl belonging to ............
iii)

............ is our main kharif cereal, whereas ............ is the chief rabi

cereal.
iv)

After studying the evolutionary history of plants, and using statistical analysis,
agricr~ltuialrrin~tists
create
. . . . . . ,f b t is p ! a ~ twith
~ idczi fr:n.ework and
chariicteristics.
other desirable blochemica1 and pi~ysioiog~cal

V)

In the cultivation of pulses, crop management is more important than. . . . . . . . . . . . .

vi)

For past several years, oil seeds.have been grown in our country where lands are poor
in ..... : ...... and. . . . . . . . . . . . This has resulted in hardy, plants with very
............. production.

Agriculture, Nutrition and

Health

vii)

............ is an important sugar-yielding crop, that can be profitably cultivated in

soils having high amounts of sodium. -

viii) The credit for developing the first hybrid cotton goes to the ............
agriculturists.
ix)

A judicious mix of plantation crops can be profitably grown in a farm under the

............ cropping pattern.

x)

The major expenditure incurred in potato cultivation is on the procurement of healthy.

xi)

...................................... etc. are some of the methods that can

bring good returns to farmers, who grow fruits on large scale.

xii)

............ , ......................... and. ...........are some of the

fuel-wood yielding trees'that have a great promise for our country.
(drying, Subabul, seed tubers, canning, Indian, sugarbeet, multi-tier, low. Casuarina,
extractin juices, Stylos, wheat, India, seed variety, ideotypes, soil, nutrients,
F
Eucalyptus, water supply, rice, climate)

19.6 AGROTECHNIQWES
19.6.1 Cropping Systems
Since cultivable land is limited, the only way to meet our growing food needs is by growing
two or more crops in a year from the same piece of land. Such multiple-cropping practices
would generate more employment in rural areas and also fulfil our food needs. In a relay
cropping system, a crop is sown before its preceding crop is harvested. The last imgation
given to a crop also serves as a pre-sowing imgation to the next crop. This results in saving
of water. In mixed cropping, compatible crops like chickpea and mustard are sown in
parallel rows with wheat. Pigeonpea, mungbean, groundnut, soybean and cowpea can be
grown in between rows of either sorghum, or maize, or sugarcane or cotton. Such
intercropping systems have a high production potential and generate additional employment
opportunities.

19.6.2 Input of Fertilisers

Nitrogen, phosphorus and potassium are the major nutrients that plants require. In addition,
zinc, iron, manganese, boron, molybdenum and cobalt are also needed by plants in small
quantities for healthy growth. Deficiency of any of these elements reduces yields, even when
all other nutrients are available in adequate amounts. But, the excessive presence of some of
these nutrients may prove toxic to plants.
Cereals require more nitrogen than phosphorus and potash. But pulses, whose m t nodules
harbour bacteria, that fix nitrogen directly from the atmosphere, need adequate doses of
phosphorus. As said earlier, the nutrient needs vary not only from crop to crop but also from
soil to soil. It is essential, therefore, that the soil is tested and the required amounts of
nutrients supplied according to the needs of the crops. Generalised application of
commercially available fertiliser mixtures such as the one having nitrogen, phosphorus and
potassium in the ratio of 120:60:40, is often quite wasteful and may even reduce yields. The
time and depth of application of fertilisers is also very important. Research has shown that
most farmers over-imgate their crops when water is available. Consequently, not only is
water, a precious input is wasted but the yields get depressed. Thus, crop management is as
important as the crop vanety in reallsing optimum yields.

19.6.3 Crop Protection

Several kinds of insects, diseases, weeds, rodents and birds cause imiense damage to crops
both in the field and in storage. Pests have been there long before man came into existence.
It is not possible to eliminate them entirely, either by developing varieties which resist
attacks of pests or by using potent pesticides, for pests are adept in their struggle for
existence and have always countered man's attempts to exterminate them. The best course
for us is to resort to what is called "integrated pest managementWthatkeeps the damage due

I
t

1
i
I

I
I

to pests at the barest minimum. Inregrated pest management will be effective if we grow
resistant varieties in regions where incidence of pests is severe, ensure that crops grown one
after another do not have common pests, instead of chemicals for pest control use biological
organisms that attack the pest, apply pesticides only when the pest population has reached its
threshold value, and take co-ordinated community action on pest control in adjoining fields
over the whole village or block.
The war against pests is so long-drawn-out and difficult that farmers often use very high
doses of pesticides at frequent intervals. This is a dangerous tendency. Excessive doses of
pesticides leave harmful residues (also see Unit 16, Section 16.2) which find their way into
the human body either directly from the consumed agricultural produce or through the milk
of animals that feed on plants. It is essential, therefore, that pesticides are applied only in
recommended doses that are harmless.
SAQ 3
Match the items of the first column with that of the second. Write the number of the
appropriate match in the bracket given in the first column.
-

Column I
a) Relay cropping system
b) Crop protection

Column I1

1 1

i)

I I

ii)

.c) Cereals

iii)

d) Mixed cropping
e) Commercially available
fertiliser mixture

iv)
v)

require more nitrogen than

potassium and phosphorus
compatible crops sown together in
a field
consists of fixed amount of nitrogen,
phosphorus and potassium
integrated pest management
crop sown before the
preceding crop is harvested

So far, you have studied various aspects of agriculture dealing mainly with our crops. Now,
let us know something about our alternate food resources.

19.7 LIVESTOCK
Livestock provide us milk, meat, eggs, wool and skins, and other by-products. All these
contribute about Rs. 20,000 million a year to our national economy. Practically every family
in the village is involved with domestic animals, which are an important source of livelihood
and employment to the villagers. The number of cows, oxen, buffaloes, bulls, sheep, goats,
pigs or poultry is often an indication of the economic status of the rural family.
~ilestockare our mainstay for providing power needed for agricultural operations and
transport. Machines provide marginal power because of the small and scattered farms in our
villages. Still, inadequacy of power is a basic cause of our inability to improve the efficiency
of agriculture through timely operations.
India today has about 185 million cattle, 61 milli~nbuffaloes, 45 million sheep, 97 million
goats, one million horses and ponies, one million camels, about one million other livestock,
and 156 million poultry, fowls, ducks, quails, turkey-birds, etc. In 1984-85, they produced
40 million tonnes of milk, 13 million eggs, 39 million kilograms of wool and 958,000 metric
tonnes of meat.

19.7.1 Cattle
The humped, zebu cattle originated in India. The Brahman bull, a hardy, disease resistant
animal that quickly gains weight, is much in demand in the west for siring beef breeds. The
humpless tautus breeds of cattle are generally considered to have originated in Europe. But
there is evidence to show that humpless cattle were under domestication in India as early as
the Harappan period (also see Fig. 19.3).
Today we have several good milch, draught, and dual-purpose breeds. Milch breeds refers
to the milk producing animals; draught breeds are the animals that,are used as work animals;

and the dual purpose breeds include those animals that are used both for milk purposes as

Food and Agriculture

~%(cullurc,Nutrition and
Health

well as for doing laborious work. Gir, Sahiwal. Red Sindhi and Deoni are our milch breeds.
The draught breeds include Nagari, Kenkatha, Malvi, Hallikar, Amrit Mahal. Khillari,
Kangayam, Ponwar and Sin. Among the important dual purpose breeds are Hariana, Danji,
Rewati, Ongol and Tharparkar (or Kankrej).
Besides that, India has the best riverine (water) buffaloes in the world.'Some of them like
Murrah, Mehsana, Jaffarabadi. Surti. Nili-Ravi are imp~rtedby many countries for
developing animals, suiting to their requirements. Swamp buffaloes, that are common in
south-east Asian countries, are frequently found in the coastal and swampy regions of oul'
country. Since their milk yield is less, they are used as work animals in swampy regions to
which cattle are not suited.
Milk Production :Indian economy is village-based. In the absence of long-distance
transport and marketing facilities for milk, the selection of dairy animals over the centuries
was based on their ability to produce just enough milk for the family needs. Consequently,
the best of our milk yielding animals produce only a quarter of their counterparts in Europe,
although Indian cattle are hardier.

The country, today, has less than half a million good dairy cows and about 25 million
buffaloes that give a medium yield of 1,000 to 1,500 litres per lactation (the milk secreting
period after the birth of a calf). High-yielding breeds of cows such as the Holstein-Friesian,
Brown Swiss and Red Dane averaging 5,000 to 6,000 litres per lactation and Jersey cows
averaging 4,000 litres per lactation, were imported and used in crossbreeding programmes.
Their progenies yield, on an average, about 3,000 litres of milk. However, some of these
crossbreeds, are pot likely to be popular with village farmers who cannot provide intensive
feeding, management and health care.

19.7.2 Sheep and Goats

Income from sheep and goats sustain 12-15 million people in India living in regions where
agricultural activities are restricted. The small muzzle and split-up upper lip help sheep to
nibble at tiny blades of vegetation which cannot be eaten by larger animals. India has the
sixth largest sheep population in the world. But large flocks of sheep like those seen in
Australia and New Zealand are not common in our country since we do not have extensive
grasslands and meadows. Though highly nutritious, lamb meat is not as popular in our
country as goat meat.
Our common breeds of sheep are: Kashmir, Gaddi, Chokla, Bhakarival, Magra, Kali,
Marwari, Bellary, Deccani and Nilgiri. They produce short wool suitable for making carpets.
For the production of wool suitable fir making clothes, there was need to improve our
breeds of sheep. For this purpose, the Merino and Suffolk breeds were imported.
Goat is considered the poor man's cow in India, It is a versatile animal, easy to maintain on
marginal lands. In Europe, it is called the 'wet nurse'. as it produces cheap and wholesome
milk. Its milk contains 4.5% fat, well-distributed in small globules, and is easily absorbed in
our digestive system. The milk-breeds of goat such as Toggenberg, Saanan, Alpore and
Nubian were introduced to develop better breeds that suit our conditions. Goat meat and skin
are in great demand in our country. Pashmina and Chegu breeds produce soft and warm
fibres used for making shawls and similar apparel. The Angora breed produces the valuable
textile hair called mohair. Jamunapari, Beetal, Barbari, Black Bengal, Deccan and Malabari
are other quality breeds of goat. One thing particular about goats is that they are fastidious
about cleanliness. They require clean and fresh food, put in clean containers when fed
indoors.
Goats qnd sheep do not compete with each other, since their feeding habits and requirements
are different. There is a misconception that goats denude the vegetation and contribute to the
'deterioration of the environment.. But the real culprit is man. who leaves goats in the open to
fend for themselves, not providing them even the minimum feed needed to keep them going.

19.7.3 Pigs
The pig is nature's protein factory on land. It has the capacity to turn most of its feed into
high-quality protein. Unlike cattle, sheep and goats, the pig has a one-chamber stomach. It
cannot eat and digest roughages like straw etc., but it canfeed on most celluiosic material,
including algae. Like the buffalo, the pig has very few sweat glands on its skin, and hence
needs water to keep the body' cool, particularly in summer.

In India, pigs are kept by people who are so economically backward that they can scarcely'
give any attention to the animal. Hence pigs wallow in mud, eat all sorts of rubbish 'and
harbour many parasites. Consequently, the pig is considered dirty and despicable while it
could be an elegant, healthy. productive, and rapidly multiplying animal. In a country like
ours where protein malnutrition is rampant. pig rearing will be a boon to the poorer sections.
of the society. Hence, to improve the productivity of indigenous pigs. breeds like White
Yorkshire, Landrace, Tamworth and Berkshire have been introduced.
Animal Health Care: The type of climate, i.e. tropical and subtropical. that we have in our
country is conducive to a variety of animal diseases like finderpest. foot-and-mouth disease,
tabies, and tuberculosis. Health care and proper medication are both important to maintain
our animals in a fit and productive condition. But awareness about health care of our
animals is needed. Today, we in our country produce most of the required medicines and
vaccines of high quality that are required for health care of our livestock.

19.8 POULTRY
During the last two decades, our poultry industry has shown a phenomenal growth. The
value of our poultry products today is about Rs 9,000 million. The production in-the year
1984-85 was about 13,475 million eggs and about 51 million broilers. The growth of
production during the last decade is 400%. that is unmatched either by 'any branch of
agriculture or,industry. Some of our best broiler strains are: 4 77, JBL 80, IBB 83, ILI 80,
and ILI 82. Because of intensive research on poultry nutrition, we have been abie to d u c e
the fied requirement from 6 kg to about 2.2 kg for the production of one kilogram of liveweight broiler or one dozen eggs. Today, we are self-sufficient in the production of all
medicines required for poultry health. Most of these medicines conform to the highest
standards of efficiency and potkncy.
Almost all the world's fowls trace their origin to the Red Jungle Fowl of India (Fig. 19.4). In
addition to our famous Assel breed, we have Kadaknath, short-legged Nicobari and large
number of diverse hardy breeds that have adapted themselves to our various ecological
regions. There is, however, a need to conserve and improve their type for future growth of
the poultry industry.
Ducks need more water than fowls, but it is wrong to presume that they require water for
swimming. Unlike fowls they can feed on water-borne organisms, and hence are popular in
swampy regions. They constitute about 10%of the total poultry population and deserve
hore attention than given at present.

19.9 FISHERIES
Marine and freshwater fish are an excellent source of animal protein. They grow rapidly,
feeding on plankton, weeds and other water-borne organisms, and convert them into food of
high biological value.
In 1984. we produced about 3 million tonnes of fish, ranking eighth in the fish-pducing
countries of the world. Our production can still be increased up to 12 million tonnes,
because we have a long coastline and a large adjoining area of water that can utilised for
fishing. Our inland freshwater spread is 1.6 million hectares, and brackish waters and
estuaries occupy about 2 million hectares.

'ill

19.9.1 Marine Fisheries

Our present catch from the seas is about 1.2 million tonnes. But there is a good prospect for
increasing the catch all along the Indian coast, particularly in the northeast and south-west
regions. Sophisticated techniques such as Remote-sensing and Satellite imageries are now
being used to locate concentrations of fish. Improved techniques have been devised for the
cultuq of mussels, pearl, oysters, shrimps, lobsters and seaweed. Mechanised fishing
boatsand vessels (see Fig. 19.8) have also been introduced, together with facilities for cold

Agriculture, Nutrltlon and

Health

Fig. 19.8: M.V. Saraswati, a modern vessel used by our fisheries.

19.9.2 Inlahd Fisheries

Inland fisheries are categorised as of 'capture' or 'culture' type. Capture fisheries refer to
the catch from rivers and reservoirs. On the other hand, in culture fisheries, the 'fish are first
grown in ponds, pools and swamps, and are caught when they are of the right size.
Pond culture of fish is conventional in our country, and the average production is about
600 kg per hectare in a year. However, if ponds are stocked with different types of fish that
feed at the bottom, middle level and surface of the pond, the fish do not compete with each
other, but utilise the food resources throughout the pond. Such a practice is also known as
composite fish culture. A yield up to I 1 tonnes per hectare in a year can be obtained,
although an average farmer obtains about 5 tonnes from such composite fish culture.
Integrated culture of compatible species of fish, prawp, frogs, ducks and useful plants is
even more profitable, as they will make a full use of the entire pond environment. Sw.amps
and derelict waters are suited to air-breathing fish which yield up to 15 tonnes per hectare in
a year. Their use could supplement our fish production.

- SAQ 4
Fill in the blanks choosing appropriate word or words from the list provided.
i) Majority of our farmers depend on their.
various agricultural operations.

. . . . . . . . . . . for the power needed for the

ii) h o u r country, owing to not so well-developed ............ and . . . . . . ,. . . .

facilities, the dairy animals have been bred to produce just enough milk for the family
needs.
iii) Animals like . . . . . . . . . . . . and . . . . . . . . . . . . can be profitably reared in areas where
agricultural activites are restricted.

. . . . . . . . . . . . is also commonly called as the nature's protein factory.

In the last decade, the increase in production in our . . . . . . . . . . . . industry has been

iv) The
v)

tremendous, and is unmatched by any other branch of agriculture or industry.

vi) India presently ranks . . . . . . . . . . . in the fish-producing countries of the world, and
there is considerable scope in increasing production in both the ........... and
........... fisheries.
(marine, pig, transport, livestock, goats, inland, marketing, poultry, sheep, eighth)
-

19.10 SUMMARY
In this unit you have learnt
Ours is an agriculture-based country, and our agricult~fralproducts contribute
significantly to our economy.
Sunlight, soil and water are the basic resources for agriculture, besides the numerous
varieties of crops and animal breeds, and the labour input by the farmers. Our agricultural
production is affected if any of these factors is limited, or disturbed.

We have about 20,000 plant species. A number of plants which'top the list of the most
useful plants were actually, the natives of this place and many plants were introduced in
our country from different parts of the world.

mode^ agriculture has come a long way since its early times. Several new, high-yielding
and better varieties of crops have been produced by our scienrists. The higher yield of a
crop is ensured not only by the use of better, high-yielding seeds but also by factors like
cropping system, input of nutrients in the form of fe~ilisers,timely irrigation, and proper
plant protection measures.
The livestock constitutes our alternate food resource, and are also the source of a number
of other useful products such as wool, skin'etc. Today, we have highly improved breeds
of livestock. Some breeds are meant for milk production, some for labour and others for
both purposes, i.e. for milk as well as for labour. We still need attention in areas like
piggeries etc.

Our poultry industry is a fast growing industry. Its increase of production in the last
decade is unmatched by any other branch of agriculture or industry. Research conducted
in our country has enabled us to evolve better broiler strains. Also, we are now able to
produce more live-weight broiler or eggs from less of feed.
Fisheries, both marine and inland, still have tremendous scope for expansion. Its full
potential is yet to be tapped. Use of modem techniques has been of great help in
increasing the production. Awareness about various aspects of inland fisheries given to
farmers would not' only lead to better incomes but also'greater availability of food.

19.11 TERMINAL QUESTIONS

1) Write brief comments on the basic resources for agriculture.

2) a) Give at least rwo examples of the plants representing each of the following groups,
that are commonly gmwn in our country
Group
i)

Cereals and millets

ii)

Pulses

Examples

iii) Oilseeds
-

iv)

Sugar crops

V)

Fibre crops

vi)

Tuber crops

vii) Plantation crops

viii) Fruits and vegetables

'

b) Pick up any Wo of the examples that you have written above and write about
the unimproved and their correspondingly improved features in the table given
below :

Name of
the plant

Features of unlmprovcd
plant

Features of lmprovcd
plant

................

ii)

.........................
iii) ........................

ii)

.................

iii)

.......................

ii)

........................

ii)

...............

iii)

........................

...............

ii

iii) ..............

Write short answers for the following questions.

a) What are the salient features of mixed, and relay-cropping system?

b) What points should one keep in mind whilg :sing fertilisers?

C)

What is the ideal way of pest management?

a) List the alternate food resources.

b) Mention briefly, as to what advancements have been made in the pfoduction of the
following alternate foods.

....................................................................
.
,

ii) . fish

iii) broiler

................................ ....................................
....................................................................
....................................................................

ik

iv) eggs

...................................................................

19.12 ANSWERS
Self Assessment Questions
1) a) i)

About 60.5% of the working people of India depend on agriculture in one'form

or the other.

ii) Nearly 53% of our land is utilised for agriccltural purposes.

iii) Various agricultural activities contribute to about 34.7% of the total net national
product.
b) i)

south-west

2) i) soil, climate

ii) half

ii) India

iii) nutrients
iii) rice, wheat

vi) nutrients, water supply, low

X)

seed tubers

iv) alluvial. v) twenty eight

vii) sugarbeet

iv) ideotypes
viii) Indian

xi) drying, canning, extracting juices

v) seed variety
ix) multi-tier

xii) Subabul. Casuarina,

Stylos, Eucalyptus
3) a [v]

b [iv]

4) i) livestock

c [i]

d [ii]

e [iii]

ii) transport, marketing

iii) sheep, goats

iv) pig

v) poultry

vi) eighth, marine, inland

Terminal Questions
1) a) Sunlight: It is available in plenty throughout the year. During monsoons, the clouds
cut down the incoming sunlight considerably. Plants can, however, make maximum
use of the sunlight if other factors like water, carbon dioxide and nuvjents are not
limiting.
b) Soil :A variety of soils are found in our count&, and each supports different types of
crops. Before growing crops in any of the soils, they should be checked for their
nutrients and other physical characteristics.

c) Water: Our agriculture depends mainly on monsoon for this resource. Rainfall,
however, is not uniform in our country. During rainfall, a considerable amount of
water seeps-intothe soil. The water in the top iayer is utilised by plants. The groundwater can also be used for irrigation, after testing its quality.
2) a) i)

ii)

rice, bajra
pigeonpea, chickpea

iii) groundnut, brassica

iv) sugarcane, sugarbeet
V) cotton, jute
vi) potato, cassava
vii) tea, arecanut
viii) mango, brinjal

UNIT
i

1I

MIND AND BODY

Structure
23.1 Introduction
Objectrves

23.2 Mind-Body Question

23.3 Functional Unit of the Nervous System-Neuron
23.4 Central Nervous System (CNS)
Brain
Spinal Cord

23.5 Peripheral Nervous System (PNS)

Reflexes
~utonomlcSystem

23.6
23.7
23.8
23.9

Hormonal System
Summary
Terminal Questions
Answers

23.1 INTRODUCTION Do you know that one of the most complex systems in the world lies within your own head?
Over centuries, the brain has been comptred to various man made machines. The most
recent, of course, is the computer. Though the activities of the computer are fast, they are
limited, in the sense that the computer works according to a programme given to it, by a
human being. No machine can rival the brain, with its billions of nerve cells intricately
connected so as to give it the ability to receive, store, recall and process informatiin and to
think new thoughts. Scientists are working very hard to create what may be called,
intelligent computers, but that is another story.
If we look through the history of human civilisation, the mind and its mental
have
always been a fascinating and controversial subject among philosophers. Until fairly
recently, we did not know or understand much about the nature of the mind or its
relationship with bodify functions. There was controversy even regarding the relationship
between the mind which was considered spiritual, and the brain, which was thought to &.
material.
In this Unit, we expose you to an elementary scientific description of the Mind-Body
relationship and to a physical description of the human nervous system and its working.
There is special emphasis on the brain which .is the seat of all thoughts we think and our
response to people, events and most importantly to ourselves. In addition, we will look a t d l
the other parts of the nervous system that cany messages to, and from the brain and the
spinal cord to the rest of the body.

Some other parts of our body that e important for understanding behaviour are certain
glands that put out chemicals calle hormones .which play a part in regulating body function.
What you study in this unit would provide a foundation for a further study in unit- 24, of
human behaviour and the development of the mind from infancy onwards.

Objectives
After studying this unit you should be able to :
describe the structure and functionsof a nerve cell,
describe the general organisation and major parts of the human nervous system and its
working,
identify the parts of the brain and describe how human senses, reactions and bodily
functions are associated with different parts of the brain,
recognise and define a flex reaction,
realise that hormones and the nervous system work closely together to coordinate the
internal functions of the b d y and also affect an individual's behaviour,
realise that this is a vast subiect and vour knowledee is oniv rudirnenk.

3.2 MIND-BODY QUESTION

the Vedic times, in India, philosophers held the belief that man consisted of a r m (soul),
,anas (mind), indriyan (sense organs) and sarira (body). The sadra was taken to be the
nse for the indriyan which were located in its vqious parts. Manus was one of the 11
gans thought to be present in the body and, it was considered to be the organ for memory;
nowledge and feeling etc. The atma was capable of knowing, feeling and action but
~ithoutthe manas, indriyan and sarira, it could not function. In later times, Yoga and
Tantra came to view the brain and the nerves as the organs of the soul. The mind, however,
lad always been regarded as of great importance and all activities such as hearing, seeing,
'esiring and believing were assigned to it.
1

;y the 19th century, scientific explanations for the functions of the body were available,
,sed on concrete observations and experiments. Mental processes were seen to be linked to
.ivity in the brain. It was recognised that the mind cannot exist without the. body. Our
rception about the world, its sights, sounds and smells isentirely determined by our
isory system, i.e., the eyes, ears, nose, skin etc., and.the brain.
'ou can perhaps see that our description of ancient and philosophical views about the mind
d mental processes is too brief to do justice to the philosophers. But our purpose is not to
into details of what people have thought about mental processes in the course of
~usandsof years of human history. Our purpose is to give you, again briefly, what is
.cientifically known at present about the human mind and behaviour.
'he entire functioning of the human body is coordinated by the nervous system which
nsists of the brain, the spinal cord and the peripheral nerves. The working of the brain
nained a mystery for a long time. Even today, there is a good deal we do not know about
w the brain works, although a lot of information has been pieced together from observing
haviour of patients that suffer from diseases related to tumours or other physical defects in
brain. However, the properties of individual nerve cells that make up the brain and the
of the nervous system are well understood now. From these properties we can attempt to
lain the operations of the entire nervous system.

._-,.,,.,

~lreulcalstudents to

dissect cadavers. The internal

systems of the human body thus
'became known.

I.

23.3 FUNCTIONAL UNIT OF THE NERVOUS

SYSTEM - NEURON
-

The human brain is composed of more than one hundred billion (100,000,000,000
or 1011)
cells called 'neurons'. This number which is comparable to the number of stars in the Milky
Way, gives us an idea about the size of the neurons also - because 10" of them fit in a
space which slightly more than a litre of water can occupy. Since these neurons are the
functional units of the whole nervous system, let us become familiar with some of their
basic features. You can see some typical neurons in Fig. 23.1.
Neurons can be categorised into the following kinds according to their functions :
a) Motor neurons

send signals from the nervous system to

muscles and glands.

b) Sensory neurons

carry signals from the receptor cells in sense

organs in the body to the nervous System.
For example, signals generated by touch or
smell or hearing etc.

c) lnter neurons or association neurons :

process the sensory information received

from other neurons, and convey messages.
For example, when an insect bites, the
fingers are given a command to~cratchat
that point. Most of the brain's neurons fall in
this category.

The neurons are specialised to carry iqformation from one part of the body to another. These
messages are referted to as nerve impulses. The nerve impulse occurs in response to some
stimulus or event which excites them.

Notice in Fig. 23.1 that in every neuron, fhe portion of the cell with the nucleus is called the
roll hndv

The

thr~arlike

e u t ~ n c i n n cn f rhe

r ~ l that
l

h r i n u c i n f n r r n a t i n n f r n r n n t h e r t v w c hf

....

v. mm.

Puwsa, n.nm~wncupc,

Insight

3'Av 1

Fill in the blanks with suitable words from those given below
i)

In a neuron, ..................carries messages away from the cell body, while ....................
cames messages towards the cell body.

ii) The gap between the ends of an .................and the dendrite of the next cell is called a

...
111)
iv)

....................

...................... take messages from sense organs to central nervous system.

.....................take messages away from the central nervous systems to muscles and

v) Messages jumps from one nerve cell to another by means of .............=........

(glands, motor neurons, dendrite, synapse, sensory neurons, axon, neurotransmitters,
' axon)
You have studied the structure and functions of individual neurons. Let us now see how
these are organised in highly characteristic ways to form thenervous system in the body.

23.4 CFNTRAL -NERVOUS SYSTEM (CNS)

The nervous system can be di"ided into two major components :the central nervous system
(CNS for short) comprising the brain and the spinal cord, which you will be studying now
and.the peripheral nervous system (PNS for short) comprising individual nerves passing to
all parts of the body. These you will study in Section 23.5. The general organisation of the
nervous system can be seen in Fig. 23.3.

23.4.1 Brain
The centre piece of the nervous system is the brain which IS possibly the most organised
form of matter known. It is unlike any other organ of the body, as ~t alone can recelve,
handle and analyse information and issue necessary commands.
The human brain containing billions of neurons with their axons and dendrites, is soft matter
whlch has a folded appearance. Since the brain is a delicate organ, it is extremely well
PERIPHERAL protected by three tough membranes and floats In a special fluid which helps to absorb
NERVES
shocks. The whole organ is then enclosed In a bony skull. (Flg. 23.4). The brain is very well
supplied with oxygen, whtch is carried by blood. In fact, 75% of the body requirement of
oxygen is used by the bra~n.Four ~nter-connectedarteries carry blood to the brain so that
even if two are blocked there are still two alternate passages. These four arteries are
connected to mill~onsof blood vessels called capillhries whlch reach every part of the brain.
If the flow of blood is interrupted for even 10 seconds, we become unconscious and an
interruption of a few minutes may cause permanent damage to the brain cells. These
damaged brain cells cannot be replaced as the number of neurons in the brain does not
increase after the age of five years. In fact, some neurons die every day. But, fortunately, we
have them in such large numbers that it does not make too much of a difference. This slow
but permanent loss of neurons is thought to be responsible for the loss of mental ability in
old age. Becausefhe loss of neurons is irreplaceable, diseases like poliomyelitis that destroy
neurons, lead to muscular disability, called paralysis as muscles connected to the destroyed
neurons do not receive any messages.
Even though the total number of neurons deerease, as ane grows older, the number of
connections amongst them in the brain increase. It is thought that learning involves the
establishment of new connections or circuits in the brain and once they are established, they
are relatively permanent. Persons with larger heads are not necessarily more intelligent, but
persons with more and complex interconnections are.
Fig. 23.3: Nervous system o f man
showing central nervous system and
per~pheralnerves

Let us now have a brief overview of the major regions and structures of the brain. It would
be best to read this section without trying to memonse all the new terms. You could refer
back to them as needed. The major regions of the brain are showo in Fig. 23.4 and Fig. 23.5.
These are forebrain, midbrain &d hindbrain. The forebrain itself has many parts which
we will now describe. .

RIGHT
HEMISPHERE

SPINAL CORD

Fig. 23.4: The human'braincut in the medial plhe showing its majy divisions.
encased in the bony cranium and the spinal cord encased in the vertebral colunin.

Fig. 23.5: Frontal view of brain showing the band of nerve

fibres connecting the two cerebral hemispheres.

Forebrain
The largest part of the brain that you see in Fig. 23.4 is the cerebrum. It consists of two
halves or hemispheres joined together by a band of nerve fibres (see Fig. 23.5). Interestingly
the crossing over of nerve fibres here causes the right half to control the actions.of the left
side of the body and vice versa. The outer surface of the cerebrum is the cerebral cortex. It
is often referred to as the 'grey matter' because of its colour. It is profusely supplied with
blood vessels.
The cortex was explored in a very fascinating way, particularly by a Canadian neurosurgeon, Wilder Penfield: Since 1900's it was known that the brain cpntained no pain
:ceptors and.henceit could be operated upon, without making the person unconscious: '
'ith local anesthesia, the top of the skull could be removed like a cap to expose the cortex.
Penfield did exactly this and he stimulated different parts of the cortex, one by one, by
~chingthem with an electric wire or probe. He was amazed to observe the reactions of the
dtients. On touching one part of the cortex with the probe, the patients could see, hear or
nell or feel! Patients could revive old memories. Some reported hearing the sound of a
articular song; one woman felt as if her daughter was in the room talking to her; another.
erson could actually recollect the smell of flowers! Stimulation of other regions caused
notor responses such as the movement of an a m or Ikg.
In Fig. 23.6, you see a sideview ofi the cerebral cortex where some functions associated with
specific portions have been shown.

MOTOR
SENSORY

Fig. 23.6: Sidev~ewof human cerebral cortex showing functions assignea to sevolal uoas.

for linguiscc abiliiy, mathematical and scientific p;4msolving drill.,

intuitive alnlities (
is responsible for artistic, musical, pcrcep:ual
General1y analytical processes an assbt5at.d 8
'with the right hemispheres. In science both se-.
role. In executing a piece of art, dre left !ms to
cverall view and appreciation. So fhis division bf labour is nat rigid
that 0,p r ght and left half of the brain play a complementary rule in
6

etc

Among other pattishawn in Fig-23.4 yoin will notice'the thalamus Whkb

for sensory signals on their way to the cecebrd cortex and ajsn for dgmS

it. The part below it catleo ~trehypo tho^

various functions of the body are in-balance an
optimum. For exampl~,it continuously monitors
of carbon dioxide phsent in the blood, the hypothaIamus reduces
rate. If your body temperature rises, it causes sweating to occur. I
and'also plsjs r major role in the control of sleep, sexual behaviouf nd
Midbrain
The midbrain is a small but important part of the brain. It receives inpug
organs, every part of the body and filters sensory information or deddes
should reach the concerned ngions of the brain. The midbmin plays,aiokia
and damage to it results in coma or permanent sleep.
Hindbrain
The hindbrain consists of the tor-ilun and brdn sten (refer Pig. 23.4).
like the cerebrum is divided into two halves and lies underneath the M d

$
@

-4

movements rather than jerky uncoordinated ones. Amxhcr function of

involves the maintenance of balance. Impulses from the eyes and b ~ r s
of your position in your surroundings. The caebellum Ehen sends mtwrpcg
are responsible for your posture to maintain balanca. You may not evm be
ceiebellum's fcnctions, as rrone of the activities it controls an volunw.
portion of the b r i n tixat connects it to the spinal cord.The low
helps regulate respiration, blood pressure, vornitting and aher
damage to the ~ u l l a w u l easily
d
lead to death.

5<0s

1#0111

... .

lil t
n ouii..., di ihe sidevie& of the human heod (Fin.
. 23.8): 'h,
ceretrum, cerebellum. thaladcls, hypothalamus and midbrain
'on; function of each of the, above stated parts of the brain,

.t.

Mid and BodJ

23.4.2 Spinal Cord

Ihe spinal cord extends downwards from the brain stem through the protecting bony rings
called vertebrae down the centre of the backbone, to the bottom of the back. Its core is
H-shaped in cross section (Fig. 23.9) and is composed of several kinds of neurons. The
s u m d i n g mattez is mostly long cables of axon fibres. The cord, too, is cwered like the
brain with thne membranes and contains fluid between the membranes.
I

'Ihman 3 1 pairs of spinal nerves, that branch off from the spinal cord throughout its
length, between the bones of the spine. These nerves carry sensory signals upto the brain and
motor signals down from the brain to various parts of the body.

233 PERIPHERAL NERVOUS SYSTEM (PNS)

I
I
i
I

Except for the brain and the spinal cord, the rest of the network of nerves and neurons is
included in tha peripheral nervous system, or PNS for short. This system links the brain and
spinal cord to the rest of the body. Any message that is sent to the brain or from it to the rest
of body, travels along the peripheral nerves. The PNS consists of 12 pairs of individual
nerves called cranial nerves, originating from the brain hence called cranical nerves (from
cranium, the skull) and the 31 pairs of spinal nerves that branch off from the spinal cord.
Each spinal nerve splits into three components soon after leaving the spinal cord. Onebranch passes to the skin and muscles of the front of the body; a second branch leads to the
skin and muscles of the back; the third branch reaches the internal organs.
The first two branches carry sensory information to the brain, and carry motor signals from
the brain to the muscles and glands. The third branch forms the "autowmicsystem" which
governs actions of the internal organs that are mostly involuntary. If you look at Fig. 23.3
again, you would be able to appreciate the vast network of nerves that make up the
peripheral nervous system.

23.5.1 Reflexes

It is of interest to +ow, that all sensory information does not have to go to the brain before
we can react to a stimulus. Our responses to certain stimuli are simpk;hnianed and quick.
For instance, if a finger is too close to a burning match, receptor cells on the skin send the
infarmation on a nerve to the spinal cord, and a 'reflex action' is taken to move the finger
away f m the fire. Such 'reflex drcuits' are well distributed and one is shown in Fig. 23.9.
AXON OF

SFvS{o"NY
SENSORY NEURON

23.% spinal w.and a r e f i x circuit.

IN SKIN

IiVormation, Knowledge,
Inslght

Now let us see what happens when a pin pricks the finger.
The pin p-rick is the stimulus which activates a receptor cell at that point.
A nerve impulse is transmitted away from the skin along a sensory neuron to the spinal
cord.
The impulse is now passed through the inter neuron to the motor neuron and finally
passes to the-muscle which pulls the hand back from the painful event.

3
Part of a routine physical
examination involves testing a
person's reflexes. The condition of
the nervous system, part~cularlythe
functioning of the synapses, may be
determined by examining reflexes.
In case of injury to some portion of
the nervous system, testing certa~n
lrpflexes may indicate the locat~on
and rrrtent of the injury. Also, an
anesthesiologist may try to iflitlate
a reflex to ascertain the effect of an
anesthetic.

The brain is not normally involved in such simple reflex actions. Only after the event, is
the brain informed and we become conscious of what has happened. The time gap
between the stimulus and the response is about 1115th of a second and this is often
crucial for survival. For instance, a person who is driving a car has to apply his brakes
to avoid a sudden collision with another car. His reflex action timing is important if he (
has to avoid the accident. Similarly, the reflexes of an airplane pilot have to be fast to
avoid disaster. Human capacity to handle equipment and machines is limited by the
time taken by one's reflexes.
Simple reflexes have these important qualities:
they are inherited and not learnt. Therefore, not forgotten,
they are not normally under our control, therefore, they are automatic, though some
reflexes can be controlled by will power,
for any given stimulus the response is always the same.

SAQ 3
Put the following in correct order for a simple reflex circuit. lndicate this order by putting 1
2,... etc., in the boxes given against each statement. We have done one for you as all
example.
a) message travels through motor neuron
b) message travels through sensory neuron
c) muscle is stimulated to contract

n
n
n

d) receptor cell or organ is stimulated

e) message travels through inter neuron

23.5.2 Autonomic System

The autonomic nervous system gets its name from the fact that it relates to autonomous*or
self-regulatory activities such as digestion and circulation, which continue even when we are
asleep or unconscious. Impulses from the brain and spinal cord travelling along the
autonomic nerves, cause blood vessels to dilatwr contract, digestion to slow or speed up,
body temperature to rise or fall, all according to the changing requirements. The autonomic
system consists of two sets of nerves:
The sympathetic nerves which stimulate the body to react in a situation of stress or
danger by increasing the blood pressure, heart beat rate, breathing and flow of blood to
the muscles, and by decreasing the flow of blood to the digestive organs and kidneys. All
these reactions are a preparation for a sudden expenditure of energy in either fighting or
fleeing.
The parasympathetic nerves which prepare the body for relaxed functions. The
autonomic nervous system does, however, interact with conscious nervous activity. For
example, it is well known that anxiety and mental tension can affect digestion, they tven
cause peptic ulcers or high blood pressure. A child's dislike for school may make him
sick every morning, without his being conscious of the connection. Under certain
conditions, with lot of practice, some people have found it possible to consciously control
heart beat, or blood pressure, or body temperature or breathing rate and oxygen intake;
others may regulate the feeling of pain or even correct malfunction of an organ. But these
are extraordinary and excepticnal abilities ckveloped with tremendous expenditure c&
time and effort.

st

. i) :interacts with con ious nervous activity to affect the body functions
I

ii) controls activitied that are volunta~

~
I

M'-d and BOay

iii) controls act~vitiesthat are involuntary and self- regulatory

iv) 'activates the body in a situation of stress
V) all of the above.

23.6 HORMONAL SYSTEM

Most of us are not even aware that another system works constantly, along with the nervous
system and the muscles, to direct our bodily functions. The system depends on chemical
substances called hormones that are released by special glands called endocrine glands.
These glands have no opening or ducts but release their secretions directly into the blood
stream as it passes through their.tissues. You can see theirlocation in the body in Fig. 23.10

HYPOTHA
PITUITARY
GLAND
THY ROlD
PARATHYROID
GLAND

Fig. 23.10: Location of some endocrine dlands. The figure shows both ovaries and testes for convenience.

Each hormone acts on a certain organ in a specific way. Many of the effects of hormones are
long term changes, for example, the changes that take place in the body during growth and
sexual maturity. However, some of the changes may be quick like the ones that occur when
the heart rate and breathing rate is increased or decreased.
l

A lis of some of the major endocrine glands a!ong with the hormones they secrete is given
in Ta le 23.1. You are not expected to remember each of them. The information is provided,
in case, you are curious to know more about these glands.

You can see that these hormones are vital for the proper functioning of the body. They
regulate the chemical reactibns in the body and consequently play a critical role in
maintaining n o h a l physical conditions or homeostasis. If hormones are to serve a
regulatory function. they must be produced at the proper time. in proper amounts. This. is
controlled by the brain, receiving information from all parts of the body and giving
appropriate signals to the glands. This feedback system is very much like a thermostat that
controls temperature in a machine. Any break in this feedback system leads to severe
consequences. For exainple. the thyroid gland produces thyroxine which controls.the
metabolic rate in the body. Oversecretion tends to make a person thin, overactive and

anxious while undersecretion makes him over-weight and sluggish. Thyroxine deficiency, in
fact, causes mental as well as physical retardation which can be prevented if the deficiency
is discovered sufficiently early and the right amount of the hormone is given.
The hormones work in close coordination with our nervous system. For example, in a
situation of danger or fear, the sense organs convey the information to the central nervous
system and the autonomic system is activated within seconds. The adrenal glands arc also
activated to release a hormone called adrenaline. When adrenaline reaches the alimentary
canal and the skin. their blood vessels conwact, diverting the blood supply to the muscles;
the pupils of the eyes are dilated and glucose is released in the blood to speed up the rate of
breathing. All these changes help a person who requires increased activity such as running
away or fighting. You would be able to identify all these actions with those initiated by the
autonomic nervous system that you have studied in sub-section 23.5.2.
Some major Endorrim Chnb and their F u w h w

GhnQ

Horlnom

Functlona

Hypothalamus

Group of n l w i n g or
inhibiting factors

Stimulates b inhibits pituitary

Pituitary ''

Antidiuretic (ADH)

Inhibits urine production

Growth hormone

C . u v utrine conhPCtions in delivery and

production of milk
CMes growth of bones, muscles and glands

- ~drcnocorticotropich o m ~ m(ACTH)
Thyroid stimulating honnone (TSH).
Gonadumphincs
Parathyroid

Parathormone

Thyroid
Adrenal medulla

Thyroxme
Cakitonin
Adrenalin

Adrenal cortex

Noiadnnalin
Group of hormones

Pancreas

Sex hormones
Insulin

lncnuss blood cakjuh level

Incream metabolic nte
Lowem Mood calcium level
~heutuwtmpirationntcr.Mood
supr kvol stc.

W e s body to metrbolile nu*,

sco~gcoffrtr

nph

Glucagon

hcrmcs level of sugar in blood

Ovaries

Estrogen

Regulates functions of u W . pwnasl

secondary r e x d chuacten

Testes

Testosterone

Nervous control evokes these reactions very rapidly in the time of danger; hormones provide
a backup that maintains the response after the initial shock is over. This explains the state of
'nervous energy' that remains even after the final exam or a performance is over.
Often we see that in combination with the nervous system, hormones can change the
behaviour of a person. Some of the abnormal behaviours shown by an individual may well
be due to over or tinder secretion of certain hormones. ~ d d athe
~ ,science of biochemistry
has made it possible to synthesise hormones, which can be administered to the body by
means of injections or given orally, if the glands are unable to produce the right amount
needed at different times. The most common example is that of insulin, which has m a
diabetic people live a longer and normal life.
SAQ 5
Tickemark the correct alternative from the words given in each parenthesis.
i) The effect of hormones is (slowerlfaster) than nervous action.
ii) Hormones are (vitallunimportant)for the proper functioning of our body.
iii) Hormones (cannotican) be supplemented externally if the body is not able to
produce them in adequate amounts.

are
ksming, m&ory

intelligence. .,

is divided into the Cenaal Nervous System. consisting of the brain

the Peripbd Nervous System, consisting of all the nerves in the
snd functions of the nervous system are summarised in the table
The H
(

w N m a u System
Functions

Centre of thought, memory, intelligence, initiates

voluntary actions: interprets sensations; controls emotions.
Associated with forebrain and hindbran, nceives and
filters smsory information before sending it to the
fmtnaio.
Relays messages between brain and spinal cord, controls
involuntary functions like respiration. Coordinates
equilibrium and movement.
C d s infomation between brain and peripheral nervous
, ,
system. Pan d,reflex circuits.
,
,
.

.:

.
I

'

Take messages from sense organs to CNS.~Aluntary.

control of muscks:
involuntary control of internal organs Respond to
emergencies, ~ncrcarchean rate, d,l: r pupils, increase

nervous rca%on that does not involve the brain. The s~mplest
MVCI
a 6emmy neuron, an inter neuron and a motor neuron connected
qWem ~aIhighly
I
integrated sys&mcapable of coordinating and
MBYM#W b d 8 ~ to
8 e~hievean enonnous range
- and choice of responses.
wcntd by them are vital for the normal
irtisnct m d grwth of an individual. Some of these: hormones work
witb rhe nervous qs#m to affect behaviour.

md. thc

Jr%vnation, knowledge,
Insrght

People who suffer damage to the cerebral hemisphere are mentally impaired but alive,
people who suffer damage to the brain stem, especially medulla, almost always die
within a short time. What aspect of brain functioning do you think accounts for this
difference?

.............................................................................................................................................

Keeping in mind the properties of simple reflexes. explain briefly whether coughing is
a reflex or voluntary action.

Describe briefly the differences between coordination by hormones and coordination

by the nervous system. You should write your answers keeping in mind:
a) The route of cortduction of messages,
b) The speed of conduction, and
c) The speed and duration of response.

Tick the correct statements in the boxes provided alongside the statements.
i) The right half of the cerebral cortex controls the left side of the body and vice
versa.
ii) Only the left hemisphere of the cerebral cortex is specialised for language.
iii) Motor areas of the brain control the voluntary muscle activity.
iv) The central nervous system consists of the brain and spinal cord.
V) The millions of possible inter-connections between the nerve cells in the brain
.
are responsible for complicated actions. learning, memory and intelligence.
vi) Hormones secreted by endocrine glands work as a separate system of
coordination.

23.9 ANSWERS
Self-Assessment Questions
1)
,

i)
ii)
iii)
iv)
v)

axon, dendrite
axon, synapse
sensory neurons
motor neurons, glands
neurotransmitters

2)

Compare the labelling with Fig. 23.4.

Cerebrum

3)

Cerebellum
Thalamus

Hypothalamus
Midbrain

a)
b)
c)
d)
e)

thinking, speech, taste and other complex responses

coordination of movements; maintains balance of body
relay centre for incoming sensory messages to the cortex
controls thirst, hunger etc., maintains homeostasis
decides which stimuli should reach the concerned parts
of the brain.

-4
-2
-5
-1

-3

4)

Correct statements are (i), (iii) and (iv).

5)

a) slower
b) vital
C) can

Terminal Questions
1) a) 4 cell bodies

b) 4 synapses

i)
ii)
iii)
iv)

of pain receptor cell

of sensory neuron
inter neuron
motor neuron

i)
ii)

between pain receptor and dendrite of sensory neuron

between axon of sensory neuron and cell body of inter
neuron
between axon of inter neuron and cell body of motor
neuron
between axon of motor neuron and muscle cell

iii)
iv)
2)

Damage to cerebral hemisphere affects voluntary actions, while damage to medulla

disrupts body functions that are vital to life like heart beat, breathing, blood pressure.
These functions are involuntary and must go on if life hss to be sustained.

3)

It can be both. You can cough deliberately but normally it is a reflex action.
i) because it is an involuntary response when the throat is imtated or if food
accidentally goes into the windpipe.
ii) The response to such situations is always the same. One does not forget them.

4)

a) messages travel along nerves and nerve fibres while hormones are secreted directly
into the blood which takes them to the target organ.
b) Messages are conducted much faster by nervous system within a second while
action of hormones is slower-from 4 few minutes to days.
C) The response for nervous impulses is immediate while for hormones, the response
may be over years.

5)

True statements are: (i), (iii), (iv) and (v).

~ i n and
d Body

UNIT 26 MODES OF COMMUNICATION

Structure
26.1 Introduction
Objectives

26.2

Mass Communication
A Historical Perspective
Media of Mass Communication Today

Effective Media in the Indian Context

26.3 Technological Advances in Mass Communication

State of Communication in the Past
Communication Revolution

26.4 Social and Economic Impact of Modem Communication Technology

26.5 New World Information and Communication Order

The Old Order

How the Concept of the New Order Developed
Controversies Around NWICO
Relevance of NWICO in Our National Context

26.6 Summary
26.7 Terminal Questions
26.8 Answers

INTRODUCTION
In the previous Unit, you have studied the role of mass media in national development. In
this Unit, we shall describe various means of mass communication in their historical
perspective and also the role that technology has played in making media available to the
vast masses of our country. We shall also discuss the impact of information technology on
culture; as well as in the social and economic spheres.
Information plays a very important role in international relations. With proper
communication between peoples of different countries, information can be an instrument of
understanding and sharing of knowledge. However, the collection and dissemination of
information is, today, in the hands of a few international h s , leading to unequal sharing of
information. Hence, the need for a New World Information and Communication Order,
which would make it possible to have a balanced and equitable sharing of information
between the developed and the developing countries. Taking note of the relevance of the
'New Order' in our own context, we would discuss how we could improve our national
communication order, leading to better understanding between different groups and sections
of people, and to the emergence of a composite culture.

Objectives
After studying this Unit, you should be able to :
understand the historical perspective in which these media grew and their role and
effectiveness in the Indian context,
describe the role of technology in mass communication,
appreciate the impact of il~formationtechnology in socio-economic and cultural spheres,
realise the importance of balanced and equitable sharing of information and the relevance
of New World Infomation and Communication Order.

26.2 MASS C,OMMUNICATION

The well-known exponent of the role of mass media in development, Dr. Wilbur Schramm,
who headed a team of experts to advise the development of infrastructure of information in

~ndiaand the establishment of thg Indian Institute of Mass Communication had a meeting
with our first Prime Minister, Mr. Jawaharlal Nehru, in 1962. Later, Schramm described the
meeting in these words: "This was on an afternoon when Mr. Nehru was relaxed, happy. He
asked me, By the way what is this mass communication? I do not think 1 understand it very
well' and I said 'But Mr. Prime Minister, you are the chief mass comrllunicator of India'. I
mentioned the crowds of hundreds of thousands, books and broadcasting. He threw back his
head and laughed, 'Oh that' and said, ' I guess I do know something about it'. Nehru poked
fun at the electronic system, the loud-speakers that would not work or gi7 out of order before
half of his long speeches were over. Then he said something that I never forgot. He said,
"Thiswill help us to talk together"
Wilbur Schramm, later, underlined the words-'this will help us to talk together'. The
words are important, because they bring out the meaning of inter-personal communication in
Indian society and indicate the emergence of mass communication, i.e., communicating with
a large number of people.
As you perhaps know, mass communication in India began without the use of electronic
media, like radio and television. The beginning can be traced back to communication within
a social group. For example, a village panchayat has been and continues to be a centre.
Similarly, religious gatherings, whether at a place of worship or when organised on special
occasions have, from time immemorial, functioned as centres of communication. Then, there
are any number of fairs and melas where people in large numbers gather together to
,
communicate on a variety of subjects (see fig. 26.1).

Fig. 26.1. A puppet show-traditional

II
I

means of communication

26.2.1 A Historical Perspective

Role of communication during our freedom struggle has been briefly discussed in the
previous Unit. But it must be said here, that Gandhiji was the greatest communicator the
country has produced. Those of us, who were there to attend some of his prayer meetings,
will recall the influence his addresses at these meetings exercised on the minds of the
people. He was not an impressive public speaker, in the conventional sense. He did not
indulge in rhetorics, bqt used popular language. His language and idiom were the same, as
of the oidinary people of India. He shared his th~nkingwith his audience; he did not appear
to impose his ideas. Above all, he spoke with conviction and with genuine concern for the
welfare of all human beings. Sincerity and simplicity characterised his communication with
the people. Gandhiji's message reached the length and breadth of the country. It may be
called that during his satyagraha, Gandhiji was able to involve ordinary men and women
from all walks of life. Take the 'Salt Satyagraha' in 1930. Salt is consumed in every home.
When Gandhiji decided to launch a satyagraha against the tax on salt and to make salt from
sea-water, it was a unique strategy in communication, of which there are few parallels in the
world. The peoples' boycott of the British goods brought into sharp focus the economic and
political aspirations of the people and strengthenedtheir resolve to fight agaifist the foreign nllr.

Modes of
CommuniePtion

Infotmatbn, Knowlcdgo.
~nslght

SAQ 1
Classify the following as p e ~ n acommunication
l
(P)or as mass communication (M).
Your discussion with your friend regqrding the performance of India in a
cricket test match.

i)

ii) lndira GandhilNational Open University sending study mat)erials to the

students.
iii). Gindhiji's address in the prayer meeting.
f v l Editorial of a newspaper.

26.2.2 Medh of Mass C o ~ u n i d i o R - T d a y

Today, while the inter-personal communication continues to play bn impfhnt mk m aro.

country, we have a developed media system. In the media of mass comm'~icrtion,we
All India Radio, Doordarshan, newspapers and journals and films in various lPnettryler A
brief reference to the role of each medium may be in order.
,

'1'

'

All India Radio

All India Radio has had a history of nearly 60 years. Today with 91 broadcastiqg stathas
and 167 transmitters, AIR'broadcasts can reach nearly 95 per cent of India's ptpulat@ .
What is called the transistor revolution in early 60's, was largely responsible for e x p d l q
the effectiveness of radio broadcasting, because it made receivers cheaper and really
.
portable. The daily programme output from all the transmitters is more thhn 15.00 ~ Q W )
day, in all national languages and in many dialects. Programmes for women and the ~d
listeners are carried by more than 60 stations. A 'large number of stations brosdcaet
programmes for youth, children and other special groups. Since there is no licenaiq d m
sets now, an exact figure of the number of radio sets in the country is difficult to give. ' .
Perhaps the total number of radio sets in the country is apund 50 million. It hm ban '
claimed on behalf of All India Radio,'that the number of people listening to radio
.
programmes is over 200 million (see fig: 26.2). The radio sets are comparrti*

Flg 26.2 Even today the d i o is om of h e must effective Md pquhr wdium d

J
4

inexpensive and for their operation they do not have to depend u p the avaWiM$af'
haasehald power supply, many of them work on dry cells. All them factors make AH
Radio as the most extensive medium of mass communication in the counb.
Doordarshan
Doordarshan began only in 1959, as a small experimental set-up. It ured Db hrva*jl$r)
programmes in a week for one hour every day. Till 1972, the only TV c%!ntmin t
b'

----

II

was in New Delhi, with a coverage of about 60 km.radius around the station. TV centres in
Bombay, Srinagar and Amritsar came in 1973 and 1974. But the year 1975 turned out to be
a land mark in the development of TV in India. Centres were set-up in Calcutta, Madras and
Lucknow. More importantly, during this year, the satellite mode of transmission of TV
programmes was first used in India. The idea was to transmit a TV programme to a satellite
which appeared stationary to an observer on the earth; it went round the earth in the same
period of 24 hours as the earth took to turn on its axis. The satellite received these
programmes and transmitted them back to the earth so that large areas could receive them.
Since the programmes were educational in content the whole arrangement was called the
Satellite Instructional Television Experiment (SITE). The programmes cou!d be received
by special sets installed in six states in the country with approximately 400 sets in each state.
The states were: Andhra Pradesh, Bihar, Karnataka. Orissa, Gujarat and Rajasthan. An
interesting feature was that the Indian Space Research Organisation (ISRO) was made
responsible for the transmitters as well as for the setting up and maintenance of the sets.
Since the whole experiment was carefully monitored, like a scientific experiment, many
important things about the language, the presentation and the content of the programmes
were learnt.
The next milestone in the expansion of TV was the coverage of the Asian Games in
November 1982. In order to provide opportunities to people in several paks of the country to
view the games, 20 low power transmitters were installed. Again a satellite was used to
enhance the coverage. In the same year, Doordarshan started colour transmission for the first
time. India's own multi-purpose satellite, INSAT-lB, was launched in August 1983. At the
time of launching of the satellite, the then Prime Minister, late Mrs. Indira Gandhi said: "We
are launchink our satellite and developing our television network to take advantage of TV to
entertain and enlarge awareness. Radio and Television, particularly in a national network are
both ideal media to reinforce national integration. At the same time, they have immense
potential to put new life into regional art forms. Communication poses a major challenge
and opportunity to us. We need people of imagination to take this up" This, in a way, sums
up the role assigned to the TV medium, to inform, educate and entertain, besides creating
national awareness.
The availability of INSAT-1B and the use of low-power transmitters and direct broadcast
receivers in some places determined the future TV expansion. In July 1983, the Government
of India sanctioned a gigantic scheme for the expansion of the network involving 680
million rupees. Before the scheme was launched, there were only 45 TV transmitters,
potentially covering 28 per cent of the population. The expansion plan raised the number to
180, and a potential coverage to above 70 per cent. By the end of the seventh Five Year Plan
(1990) the number of transmitters and coverage will be further enhanced.

Films
Films are an important medium for communication. We produce over 800 films every year
and are, probably, the largest producers of films in the world. The Films Division of the
Government of India produces news reels, news magazines and documentary films, while
commercial films are ~roducedin the private sector. Commercial films claim to have social
themes, but, in fact, most of them are entertainment, and that too of not a very high standard.
Themes dealing with violence and sex in pictorial presentation may attract the audiences for
I the moment but do not bring about "a social change" or awareness. This may be a
, controversial statement and you can have your own views on this subject. However, there is
yet another constraint in the effectiveness of films as a medium of mass communication and
that is the limited number of cinema houses in the country. The number is estimated to be
.only 12,000. For a population of 800 million this is, indeed, very small.
Newspapers and Journals
Newspapers and journals have an important role in o w communication system. The number
uf newspapers and periodicals in various languages was about 22 thousand in 1984 and their
total circulation was about 6 million. However, there are two points to be considered in
assessing the effectiveness of newspapers in communication. First, only the literate
population can take advantage of the newspapers, even though in certain situations, the
literate persons also share information with others. And, secondly, the reach of newspapers
in distant and remote areas is restrained by problems of transportation etc. Circulation of
newspapers is still largely confined to metropolitan towns and other urban centres. However,
the credibility of the printed word in o w society is very strong. People are more gullible than
discerning in this respect. Also, the newspapers and journals are mostly free from
gQvemment control and.claim better acceptance by the people. This statement, can be

Modes of
Communication'

--

Information, Knowledge,
Insight

challenged because a number of newspapers indulge in sensational news and views which
may attract the readers, but may not f&lp hkEi to understand news and views in a larger
perspective. The essence of the matter is that whether it is radio listening, or TV viewing or
newspaper reading, the receiver of the message, that is people in this case, has to have a
critical judgement of its own.
-

SAQ 2
'
Choose any two media of mass communication described in the text. Discuss their
advantages, and limitations.

UNESCO stands for United

Nations Educational Scientific
and Cultural Organisation.

26.2;3 Effective Media in the.Indian Context

What then is the most effective and suitable system of information and communication in
India? Perhaps a simple answer is that each medium should expand evenly to reach even
more vast audiences, and besides providing entertainment, should have social relevance.
The view is important, because in the present spread of media, there are imbalances and
inequalities. Certain regions are served better than the others. States like Bihar and Orissa,
which are economically backward are also inadequately served by the media. There is a
noticeable variation between the urban and the rural population. The media of mass
communication are centred primarily in the urban areas. The number of radio and TV sets,
newspapers and the films, all have a high concentration in towns. The rural population, i.e.,
70 per cent of the population of India, have much less share in all these media. This is also
the reason for an urban bias in the approach and content. A much higher percentage of
programmes, writings and themes concern the urban population.
If we go by our experience, the ideal system of communication may be a combination
between the media of mass communication and what has been referred to as inter-personal
communication. Let us cite an example. AIR had launched a UNESCO spqnwred
experiment of Radio Rural Forum in the State of Maharashtra in L956. Under this
experiment, groups were organised in a number of villages. The groups or forums, as they
were called, brought together some enterprising farmers to listen to the radio programmes
especially designed for them by AIR, Pune. The participants discussed the contents and
interacted among themselves. They sent their reactions to the broadcasdng station.
According to a study report, the most significant aspect of the experiment was "the stirrings
it aroused in the minds ofthe people and the ring of sincerity and the note of inquiry it lent
to their voice". Organised group discussions, on an equal footing for all participants, were

an entirely novel experience for these villagers. It was only after first two or three meetings,
that the age-old convention was broken off, allowing only the elders and the so-call9d
respectable persons to participate in discussions.
The stimulating atmosphere of group listening enabled the participants to assert their rights.
The hundreds of decisions taken, the wells dug, the pure-bred bulls and Leghorns bought,
theparketing societies and balwadis established, all bear witness to the effective role of theradio community forum.
The radio programmes were supported by discussions, as well as printed and visual
materials on the same theme. The experiment was a great success. The conclusion, that a.
modem medium; supported by inter-personal communication and other aids like posters,
slides etc., can be most effective. clearly stands out.

SAQ 3
Name two important factors which should be considered while choosing effective media of
mass communication in our country.

.....................................................................................................................................................

26.3 TECHNOLOGICAL ADVANCES IN MASS

COMMUNICATION
Technology has contributed to major advances in mass communication. Let us see what was
the state of communication in the past and what are the possibilities today.

26:3.1 State of Communication in the Past

Those of us who have experience of life in remote villages, far away from urban centres, are
familiar with such features as poor roads which often become impassable during the rainy
season,unreliable.and irregular postal services, non-existence of telephone facilities and a
very small number of individuals who can read and write. What could possibly be the
communication links for such a village with the outside world? The answer would perhaps
be, the radio and visits of extension workers. The radio is also not available in every
household. In such a situation, it is not surprising, if the people turn inwards and become
apathetic or even fatalistic about their economic and social life. Clearly, for a developing
country like ours, this is not a very happy situation. Does this situation exist even now?
The scenario is undergoing change. Most of our villages have their own institutions like
Panchayats.and schools which sometimes function as community centres. A number of them
may have the facility of a telephone connection and if they are electrified, they may have a
TV set at the community centre or even in a few households. Even so, the traditional forms
of communication like folk music or folk drama, and communication from person to person
still dominate the communication system. These traditional media can also be utilised for
economic development and social awakening.

26.3.2 Communication Revolution

It is in this background, that communication revolution is being ushered in ou: country. In
the recent years, the rural people who have access to TV viewing, might have seen on the
T V screen, Doordarshan's coverage of landing of man on the Moon. They are all too
familiar with the Doordarshan's simultaneous transmission of national events like the
Independence Day and Republic Day celebrations, i.e., they are watching the programme, at
the same time, as the events are taking place in the national capital. But the viewers are
scarcely aware of the transmission mode through satellite which makes such a thing
possible.

Satellite
Satellite transmission is one important symbol of revolution in communication technology.
Besides transmitting picture and sound over long distances, it has revolutionised
telecommunicaiion, telephone, telegraph etc. (Fig. 26.3). Already, from a number of towns
in India, we can make long distance telephone'calls not only to other towns within the
country but also to several towns in other countries through direct dialling, i.e., without the
help of a telephone operator. In fact, for remote places like Leh, Port-Blair and Aizwal

Fig. 26.3: INSAT-I System Utilisation

which are separated by Jea or difficult terrain, satellite transmission offers the only viable
afid feasible means of linkage. The Satellite Instructional Television Experiment (SITE)
conducted in our country during 1975-76 was possible only with the help of an American
satellite, but in 1978, Government af India decided to launch its own programme of

Modes ofCommunication

Information, Knowledge,
Insight

multi-purpose satellites for expanding the communication network in the entire country.
INSAT- 1A was launched in 1982, but it developed technical snags. INSAT- 1B was then .
launched in 1983, and INSAT-1C in 1988. These satellites have been providing widespread
coverage to the media, in addition to many other services like in the fields of mete~~ology,
resource surveys, telecommunication,and research etc. (Fig. 26.4; 26.5)

- INSAT VHRR IMAGING/

CYCl
,. - -n
-N.F- TRACKING

- CYCLONE WARNING

SELECTIVELY ADDRESSEABLE DWS RECEIVERS

RADAR

Fig. 26.4: Disaster Wamidg System Concept.

\ @.
RURAL
TELEGRAPH
TERMINAL
STATION

rmT=F=F

Fig. 26.5: Satellite Based Rural Telegraph Network (SBRTN).

Computer
The other most important component of communication technology is the computer. The
computer, which started as a "calculation machine", is today called the "electronic brain".
The area of its utilisation had been vastly extended. Simply put, a computer receives, stores
and analyses almost any kind of data, and in vast quantities. It can process information wiih
incredible speed. Computers can accept or reject messages, reduce or expand them, file
them, index them or answer back with their own messages. In fact, the computer has '
transformed man's access to ana use of information on any subject. The price of computers
has come down due to new technologies of manufacture, and they are already finding places
in offices and homes.
Broadly, it is the convergence and integration of telecommunication technology, computers
and satellites which have brought about a revolution in communication systems. The three
together have transformed broadcasting, telephone system, business operations and even the
social and personal life of individuals.

P W d ~Grn-tion
Techniques
SWleSwleof.the novel services which are being introduced in coimmes like the United States

a &pan;b which may be used on a wider scale in the next decade or so afe as follows :

a ~i&wphonts
for W n g on phone, where picture will be carried in addition to the sound.
ifanep m p u t e ~which would help in buying all necessities sitting at home after the
rrrcosmellt of prices and availability in shops, transferring funds, buying and selling
, &afe,.knowing
all the latest information of weather, transportation, schedules of
&dines, trains, etc.; hotel reservations and so on.
eeds, transferring whole texts
0 , Tektex which is the enhanced telex services at high,
, Jling both uppcr and lower case letters.
Videotext which is the two-way interacthe computerised data retrieval service using
$lightly modified television receiver and telephone line (Fig. 26.6).

____I

Users'

Keypad

finerntor
informa~ion
provider
terminal

I
W: V-xt

tekvision
rtctiver

Telephone
network

is a W~-wr?ysystem allowing subscribers to get ~nformationvia telephone cables,

uble n,
or a combination of the two. Subscribers can also respond via a home computer.

Tdetext which is a one way system used for the transmission o f limited number of pages
by television stations, receivable or ordinary television sets, with a suitable plug-in
&@or (Fig; 26.7).
7

1
Computer

&
Data base

%% 'bbtext b 8 laviain which drt.am provided to subscribers from the source via television signals.
Rw rubrribers m i v e the data on theu television sets.

,
.

'

T@efaxwhich is an electronic mail service used to transmit documents from one

hc&dc (pictun) system to another via the telephone network.
r)#ukxwhich is a digital high speed facsimile service over the public data networks.
?his includes error connction and automatic opemtion.

....

?lmc tire all the possibilities within reach in some of the developed countries. It will be
@b s o d h e befon deveI+g
countries can think of uslng these techniques. However,
,
teletex), is k i n g &on a limited scale in India. .

Fm-4-

In- tvdme two ways in which INSAT-IB has enabled you to get information which would
not have been possible &wise.

Modes of
Co#hmunication

hformation, ~ n o w l e d ~ e ,
Insivht

b) Which of the future communication techniques would be most useful in the lndian
context and why?

.....................................................................................................................................................

26.4 SOCIAL AND ECONOMIC IMPACT OF MODERN

COMMUNICATION TECHNOLOGY
Quite obviously a society which will utilise advanced communication technology in the
ways mentioned above, would develop an entirely different social and economic system. It
would be a transformed society with an entirely different life style. Besides the impact on
industry, administration, public institutions and social services, even family life would
undergo change. Using new technology, newspapers are already being published
simultaneously from many cities, railway and airline bookings are being made by computers
that carry booking information updated every moment, doctors in one country can treat
patients in another, conferences can be held with people sitting in their own offices; these
are wonderful developments. We have mentioned, in Block 3, how communication and
remote control of devices have made it possible to land a craft on the moon and to fly it back
with a sample of moon soil, entirely automatically. Entire factories are being run
automatically, by robots in the advanced countries. All this communication revolution is
there, but the main question, however, is whether the advance communication technology
will, in fact, benefit all countries equally and all sections of our people equally. There is
already reason to believe that the advanced countries not only have q monopoly of
technology of communication, but also the power to'distort and display information in the
way they like. Moreover in any one country, those who already have greater access to
information are likely to benefit more than the others-probably making the rich-poor
divide sharper. A simple example is advertising on TV or other media, which can create a
demand for things we do not need, or promote a culture of superficial westernisation. Of
course, it allows the bigger firms to beat smaller ones which cannot spend equally on
advertisement.
The impact of information technology on our traditional communication system has also to
be considered. In other words, what impact will the new'communication technology have on
our traditions and culture? In our country, traditional forms of communication have been
used for such purposes as dispellirig superstition, outmoded perceptions and unscientific
attitudes. These have been found effective and acceptable to the people because people are
familiar with them. Practitioners of the traditional media use a subtle form of persuasion by
presenting the message in artistic and yet all too familiar forms. Examples abound where
song, drama, dance groups and thelike are used to campaign against social evils or for
advance in farming, health, nutrition and family welfare.
The task before our communication system is touse the traditional media whether they are
local folklores, ballads and story telling or even such proverbs which have their origin in our
mythology. Jatra in West Bengal, Burrakatha in Andhra Pradesh, Villuppatu in Tamil Nadu,
Tamasha in Maharashtra or Alha and Qawwali in Utter Pradesh, all have the capability of
being used for eradicating social evils and for encouraging peoples' participation in
development programmes. Some of these forms were effectively used in our freedom
struggle to awaken national consciousness.

3;

We have to examine the implications of the effect of sophisticated communication

technology on these forms which, besides their effectiveness, are an integral.pafl of our
cultural and social life.

SAQ5
.
What are the other functions ot traditional media aDart from entertaining the masses?

................................................................................. :..-............................................................
......................................................................................................................................................

Modes 01
Communlcntion

26.5 NEW WORLD INFORMATION AND

COMMUNICATION ORDER
It is quite obvious that information plays an important role international relations. As a
means of communication between the peoples of different *unties, information can be an
instrument of understanding and sharing of knowledge. It can bring about amity through
appreciation of problems of the people living in different societies. To mrform this role,
information dissemination should be multi-directional,multi-dimensional and equitable. In
other words, information through mass media like radio, television, newspapers, journals,
books and films should have a free and balanced flow around the world, between countries
and between one region and another.
But, if only a few international firms, or transnational organisations are in control of
collecting and disseminating information, or a few powerful radio and television networks in
the world control flow and choice of information, the flow of information can neither be
balanced nor equitable. It will then tend to serve the interests of those who control the
channels;

26.5.1 The Old Order

Let us look at the present position. Almost 80 per cent of the world news-flow emanates
from the major transnational news agencies like the Reuters. Associated Press, United Press
International and Agence-France-Press. These agencies which are based in UK, USA and
France devote no more than 20 per cent of news coverage to the developing countries where
two-thirds of the people of the world live. Moreover they distribute news q seen by
American, British or French eyes! The imbalance in other information resources is equally
flagrant. In the distribution of the radio frequency spectrum between the few developed
counties and the many developing ones, the situation has been equally disturbing. The
developed countries control nearly 90 per cent of the radio spectrum. The countries which
arrived late in utilising radio thus discover that the ground is already occupied by those who
arrived early! In television software, the western domination is reflected in yet another way.
A number of developing countries still do not have the capacity to produce television
programmes of their own, and they are obliged to broadcast a large number of western
programmes which are culturally discordant. In book publishing too, the picture is similar.
Even in a country which has great material and intellectual resources, most of the books and
journals which are used in universities are in English and naturally represent a particular
manner of understanding and interpreting reality. If you think merely changing over to
Indian languages will help, you should think again. What really needs io be done is top class
thinking and research on our problems, our society and environment. Only then suitable
books can be written in our own languages.

26.5.2 How the Concept of the New Order Developed?

This realisation of western media domination, and a growing sensitivity to the way the Third
World counties are projected in the western media, have together formed the basis of a call
for a New World Information and Communication Order (NWICO).
The call for the 'New Order' gathered momentum during the 1970's even though its
beginning can be traced back to the origin of what may be called the "Third Worldism". The
dissolution of the old colonial empires after World War 11, was also the beginning of a new
awareness in the Third World countries. The Bandung Conference in 1956 was the first
forum at which information and cultural imperialism practised by a few western bigpwers
was questioned by many participating counmes:At this confekence, it was surmised that the
western media, which were powerful and pervasive, were highly biased against the interests
and needs of the people living in the developing countrieswhether independent or still
struggling against the colonial rule. It was strongly felt that the reporting in the western
media was negative and unsympathetic to the aspirati6ns of all these people. There wrts

Bandung is a city in Indonesia. The

conference which is famous for
enunciating the five principles of
co-existence "The Pmcheheel" w k
held at the initiative of leadus of
five countries : Nehru (India),
Suliamo (Indonesia), Nasser
(Egypt), Chou En Lai (China). and
Tito (Yugoslavia).

, Lnf~rmsti~n,
Knowledge,
,

Insight

resentment against the western media which were and continue to be pbately-owned. These
media were used both to support the commercial interests of the media organisations and the
global political and economic interests of the big powers.
In 1973, the Non-aligned Summit Conference at Algiers, for the first time, called for cooperation in the reorganisation of communication systems with a view to establishing direct '
and fast communication between the non-aligned countries. The Summit suggested mutual
exchange and dissemination of information through national and regional channels which
would remove or at least reduce the reliance on the transnational agencies. This was rather a
mild expression of an otherwise deeply felt resentment against the domination of the western
media. Therefore, at that time, the western powers and media controllers chose to ignore it.
Over the years, however, this stand of the non-aligned countries was further amplified. A
more specific concept of cooperation was developed and the non-aligned countries decided
to set up an ~nst~tution
for exchanging of news among themselves. In 1976, the first ever
conference of the information ministers and representatives of news agencies of the nonaligned countries, was held in New Delhi. The Conference expressed its determination to
rectify the imbalance and concretise arrangements for effective cooperation in all fields of
information, mass media, social and cultural information. Also, for- thefirst time, a linkage
between political and economic dependence on the one han4and the information monopoly
on the other, was sought to be established. The demand for a new Iliternational Information
Order, through collective endeavours, to safeguard their political and economic
independence was thus set forth. The Colombo Summit, that followed, ratified the
recommendation of the New Delhi Conference. The Summit also gave a call to all nonaligned and developing countries to co-ordinate their activities in this regard in the United
Nat~onsand other international forums.

UNESCO's involvement in formulation of the New World Informa~ionand Communication

Order needs to be viewed against this background. The General Conference of UNESCO, at
its nineteenth session held in Nairobi in 1976, instructed the Director-General "to undertake
review of all the problems of communication in the contemporary society, seen against the
background of technological progress and recent developments in international relations,
with due regard to their complexity and magnitude". In 1977, the Director-General,
Mr. Amad-Mahtar M'Bow set up a "brain trustt, the International Commission for the Study
of Communication Problems under the presidency of Mr. Sean MacBride. The MacBride
report, as it came to be called, was sent to UNESCO Director-General in 1980, although its
Interim Report had been submitted in 1978 to the twentieth session of UNESCO's General
Conference. The Interim Report itself generated some controversy, but what brought
UNESCO into focus was the Mass Media Declaration of 4978 -"On Fundamental
Principles concerning the contribution of the Mass Media to Strengthen Peace and
International Understanding. The Promotion of Human Rights and to Counter Racialism,
Apartheid and Incitement to War".
Article VI of this Declaration rays: "For the establishment of a new equilibrium and greater
reciprocity in the flow of information, which will be conducive to the institution of a just
and lasting peace and to the economic and political independence of the developing
countries, it is necessary to correct the inequalities in the flow of information to and from
developing countries and between those countries. To this end, it is essential that their mass
media should have conditions and resources enabling them to gain strength and expand, and
to cooperate both among themselves and with the mass media'in developed countries."
Some of the Western countries expressed strong reservation about another resolution which
recommended a direct involvement of UNESCO in international communication. However,
the 1980 General Conference of UNESCO held in Belgrade approved the Final Report of
the MacBride Commission. The Resolution on the New World Information and
Communication Order, which w'as accepted after hard and protracted discussion covered a
wide range of issues, such as:

*
0

elimination of the imbalances in information flow,

elimina6on of negative effects of monopolies,
removal of internal and external obstacles to free and wider flow of information,
freedom and responsibilities of journalists,
improving the capacity of developing countries to improve their own infrastructures.

Besides, mention was made on protecting the cultural and social diversities and identities of
world public. The point to be underlined is, that while the Resolution called for freedom for
all professionals in fhe media, it reiterated that freedom is inseparable from responsibility.

Modes of
Communication

SAQ 6
Give two reasons which led to the demand for a New World Information and
Communication Order.

.....................................................................................................................................................
..,-.

--

26.5.3 Controversies Around the NWIG0

The definition of the New World Information and Communication Order given above has
been objected to by some of the Western countries. In the United States particularly, there
has been a strong reaction against it. Their interpretation is that the Resolution imposes
restrictions on the activities of journalists, that it hampers the "free flow" of information as it
has come to be established and that it legitimises control of government on information.
Hardliners have called it as "interfering with the fundamental right to be freely informed".
This interpretation, quite obviously, is not correct. The view of the Third World and
SocialiSt countries is that the NWICO only challenges the monopoly enjoyed by the western
media, and the projection of their political views, for example, on peace or cold war; biases,
sometimes racist biases and propaganda, plus painting a negative and prejudiced picture of
happenings such as floods, famines, political and social problems in the developing
countries, without any regard to either the achievements or sensitivities of the people in '
these countries. On this point one may quote from Mrs. Indira Gandhi's address at the
Namedia* Conference (1983). She said, "In the media of the West, or indeed in our own,
there is hardly any news about the developing countries unless it be of disaster or
disturbance. The stupendous task of development, the changes coming about in our villages,
towns, amongst our women, might as well be non-existent. Editors and media managers
seem attached to the Northcliffe formula that power, position, money and sex make the news
and that virtue, normality, hardwork and humility don't. The meek may one day inherit the
earth, but not the headlines".
The controversy about NWICO became so sharp, that the US Government cited this as one
of the three reasons for their decision to quit UNESCO in 1984. They held UNESCO
responsible for pushing through the NWICO. Great Britain also withdrew from UNESCO, a
year later, for the same reasons. The withdrawal by USA and UK has resulted in a combined
loss of over 30 per cent of UNESCO's budget. But all this shows what a powerful
instrument or weapon information is for progress and social change.
Progress in the implementation of NWICO has, indeed, been slow. UNESCO's capacity to
provide help has been considerably reduced. Some of the other western countries continue to
oppose it. On the other hand, there .is some progress in improving channels of
communication and mutual cooperation among the developing countries and there is
realisation on the part of the western media, of the strong resentment in the third world
against their style of reporting. This has brought about a slight change in their attitude.

26.5.4 Relevance of NWICO in Our National Context

If removing world imbalance in information flow is the primary objective of the New Order,
we need to examine and improve the situation within our own country also. The conditions
prevailing in India are in some ways typical and in varying degrees they are also shared by
other developing countries. Nearly 75 per cent of our population lives in villages where the
literacy rate is much lower than the national average of 38 per cent, and yet the media
concentration is in the urban areas. The number of radio receivers may now be around 50
million. but three-fourth of the total number are located in urban areas. Distribution of TV
sets would be even more imbalanced. Besides, a high percentage of Radio and TV
programmes are meant for the urban population and taste. The same story is repeated in the
circulation of newspapers and the availability of cinema houses for public exhibition.
Newspapers and filins also largely cater to the urban population.

Namedia was inaugurated by Mrs.

Gandhi in 1983 at the time of nonaligned meet in Delhi. The
organisation deals with problems of
communication of the developing
countries including India. It has
undertaken different research
projects and has discussed problems
of communication both at national
and international levels.

Information, Knowledge,
Insight

To remove these imbalances and to make the media available to @e entire population on an
equitable basis, a new communication policy needs to be evolved. As a part of the policy.
the media.should cater to the needs of all sections particularly the sections which are underprivileged. Information relevant for them and useful for them'ought to be made available in
educative as well as entertaming programmes, with a high artistic sense. Removing
ignorance, superstition and prejudice of all kinds ought to be a task of high priority.
Programmes to motivate people to organise action in order to meet their multifarious
requirements, rather than to depend on the Government for everything should be given
priority. National objectives of socialism, secularism and democracy must be constantly
presented in a great variety of formats, not crudely and directly but in subtle ways known to
writers and artists. Thus, our own communication order would make a mighty contribution
to India's resurgence.

26.6 SUMMARY
In this unit, we have :
defined what mass communication is and described various means of mass
communication.
described the role technology has played in the communication system and stressed that
the benefits of mbdem information technology should not remain confined to a small .
section of urban people, thus widening the gap between the rich and poor or the urban
and the rural. Technology should also not damage our traditional forms of
communication which are the symbols of our regional as well as national culture.
discussed the need for balanced and equitable flow of information between the developed
and the developing countries which has led to the demand for a New World Information
and Communication Order; and the ways in which NWICO can help in mutual
understanding at the national and international levels.

26.7 TERMINAL QUESTIONS

-

---

How does modem information technology affect the life style of individuals and the
society?

What, in your opinion, are the rights and responsibilities of the communication system in
our country at present?

Why is it important to have a balanced and equitable flow of information?Why was the 'Old
Order' not acceptable to developing countries?

26.8 ANSWERS
Self-Assessment Questions
1 i) P ii) P iii) M iv) M

For example, if you choose newspaper as a medium of mass communication the advantage
would be that it has circulation in different 1anguages:It usually contains infotmation not
controlled by the government. So it is more acceptable to general masses, The
disadvantages, however, are that it is useful for t@ literate people only. It may not reach
remote areas. So the circulation is not as wide as some other medium would be.

a) The medium of communication should be able to reach all groups and sections of the
society.

b) It should be cheap so that it is accessable to every one, for instance radio.

a) i) For example, live transmission of events to all parts of the country over television.
ii) Long distance calls without the use of operator
iii) Disaster waming systems.
b)

Home computers or telefax could be very useful in my opinion, you could of course
differ.

You could think of these functions.

Social awakening; campaigning against social evils; for adult education.

Because of western media domination and a growing sensitivity to the way the Third
World Countries were projected in the western world.

Terminal Questions
1 Hints: The individual is better informed about his rights and privileges and
opportunities that are available. For example, 'Employment News' publishes about job
opportunities.
Better information about health care on radio & TV.
High profile advertising is affecting the life styles of rural and urban populations,
creating demands on their home ecanomy which might be difficult to meet.

Hints: Unbiased, free flow of information, helps in creating a new social order; helps in
economic development.

.3

Refer to sedtion 26.5.

GLOSSARY
abra cadabra:'magical words.

anaesthesia: artificially induced insensitivity to pain by some substance.

cadavers: corpse, or dead body.

charkha! spinning wheel.

cognition : the process of perceiving, learning, remembering, using language, solving
problems, thinking..
cortex: outer part of an organ like brain, kidney, adrenals.
frontal: front view.
instinctive behaviour: unleamed patterned behaviour characteristic of a particular species.

1
1
t

interpersonal communication: direct interaction between communicators on a one to one

basis or in small groups.
learning: a relatively permanent change in behaviour as a result of practice or experience.
learned reflex: learned or acquired response to a stimulus that normally did not pmduce the
responseoriginally.
mass communication: public communication transmitted by electronic ormech&ical
means to people who are wjdely dispersed.
medial: middle section.
medulla: central part of some organ.

object permanence: the understanding that objects or peqple continue to exist even if
hidden from-view.
operations: a set of rules for transforming or manipulating information.

Infc~rmation.Knowledge,
Insight

receptor: a cell that responds to an environmental stimulus which may be chemical, sound.
light etc.
response: behavioural result of stimulation in a person in the form of movement or secretion
in a gland.
sensorimotor: the first of Piaget's stages in which cognitive development is acquired
through exploration of the worlwrough sensory perception and motor skills.
-

sense organs: eyes, ears, nose, tongue and skin.

stimulus: any situation or event that evokes a specific functional ,reaction.
union territol.ies: Delhi, Chandigarh, Pondicherry. Andaman & Nicobar.Islands. Dadar
Nagar Haveli. Daman Diu.

FURTHER READING
p
p
p
p
.
p
p
-

Biology-A

Child Psychology-A

Psychology: An Introduction to Human Behaviour-A

'Text hook of cliild Behaliour and Development', P. Kuppuswamy. Vani Educational

Books (1 984).

'Communication Media Yesterday, Today and Tomorrow', P.N. Malhan, Publication

Division, Ministry of Information and Broadcasting, Govt . of India (1985).

'Communicating', A. Taylor, T. Rosegrant. A Meyer, B. Thomas Samples, PrenticeHall, Inc. Englewood Cliff, N. Jersey, 07632 (1977).

Text book for class XI-XII, part one, NCERT, 1988.

Text bWk for class XII, NCERT.
Text book for class XI, NCERl

Bt1

COURSE CONTENTS
Block 1 : History of Science

Unit 1

Science as a Human Endeavour

Unit 2

Science in the Ancient World

Unit 3

Iron Age

Unit 4

The Golden Age of Science in India

Block 2 : Emergence of Modern Science

Unit 5

Science in the Medieval Times

Unit 6

Renaissance, the Industrial Revolution and After

Unit 7

Science in Colonial and Modem India

Unit 8

The Method of Science and the Nature of Scientific Knowledge

Block 3 : Universe and Life -The Beginning

Unit 9

Universe as a System

Unit 10 Exploring the Universe

Unit 1 1 Solar System
Unit 12 Origin and Evolution of Life
Unit 13 Evolution of Man
Block 4 : Environment and Resources

Unit 14 Ecosystem
Unit 15 Components of Environment
Unit 16 The Changing Environment
Unit 17 Natural Resources
Unit 18 Resource Utilisation, Planning and Management
Block 5 : Agriculture, Nutrition and ~ e a l t h

Unit 19 Food and Agriculture

Unit 20 Scientific Possibilities and Social Realities
Unit 2 1 F&od and Nutrition
Unit 22 Health and Disease
Block 6 : Information, Knowledge, Insight

Unit 23 Mind and Body

Unit 24 Psychological Aspect of Behaviour

Unit 25 Information and communication
Unit 26 Modes of Communication
Block 7 : Science, Technology and Development

Unit 27 Science and Technology in Industry

Unit 28 ~kchnologyand Economic Development

Unit 29 Modern Development in Science and Technology - I
Unit 30 ~ o d e r nDevelopment
'
in Science and Technology - I1
Block 8 : New Perspectives

Unit 31 Perceptions and Aspirations .

Unit 32 Science -The Road to Development
AudioNideo Programmes
Audio :

Scieilce and Society (Block I)

1)

2) Astronomical Development in India (Block 3)

3) Measuring Astronomical Distances (Block 3)
4) Evolution of Man (Block 3)
5) The Forest Ecosystem (Block 4)
6)-' Population Pressure (Block 4)
'

7) Common Misconceptions about Health (Block 5)

8) Human Factors in Engineering (Block 6)

9) New ~nf&mationOrder (Block 6)
-'

10) Technology and Self-Reliance (Block 7)

1 I ) Nuclear Disarmament (Block 7)

Video :

1) Method of Science (Block 2)

2) A Window to the Universe (Block 3)
3) The Story of a River (Block 4)
4) Green Revolution (Block 5)
5) Infectious Diseases (Block 5)
6) Jean Piaget Develdpment stages of a Child (Block 6)
7) INSAT (Block 6)

A-

UNIT 25 INFORMATION AND

COMMUNICATION
Structure

25.1 Introduction
Objectives

25.2 The All-Pervading Communication

25.3 Functions of Communication
25.4 Role of Communication in Creating Awareness
Role of Communicatbn in the Economic Development
Political Role of Communication
Social Role of Communicat~on
The Twenty Point Programme and Cbmmunication

25.5 Role of Communication in Promoting

ducati ion

Media and Educational Environment

Media and Distance Education
Broadcast of Lessons by AIR and Doordarshan
Education and the Media in Future Plans

25.6 Role of Communication in Cultural Understanding

Medial Religion, Language and Culture
Media and Scientific Outlook in Culture
Media and General Cultural Awareness
Evolution of Composite Culture

25.7 Summary
25.8 Terminal Questions
25.9 Answers

25.1 INTRODUCTION

In the two previous units you have studied the relationship between mind and body and
various aspects of psychology and behaviour. In this Unit, we shall discuss the role of mass
media in social, economic and political awakening in the broad framework of priorities set
for national development. We shall also discuss the role of media in promoting education
among our vast illiterate masses. reaching out to larger number of people and diversifving
education to make it more meaningful. India is a country of great cultural diversity; where
media can play a very positive role in mutual understanding and appreciation between
different cultural groups and in the evolution of a composite culture. In the next unit, we will
describe various modes of communication.

IC
c
I

Objectives
After studying this unit, you should be able to describe the role of media in :
creating social, economic and political awareness,
promoting ed~icationby reaching out to broad masses of people and helping in making
education more meaningful,
promoting understanding among different cultural groups and in evolution of a composite
culture.
---

25.2 THE ALL-PERVADING COMMUNICATION

In the earlier units of this block, it ha5 been our attempt to acquaint you with the
interdependence of mind and body. To put it briefly, mind is where all kinds of information
is processed, and on its basis, all kinds of thoughts and ideas are generated. It has centres
which regulate the working of the body, and govern its movements. On the other hand, the
body not only supplies the energy needed for the mind to function, but also all the
information which the mind uses. The five senses supply a great variety of sensations: if a
single hair on the human body is touched, a message goes to the brain-in fact, the mind has
to learn to ignore a lot of information which the various sensors continuously supply to it.
Yet the ears and the eyes are, perhaps, the most important connections which the body and
the mind have with the external world. All that you read and all that you hear, puts you in
touch with other people's thoughts, ideas and minds-it also enables the mind to get to

fntormation, Knowledge,
i'nslght

know our past, our culture, our hopes and aspirations, and our problems. You habe also seen
that when man is deprived of these contacts with the external world, when he receives no
signals from outside, when he can see nothing, hear nothing, smelLand taste nothing, and
when the hair on the skin also receive no information,man is ready to have a nervous
breakdown. Truly, communicating with the outside world is as important for human
existence, as the supply of food, water and air.
Of course, the mind is not a passive machine merely working on received information from
the senses--even though eyes and ears give access not only to sights and sounds, but also to
written and spoken ideas of great cortrplexity. We have already discussed the power of the
mind to continuously learn from all kinds of experience and to originate ideas of its own. Irr
other words, it receives diverse information, it generates mixtures of its own, some of which
have a new flavour. In the course of years, each person's mind develops its own rules of
processing information and &awing conclusions. One may refer to them as attitudes and
values. Some may accept or believe all that they read or hear, others may critically check
and examine before accepting any ideas. Some may be "open minded" and flexible, others
may be rigid or fanatic in holding their views. Some may evolve an outlook or an ideology
of their own, others may remain pragmatic.
The fact that it is natural for the mind to receive information, sensations and ideas from
outside- and that human behaviour, to a large extent. depends on this process, creates very
interesting possibilities, when seen in the light of the great chain of educational institutions
where an individual spends a number of years "acquiring knowledge", or it is also true when
seen in the context of millions of books and magazines which are published in all languages,
or again when examined in relation to the "mass media", i.e., television, radio, films.
newspapers etc. Obviously, civilization has created a tremendous communication network
which converges on the mind of each individual. It is possible to "educate" a person so that
he has access to broad and varied kinds of information, so that he learns not to ,& gullible.
but to question everything before accepting it, and so that his competence to deal with the
family, fellow human beings and the work he does is improved. It is equally possiblel~give
a one-sided picture of the world and to encourage blind faith, unquestioning obedience, &
even fanatism. It is possible to make people believe untruth simply because they may be
exposed to nothing else. This happened in Germany before the Second World War, when
their government's propaganda machine spread the idea of Germans belonging to a superi6r
race and Germany being invincible. It is possible, with the help of mass media, to create
demands for certain kinds of goods and to sell the products advertised, even though people
may not really need them. Lots of propaganda is done in favour of the policies pursued by
governments through radio and T t , and sometimes through newspapers. Books for general
reading, and even text books, contain lots of distortions deliberately introduced to confuse or
divide people in the interests of ruling groups. People in America often believe that Indians
are strange people clad in dhoties or turbans climbing poles or ropes, displaying snake$
believing in a lot of abra-cadabra. We in India have strange notions about Africans or white
wople, or our own tribal people. There are vicious possibilities of building up passions and
&kjudices. Let us examine a few facets of this pervasive communication in which we are all
~Wersed.

8.3')
FUNCTIONS
l
i
'- OF COMMUNICATION
-

~ : b a d the
~ ~ main
,
role of communication in a social system is :
Receiving and conveying.information which may be facts, messages or op~nions;this
may take place in discourses, debates or discussions.
Motivating a person receiving the message, whether through an individual or through a
medium of mass communication like radio, television, newspapess/journals, books or
films, towards a course of action. This can extend from adopting a method of family
planning, changing one's food habits, to working for a social or political cause.
Providing education and culture; from a class-room situation where knowledge and skills
may be imparted, to dissemination of cultural heritage and values as well as cultivation of
artistic interests.
Entertaining, whether for personal or collective enjoyment through public music, drama
or sports.
Influencing opinion to serve certain economic or political interests.

$.

34
-

These are some broad functions of communication. Most of our activities fall under one
category or another.

25.4 ROLE OF COMMUNICATION IN CREATING

AWARENESS
In this section we would discuss the role of oommunication in the economic development
and political and social awakening in.our country. But before we take that up, a few broad
facts may be useful to recall.

25.4.1 Role of Communication in the Economic Development

India today is a country of nearly 800 million people. This is as much as one-sixth of the
world's population. In the year 1981,446 million Indians were illiterate, i.e., they could not
read or write. The literacy percentage was about 36%. There are 15 major languages
recognised in the Constitution, but the number of subsidiary languages and dialects may be
in thousands. Nearly 75 per cent of the population lives in 5,75,000 villages. AS you have
learnt in Block 5, a high percentage of the population is not able to get proper food, clean
drinking water, adequate shelter, health care and clothing.
These figures lead to two conclusions in relation to the role of communication in our
country. First, all means of communication should be used for economic development, i.e.,
to increase production and national income and to improve the living standard of the people,
particularly those sections which are under-privileged. Second, since such a large number of
persons are illjterate they will have to be reached by means other than that of the printed word.
It is for these reasons that India chose to develop its economy through a planned system. The
Five Year Plans are, broadly, intended to accelerate development in industry, agriculture,
etc., through exploitation of the national resources in a manner that the benefits go to people
as a whole: and not only to further enrich those w h o y e already affluent. That is why the
rolc of communication, in this regard, was emphasised in the very First Five Year document
in 1952. In Chapter 8 on "Public Cooperation in National Development" it said, "An
understanding of the priorities, which govern the plan, will enable each person to relate his
oq her role to the larger purpose of the nation as a whole. The plan has, therefore, to be
carried irlto every home, in the language and symbols of the people, with the as'sistance of
creative writers and artists, which have to be specially enlisted. All available methods of
communication have to be developed and the people approached through the written and the
spoken-word no less than through radio, film, song and drama."
It is in this context, that All lndia Radio (AIR) and Doordarshan become the two most
important media of communication. They cut across the baniers of illiteracy and claim to
cover ~ d # number
~e
of peop1.e. AIR broadcasts can reach nearly 95 per cent of the people,
*andDoordarshan 70 per cent, of course, if the people have radio and television receivers.
'IJle,Ministryof'lnformation and Broadcasting has other media organisations, like the Films
Division ?nd the Directorate of Field Publicity, which are also trying to reach large sections
of the people in remote and distant areas. The objective of the Ministry of Information and
~roadcasti@,as defined, "is to inform, educate as well as entertain with a view to creating
a&enessknong the people about the nation's potential for development and its problems,
widening their horizon, and soliciting their participation in the implementation of the policies,
plans and programmes of the ~overnmentfor bringing about the economic development and
social change, achieving national security and promoting national integration."

"Inform! Entertain! Educate!"

Fig. 25.1:

The State Governments have their own field units and extension services to promote state
~ e v e l o ~ m ebogrammes
nt
and schemes,arrdto m.oti'vatepeople to actively participate in them:

Informqtipn and
Communicatiofl

Information, Knowledge,
Insight

Here, we cannot evaluate the efforts either of the central media or the proaarnmes of the
state governments The point is, that the role of communication in economic development
has been recognised in this country since Independence. It has also been realised that multi.
media combinations, i.e., utilising not only broadcasting through radio and television but
also video and tape cassettes, slides, films, hooks and inter-personal commur cation. are t a ,
be employed to help economic developine: -7

SAQ~
Would you like to try and tist at least two areas each fbr the rurk and urban populatibn;
where cbmmunication can help in economic activity?

25.4.2 -fstittear;'Roleof Communication

Communication hhJ an Important role in political and social awakening. During our freedom
struggle, the leaders communicated with the people directly. They had no access to the A.
India Radio because it was controlled by the British Government, which was, in fact, trying
to underplay and suppress the freedom struggle. There was no TV. Newspaper reporting
varied. Only a small number of dailies defied the government of the day. But through
personal contacts and mass meetings, besides the use of national symbols like the tri-colour,!
the charkha and patriotic songs, our leaders were able to stir the conscience of our people all
over the sub-continent. Mass contacts and inter-personal communication were at their best.
They proved as the most effective means of inspiring the people to participate in the
freedom movement and to make supreme sacrifices.
After Independence we, in our Constitution, accepted the pri~cipleof adult franchise. Every
adult has the right to vote in elections to local bodies, state legislatures and the Lok Sabha, "
Thus, every citizen participates in the election of people's representatives to these bodies
which formulate.programmes and policies, They enact laws. The governments, whether in
the states or at the centre, have to get their programmes and enactments approved by the
legislatures.
At the time of elections, each adult can decidewhom to vote for. Hc or she can vote in
favour of a party candidate or an independent. The parties and individual candidates launch
election campaigns during which they explain their stand on the most important public
issues. They also make several promises. All this constitutes political communication and it
enables the voter to make his choice.
The two related questions to ponder about are :
How much, and in what ways, does politics influence communication?
How much, and in what ways, can communication influence politics?
r

We, in this country, enjoy freedom of speech and expression. The media of mass
communication are partly the means of exercising this right. Of course, it has to be ensured
that no law of the land is violated. Newspapers and journals are privately owned, i.e.. they
are not controlled by the Government. Even AIR and Doordarshan, which are controlled by
the Central Government, are governed by a code, under which they have to be objective and
non-partisan on political issues. Since 1977, the two media have been giving equal lime of
broadcast to each recognised political party during election campaigns. Even outside the
campaign period, the government may use the two media for national purposes and not for
party propaganda.
Thus, communication has an important political role of informing and enlightening the
people, in order that they. participate in political processes. In fact, it would be correct to say,
that democracy and communication, which means freedom of expression, discussion and
debate, are totally interlinked. Without unfettered communication there could be no
democracy.
You may like to try out the following SAQ related to the political role of communication.

%AQ2 .
Fill in the blanks with suitable words given below.

Infono86bn @
Communication

i) . Our Constitution has accepted the principle of .....................

ii) We ej o y freedom of ....................and .....................
iji) During the freedom struggle much of the communication was through ....................
iv) The media controlled by government have to be .................... on .....................
h

(interpersonal communication, adult franchise, objective, political issues, expression,

speech.)

25.4.3 Social Role of Communication

Social relevance of communication follows from the economic and political role of
communication. We, in this country, have often talked about using media to bring about
social change. What does social change mean? It is obviously difficult to give a precise
definition. But a very general statement will suffice here. Our country has great disparity in
incomes, a vefy small minority is affluent, but the vast majority is poor. Therefore, our
policy is not merely industrialisation or development of agriculture, but it is to extend the
benefits to all strata of our people. Thus, development with social justice is our aim. This
amounts to moving towards a new kind of society. Our country is inhabited by people who
profess different religions, speak different languages, and enjoy different kinds of culture. In
the past, most of us were victims of deprivation under a colonial govemment which
encouraged sections of our people to blame each other for their problems. Now, it is our
policy to develop all cultures, languages and communities, and to bring them closer to each
other. This will consolidate or integrate our nation and allow us to concentrate on working
for a better future. But this again means a vast social change-we say we want to move
towards unity in diversity, and we wish our state to be secular where religion doesn't divide,
and decisions of the state are rational rather than emotional and partisan. In a democracy,
where the citizen is sovereign, we have to go forward on the basis of persuading people to
ccept certain ideas and programmes, and therefore, there is a crucial role for
ommunication in bringing about a social change. Social role of communication is to build
'dges of understanding among these groups whose objective interests are the same. This,
id fact, is the crucial challenge before media in the country.

I
1

In the social context also, communication is ex$cted to serve the immediate interests and
needs of individual citizens. People have to be served with information about their rights,
which under the law of the land, they are expected to enjoy. There are several benefits to
which people as citizens are entitled but, if they are not aware of these beneficial provisions,
how do they make their claims? To illustrate this with an example, not very long ago, the
Indian Institute of Mass Communication conducted a study in selected rural area in the
Khanna dismct of Punjab. This was to find out whether the agricultural labourers knew that
there was a minimum daily wage fixed for them. The investigators went to several villages
in which the labour was engaged in harvesting of the crops. The lakurers were mostly
migrants from Uttar Pradesh and Rajasthan who come to Punjab year after year for
employment during the season. To their utter surprise, i~vesfigatorsfound that hardly any
one of the labourers knew that he or she could ask for the minimum wage.jried by law. This
information never reached them. Obviously there is a section which profits by the ignorance
of the labourers. They w'efe, in fact, being paid much less than what they were entitlgd ro.
Labourers were mostly illiterate and had no means to get information +om radio. Eveh when
they had any access to radio listening, such information was not broadcast. This resulted in a
clear case of social injustice and economic exploitation. If this was the situation in Punjab,
whichis a prosperous state and where the cor~manicatibnsystem is reasonhbly satisfac~ry,
one can only imagine the state of ignorance in backward and remote areas.
Even in urban centres, lack of information can deprive the citizens of social benefits. Certain
sections of the community, women for example, are often more ignorant of their social
nghts than others. Even after the much discussed !d*vc regarding divorce or separation, how
many of the affected women, in fact, know of their .:ghts or obligations? The question calls
for a study in both the urban and rural areas.

The role of communication in social and economic development in our country has,
thefefore, to be seen against the state of our economic development and social diversities
and inequalities. The communication system has also to give priority to political education
in order to strengthen the institutions on which our democratic system is based. In all respects,
the media, whether under govemment control or privately owned, have a national responsibility.

m11form8tion,Knowledge,
1-t

SAP 3
Give social relevance of communication in the following areas:
i) rights and privileges of women
ii) national integration

25.4.4 The Twenty Point Programme and Communication

Twenty Point Programme

1
Attack on Rural Poverty
2
Strategy for Rain-fed
.
Agriculture
Better Use of Irrigation Water
3
4
Bigger Harvests
5
Enforcement of Land Reforms
6
Special Programme for Rural
Labour
7
Clean Drinking Water
8
Health for All
Two Children Norm
Expansion of Education
Justice to Scheduled Castes
and Scheduled Tribes
Equality for Women
New Opportunities for Youth
Housing for the People
Improvement of Slums
New Strategy for Forestry
Rotection of the Consumer
Concern for the Consumer
Energy for the Villages
A Responsive Administration

In view of what we have discussed above, it may be useful to have a look at the Twenty
Point Programme (1986), which the Government of India has placed before the people as an
agenda of national priorities. The points are briefly listed in the margin. As would be seen,
besides their thrust on economic development in various spheres,social needs of minority
groups, whether women or children or people living in slums, form a part of the agenda.
Communication, as defined above, is an important element in'the implementation of the
Twenty Point Programme. People have to be informed and they have to be motivated for the
success of the programme.

25.5 ROLE OF COMMUNICATION IN PROMOTING

EDUCATION
Transmission of knowledge and information, which is the first step in education, is
obviously possible only through communication. This happens in a classroom situation, in a
factory, a workshop or even in a group-discussion. It is through the process of
communication, that the knowledge is transferred from one person to another or to a group.
The training in skills and the technique of doing a job go through the same process. The
availability of media, radio, TV, films, slides, charts or other illustrations, has supplemented
books and teachers in the task of transm'itting knowledge as well as skills. A vastly larger
number of persons can now be benefitted through the use of mass media. The media like
TV, films and video, which have hearing and seeing components, can create impact as well
as understanding, which is sometimes not possible in a class-room situation. The mere fact
of providing illustrations through moving pictures on a TV set or video screen gives to such
media great potential.

25.5.1 Media and Educational Environment

Some recent technological developments in media, have opened up new horizons. Besides,
increasing use of media, to support and expand education, has created what may be called an
"educational environment". In this new environment, both young and old may learn all the
time. In a wider sense, new opportunities of intellectual development have been created.
Media have also extended the benefit of knowledge to deprived men, women and children.
These sections may not be enrolled for formal education in class-rooms but may have access
to radio and TV, perhaps at community centres. Thus, communication through media has
created a climate in which a new human personality, with a much broader vision, is
developing. The simple reason is that the source of information and education are so
expanding as to provide knowledge on a large variety of topics and to large numbers.

25.5.2 Media and Distance Education

The role of media in distance education needs a specific mention. It is impIied that teaching
is done from a dbtance. It is also understood that education is imparted through
correspondence, audio-visual aids, like radio, teIevision and telephone, besides personal
contacts. As against a university, which enrolls students of a similar age, has definite time
schedule, and is confined to a geographical area or campus, an 'open university' can cater
to all kinds of students--of various ages, living in different and even far places, who wish to
combine education with employment or work at home. It can provide a great variety of
courses. Even the pace of learning would be different for students enrolled in the same
course. The Indira Gandhi National Open University is envisaged as an institution for the

'fitire country. One ot the pnnclpal objectives of this University is to provide education to
those who have been denied opportunity for higher education, either because they live in
remote and rural areas or because of any other handicap, including financial constraints and
family obligations. The 'study centres' with audio-viial and library facilities are an
important part of the University. Here, students can meet their academic counsellor and
discuss their difficulties. Support from radio and television is also important in distance
learning.

25.5.3 Broadcast of Lessons by AIR and Doordarshan

The electropic media, AIR and Lloordarshan have played a supplementary role to education
at different levels by supporting classroom teaching, They have experimented with the
broadcast of lessons, which are syllabus-based,particularly in school education.
Doordarshan also organised, what may be called, "enrichment" programmes, primarily for
college students, with a view to supplement classroom teaching and thus, widen horizons of
learning. Such broadcasts are not directly related to classroom lessons but their contribution
is not small. Apart from college students, the general public can also benefit from such
broadcasts. This has been a very useful experiment in higher education, sponsored by the
University Grants Commission. Since TV programmes from a single station cannot be
received all over the country, the help of a satellite, with special equipment, is taken to carry
them to all parts of the country.
All India Radio broadcasts educational programmes from 74 stations. In all, about 8 per cent
of the total time devoted to 'spoken-word' programmes is taken by educational broadcasts.
The TV medium is quite obviously more effective than radio, in education, at all levels. The
communicator, in this case the teacher, can be seen by the students even though they are not
able to ask questions. But the TV lesson, if prepared with the understanding of the medium,
should anticipate and answer the questions. More than that, visual presentation of
experiments, photographs and models is a potential &ailable only to television. Thus, TV is
a very effective medium for education.
,

Doordarshan started with syllabus-based lessons for school children in Delhi, in 1961. The
in~tialaim was to improve standard of teaching, particularly in science subjects, because at
that time, even in Delhi, not all schools had laboratory space, equipment or qualified
teachers. Since then, educational programmes, whether for children or for adults or for other
groups like farmers, have become regular TV features. It has been noted that AIR or TV
programmes provide not only direct learning and broad awareness, but they also'create a
desire to know more and tend to improve the atmosphere in the classrooms. Thus, they play
a doubly important educational role.

25.5.4 Education and the Media in Future Plans

Underlying the need for media support to education, whether related to cumculum or to
enrichment, the National Policy on Education and the related Programme of Action
approved by Parliament in 1986, call for maximum utilisation-ofradio, television and video.
Among the recommendations made are :
Provide maximum Educational Television and Radio programme coverage for reaching
out to school children, illiterate adults, women, scheduled castes, tribal areas etc., in all
major language zones,
Establish radio stations in selected universities and colleges,
Provide a separate channel on television for educational needs of various groups,
Create a.dedicated satellite system for educational needs in the long-term,
Provide radio receivers and TV sets in all primary/elementary schools, and
Establish a National Centre of Educational Information.

.SAQ 4
btscuss briev tke role ofmedia-inany two of the follow~ng:
i)

Extending educational opportunities

..............................................................................................................................................

~nfdrmation,Kmwledge,
Insight

ii) Enrichinn learning experience

iii) Creating a learning environment

25.6 ROLE OF COMMUNICATION IN CULTURAL

UNDERSTANDING
In the area of cultural promotion, commun~cationmedia can be used to meet the two
fundamental needs. Firstly, the media like radio, cinema, and above all television, can
provide information, spread-awarenessand create motivation to appreciate the
characteristics of our varied culture. These characteristics may be of artistic forms like
music, dance, literature or of knowledge of history and mythology pertaining to different
regions and peoples of our country. Even traditions as well as taboos have fascination of
their own in appreciation of cultural heritage. Secondly, apart from creating knowledge
about culture, the media can be used in the preservation of the heritage. Cultural identity,
i.e., pride in one's cultural heritage, is today an important factor for keeping the people
together. This can happen even in a small community like a tribe which has common
attitudes, customs or ceremonies, or at the national level through bonds of history and
sharing of values. In fact, a sense of belonging and ofnational integration can be created
through the use of media. The media can be used to foster and to deepen loyalty to the
nation. Preservation of culture is, therefore. an important national task.
-

25.6.1 Media, Religion, Language and culture

Ours is a multi-lingual and a multi-religious society. To a large extent, the states within the
Indian union are organised on the basis of a common language. The many cultural
diversities that we have, need to be related to this background. Each region or language
claims to have its own cultural characteristics. Some of these characteristics are quite
distinct, i.e., they have features which are not shared by other regions. Many of our literary
traditions and festivals belong to this category. There may be an undercurrent linking the
various festivals throughout India but in many ways, they are only regional or social.
Several of our cultural expressions also emerge from religious beliefs. Although religions
are different yet in centuries of living together in a common environment, even these
cultural expressions have been influenced by each other. At philosophical level, each
religion stands for humanism, tolerance, justice and other civilised values. Thus, in spite of
the fact that religious communities here and there adopt a course of conflict and
confrontation, religious diversities and religious regard for each other is a part of our
composite culture and tradition. Therefore, the media, with their power of carrying messages
far and wide, and also straight to the heart, have a unique role to play in India's unity and
progress.

25.6.Z-Wia and Scientific Outlook in Culture

Apart from sharing of deeper values through history and continuous interaction, the
contribution made by all sections of the people in our struggle for freedom needs to be
emphasised. Under Gandhiji's leadership, people belonging to all faiths and coming from
different parts of the country, participated in the freedom movement. Gandhiji himself was a
deeply religious man but he @so symbolised tolerance and faith in one nation. In. fact, he
was a symbol of our composite culture. Jawaharlal Nehru had a vision of modem India. In
his vision, the people of India with all their cultural, social and religious diversities had to
develop a scientific outlook (refer to Unit 8) in their personal lives as well as in the affairs of
the state. Communication media have important contribution to make in creating
knowledge of each other's beliefs, in emphasising the common bonds of history and in
developing an objectwe.-not a prejudiced; a rational,-not an obscurantist and an open
minded,-not a rigid or fanatical attitude of mind.

25.6.3 Media and General Culttlral Awareness

How do the media help expand knowledge of the various regional and social groups in the
country or bring about a synthesis? Even :oaay, in several regions, people come to know of
each other only through the media. Th: valley of Kashmir, for example, is surrounded by
mountains. The valley is linked with the rest of the country through air or through road

'transport; there is, as yet, no rail link. Besides the geographical isolation and the lack of rail
link, there are cliniatic reasons, why people of Kashmir do not very frequently travel outside
the valley. It is not surprising, that their knowledge of other regions in the country has been
inadequate and vice versa. Since early 70s, however. the introdution of television in the
valley has made a tremendous difference. Kashmiris are now able to have glimpses of all
parts of the country and an understanding of the cultural mosaic of the entire people. It is,
therefore, not difficult to imagine that Doordarshan programmes would have helped create,
among the people of Kashmir valley, a vision of India as a whole. What is true of the people
of Kashmir valley, is also true of people living in many parts of the country, who live as
isolated communities in distant locations.

25.6.4 Evolution of Composite Cdlture

The All India Radio, Doordarshan as well as films have the capability of speeding-upthe
process of national awareness. National programmes of music, dance and of drama on the
broadcast media, i.e., radio and television support the concept of composite culture and of
exchange of literary and artistic forms between one region and anotner. The influence of
media, in the evolution of a composite culture, may have been subtle, but it is an important
factor.

SAQ 5
Comment on the following very briefly.
i) Media can help create a serla. bf belonging and national integration.

ii) Through understanding and appreciating each other's culture, we can help evolve a
composite culture.

.........................................................................

iii) Cultural isolation leads to p~ejudice.

........................................................................

25.7 SUMMARY
In this unit, you have studied the importance of information and communication, especially
the role of media in :
providing information and creating social, political and economic awareness which is so
necessary for the democratic process:
extending educational opportunities, creating an educational environment and making
I
education more meaningful.
promoting mutual understanding and appreciation of each others' culture, leading to
national cohesion and a national composite culture.

25.8 TERMINAL QUESTIONS

What are the h c t i o n s of communication in a social, system?

......................................................................................................................................................
.........................8........................................................................................................................".
.........................................................................................................................................
L.....

Infwmation andCommunication

Kna

..........................................

Describe the role of AIR and Doordarshan in education.

Briefly comment on the following :

i) Freedom of expression is a prerequisite for democracy.

........................................................................................................................................................
......... ............................................................................................. ...............................................
............................................................................................................,..*.........................................
..........................................................................................................................................3.............
........................................................................................................................................................

,.

ii) In order to participate in the political process, people need information.

........................................................................................................................................................
.............................................................................................................................
".........................
........................................................................................................................................................

.*"
........................................................................................................................................................

iii) Mass contacts have their own

in communication.

25.9 ANSWERS
Self-Assessment Questions
1 Rural-in banking, raising loans etc.; in the use of adequate fertilisers; formation of
cooperatives.
Urban-consumer rights. You can expand the answer further.
2 i) adult franchise; ii) speech, expression;
iii) interpersonal communication; iv) objective, political issues.

Hints
i) communication through discussions, newspaper articles, could help women become
aware of their rights to obtain education and equal job opportunities.
ii) communication can play a major role in national integration; in spite of belonging
to different religious groups and communities, people still have a common thread
connecting them.

You could talk about the role of communication in :

i) extending educational opportunities through distance education; open universities
air. examples.
ii) enriching learning experience by means of radio and TV programmes.
iii) creating a learning environment by extending knowledge to deprive men, women
and children of all ages on a large variety of topics.

Hints
i) for example people in one part of India can know and see diverse cultural groups
on TV and realise the great diversity and unity in our cultural heritage.
ii) by appreciating each other's culture we can leave out the undesirable features and
adopt the good points of other cultures. The exchange of literary dnd artistic forms'
between diverse groups can lead to a composite culture.
iii) for example if two religious groups do not interact, each group has a very wrong
idea about the other's customs. This often leads to severe conflicts of various kinds.

Terminal Questions
1 You could discuss your answer:
The main role of communication in a social system is receiving and conveying
information to individuals or groups of people through various modes like TV,radio,
newspaper, public meeting etc. It helps to motivate individuals or groups towards a
course of action, provides entertainment; influences public opinion; makes people
aware of their rights and privileges and helps them to improve their economic and
social conditions.
'

For instance, AIR and Doordarshan broadcast educational programmes for genera1
awareness as well as syllabus based programmes for schools and colleges. They
broadcast adult education and agriculture-based programmes for the rural population.
They also help to create a desire to know more and thus tend to improve the educational
atmosphere.

For example, if a citizen does not have the freedom to discuss important issues and
to elect the person, that he or she feels capable of doing certain jobs, then how can
a democracy function?
ii) Part of the political process is electioneering. For instance, if you want to vote for
somebody you must have information on their past records, policies and promises
before opting for them. This shows how important information is, for the whole
process to function.
iii) For example, to communicate ideas about a particular form of dance or music,
lecture demonstration can be held at mass meetings. This form of contact' appears to
be a useful method of communication.
i)

Information and
Communidtion

UNIT 24 PSYCHOLOGICAL ASPECTS OF

BEHAVIOUR
Structure
24.1

Introduction
Objectives

24.2

Learning
Stlmulus and Response
Reward and Punishment
Cognltlve Leamlng

24.3
24.4
24.5
24.6
24.7

Intelligence Quotient
Creativity
Adolescence
Aspirations, Conflicts and Frustrations
Aggression
Instlnct or Leamed?
B~ologrcalBasls of Aggress~on
Aggress~onas a Learned Response

24.8

Human Factor Engineering

Experiments with Man in Space
24.10 Summary
24.1 1 Terminal Questions
24.12 Answers

. 24.9

24.1 INTRODUCTION
In the previous Unit we studied the structure and working of the brain and the nervous
system. We found that all our behaviour is conditioned by the activity of the brain, the ,
nervous system and the endocriie system or the ductless glands which secrete various ,
ho$hones. But because of the complexity of the human brain and the hard-to-define nature
of such activities as "thinking", "imagining" or "intuition", there are still large gaps in our
knowledge of the functions of the brain. In many ways, therefore, it is more practical to
study the behaviour of the brain and the nervous system in terms of the signals they receive
and the response they show, rather than the internal working of the brain. This Ieads us to
discuss some aspects of psychology and human behaviour. Several other questions such as
the stages of mental development, and the role of learning, creativity and personal
characteristics will be briefly explained.
We also give you a brief description of human factor engineering, a science that takes into
consideration the capabilities and limitations of the human body while designing any
-machine, tobl or place of work. T+e desire to understand how human beings adapt to
unusual environments leads to various experiments with them in space. We will try to make
you aware of some of the observations that were-made during such explorations.

0bjectives

After studying this unit you should be able to :

describe three foims in which learning takes place
distinguish between intelligence and creativity
identify some physical and behavioural changes that take place during adolescence
explain whether aggressive behaviour is instinctive or learned
give reasons for developing the principles used in human factor engineering
describe some psychological experiments performed on man in space.

24.2 LEARNING
When we talk about learning, we usually mean acquiring a new skill, new info6atioRor
new ideas. For instance you may be learning to ride a oicvcle or play a game or swak a new
language. Coming to think of it you have learnt numerous things in the course of your lifefrom learning to walk and talk, to the learning of history or geography etc., and again to the
learning of social behaviour and ideas about right and wrong, just and unjust. In fact, all
your attitudes, y&es a d beliefs, all that distinguishes y6u as a person different from others

is a result or continuous learning. Everyone of us is exposed to new situations and

experiences everyday and all of us are constantly learning from them. Our behaviour
strongly depends on the learning we have gone through either by way of training, study or
experience. Of course, it does not mean that all behaviour is rational or reasonable. As a
child, a person may have picked up unhealthy habits, like not keeping his or her body and
clothes clean, or being lazy and slothful. Wrong values are also "learnt", sometimes from
family and friends, like considering other people untouchable, or worth despising, simply
because they speak a different language or profess a different religion. However, some
behaviour is "instinctive", i.e. belonging to human species, even without learning one would
do certain things-for example, a mother protecting a child from injury.

24.2.1 Stimulus and Response

Scientists concerned with human behaviour and attitudes, namely psychologists, have tried
to understand the basic process of learning, starting from simple models and situations. The
simplest model is that of stimulus and response. The Russian Nobel Prize winner, Ivan
Pavlov in early 1900s canied out some experiments on dogs which were perhaps the best
examples of a stimulus producing a certain kind of response. While studying the physiology
of digestion in dogs he wanted to measure the flow of saliva. For this he inserted a tube in
the cheek of the dog and placed a bowl of meat in front of it and the dog began to salivate
(seeFig.24.1).
.

:b

24.1: PAVLOV'S EXPERIMENTAL APPARATUS. One of Pavlov's famous dogs stands surrounded by the
apparatus devised by the Russ~anscientist to test learned reflexes. Saliva canied by a tube to beaker, acttvated a lever
connwted to the pen beyond the screen at left. Each dmp of saliva was registered by a mark on the revotvtng drum.
The dogs evidently learned to enjoy their work, hopping up onto the platform without being asked.
+

This, of coutse, is a natural response of any dog. He begins to salivate when he gets his
food. But a strange thing happened. The dog began to salivate at the sight of the apparatus or
the experimenter even before the food was placed in front of it. Pavlov could have treated
this as an experimental nuisance but being a scientist he started asking questions.
Pavlov knew that salivation at the sight of food was a natural reflex action. It happens in every
dog since birth, but the other reaction was something new, what we can call a learned reflex.
Now he decided to investigate if the dog could be made to associate food .with other stimuli.
In a typical experiment, a bell was sounded just before the meat was given to the dog. This
was repeated several times. Pavlov noticed that the dog now began to salivate as soon as the
bell was rung even if food was not given. The animal associated the two stimuli, food and
bell, therefore, one could be substituted for the other. Table 24.1 shows the steps in this
training process.
Table 24.1
Steps in Pavlov's Experiment

B e f o e training

Stimulus

Response

Bell

Attention of the dog but no sal~vatton

Food

Salivat~on(Natural Reflex)

During training

Bell and fqod

Salivation

After tralnlng

Bell abne

Sal~vat~on
(LedrneJ Reflex)

Even human beings learn things according to this simple niodel. If a person has done good
to you many times, you may begin to associate goodness with the person. Sometimes, cheats
use this technique to first gain your confidence by a few simple acts, and then when your
trust has grown, they might run away with your belonging!

Psychological ~ s p e c t of
s

Behaviour

Psychologlral Aspects of
- Behavhnr

Table 24.2
Developmental Stages of the Child

Stage

Behaviour associated with each stage

Sensorimotor Period
Birth to 2 yrs

This is the time to coordinate sensory information with motor responses

Sights. sounds and smells are at first signals associated with feeding,
cuddling and all good things. But soon the infants struggle to judge
distance and catch things with their hands. Already they discover by
about 10 months of age that if a thing is hidden from view it still exists.
This is known as 'object permanence'. They will search for a face or a
toy that is hidden frpm them. They learn to walk, and begin to talk. The
ability of babies to put words in reasonable grammatical order and to
make sensible sentences is a subject of considerable wonder among
psychologists.

Preoperational Period
2 to 7 yrs of age

Soon children begin to use symbols and ,language, bur they are
preoccupied with themselves and cannot see other people'b viewpoints.
They consider themselves as the centre of the world. Their reasoning
ability is very limited. They cannot understand that the amount of
something will remain the same even if the shape changes. F& example.
a child will understand that glass containers A and B which have similar
shape (see Fig. 24.2). have the same amount of liquid but if the liquid
from B is poured in a narrow tall glass container C. he will say t h a ~C
contains more liquid. Children at this age can have very good memory;
they can memorize easily. but they also forget unless memory is
refreshed.

Concrete Operations
7-1 1 ,yrs

Thought processes become logical. Children will not befooled by the tall
glass now. However, they can deal with only theconcrete and immediate.
Parents and teachers may get frustrated if they try to teach children.
things far removed from their actual experience or abstract concepts like
'justice' or 'integrity'. Children also acquire the ability to compare two
things on a dimension such as weight and size, e.g.. if A is taller than B
and B is taller than C, then they will say A must be taller than C .

Formar operations
I I yrs upwards

Children can begin to think in abstract terms now. They can reason and
find out the elements of a problem. In the next few vears, adult thinking
emerges.
--

You have to remember that all these are based on general observations on children in
Switzerland. Our country provides different type of family life to children and hence our
children may not exactly conform to these average situations. Again, individuais can be
widely different because of biological factors-some children may be ahead of averages and
some may be behind. If you have children around you, you may try to find out for yourself
some of these stages in their mental development.
Onsthe other hand, the course of mental development from the youngest to the age of 12-15
years shows that there are limitation to what children can learn at different stages of their
lives. This is a fact of great significance for educationists who design courses of study. If we
do not pay any attention to this fact and try to give abstract concepts to a child who hasn't
developed the mental ability to handle such concepts, it will have no option but to memorise
answers and give a false impression about his learning. Unfortunately, this is very common
in our lives and memorisation or rote-learning has become more important in the practice of
our schools and colleges, then the learning process as a whole.

S4Q 1
a)

Fill in the blanks usmg words from the t en list.

i)

Any behaviour that is specific and not affected by practice is ......................

ii)

..................... decreases the probability that a response will be repeated.

iii) Feelings of revulsion at the sight or smell of certain foods because of bad
experience with those foods is a ......................
iv) Training a dog to help the blind involves learning mostly through
v)

......................

Learning and remembering information in a text book involves

.................................................
-

(puni~hment,~cognitive
learning, learned reflex, instinctive, rewards)

You are adnseo 1 6 see the vidm

programme entitled Jean PiagetDevelopmental stages of the
\child.

Fig. 24.2

Not too long ago, however, it was believed that intelligence was fixed at birth and
unaffected by anything in later life. But studies conducted on different groups indicate that
inadequate nutritional conditions before birth and during early years of lifq, not only dwarf
the body but dull De mind too.

What is the missing number ?

7
11
15
19
?

What are the missing letters ?

mhfdth~~

Find the odd word.

Find the odd figure.

LUBE NEREC LEPPUR THASER

ITCQb =T 11 Draw the m~ssingfigure.

C--

What is the missing number ?

e---

EE

t +

Find the odd Figure.

\

Fig. 24.3: Sample Intelligence Test Problems

Tests for general intelligence correlate highly with achievements in school and to a lesser
degree with achievements in later life. For example, a most successful businessman, or a
cricketer, or a politician need not necessarily have a top level IQ.
To do well in a typical intelligence test, the subject must be able to recall and to recognise,
and to solve a problem in an analytical manner but he need not necessarily be able to invent
new things--such as write poetry, paint a picture, invent a new kind of engine, or create a
new theory. These latter abilities are involved in "creativityw-which we will discuss next.

24.4 CREATIVITY
The ability to come up with novel ideas, is not entirely based on reasoning.- because
reasoning will lead every person to tread the same path, and reach the same conclusion. One
has to go beyond reasoning to state a new idea, which then may be tested for its usefulness.
Sirvlilarly an artists paint a new pieture, not because of geometrical considerations but
because of an impulse to create something beautiful. Imagination is said to play an important
role in creativity. People who are able to fluently think of many, and even unusual
alternatives in a given situation are said to possess fluency and flexibility of ideas, which is
conducive to creiitivity. It is this rather unusual ability, different from reasoning, analysis
and synthesis, which is the source of major advances in our understanding of the world, and
equally of great works of art which have been universally admired. Newton and Einstein are
examples from science, Tagore and Tansen from the arts, and Marx and Gandhi from social
science.

It has been found that those who excel in generating uncommon ideas are also not rigidly
bounil'to many traditions and rules, they are more independent minded, free thinking and
unconventional in their ways. Students who show such qualities are not always the
favourities of their teachers, and schools prove even a hurdle to their careers. Since creative
people make a large contribution to advancement of society, we should be keen to develop
education and schooling so as give them a chance to show their worth.

Information, Knowledge,
Qsight

A sample of the types of tests which have been evolved to measure creative potential is
shown in Fig. 24.4. Several such tests were devised to find a relationship between the
intelligence and creativity of a person. The results showed that there was only a low
correlationship between IQ and creativity.
If a person has a low IQ his creativity was low too.
If creativity was high then IQ was above average.
But high IQ did not necessarily mean high creativity.
Within a group of subjects with bbove average intelligence, there was no relationship
between.creativity and IQ.
1. In five minutes, see how
many words you can make
out of the following.word.

CONSTANTINOPLE

2. In five minutes, list all the

things you can do with a
paper clip.

3. Trace the figure onto

a blank piece of paper and
draw a picture, incorporating the figure into it.
4. Find ten coins and arrange
them in the configuration
shown . By moving
only two coins, form two
rows that each contain 6
coins.

0800
0
0

Fig. 24.4: Shows a sample of the kind of test administered to

measure the creativity o f a person.

Before proceeding further tr)l this SAQ to check what you have learnt in the above section.

SAQ 2
a) Tick mark the correct statements in the space provided against them.
i) Measuring IQ is really measuring a person's mental age.
ii) Economically deprived people are bound to have\ a low IQ.
iii) IQ tests used in Amenca are the best to use in India.
iv) Highly creative people must have an IQ of 140.
A student's ability to reason,,analyse and synthesise depends
V)
on his .or her schooling.
vi) Intelligence is to find a single solution to a problem, and creativity is
to look for many possible solutions.
b) See Figure 24.4 and try to complete the creativity tasks indicated there.
c
-

24.5 ADOLESCENCE
In Unit 23, Mind and Body, you have already studied that certain hormones are essential for
proper physical development of an individual. Around the age of 12, starts a period when
special hormones are secreted in the body and transition from childhood to adulthood takes
place. This is kndwn as adolescence, a period of very rapid physical growth, accompaniqd

-.

by a gradual develbpment of reproductive organs and secondary sexual characteristics such

as beard for men and breasts for women. The age limits of adolescence roughly extend fnnn
around 12 to about 18 years when physical growth is nearly complete.
During adolescence, not only is physical growth rapid, but its sex-related character changes
the social position of the individual. Cognitive development and knowledge base also
reaches a point when a person is able to formulate his or her ideas, fairly clearly, about
various questions in life. People are able to develop a world outlook or an ideology of their
own, and hence personality. At the end, they are no more boys or girls, but they are men and
women, generally able to stand on their own. The five or six years of adolescence stage are
very crucial for everyone, and since they generally correspond to classes 7th or 8th to 12th
or first year of college, they are important for teachers to keep in mind while dealing with
'theit students. The transition can be clumsy and confusing, too aggressive or too timid for
the young person, but it is also a wonderful experience to grow out of childhood and face the
world as a c o n f l d e n e @ - d y to cnatfge it.
SAQ 3
Choose the correet-#rord from those given below to fill in the blanks.

i)

...........................

is a, time of transition from childhood to adulthood.

ii) Hormones produced by testes and ovaries are responsible for the ...........................
........................... seen in boys and girls.
iii) Adolescence is often a period of stress and emotional instability because it involves
a search for ...................:...................
( Secondary sexual characters, personal identity, adolescence)

24.6 ASPIRATIONS. CONFLICTS A N FRUSTRATION

~
In the previous section wt: discussed that durlng adolescence, an individual has to adjust to
new physical and mental conditjo$sr We often have to make decisions and choices about
hdw to spend our time, money and energy. Sometimes the choices are simple like whether to
wear a blue dress or a green one. At other tlmes conflicts may put us in a dilemma, such as,
whether to go to the cinema or to study at home? In other spheres of life, such as marriage,
religious beliefs, changing jobs, conflicts may be severe and persistent, which may lead to
anxiety, or even frustration We often aspire to be something or attain some objective or
position, but such aspirations or goal may be limited by several factors which may relate to
the family, nature of job or place of work, or other social and personal circumstances. A
potential source of tension is a situation when there is a conflict between two goals. You
may want to become an athelete, at the same time you may want to attain the maximum
marks in your class. For both these activities you must have a lot of time. You would have to
make a decision. Failure to find a solution or compromise between conflicts can build up to
serious psychological or mental disorders.
What happens when you are frustrated? You are upset and angry, which may lead to other
types of behaviour that are irrational, unpleasant or abnormal. We shall look into these
reactions later. But a feeling of frustration is a signal that there is a problem to be solved.
Usually, the problem is not clearly identified, and the first struggle is to identify it. One has
to search.0ne.s intentions and preferences, and examine where exactly do the impediments
lie. But once we do that, we can make a realistic decision about our options. It is through
these kinds of experiences that our mental growth takes place. For example, a student who
did not do well in the examination, fails. He is frustrated, but when he can identify what was
it, that caused the failure, whether it was other interests that prevented study, or friends who
proved to be a distraction, or if the teacher didn't explain well etc., he can try again in a
modified situatipn. Unresolved frustrations can lead to a peculiar behaviour whicKis called
"aggres~ion'~,
or aggressive behaviour.

24.7 AGGRESSION
We often k v e difficuliy hdealing with our a g e r and hostile feelings and this leads to
pggres+.,We he& to define what we mean by that. Aggnssion is often described as the
intention to injure another person either physically or verbally or to destroy property. Notice

Psyehdogicd k s p c c t ~of
.BehovTollL.

tncbrmation, K&C,
*Imi~ht

the word intention has been italicised. If you accidently step on someone's foot in the crowd
and apologise immediately, the act would not be termed aggressive because you did not step
on the foot intentionally.

24.7.1 Instinct or Learned?

Having defined aggression let us tryyo analyse if it is a basic instinct or a learned behaviour.
Some psychologists believe thar aggression is a natural instinct and give at least two kinds of
arguments for it. Firstly, that it is so widespread. Our history is largely a history of wars and
we hear about the violent acts that take place daily in our society. Secondly, we know that
aggressive behaviour in animals is observable at every stage, we can even breed animals
selectively fbr their aggressiveness, for example bull dogs, hounds and terriers are more
aggressive than othtr dogs, say poodles. Such dogs are trained for hunting and as police
dogs. In the older days, the kings and nawabs bred and trained rams, cocks, eagles etc., for
fighting matches. The pedigree was maintained for their aggressiveness. On the other hand,
another group of psychologists believe that aggression is a result of frustration and conflict
and is a learned response and i t must find an outlet. We will explain this later.

24.7.2 Biological Basis of Aggression

Studies show that mild electrical stimulation of a specific region of the hypothalamus
produces aggressive behaviour in animals. When a cat's hypothalamus was stimulated by
implanting electrodes in the brain and passing an electric current, it's hair stood on end; it
hissed and arched it's back and would strike at anything that was placed in its cage.

' .

In higher mammals like monkeys this instinctive pattern is not observed. Their behaviour
was seen to be more controlled by the cerebral cortex rather than mere stimulation of the
hypothalamus. The hypoth;~llr~nus
may send a message to the cerebral cortex that its
aggressive centres have bcen stimulated, the cortex then chooses the response considering
what is going on in the environment, and what has been stored in the memory from past
experiences.
We too have centres in thc brain that can make us behave aggressively, but thefactivation is
under cognitive control. Some brain damaged persons may react to stimulation with
aggressive behaviour, which would not elicit any response from normal persons. In such
cases, it was found that the cerebral cortex was the damaged area ot the brain. In normal
persons. we can say that aggressive hehaviour is determined largkly by social influences and
personal experiences.

24.7.3 Aggression as a Learned Response

Reading through the previous \ection must have given you an idea that aggression is not just
an instincr In mall. A per\on who I \ frumated by a blocked goal may or may not behave
aggress~vely,depend~ng0 1 1 hou he has learned to cope with stressful situations.
'

76

Fig. 24.5: ,Frustration1s one of the causes for

aeeressive behaviour. '

Fig. 24.6: Aggression is instinctive in

animals.

~ o d a b r a t this
e further, let us assume that you are preparing for an exam or reading
something that requires concentration. Your neighbour plays his radio at full volume. You
would probably first go and request him to lower the volume. If he refuses, you have to
think about what to do.

Psychological Aspects o f '

Behaviour

you could get very angry and exchange some harsh words or,
you might even beat him up,
another alternative would be that you let your temper cool off, or move away to a quieter
place. This might enable you to take up the matter with your neighbour when both of you
are in a reazonable mood.
Out of these three, the response chosen by you would be one, that has been the most
successful in the past in a similar situation.
Unpleasant situations often lead to aggressive behaviour. In a study involving two groups,
one group was made to work in a stuffy and hot room while the other was maie to work in a
cooler and pleasant room. A person was made to behave aggressively with each group. The
reaction csf the group work~ngin uncomfortable circumstances was significantly more
aggressive to this person than the group that was' working under comfortable conditions.
Children, too, learn to respond aggressively by imitation of elders. In some studies, children
who watched an adult behave aggressively learned to imitate him and thus behaved in a
more aggressive fashion like, hitting each other or pushing one another around. While
another groups of children who hadn't been exposed to such adult behaviour showed no
increase in their aggressive attitude.
Aggressive behaviour is learned through observation and is often reinforced by its
consequences. For instances, if adolescent who is larger and has more muscle power than
other boys sees that he can get what he wants by threatening or beating smaller boys he will
repeat this act as often as he can.
.'id

q
$1

$;
6

$1
:;IS

,:it

Sometimes we can't t e e out our aggression directly on whoever is the cause of our
frustrations. What happens then is a case of displaced aggression. For example, a boy of 15
or 16 wants to go out with his friends for a weekend and his parents refuse to give him
pe-mission. The boy may not be able to do much about it but may, in anger, break a few
things in the house or bang the door or go and quarrel with the neighbour.
Sodetimes, this displaced aggression can lead to much more serious consequences than
what we are suggesting in ourexample. A group of striking students or workers may go on a
rampage damaging public property, and may hurt even innocent bystanders, just because of
frustration in their attempts to cause ham-to the authority eo&erned.

>I<
1

.;,;I

SAQ 4
Match the term on the left with'correct phrases from the list on the right.

a) Frustration
b) Aggression
C) Conflict
d) Aspirations
e) Displaced
aggression

i)

iii) Intention to hurt another person or object

Indirect anger

ii) Caused by blocking or confusing of goals

a
[7

iv) Having to make choices

v) To want to reach a goal

'

2418HUMAN FACTOR ENGINEERING

With the advances in science and technology, we have to constantly interact with machines
and engineering systems. The range is wide, whether it is a worker in a factory, or a driver
of motor vehicles or a farmer using farm implements like threshers and tractors or an
individual using a sophisticated computer. In each case it is important that the machines and
manner of their operation should be suited to human abilities, if the maximum work output
is to be realised. The study of the efficiency of a person in his working environment is called
human factor engineering or ergonomics. The people who are trained in this branch of
applied psychology are known as human factor specialists.
How was the importance of suitable working environments and machine designsrealised?
During World War 11,457 US Air Force accidents took place in a 22 month period. An

To get a better perspective of&

subject you are advised to listen tc
the audio programme - 'Human
Factor Engineering'.

Infornlation, Knowledge,
ldlght

analysis of these accidents showed that pilots confused between two control levers, one
related to landing and the other to wings. Often they didn't even know if they had enough
petrol to complete their missions. Soon it was realised that selection and training alone
would got produce efficient pilots. The equipment itself needed to be redesigned.
For the first time, design engineers started working in collaboration with psychologists to try
and ensure that the machine systems will suit human requirements and abilities. The shapes
of the controls for landing gear and wings were so designed, that the difference between
them was obvious and chances of mistakes were eliminated. Similarly, the markings on the
fuel gauge were changed to indicate fuel quantity as FULL; HALF FULL; EMPTY
instead of in actual gallons. You must have noticed this in present day buses and motor cars
etc. Thus, the esseiitial job of human factor specialists is to see that machine systems are
designed with the user in mind, so that they can be run with maximum efficiency and
minimum error. For this purpose, they study the effects of work environment such as

ventilation, noise and illumination. This leads to improvement in the design of the work
place, to make it more comfortable, safe, and conducive to performance. The duration of the
shifts is also studied in relation to production, to see how long a person can work with full
concentration. The speed of the workers' reflexes and motor movements has also to be taken
into consideration.
The result of human factor engineering may not always be obvious, especially if the effecs is
of convenience rather than safety. The telephone instrument is one machine that can be easily
operated by men, women and children alike. So every change in design is preceded by elaborate
tests and calculations. For example, in 1937 a new handset was designed and 2000 male and
female heds were measured before they decided on the dimensions indicated in Fig. 24.7.

(1 IN = 2.54 CM)

Fig.24.7: Dataofan average telephone user's head. Such data is known as

anthropomeaic data. Each of the shades near the mouthpiece represent the
ear to mouth distance of 20 per a n t of the populafion.

Almostlall of us use the chair for varied lengths of time during the day. Some of us use it for
more than 8 hrs. a day. May be you are sitting on a chair while muling this unit! Jiro Koharo
of Chiba University in Japan has studied how chairs affectaur body. He found h a t if the
seat of a chair is too high or too long it may disturb the cirCulation of blood in the thigh
blood vessels. If the back of the chair does not support the spine properly, abdomenal and
back muscles get tired and cause discomfort. Soft cushions in chairs cause the maximum
discomfort because they do not help the body balance, so muscles must work continuously
to maintain the balance of the body.

Psychological Aspects d
Behwiaur

Fig. 24.8: Relating chairs to body mechanics. Suppon for the spine. X-ray photograph of an office Worker
showing where the back rest of the chair presses. After seeing the X-ray, it was suggested that the backrcst be -.
lowered by 2.5 cm. to make sitting more comfortable.

;.'
i:

We often do not realise it, but most of the things we use in our daily life have been designed
keeping the human abilities and conveniences in mind. The slabs or shelves inrhe kitchen
for example, are of a particular height so that the user is least tired while working.

24.9 EXPERIMENTS WITH MAN IN SPACE

--

We have already discussed the usefulness of space flights in Blocks 3 & 4. One is able to
make astronomical observations from satellites; get meteorological information; Obtain
invaluable data on resources of the earth and the condition of crops and forests. The human
urge to know the unknown and, if possible see what the conditions on the moon or planets
are like, has also been a great factor in space exploration. Human ingenuity and creative
power have given us the opportunity to cany out much of this research and exploration with
the help-of instruments which can be controlled from the earth. For example, samples of soil
from the moon have.been brought back to earth by automatic machines and rockets, without
Actual human presence on the moon.
Nevertheless, there is nothing like a human eye observing the panorama of the moon, and
describing the scenery-beyond what a camera can do through a picture. But, space travel
for human beings is a very difficult proposition, and in order to make it possible, lot of
research has been done by sending up other biological organisms and animals, such as virus,
bacteria, mice, dogs and even monkeys.
Human beings hate to travel in h e most unnatural circumstances-if there is a single
astronaut, he has absolutely no company for as long as he travels, and most unfamiliar
scenes-looking out of the window, he sees nothing except stars. This loneliness, and !
absence of sensations from outside has been found to be a source of great mental stress.
Man is a social animal, and he has to receive sensations through his eyes, ears, nose and skin
etc.. to feel normal. Travelling in a satellite, one feels "weightless"-if you turn a glass

Infop~1.tlon;Knowkdg.
htstght

upside down the liquid aoes not rail out! So, food also does not naturally move down the
throat--even water is not easy to swallow. It seems our whole body-(digestive system, and
even blood circulation) is accustomed to earth's gravity, and if it is nullified, we cannot be at
ease. Even movement of muscles is difficult. The air inside the space vehicle is kept under
artificial pressure, because outside the vehicle there is near absolute vacuum and no sound of
any kind can reach the space craft. Of course, there are great problems in washing, or taking
a bath or in passing stools. Obviously any space traveller would feel out of sorts - but that
is a mild word, he or she can feel absolutely confused, lethargic and psychologically
unstable.

x\

But practice is a great help. Modern astronauts go through a long period of training. If they
know what to expect in space, they are mentally and physically prepared for it.
Weightlessness is also simulatd so that a space man or woman can be adjusted to its
peculiarities. Communication iinow much better, the travellers can receive television
pictures and can make telephone calls. They are made to take exercise. It is now the practice
to have a group of men, or men and women in space rather than single persons. That is how,
in one Soviet space craft, people have spent more than a year at one stretch without adverse
effects. The tasks of control and communication are also numerous for the spacemen and
hence a team is needed.
All this shows that our body and mind are attuned to live under normal conditions of
pressure, gravity, sensations and communication. Abnormal physical environment puts our
system under great stress, which shows serious physical as well as psychological effects. But
many of these aspects have come to light only because space had to be conquered and
human beings had to get adjusted to new living conditions. If a colony is made on the moon
or elsewhere, there will be other conditions to be experienced, and hopefully man will prove
equal to the task.

24.10 SUMMARY

In this unit, you have learned the following:

.b.

Learning is a relatively permanent change in behaviour that can take place : through
training, where a given stimulus produces a response; through reward or punishment;
through cognitive learning that involves memory, reasoning, analysis and synthesis.
Cognitive development proceeds in an orderly sequence and is related to physical
development as was suggested by Piaget.
Performance in cognitive development is measured in terms of the IQ, while the ability
for original thinking is measured in terms of the creativity of an individual. However,
there is low correlation between IQ and creativity.
Adolescence is the period that bridges the gap between childhood and adulthood. It is a
time of rapid physical growth and of uncertainty, trials and experimentation with new
roles.
Aggression is a behaviour that is intended to harm another person or property.
Aggression is instinctive behaviour in animals while in human beings it is mostly learned.
It is often the response to stress, conflict or frustration.
Human factor engineering is concerned with study of the efficiency of a person in his
working environment. This is accomplished through the design of equipment and york
place.
Possibility of space travel led to experiments with human beings in space.
Weightlessness, isolation and having to work in a confined environment leads to stress
and disorientation of thought processes.

24.11 TERMINAL QUESTIONS

1

In this unit we have discussed three ways in which learning takes place. Can you give
one example to illustrate each kind?

...................................................................................................................................................
...................................................................................................................................................

--

Psychological Aspects ~i
Behaviour

Sudha who is 12 years old, always comes first in her class. She was tested for
intelligence and creativity both by her school psychologists. The score on the IQ test
was 15 points while that on creaivity test was rather low.
a) Calculate her IQ.
b) Why do you think she did not score well in the test for creativity?

Listed below are examples of changes that occur during adolescence. Indicate whether
each change is physical, mental or social.
a) Fifteen year old Ramesh sings very well and used to sing and show off before
groups. Lately he blushes and cringes when his parents ask him to sing for their
friends.
b) Thirteen year old Mohan has been asked to withdraw from the group song to be
sung in his school function because he seems to be out of tune with the rest of the
boys.
Now that Krishan is 16 years old, he seems to be more understanding. He has
C)
begun to understand individual human rights and dignity.

There is a society in New Guinea where aggression and conflicts within communities
are virtually unknown. Adults are extremely cooperative and have a spontaneous urge
to help and share food, affection, trust, work etc. Among children, even accidental
aggressive behaviour during play does not persist or get encouraged. What would you
deduce from these observations? Is aggression instinctive or learned behaviour.

Give some examples from your experience where you think human factor engineering
has benefited the user and has improved work output.

k h a t are the three main factors that affect the psychological stability of an astronaut in
space?

24.12 ANSWERS
Self-Assessment Questions
1

a)

i) instinctive
ii) punishment

'hiormation, Knowledge,
Insight

iii) learnPedreflex
iv) rewards
V)
cognitive learning
b) a) matches
iii)
b) matches
i)
c) matches
iv)
d) matches
ii)

a)

i
ii)
iii)
iv)
v)
vi)

T
F
F
F
T
T

b) There are no 'correct' answers to the task in Fig. 24.3. Creativity involves finding
novel answers!

i) adolescence
ii) secondary sexual characters
iii) personal identity

a)
b)
c)
d)
e)

matches
matches
matches
matches
matches

'

ii)
iii)
iv)
v)

i)

Terminal Questions
1 a) Stimulus-Response
Commercial advertising uses the model of stimulus-response. They pair their
products with attractive places or people. Repeated viewing of such advertisements
causes favourable response from the customers when they see the products.
b) Reward and Punishment
Recruits in the armed fofces learn to maintain discipline through the principle of
reward and punishment.
c)

Cognitive Learning
If you go to a new place and have to remember your way back, you use cognitive
learning to do so because you will make a mental map of the way, remember the
road signs or landmarks etc., and then recall all of it when you come back along
that way. You can, of course, think of many more such examples toillustrate the
three forms of learning.

a) Sudha's IQ is 125
b) because high IQ does not necessarily indicate high creativity.

a) mental
b) physical
c) social

In human beings aggression is generally considered to be a learned response. As the

children never encountered aggression they did not learn it.

You can think of several other examples to illustrate the principles of human factor
engineering. We have given these two:
i) The typewriter's keyboards have been designed so that the letters that are most
often used are easier to reach.
ii) Brooms with long handles do not strain the back as much as short handles.

Isolation, lack of sensory stimuli and weightlessness.

UNIT 29 MODERN DEVELOPMENTS IN

SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY-I
Structure
29.1 Introduction

Objectives

29.2 Laser : Putting Light to Work

Applications of Laser

29.3 Fibre Optics

Applications of Optical Fibres

29.4 Space Technology

Dividends from Space

29.5 Fission and Fusion Energy

Nuclear Fission: Splitting the Atom
Nuclear Reactor
Nuclear Fusion: The Ultimate Source of Energy
The Other Side of the Coin

29.6 What is Biotechnology

Genetic Engineering
Enzyme Immobilisatio~

29;7 Summary
29.8 Terminal Questions
29.9 Answers

29.1 INTRODUCTION
Products of modern science and technology have become a part and parcel of our daily Ilfe.
Whether we are situated in farflung villages or in the hustle and bustle of cities, we come
across these products everyday - in food and agricukure, in transport andkommunications
or in various other articles we use. You have already read about some of these technologies
in Unit 28. There are several modem technologies which we may not come across d~rectly,
but we do read about them in the newspapers or magazines. One day we are told about
exciting developments in semiconductors, computers, robotics or artificial intelligence,
another day about lasers, optical fibres or materials science and technology. Millions of us

have watched Squadron Leader Rakesh Sharma and astronauts from other nations make
successful trips in space -- a feat made possible'only due to the advances in space technology.
Biotechnology is a hot topic of debate and discussion these days. So is fission technolo&.
Fusion may replace fission as a source of nuclear energy by the beginning of the next century,
if the rapid pace of development continues.
You have studied, in Unit 27, that we shall be using in the next ten or fifteen years (or even
earlier) technologies that are now in the making. Hence, one of the last parts of this course '
tries to acquaint you with the emerging technologies. We would also like you to know and
think about the likely social impact of these technologies, about the benefits their proper use
might confer on us and the problems and difficulties their misuse might create for us. So
that, if the need arises, you could consciously react to and influence issues relating to these
technologies. What is being said about each technology is very brief. If some of you
develop an interest in any of these technologies and wish to study them further, a list of
hooks has also been provided at the end of the unit. In this unit we discuss lasers, fibre
O F $ ~ Sspace
,
technology, fission and fusion, and biotechnology. In Unit 30, we will take
ug semiconductors, computer technology, robotics, artificial intelligence. and materials
science and technology.

Srience, Technology and

Development

Objectives
r

After studying this unit you should be able to : ,

list properties that make light from a laser different from sunlight or light from ordinary
sources, such as fluorescent tubes, bulbs etc.,
state what an optical fibre is,
explain the-functions of rockets, artificial satellites and space probes,
describe nuclear fission, nuclear fusion and a nuclear reactor,
state what biotechnology is, and explain genetic engineering and enzyme immobilisation,
describe the applications of the technologies discussed in this unit.

--

29.2 LASER: PUTTING LIGHT TO WORK

LASER stands for Light Amplification by Stimulated Emission of Radiation. It's a fairly
long string of words. Well, don't let it stop you from reading further. What we wish to bring
out here is that lasers produce a very special kind of light. The light that lasers produce has
several useful properties that make it different from ordinary light. It is becarise of these
properties that laser light can be put to work in a number of ways.
Refer to Fig. 10.1 and Sec. 10.2
in Unit 10 to know what is meant
by wavelengfh.

You may wonder what the difference between ordinary light and light from a laser is. Light
from the Sun or from a lamp in your home is a mixture of many wavelengths. Each
wavelength produces a different colour. These colours mix and form ordinary light. We have
all seen colours in the sunlight separating out to form a rainbow in the sky after a rainy day.
Moreover. light waves from an ordinary source of light are all jumbled up and uncoordinated
in their movement (Fig. 29.la).

ORDINARY LIGHT

COHERENT LIGHT

LASER

Fig. 29.1: (a) Light from an ordinary source is made up of many wavelenihs and the waves move in different
directions; (b) laser light is of a single wavelength and all the waves are in phase with one another. i.e.
the crests (hills) and troughs (valleys) af one wav- fall on top of the crests and troughs of other waves.

Laser light is made up of u~al*es

of the same wavelength. Whai is more, all the nvavekin a
laser beam are organised to proc~edexactiy in step (in phase) with each other
(Fig. 29.1 b). This property of lasers is called coherence. It reminds you of contingents of
smartly dressed meanmoving in unison in the Republic Day parade. Or of the uniform
movement of oars in boat races of Kerala held on Onam. Does it not? As a result of
coherence, light waves in a laser beam can travel laige distames without spreading
apart. Because a laser beam does nor smead ou!. there is a large concentruriori of energy
per iinir area on the object on ~ ' h l c the
h laser beam falls. "

29.2.1 Applications of Laser

Due to its properties, laser light can be put to a number of uses in industry, medicine,
communications etc. We will briefly describe some of these uses. Because of the high
concentratior, of energy, a laser beam can quickly bum tiny holes, a few millimetres wide,
even in a strip of steel. Lasers have an advantage over all other traditional methods of cutting
and welding. Using lasers you can cut anv kind of material. such as paper, plywood, plastic
or cloth, as also the hardest of metals, ceranlics and glass with greater efficiency and
accuracy. Lasers can, thus, make an ideal tool for metal workers, carpenters and tailors, apart
from engineers.

Military Applications
Another area where the above mentioned properties of lasers are being used with a 'deadly'
precision is that of military applications. Lasers have been pressed into the service of the
global war machine. A whole range of laser weaponry has come into being, for use on land,
on sea and in space. X-ray lasers that can cany enormous energy have been developed.
Efforts are on to install.deadly laser weapons in satellites. The same technology could be
used to destroy factories, forests, farms and habitation. It is certainly a matter of concern,to
see so much human effort and wealth being used to turn the laser technology into an
instrument for mankind's destruction. Every effort should be made to stop this misuse of
technology.

Modern Developments in
Science and Technology-I

Healing Touch of Lasers

Contrast the above application of lasers with their uses in medicine where the laser is
working wonders.
A laser can be applied with almost perfect precision in surgery. It can bum away diseased
tissue without damaging the healthy tis'sue nearby. The tissues are cut neatly and without
any oozing of blood, and they can also be joined together. Lasers are completely sterile,
because bacteria cannot survive exposure to a laser beam. Today, lasers are routinely used
in eye surgery to treat detached retinas and to destroy abnormal blood vessels that form in
the retinas of diabetic patients. Earlier these diseases would result in blindness. For such
patients, laser is indeed a "miracle light". Lasers have become standard equipment
for ear,
- .
eye and other delicate forms of surgery. From removing brain tumours, to stoppiag
bleeding from ulcers, and treating cancer of the bladder, lasers find a wide use in medicine
(Fig. 29.2).

--

I
L

(2)

Communications
Lasers have also become an important means of long distancecommunication. Travelling
through hair-like.glass fibres, laser light can be made to carry thousands of times more
information than electric signals in conventional copper wire. Thousands of telephone calls
can be transmitted on a single fibre.

Other Uses
Lasers may be used to measure the distance of objects like the moon from the earth. Here,
itime taken for a laser beam to reach the moon and be reflected back to the earth is measured.
As you know, light travels at the speed of 3 x lo5 km per second. Thus, the distance can be
found from the simple formula :distance = speed x time.

Among other things, scientists use lasers to monitor small traces of chemicals polluting theatmosphere because these molecules disturb the passage of the beam and thereby reveal
themselves. Efforts are being made to transmit power by means of laser beams. Laser beams
are used to etch music and video pictures on records which look like ordinary gramophone
records. Such records can be played back by a laser beam and, thus, they never wear out. If
you happen to visit a science museum you will see holograms of various objects. These are
life-like three dimensional images created by laser beams.
Thus, you see that lasers can be put to endless uses for the knefit of h~imanbeings. These
uses seem to be limited only by the imagination of the scientistgsnd engineers. And the best
is yet to come.

SAQ 1
a) Using the words given below, fill in the blank spaces in the following sta(ements about
laseis and their properties.
i) Lasers are sources of a special kind of
properties.

......................which has several useful

ii) A-laser beam can carry energy or ...................... over ................. I.... distances.
iii) Lasers can direct a large ......................of energy per unit ...................... on the object
on which it falls because it does not ...................... out.
light, spread, amount, signals, long, area

(3)

Fig. 29.2: A laser beam ( I ) guided

by an opt~calfibre (2)burns he
block in the leg artery (3).

Laser beams are also used to

read and play the music or
images recorded on CDS
(compact disks), and read the
information stored on CDROMs
m computers.

Science, Technology and

Development

b) Here are a few applications of lasers. Which of the properties of lasers mentioned in part
(a) of this SAQ are being utilised for these applications? Write the appropriate numbers
against each application.
i) Finding the distance between the earth and the moon.

......................

ii) Drilling holes in baby bottle nipples.

......................
......................
......................

iii) Shooting down missiles.

iv) Transmitting phone calls.

The application of lasers in communications has been made possible largely due to the
advances in fibre optics. Let us know about fibre optics and its applications.

29.3 FIBRE OPTICS

Radiowaves are electre
magnetic waves of long
wavelength. See Sec. 10.2 in Unit
10 to refresh your memory.

The songs you hear on your transistor, or the pictures you see on your TV are canied from
the studios to your home on radiowaves. Telephone calls you make, on the other hand, are
bansmitted by electric current flowing in copper wires. In-the recent past,-new technologies
have sppeared for transmitting various kinds of electric signals on glass fibres. This has been
possible due to the advances in fibre optics technology.
Fibre optics is the technique of transmitting light waves through glass wires as thin as
human hair.
These wires called optical fibres could be made of glass or transparent plastic, quartz, nylon
or polystyrene. Opticalfibres are thin hair-like solid strands that carry light along their
length, by a process of multiple total internal reflections (Fig. 29.3). We will not go into the
details of the process. In this process the beam of light entering at one end is transmitted
along the fibre, without loss of intensity, whether the fibre is straight or bent in a curve.

Fig. 293: Transmission of light through an optical fibre.

29.3.1 Applications of Optical Fibres

Fibre optics finds many applications in areas like medicine and communications which we
will briefly describe. We will also discuss its advhtage over tradifional technologies.
Viewing inaccessible regions
Instruments made of optical fibres, called endoscopes, are used to see the
internal organs of the human body, such as the interior of the stomach, or the bronchial
tubes. Inserted into the body, some fibres of the bundle carry light so that the internal organ
is lit up. Other fibres are used to return light so that the image of the interior is canied to the
observer outside. Endoscopes are often connected to a camera or TV monitor. Since these
fibres are very fine, they can be irrAertedeasily in the body. The images are very useful in
heart and brain surgery and ia diagnosis of some other diseases.
Freeing crowded cableways
The use of aptical fibres has been very adkantageous in telecommunications. Signals of
voice, text, computer data or picture transmissions are superimposed on laser beams. The ,
modulated laser beams are then guided along optical fibres, to various points where they are
received. At the receiving end, one is able to hear the voice, read the data or see the picture
(Fig. 29.4).
The signal carrying capacity of light waves is much greater than that of radio waves or
waves along copper wires. Therefore, the light waves travelling in fibres can carry thousands
of different signals. For instance, a pair of glass fibres can carry 1300 telephone calls at the
same time, as against 24 for copper wires.

Modern Developmentsin
Science and Technology-I

transmitted signal +
laser source

ieceived signal

optical fibre

modulated light beam

demodulator

Fig. 29.1:

The fibre optic link between lelephonr exchange<. A laher ha111 u i ~ hthe \rfnnl tmprchsed on il. IS
directed at one end of the fibre. 11 emerge?,at the other rtid. A phototliode convcrl\ Ihi. l i ~ h he:~m
t
into
electrlc currcnt. The tlemodularor rccclvcr\ thr. or~pllr,~l
kiptial

The use of laser beams in optical fibres enables the transmission of signals for thousands of
kilometres. Transatlantic undersea fibre-optic cables have been in use for ~ommunication
between USA and UK. Instead of being broadczst from antennas, TV programrnek can now
be transmitted through fibre-optic cables. The cable TV can, thus, make available several
channels to the viewer. Freliminary experiments on the use of fibre-optic technology in India
are being done so that we can also take adtantage of this technology in the coming years.
Indian research laboratories have already developed the technology of producing the special
glass, drawing fibres from it and giving it a special coating so that internal reflection takes
place with a minimum toss. Indian industry is now manufacturing optical fibres.
The fibre optics technology has many advantages over the traditional technology. An optical
fibre cable, the size of an ordinary electrical cord, can replace copper cable hundreds of
times thicker. Optical fibres are light and sturdy. ?'hey are much less expensive than copper
w e s for the amouvt of information they carry. Because optical fibres carry light beams,
they are free from the disturbances. wch as you hear on the radio due to nearby electric
disturbances. Fibre-optic communication is also advanrapeous for military communication
because it cannot be "jammed"
There may come a day when optical fibre cables enter many of our h o u s ~ carrying
s
not only
telephone calls but also television programmes, communication from computers and
electronic mail sent from person to person.
SAQ 2
a) Select from i) to vii) below the three true statements about optical fibres and write your
answer in the space given below.

An optical fibre is:

i ) a hollow hair-like thin transparent wire that carries light.
ii) a solid hair-like thin transparent wire that carries radio waves.
iii) a solid hair-like thin transparent wire that carries light.
i v ) made up of a transparent material like glass, quartz or polystyrene.

v) used to carry information to nearby places.

vi) used to carry large amounts of information.
vii)rnore expensive than a copper cable ..................................................

r b) The following is a summary of what you have just learnt about fibre optics. Fill in the
blank spaces using the words given below:

I
I
t

Fibre optics is a technique that provides a way of transmitting information. It transmits

information on ....................... Light travels in glass wires known as .......................
Fibre-optic cables are ...................... and transmit more information without loss and
disturbance,when compared with ...................... and ....................... Optiiai fibres are
made from ......................material.
optical fibres, electric current, lighter, cheaper, light waves, mdion~aves

II is possible to interfere with

and disturb messages being sent
on radio waves, by transmitting
other radio waves of the same
frequency at the same time. This
process is called 'jamming'.

Science, Technology and

Developn~ent

You have just read about lasers and fibre optics. We will now describe space technology;
another major technology to have emerged in modem times.

29.4 SPACE TECHNOLOGY

In a flat dry plain called the Sea of Tranquillity on the moon, is a footprint. This footprint
was left there by Neil Armstrong. He was the first human being to walk on the moon. He
was a member of the 3-man crew carried to the moon by the American spacecraft Apollo 1 1
in July, 1969.
It was a dream come true for mankind -a dream of flying into space and vikiting another
body in the universe. Since then great strides have been made in space technology. The
first step irffhis direction was the development df rockets.

Rockets or Launch Vehicles

Every flight into space begins with a rocket launching. The rocket can lift a satellite or
spaceship carrying human beings and equipment into space. Therefore, it is also called
launch vehicle. The rocket has been known to mankind for centuries. Rockets used as
firecrackers are a common sight on festive occasions in our country. But the rockets that
launch space whicles use highly advanced technology, and, of course, they are far more
powerful.

LIQUID

PUMP
1

PAY~OAD

COMBUSTION
CHAMBER

EXHAUST
NOZZLE

PUMP

Fig. 29.5: Cutaway view of a liquid-fuel rocket. Pump drives fuel and oxidiscr to combustion chamber.

When the fuel in the rocket is set tofire, a stream of hot gases is expelled at a high speed
from its rear end (Fig. 24.5). As ireaction to the thrust of the,gases, the rocket moves in the
opposite direction. As long as the fuel in the rocket burns, shooting out gases, the rocket
continues to accelerate forward, and acquires great speed.

No single rocket fired from the earth can attain in one go the high speeneeded to orbit the
earth, or to escape its pull. Higher speeds are reached by using big and small rockets, in
stages. in the launch vehicle. As the large rocket soars into space and uses up its fuel, lt IS
separated from the smaller rocket and drops off. The smaller rocket already going at high
speed is then fired to accelerate it to an even higher speed. Three-stagerockets are usually
able to achieve speeds suitable for most purposes in space (Fig. 29.6). The final stage of the
launch vehicle carries the payload.

Activity
Verify the principle of rocket motion by releasing an inflated balloon with its neck open.
The different kinds of payloads that rockets carry into space include artificial satellites and
space probes to nearby heavenly bodies. The satellites and probes themselves carry
communication and research Quipment.
I

Fig. 29.6. The multr-stage Indian

Rocket PSLV.

Artificial Satellites-Tireless Servants in the Sky

The space crafts that move in an orbit around the earth are called artificial satellites. Most
satellites go around the earth &ce In about 90 minutes at a height of a few hundred
kilometres. But it is possible to launch satellites with a proper speed at greater heights
(around 36,000 kms). They would then move around the earth once in 24 hours and
La*,-

n
.
.
n
n
.
.

*A Ls r*n+;Lnn...r

C.."L

r"tnll;*nr

""lln,i

"~.~n~;nnnru
frltpll;tp~

As you have read in Urut 26%our own INSAT series of satellkes are geostationary
,]lites
Every night towards thc cnd of T v news on m y channel. we are shown

Modern Developments in
Science and Techndogy-1

plCtureS Of Clouds over Ind,a. These pictures He laken by INSAT

earth, ~~a
from monltofing the weather, INSAT satellites are used to
to
via these
telephone calls. Television PrOgmmmes He also
-. .
-,satellites.

satellites carry equipment 10 survey the earth's natural resources and monitor weather.
India's satellite Programme has also provided useful information on agricultural land and
prospecting for ores and minerals. Recently, the satellite IRS 2D in the IRS (Indian
Remote Sensing Satellite) series has been launched to smrey India's natural resources
by remote sensing methods.
The effect of living in space on plants and animals is also studied in satellites. At present,
Russia has a space station called Mir going round the earth as a satellite. Crew members
and supplies are regularly sent to @isstation where three or:more personswork at
time, for periods as long as a year. Satellites can pinpoint sources of pollution, spot forest
fires and locate areas of disease in crops and forests. Weather conditions can be monitored
by satellites enabling us to predict storms and prevent damage. Satellites also help in
is made for communications.
locating and guiding ships. But-the maximum use of satellites
.Space Probes-Journeying to Neighbouring world;
If a spacecraft is di.rected to move out in space, away from the earth, it is called a space
probe. As you read in Unit 11; several unmanned space probes have either passed by or
landed on the planets Mercury, Venus, Mars, Jupiter, Saturn; Uranus and Neptune. They
have sent back valuable data and photographs of all these planets. So we have come to know
what these planets look like from near, what they are made up of, and what physical
conditions prevail near them.
~

SAQ 3
a) INS AT-2D is.a geostationary salellitc. Which two of the.following statements about
INSAT-2D are true? Write T against the appropriate choices.

......................
It completes two orbits around the moon in 24 hours. ......................

i) It circles around the earth at a height of 400 kiiometres.

ii)

.iii) It can be used to give advance warning of cyclones and prevent loss of life and
property. ......................
iv) Experiments on plants are being done aboard INSAT-2D ...........................
It has sent valuable data about the neighbouring planets to the earth. ..........;...........
vi) It circles the earth once in every 24 hours. ......................
V)

b) Write in the space given, which of the following spacecraft is a rocket, an artificial
satellite or a spaceprobe?
i) Intelsat can bring home to us on TV any event occurring in the world. ......................
ii) The spacecraft Pioneer sent the first photographs of Jupiter to the
ea;th ......................
i i i ) Saturn-5 put the manned Apollo spacecraft in itsorbit around the

.............
.*........
.
29.4.1 Dividends from Space
-.-

moon.
. &.
1

..

When the space programme began. its primary aims were research, adventure and cational
prestige. As it expanded, the investment in it also grew. It is now a highly expensive
undertaking. A natural question to ask is, hdw does it benefit humankind.

1..
,There have been many benefits from space programme. In meeting the challenge of space

travel, scientists and engineers have come out with a stream of innoyations. These are
equally useful on the earth. Some examples are---new materials for.usc'in'industry, e.g., light
but strong alloys, better steel, plastics and adhesives. Highly reliable and tiny electronic
components made for spacecraft are now used in TV and other electronic goods. Computers
have become compact. Medical instruments made for astronauts are used in hospitals. ~ e w
technology for food preservation saves energy. Ultra sensitive fire alarms and fireproof
fabrics have 6een developed. The list is very long.

If you add to it the benefits derived from a satellite, like weather forecasting; prospecting or
communication, it hecomes truly remarkable. As you have read -in Unit 26, the,satellites are
being used in a big way not only for news and information but also for education.

Science, Technology and

Development

Programmes initiated from a Cw

: places can reach people situated in d~stantand inaccessible
locations. -Most parts of our country can now be reached through satellite supported
television.
As it is with all scientific endeavors, space can also be misused. Either bombs. laser
machines or other kinds of weapons can be stationed there. There is a world-wide and strong
opinion to prevent the use of space for war-like purposes.
Perhaps the futility of war-mongering is realised most if one looks at space travel from
,
another view. Travelling in space has given, man an entirely new view of his home, his
planet Earth. It has shown the earth as a beautiful planet, rich in colour. movement and life.
Our planet is a "closed systemw,dependent only on the sun for energy, with limited
resources that cannot be replaced. It is a spaceship itself. fragile and isolated in the vast
universe-a flicker of life very precious. Certainly, the planet Earth demands preservation as
a single environment. We have only one world. We must protect it from those who because
of their greed or ignorance would use science and technology to destroy it.
Nuclear fission and fusion technology is another such technology which can be put to
destructive use. However, strong public opinion around the world has served to curb its
destructive use to home extent. Let us now examine this technology and various issues
related to its use.

29.5 FISSION, AND FUSION ENERGY

'The Italian navigator has arrived in the new world'
This coded message announced the beginning of the atoyic age on 2nd December? 1942.
The 'navigator' was the Italian-American physicist Enrico Fermi. That afternoon, in a
squash court under the stadium of Chicago University of USA, Fermi and his team of
scientists succeeded in taming the atom for the first time. In the heart of the first atomic
furnace, atoms were made to split, under strict control, to produce energy. Fermi had indeed
ushered in a new world. Today, in the giant atomic power stations around the world, or'in
nuclear weapons, we can see how far this discovery has taken us.
'

29.5.1 Nuclear Fission: Splitting the Atom

You know that atoms are made up of a nucleus and electrons moving around the nucleus,
and the nucleus is made up of protons and neutrons. The principal actor in the fission drama
is the uranium atom. The nucleus of the Uranium 238 atom has 92 protons and 146 neutrons.
About one atom in 140 atoms of uranium ha5 143 neutrons in its nucleus.*lt is called
Uranium 235. It is the Uranium 235 that is mostly used to provide fuel for nuclear furneces.
Before the Second World War, two German scientists discovered that if neutrons were shot
at the nuclei of Uranium 235, the nuclei split into two and produced other neutrons to repeat
the process. This is called nuclear fission (Fig. 29.7a).

Nuclear jlssion is the splitting cq'a lur,ye nut leus into nt20~mollernlrclei.

Fission
fragment
/

Energy

,A

Fig. 29.7: (a) Nuclear fission: (b) chain reaction.

Release of Energy
When the atom splits, the masses of the fragments and the neutrons produced do not add up
to the mass of the original. A tiny amount of matter disappears. This lost matter turns into
energy. The amount of energy 'E' generated by the. lost matter of mass 'm' is given by the
famous equation due to Einstein:
E = mc2, where c is the speed of light.
c is large (about 300 million metres/s'ec) and c2 is enormous (about 90,000 trillion m2/sec2).
Thus, a small amount of lost matter would get converted into very very large amounts of
energy.

Chain Reaction
When the atomic nucleus splits, it not only gives off energy, but also throws out two or three
more neutrons. 'These new neutrons can, in turn, split two or three other ::toms. Ttus way they
release more energy and more neutrons, which will split more atoms. In ol her words, once
the splitting of the nuclei starts, it becomes self-sustaining. This whole prdccss is calleda
chain reaction (Fig. 29.7b). If the chain reaction is allowed to go on, ~t would lead to an
explosive release of energy. Control it by absorbing the extra neutrons and you have the
slow, smouldering reaction of the "nuclear reactor". This serves as a source of energy much
like a thermal power station. We will now describe the nuclear reactor. But how about trying
an SAQ first!
SAQ 4
a) State In the hoxes given, which of the following statements about nuclear fission
are true (T) or false (F).
i) Nuclear fission is the process in which two light nuclei are formed wh'en a
heavy nucleus $plit\.
ii) The 5uln of the mas$es of the resulting nuclei is exactly equal to the mass
of the parent nucleu\.
ii'i) When an a~omicnucleus splits, it only gives off energy and nothing else.

iv) In nuclear fission a small amount of matter disappears and is converted into
energy.
V)

The ainount of energy released is huge because it depends on the square of

the speed of light.

b) In the space given below draw the next stepof thechain reaction sllown inFig. 29.7 (b).

Modem Developments in
Science and Techndolty-1

Sckwt, Technology and

Development

29.5.2 Nuclear Reactor

Nuclearjission can be maintaived as a controlled cjiain reaction in a nuclear reactor to
produce energy.

The black 'lead' used in pencils

is, in feet, made of graphite
n u krd. rs it is mistakenly
#led.

Fermi had found from experiment that slower moving neutrons were more effective in
causing nuclearfission. But most neutrons produced by the splitting of the nuclei are quite
fast. A way was required to slow them down. It was found that certain materials slow down
the neutrons. Graphite. a pure form of carbon, is one such material. Such materials are called
moderators.
There was still the problem of controlling the chain reaction so created, that is, to stop the
reaction or allow it to proceed at will. Materials which absorb neutrons would serve to
control the reaction. The neutrons absorbed by such materials would be removed and would
no longer split atomic nuclei. And the reaction would be controlled. The material usually
chosen as an absorber of neutrons, is cadmium or boron steel.
In a nuclear reactor (see Fig. 29.8a). rod-like containers of Uranium-235 are inserted in holes
made in a huge block of graphite. The graphite block slows down neutrons to enhance the
chain reaction. Control rods of cadmium are also inserted into the graphite block. When
pushed out, they absorb fewer neutrons and the reaction is speeded up.
The problem, then, is to remove the heat and use it to generate electrical energy. This is
achieved by circulating water, or liquid sodium to absorb the heat generated in the graphite
block. This heat may generate steam, which can turn a turbine (a wheel with slanting blades)
a n q h e connected electrical generator (Fig. 29.8b).

Q. 29&.

1 Megawatt

- lo6

watts Watt

1s

the unit of power, which is the

amount of energy used per
second.

-.

(a) A schematic diagram of a nuclear reactor. (b) heat generated in nuclear fission is used to convert
water into steam in most of the reactors. The steam drives a turbine which is connected to an electric
generator. The steam is cooled and reused.

Today we have reactors capable of yielding power upto 500 Megawatts. Smaller reactors
which give 1 to 5 Megawatt power are mostly used for reseasch work. The large ones are
used for producing electricity, and driving submarines, or ships. From the uranium rods used
in the reactor, another fissionable material like Plutonium 239 may be obtained. Thus, a
reactor set up to generate energy can become a source for obtaining material for making a
bomb. India is committed to the use of nuclear energy for peaceful purposes.

SAQ 5
Give short aqswers in the space provided.
a) What purpose does the huge block of graphite serve in a nuclear reactor?

b) How is the speed of a nuclear reaction controlled?

Hazards of a Nuclear World

The-picture painted abdve seems rosy. Yet, it does have a few shades of grey. There are
many risks associated with the use of nuclear fission energy. These risks have caused worldwide debate, controversy and at times fear. Accidents have happened in nuclear power
plants everywhere in the world.

Modem Developments in
Science and Technology-I

In 1986, there was a major nuclear accident at the Chernobyl Nuclear Power Plant in the
_thenUSSR. Rare as they are, sltch accidents raise demands fm.a complete ban on nuclear
power plants. However, an unbiased assessment of the pasr accidents indicates that this is
not the answer. A better solution lies in the need to'resssess plant,safety, devise improved
methods of avoiding or containing the extent of mishaps. In India, there has been heated
discussion on this issue, but on the basis of several precautions and safety measures, it has
been dec~dedto go ahead with the programme ~Tgeneratingabout4000 Megawatt power
s
by the year 2000 A.D.
by t h ~ method.
Another major problem is the disposal of radio-active waste material from the spent uranium
rods of the nuclear reactors. Several alternatives are being tried out everywhere in the world,
for example, burying it thousands of feet deep in the earth or in the ocean bed. Some western
countries were recently reported to be dumping the highly injurious radio-active waste in
African or South American countries.
LIGHTER MASS
WELlUM UUCLE'L

From mining of the ore, to nuclear waste disposal,-each step in the nuclear fuel cycle carries
risks. The risks and benefits of each step depend largely on a strict watch over malfunction
and human error. The challenge is to eliminate the risks and to increase the benefits.

29.5.3 Nuclear Fusion: The Ultimate Source of Energy

An energy hungry world views with envy the glowing power of the sun and the stars, which
is based on a slightly different nuclear process called nuclear fusion.

Fig. 29.9: An imaginary sketch

showing a typical nuclear fusion
reaction.

Nuclear fusion takes place when two light atomic nuclei join orfitse together to form one
nucleus.
.
Fig. 29.9 shows one of the simplest fusion reactions. TWO nuclei of heavy hydrogen
(deuterium! also fuse to give a nuc!eus of helium, a neutron and energy. In this process a
tremendous amount of energy is released. Half a kilo of deuterium gas would yield as much
energy as 1300 tons of coal. What is more, we can get deuterium from sea water. There's
about 40 nlillion tons of deuterium in sea water. This could provide us energy for many
thousand million years.
Well then, what stops us from tapping this source of energy? The reason is that high
temperature, equivalent of millions of degrees centrigrade, is required to start fusion. And
once the gas has been heated, it must be prevented from expanding; it must be contained.
But no container walls can withstand such temperatures. Hence, entirely new techniques
have to be developed. Much activity is going around the world to generate power through
nuclear fusion. The development of fusion power has proved to be, perhaps, the most
difficult task ever tackled. Nevertheless, if fusion reactors come into being, humankind
would never again face an energy shortage.

29.5.4 The Other Side of the Coin

The atomic nucleus, on the one hand, holds promise for unlimited energy. On the other
hand, it also
poses a threat to the very existence of the living as well as the non-livin'g world.
*
Mankind still rues the fateful days of August 6 and 9, 1945 when two atom bombs, which
were given the nicknames, the Little Boy and the Fat Man were dropped by America on
Hiroshima and Nagasaki in Japan. In a flash, the cities crumbled to dust. Hundreds of
thousands of people died or were fatally injured within a few minutes. Many more thousands
of survivors and their descendants are still paying the price for what may be called an
unpardonable crime committed against humanity. They are not only suffering themselves
but also they often give birth to deformed or mentally retarded babies. The horrifying
spectre of the mushroom cloud which was observed over the two cities haunts us to this day.
The first bombs led to lhe manufacture of more bombs. Amenca was soon joined by the erstwhile
USSR, and an arms race commenced with stockpiling of even more deadly weapons.
Hydrogen bombs based on fusion, inter-continental ballistic missiles (each one carrying

Heavy hydrogen or deuterium ts

an isotope of hydrogen, i.e.,i&
atom has the same number of
electrons, but its nucleus has 1
protoo and 1 neutron.
Hydrogen is the lightest element.
Its atom is made up of one
electron moving around one
proton.

Science, Technology and

Development

many bombs), and neutron bombs have been added to the nuclear arsenal. It is estimated that
more than 50,000 nuclear weapons have been deployed around the world. Situated in silos,
mobile trains or trucks on land, in ships and submarines under the sea, in bombers riding the
sky, thcy are capa%lc of dcstrqjtmg Ule world many times over.

And look ut ~zthrrrit'c lose in the hur.gcrin

The world spends Inore than I trillion dollars (in rupee terms more than Ks. 15 lakh crore) in
a year or. making arms. The USA alone accounts for more than one third of this amount.
Much of this expcnditurc is incurred by the dcveIoping countries like ours. E v e ~ yone seems'to be
arming and buying froin t t ~ cfew big sellcrs in the world. If money werc not used for anns we could
feed and clothe the entire world population. change our hovels to proper houses and remove
illiteracy of our pcople.
'

The arms race cauqes a whole lot of economic problems in all countries, because this is
unprocluctive. The public all over the. world is worried and agitated about the threat to its
existence, and the grave economic tlifficulties faced by it. Only during the last 3 or 4 years. a
ray of hope has bccn scen.Thro~~gh
a scrics of treaties, thc USA and Russia have agreed to
disinantlc sonic nuclear missiles. Ncgotialions arc going on to bring about nuclcar disarmament
on a bigger scale. India and the lhcn USSR had givcn a call in I986 for the creation of a nuclear
weapons-frec and non-\.iolcnt world. With such dcvastaling arms, counlncs have to learn to
settle thcir dsputes by egoti ti at ion. ;%lidhave patience and mutual trust to do so.

Fig. 29.10: A nuclear n.~issilek i n g transfomied into doves, the symbols of peace-a
for peace and nuclear disarm;iment.

reflection of people's desire

Biotechnology is another emerging technology which holds promise of unlimited benefits if

utilised properly. Let us see what this tech~iologyis.

29.6 WHAT IS BIOTECHNOLOGY

Biotechnology is, perhaps. best defined as the industrial utilisation of biological systems or
processes. In n sense, therefore, biote(.hnology ha? existed for thousands of years. The most
ancient biotechnological art is fermentation. Living micro-organisms have been used for
centuries to make curds. condiments, cheese and vinegar, to prepare dough for bread or
bhatilras. and to brew alcohol. But today we know much more about these simple processes.
With thehelp of powerful microkcopes and carefully done expe;iments in the laboratory, we
have come to under>tatid that the tiny microbes involved in these processes are small
biochemical factories. And they can be used for a variety of purposes, related to health,
medicine. food, pollution control ctc.

42

TIze uhilrrv to i.orrrr.olo r l r l nmtrrj?rrlutc.I?II( r o h e ~and I I . rhern,for

~
vcrriolrs uppli,c~utionshas
r ~ . ~ 1 1 1int etdl ~ r( ! I I . I . ( ' ~ hrot~(
I~
111lolog~.
We w ~ l dmcribe
l
two main technique\ of the new
biotechnologq, namely genetic engineering and enzvme immobiliqation.
I

Modem Developmentsin
Science and T&hnoloay.I

29.6.1 Genetic Engineering

The modem biotechnology revolution is based on the understanding and manipulation of the
structure of DNA. DNA is a complex organic molecule that directs the synthesis of proteins
in all living organisms. Thus, it controls the physical structure, growth, reproduction and
function of all living beings. The programme for controlling protein synthesis is coded in the
chemical structure of DNA. The discovery of the code, and the synthesis of DNA in test
tubes, were important milestones in genetic engineering. However, the foundation of genetic
engineering was laid by the discovery, that QNA suppljed from outside is accepted by
micro-organisms. DNA thus inserted into the cell en from a micro-organism, enables the
cells to make the proteins specified in the codes of the inserted DNA. These new cells can be
cultivated or cloned, until a significant number of cells are available
*.
to produce specific,
desired protein molecules.

PLASMID
DNA EXTRACnON

-3

However, this is not so easily done. When a foreign DNA molecule enters a cell, spcclal
This problem was solved by the
enzymes, called restriction enzymes, rapidly destroy it
discovery of the fact that small rings of DNA other than the main DNA strands exist in the
cells of bacteria. These circular DNA molecules are called plasmids (see Fig 29.11). A
technique was developed to insert foreign DNA fragments into plasmids taken out of the
cells. This is known as gene splicing and plasmid becomes a vehicle or a vector. Once the
foreign DNA is joined to the plasmids, m d inserted back in the host cell, the restriction
enzymes fail to destroy it. When the cell reproduces, the foreign DNA .is also replicated.
When the cell carries on its normal functions, the synthetic DNA in the plasmid directs the
manufacture of the protein coded in i ~ .
Thus, through genetic engineering tethniques, it is possible to introduce a foreign DNA into
a host cell and synthesise any desired protein. Large quantities of scarce biologically
significant proteins which are not easily available from natural sources can be manufactured
in'this manner. For example, insulin needed by diabetic patients can now be produced on a
large scale using this technique. Just as cattle are bred for specific functions like high milk
yield, or pulling heavy loads, now-a-days scientists breed bacteria for carrying out special
functions. By selecting suitable bacteria, and using genetic engineering techniques, new variel
of bacteria which can eat man-made artificial products like plastics are being developed.
Otherwise plastic materials, discarded and thrown in garbage, are hard to get rid off. These
special bacteria are affectionately called 'Bugs'.

DAUGHTER CELLS

Fig. 29.11: An illustration of

29.6.2 Enzyme Immobilisation

The use of enzymes as catalysts is well known in a number of industries, such as baking or
wine making. But punfied enzymes are soluble in water. It is, therefore, not easy to remove
them from the final product. Further, it is difficult to re-use them. Thus, enzyme activity is
lost in one cycle of the chemical reaction. These difficulties led to the development in the
late 1960s of immobilised enzymes. The trick is to link an enzyme chemically to a large
molecule, such as gelatin. It can then be used as a catalyst, and it can be extracted with the
large molecule, for use once again. Immobilised enzymes have been successfully used in the
production of semi-synthetic penicillin and in the large scale production of fructose from
maize. Fructose is sweeter than glucose, yet it has the same calorific value and is used as a
low calorie sweetener.
SAQ 0

Explain in about three lines each what is meant by genetic engineering and enzyme
immobilisation.

the genetic engineering

technique; a) plasmid DNA is
extracted from the host cell; b) it
is cut at the cleavage site by
special techniques; c) foreign
DNA is then inserted into the
plasmid; d) the transformed
plasmid is inserted back into the
host cell. When the transfomd
cell multiplies. the foreign DNA
is also replicated.

A catalyst is a substance which

aids chemical change in other
substances without itself
undergoing change. Enzymes
are proteins that control the
biochemical processes in living
organisms.

Nuclear transfer is another technique

of genetic engineering whcrc the
nucleus ofthe egg cell is replaced by
the nucleus from the cell of a donor
organism, in order to create a clone.
The most famous ekample has been of
'Dolly', the first cloned sheep in Swtlan
This cloning technique has raised a
whole lot o f ethical issues as the
future holds the p~Jsibilitieso f
cloning human beings.

Biotechnology may be domir~atedby microbial and enzyme technology, but it is not

synonymous with them. Both animal and plant cells have their due share in its development.
Riotechnoloeical ex~loitationof animcl cells lies behind the.commercial ~roductionof viral

3) State four ways in which we have benefited from our artificial satellite programme.

4) What are the risks associated with the use of fission energy?

5) We are listing below a few statements giving applications of the technologies described
in this unit. State against each statement, which technology corresponds to the particular
application.

a) Our natural resources can be explored, TV programmes broadcast

from anywhere in the world can be relayed to any .other desired place.
c) Brain tumours and blocks m artenes can bc removed.

....................
....................
....................

d) Vlral vaccines and bacteria for removing pollution can be engineered.

.....................

e ) Telephonic communications and TV programmes can be carried to large

distances.

...................

b) Large amounts of energy can be provided.

29.9 ANSWERS
Self Assessment Questions:
1) a) i) light
ii) signals, long
i i ~ amount.
)
area, spread
b) (i)-(ii); (ii)-(111);(iii)-(ii), (iii); (iv)-(ii).
2) a) (iii), (iv), (vi).
b) light waves, optical fibres, lighter, electric current, radiowaves, cheaper.
3) a) (iii), (vi).
b) (i) artificial satellite (ii) space probe (iii) rocket.
4) a) (i) T (ii) F (iii) F (iv) T ;(v) T

b)

5) a) The graphite Meck slows down the neutrons.

b) It is controlled by using absorbers, such as cadmium rods. You can explzin further
how it is done.

6 ) Genetic engineering is the technique of introducing foreign DKA fragments into host
cells so that certain functions specific to the foreign DNA can be carried out within them.
Enzyme itnmobilisation is a technique which is used to chemicnlly bind enzymes to
certain substances so that they are not loct I C d single chemical reaction but can be
extracted and re-uhed.

Modern Developments in
Science and Techndogy-I.

Science, Technology and Development

.

Terminal Questions
Laser Light

Ordinarv Lieht

1) single wavelength,

many wave lengths,

2) coherent,

incoherent,

3) beam can travel large

distance without spreading,
4) carries large concentration of
energy per unit area.

I
I

beam spreads apart,

energy concentration at a distance

I
I

from the source is low.

2) Optical fibres are lighter and cheaper. Further, they can carry much more information.
3) Communication, resource mapping, meteorology, education.

4) Nuclear accidents, waste disposal.

5) a) Space technology; b) Fission and fusion; c) Lasers; d) Biotechnology; e) Optical fibres.

UNIT 28 TECHNOLOGY AND ECONOMIC

DEVELOPMENT
Structure
28.1 Introduction
Objectives

28.2 Technology Policy

28.3 Technology Transfer
Import of Technology
Lab to F~eld
Export of Technology

28.4 Current Technological Developments

Energy Sector
Some Key Industries

28.5
28.6
28.7
28.8

Limited Access to Technology

Summary
Terminal Questions
Answers

28.1 INTRODUCTION
When the Second World War ended in 1945; the political situation changed considerably.
Many colonial countlies that had been struggling to achieve independence got their chance.
Our country became independent in 1947 and, since then, many large and small countries
have won their freedom. The economies of these nations had remained backward due to
exploitation by the colonisers. On achieving independence the question that has faced them
is how to rapidly develop their economies and reform their societies so that their people
have a decent standard of living, and access to basic education and culture. In India also
there has been considerable debate about what basic policy to adopt in order to ensure rapid
economic and social progress.
As a result of this debate, the Scientific Policy Resolution was drafted and adopted by the
Indian Parliament in 1958. (We have already discussed some aspects of this policy in Unit
s l u t i o n clearly stated that "the wealth and
27) T h ~ m
of a nation depends on the
effective utilisation of its human and material resources through industrialisation". The same
resolution further said that "national prosperity depends upon the effective combination of
three factors, namely, technology, raw materials and capital. Of these factors technology is
perhaps the most important". The reason given in the Resolution is that "the creation and
adoption of new scientific techniques can, in fact, make up fm adeficiency in natural
resources and reduce the demands on capital. But technology can only grow out of the study
of science and its applications." In our country numerous steps have been taken to promote
education and science, but a clear statement of our technology policy was made only
in 1983, a full 25 years after the Scientific Policy Resolution.
The Technology Policy Statement is again a clear formulation of tbe realities of the national
and international situation with regard to technology, because, just as technology is essential
ror industrialisation and proper economic development of the country, it is also the field
where interests of many countries clash. For example, to establish our economic strength, we
may need to obtain technology which may already have been developed abroad. But why
should the developed countries, which maintain their economic superiority on the basis of
their technology, help us to cut loose from their intluence and hold? In order to intelligently
follow the crucial problems of our social and economic development, it is necessary to
understand the main features of our technology policy and the situations in which transfer of
technology from one country to another takes place.

In Section 28.2, we discuss 1ndia's.technology policy. 111Section 28.3 we describe the

problems of technology transfer. The current technological developments in some industries

YOU can listen to our audio

programme "Technologytransfer'
at your study centre.

Scknee, Technology and

Development

in India is given in Section 28.4. Finally, in Section 28.5, we make a case for making
technology accessible to all levels of our society so that India can really progress as a whole,
and be counted among the developea nations in the future.

Objectives

After reading this unit you should be able to :

give reasons for the need for developing our own technology,
discuss the aims and objectives of our technology policy,
explain the different aspects of transfer of technology,
list some recent technological developments in a few important Indian industries.
give reasons for the benefits of our technological development not reaching all strata of
our society.

28.2 TECHNOLOGY POLICY

In Unit 7 we discussed the colonisation of India and explained how the ruling country,
B$tain, was able to develop its science, technology and industrial potential to become a
"developed" nation of today, while lndia remained undeveloped and economically
dependent on Britain.
Other colonial nations faced similar situations. When they won freedom, they discovered that
their economies were very strongly bound to those of their previous masters. For buying and
selling their products they were dependent on the "world market" where pricing of goods
was not in their hands, and where numerous discriminatory practices existed. Technological
progress, of which they had been deprived, enabled the indusmalised countries to offer
superior goods at lower prices. And when these ex-colonies wanted to upgrade their
technology by their own research and development effort, or even by purchasing foreign
technology, the response from most of the developed countries was not helpful. Obviously,
'technological superiority ensured dominance over the markets, and hence, technology could
not be given to the colonial countries just because they needed it! On the other hand,
technological deficiencies of the newly independent countries, prevented them from raising
productivity and meeting even the basic needs of their people. This often made the
governments of these countries weak and unstable.
The question of technology has, thus, become a crucial question for all developing countries.
There seems to be only one answer, and that is to develop our own technology, suitable for
our needs and fitting into the pattern of our natural human resources. This requires
identifying our priorities, and steadily pursuing the path that will help us achieve them. A
clear national technology policy is needed, from which there should be no deviation,
irrespective of pressures from the developed countries or the corrupting influence of their
trading partners in our own countries.
SAQ 1
Put T or F against each of the following statements depending on whether they are
true or false.
i) Our technology policy should ensure that every Indian's food, clothing and
shelter requirements are met.
ii) A technology policy is the first step towards not being dependent on other nations
for essential goods and services.
iii) A nation's technology policy should be designed to make best use of its human
resources.
iv) India should have a technology policy so that we can soon be in a position to
dominate over other nations.

'0

In 1983, a Technology Policy Statement was issued by our Government and its very'first
sentence is "Political freedom must lead to economic independence and the alleviation of the
burden of poverty". A crucial paragraph produced below neatly summarises several
important aspects of the Policy:
"The use and development of technOlogy must relate to the people's aspirations. O w w n
immediate needs in India are the att$nment of technological self-reliance, a swift an$
tangible improvement in the conditibns of the weakest sections of the population ana the
speedy development of backward regions. India is known for its diversity. Technology must

I
I

suit local needs and, to make an impact on the lives of ordinary citizens. must give constant
thought to even small improvements which could make better and more cost-effective use of
existing materials and methods of work. Our development must be based on our own culture
and pe-cnv.lity. Our fgture deynds on our ability to resist the imposition of technology
which is obsolete or unrelated to our specific requirements. and of polic~eswhich tie us to
systems which serve the purposes of others rather than our own, and on our success in
dealing with vested interests in our organizations: governmental, economic, social and even
intellectual, which bind us to outmoded systems and institutions."
The paragraph mentions "attainment of technological self-reliance" as our immediate need.
This refers to the competence of our scientific and technological personnel,who should be
well-versed in modern knowledge and "know-how". They should be able to innovate
technology accordiiig to our need. and develop new technology. For example, they should
be able to harness sources of energy. such as solar energy, in which our country abounds: or
they should be able to effectively use the raw materials that we possess in plenty.

...and lastly, I must thank a11 the foreign collaboratorh, foreign technicians
and toreign advihers who put up this great plant which is truly a national
achievement ... !
Fig. 2 8 ~ 1

Technological self-reliance also implies capability in our institutions to support technology

develop~ncntthrough theil infrastructure and skilled manpower. Self-reliance means, we
should be able to foresee rind forecast our nee&\ .so that development work can be
undertaken at buitable centres.'lt, means, we ihould not be helpless watchers of new
technology emerging from other countries. If it is decided to import new technology, we
shoutd be In a position to develop it further i l l ordr: rc:
r. :I!:- i ol:nlr> frt:!~? importing
similar technology again after a few years. Self-reliance implies existence of industry to
produce the goods we need.
So you see that "self-reliance" is a \imple word, hut. in practice, i t means developi,ng our
own capabilities through planning, coordination. education and resear-h.

'Technology and Economic

Development

Science, Technology and

Development

We now give another excerpt from the Technology Policy Statement, in which its aims and
objectives are listed.
"The basic objectives of the Technology Policy will be the development of indigenous
technology and efficient absorption and adaptation of imported technology appropriate to
national priorities and resources. Its aims are to :
a) attain technological competence and self-reliance by making the maximum use of
indigenous resources, to reduce vulnerability, particularly in strategic and critical areas;
b) provide the maximum gainful and satisfying employment to all strata of society, with
ernpha~i5on the employment of women and weaker sections of society;
C) use traditional skills and capabilities, making them commercially competitive;
d) ensure maximum development with minimum capital outlay;
e) identify obsolescence of the technology in use and arrange for modernisation of both
equipment and technology;
f) develop technologies which are internationally competitive, particularly those with export
potential;
g) improve production speedily through greater efficiency ahd fuller utilisation of existing
capabilities, and enhance the quality and reliability of performance and output;
h) reduce demands on energy, particularly energy from non-fenewable sources;
i) ensure harmony with the environment, preserve the ecological balance and improve the
quality of the habitat; and
j) recycle waste material and make full utilisation of by-products."
Thus, we see that the policy stresses attainment of self-reliance in technological development
and utilisation of our own resources for indigenohs technology.
The aims of the technology policy also show the government's concern for the
environment.
Environmental considerations include the folloivigg:
i) Making the air less polluted: This can be done by controlling the combustion
processes. One should ensure the complete burning of coal-or other fuel. Where
combustion takes place, the chimneys must be high enough to ensure that the gases don't
spoil our environment. These chimneys must also be fitted .with pollution reducing
mechanisms.
ii) Disposing of solid waste: For example the ash from thermal power plants or the waste
from cement factories should be properly disposed of.
iii) Treating industrial eftluent: Effluents, that are discharged from chemical factories into
rivers or oceans should be appropriately treated to make them free from toxic materials.
A Ganga Pollution Control Authority has been creited by the Gbyenunent of
India forcleaning the river Gangathroughout its stretch by using appropriate treatment
plants.
iv) Prevention of soil erosion: Through social forestry farm forestry, grassland and
wasteland development, measures must be taken to control soil erosiori, which' has many
untoward consequences (see Unit 15).
The Department of Environment was set up in 1980. It conducts research, creates public
awareness and runs training programmes related to the environment.

For implementing the Technology Policy Statement, a Technology Policy Implementation

Committee (TPIC) was constituted by the Government. A special plan to provide funds to
institutions of higher education on a se~ehivebasis is now being implemented by the
University Grants Commission. The aim is to enable the institutions to strengthen and
modemise their infrastructure for undertaking work in front line areas in science and
technology. The Department of Science and Technology (DST) has been the focal
organisation for supporting research of a multi-disciplinary nature. Many of the States have
been persuaded to set up sepgrate councils of science and technology. The DST has been
providing secretarial support to the Scientific Advisory Committee of the Cabinet since
March, 1981. The researcc programmes supported by the DST are being utilised to improve
actual production processes.
Having read about the Technology Policy of the Government, see if you can solve this
SAQ now.

SAQ 2
Match each of the following sentences with an aim of our technology policy that it
represents. Indicate the aim by putting the :orresponding letter (as on p. 20) in the box
provtded.
i j Utilise all our human resources.

.ii) Uses should be found for waste material.

iii) Develop to the maximum extent at least cost.

iv) Achieve development without creating ecological imbalance.

V)

Replace, by suitable development, outdated technology, machines and processes.

28.3 TECHNOLOGY TRANSFER

In the section above we have discussed our technology pollcy. We stressed self-rehance and
mentioned that sometimes it becomes necessary to import technology from other nations.
Import of technology is one of the forms of technology transfer, a term that we will discuss
in this section.
There are three ways in which we can transfer techno;
import of technology,
Transfer of techno1og);lfrom the laboratory to the field, and
export of technology from India.
Although India's aim is to be technologically self-reliant, In the init~alstages.^: our
development we may have to depend heavily on imported technology in certain carefully
determined fields. We must generate our own technology, but we must also have the ability
to absorb imported technology and build on it so as to advance more rapidly.

Let us see what the features of the import of technolbgy are

28.3.1 Import of Technology

This form of transfer involves transferring the essential expertise associated with the
capabilities of more developed nations to the lesser developed nations, dho require it for
accelerated industrialisation.This can be done in several ways: through licensing, jolnt
ventures with foreign firms, direct foreign investments, etc. Its efficiency depends on many
factors like the supplier's ability and desire to transfer, the recipient's capacity and desire to
absorb, the recipienr's socio-economic and cultural environment and communications
processes.
Clearly, technology impo*could be advantageous. A major gain is that it would help to save
considerable time, money and energy by skipping the stages which other countrtes had to
pass through to achieve the present level of development. But, in practice. the import of
technology has a lot of problems and disadvantages. Here we spell out some of these.
The buying of technology may be very expensive. Take, for example, the buying of the
latest defence aircmft from France. Though we have saved money bn going through the
various stages of research and development, we still have to pay large sums of money to
buy these aircraft outright. This is because the price includes the developmental
expenditure that France incurred in this connection! So, we end up paying for research
.nd d.cvelopment, and that too, in foreign exchange. Further, the R & D structure within
the country also remains undeveloped.
Table 28.1 may give you some idea of how expensive foreign technology is. It shows that
royalties and the cost of technical know-how a& increasing year by year. These have to
be paid in foreign exchange also.
Table 28.1: Remittances by Indian enterprises to organisations abroad
Year

Royalty
Ols. miUml

Technical know-how
(Rs. million)

Technology and Eeonomic~

Development

Science, Technology and

Development

Imported technology often comes with restrictions or "political strings" attached to it by

the supplier. For example, India used to import enriched uranium from the United States
to use in its fission reactors. A time came when the US Government insisted that we sign
the Nuclear Non-proliferation Treaty, otherwise they would stop the supply. India refused
to do so and argued that this was not a condition in the original agreement. However,
India's argument was of no use, and the US stopped the supply.
The supplier often unloads obsolete technology on the recipient, sometimes at a very high
cost. Since the receiving country does not have the technology, it may not even know
how outdated the offered technology may be. An example is the automobile industry in
which we continue to be saddled with models that are no more in demand in the
developed countries or in the parent country. Also, since the end of World War 11,'one of
the major areas of industrial development has been that of domestic conveniences, such as
air conditioners, refrigerators and electronic goods like the TV, VCR, etc. Once the
domestic market in Europe & USA was saturated, markets were created in the developing
countries for the finished products, and later, for the sale of related technologies. Since, in
these areas, the technologies are quick change ones, what is transferred to the developing
countries is outdated.
The receiving country may permanently have to depend on the donor country, especially
in crucial areas like defence equipment. The donor may sell a moderndefence aircraft,
but with the condition that the receiver always buys the spares and ancilhries from them.
This way the receiving nation will not be allowed to be self-sufficient.
When a country imports technology from more than one country for an industry, then the
spare parts may not fit into various models. As you know, the technology for Maruti, Fiat
and Ambassador cars was imported from three different countries, namely, Japan. Italv
and Britain; and the spare parts of one don't fit into the others. So the scale of production
of spare parts will vary, thus increasing the cost of production.
A multi-national corporation of a developed nation may give technological know-how to a
developing nation with the restriction that the knowledge is not to be shared with other '
developing nations. This ensures their direct hold over different countries.
We now give a table that shows the quantum of technology imported, in some key industries.
Tabie 28.2: Number of foreign collaboration approvals in some industries
Industry

Year

1982

1983

1984

1985

Electrical .Equipment

107

129

157

205

Industrial Machinery

107

115

138

152

Chemicals (non-fertilisers)

53

62

69

69

Transportation

ZX

39

63

101

13

Telecommunications

This table shows how the cost in foreign exchange keeps mounting.
On the basis of the arguments presented in this section you can J o thi5 SAQ.
SAQ 3
Fill in the blanks from the words given after the paragraph

When importingtechnology; the receiving eoatrtq-mu'srefisure&t it is the.. .............

technology; that it will be possible for them to manufacture all the items ..................within a
reasonably.shortperiod of time; that the donor country doesn't attach .....................strings or
exert any pressure on them. Th~z,will ultilnately lead to the ................nation being ................
___ ,
&

political, latest, self-reliant, indigenously, receiving.

Now, we will discuss the second form of technology transfer.

28.3.2 Lab to Field

It has been the policy of the Government of India, from the time of Independence, to achieve
technology In a5 many areas of Industry as possible. ,
self-reliance by developing ~nd~genous
We, therefore, had created a chain ot lab~ratonesin all areas. The National Research and
Development Corporation of Ind~a(\KD(')wa5 set up In 1953 for facllltatlng the transfer of

1
I

technology from the laboratories of national R & D institutes to the field. These institutes
offer their processes for commercial exploitation to NRDC.

Technology and Economic

Development

If indigenous efforts are not considered adeguate at thepolicy-making lcvcl of the Mercnt
ministries, a new policy is formulated for updating technology and for the import of
technology from the developed countries. The Department of Science and Technology,
Planning Commission, Science and Engineering Research Council and various Scientific
Advisory Committees attached to the ministries monitor the technological needs of India.
SAQ4
'
Tho Indian Councii of Agricultural Research has initiated the Krishi Vigyan Kendra
(K.V K.) project. One component of this project is to train rural women in food technology,
post-harvest technology, use of non-conventional sources of energy, etc.

Is this a form of technology transfer? Give reasons for your answer, In about 50 words.

.....................................................................................................................................................

We end this section with a short paragraph on technology exports from India.

28.3.3 Export of Technology

India has gained experience and expertise in various fields of technology. Thus, we are in a
position to assist a lot of developing nations in the process of technological advancement.
India exports technology to a large number of Asian, Middle-Eastem, African & Latin
American nations. This is in the form of technological know-how or machinery. We give
you some examples in the following table.
Table 2 8 3 Technology exports from India

. Receiving
Country

Area of technology
transfer

Technolonv

--

Burma

Switchgears & electrical

distribution material,
steel work for buildings

supply &
instatlation

Kuwait

Light fibre appliances & cables

Installation & maintenanie

Malaysia

Computer equipment &

software

Ethiopia

Microwave network

Supply, delivery,
installat~onand maintenance of
hardware & software
Erection, construction &
commissioning

Kenya .

Cement, machine tools

& PVC resins industry

Technical assistance.
consultancy & train~ng

Brazil

Small & medium

industries

Know-how &
consultancy

Mexico

Disks & magnetic

tapes for computers

Know-how &
consultancy

Argentina

Hydro-electricity
generation technology

Know-how &
consultancy

So far'we have discussed the ways in which research and development can be used to make
technological progress. In the next section we will give examples of some ~ndustriesin
which recent developments in technology have taken place. But let's do an SAQ first.

SAQ 5
Fill in the bianks in the fdowing paragraph
In 1955 ~ndiawas.. .. .: ...... a lot of technology. By 1975 our sclcrlusts were ablc
to.. .............various technologies to suit our own conditiotls Thcsc . . . . ..develop&
technologies were.. ...........to the field, the o h of transfer being.. . . . . . . . . . Now wc
are in a siti ion to.. .............know-how re ated to electroilics to countncs llkc...........
and ..............

Srience, Technology and

28.4 CURRENT TECHNOLOGICAL DEVELOPMENTS

Dtvdopment

In recent years R & D efforts in the fields of pure and applied chemistry, mathematics and
physics have helped a great deal in our progress from agro-based industries to the areas of
heavy industries, chemicals, steels, textiles, sugar, pharmaceuticals, computers and
electronics. T o give a few examples, the developments in the field of metallurgy have
depended on the applications of the principles of chemistry, physics and engineering. A large
number of manufacturing operations in the chemicals, steel, textile, sugar and
pharmaceutical industnes depend on chemical conversions. The development of computers
and electronics have been based on fundamental physics and mathematics with the help of
electrical, mechanical and production engineering. Research in materials science has led to
experiments with fibre glass. This can be used in making lighter aircraft and lighter luggage,
among other things.
One has to remember that the whole process of technology involves the processing of raw
materials into useful and profitable products. These products are used both as consumer
goods and as an ~ntermediatefor further chem~caland physical modifications to yield
consumer products. For example, in the chemical industry, about one-quarter of the total
chemical output IS utilised in the manufacture of other chemicals.
'

The Council of Scientific and Industrial Research (CSIR) has a chain of laboratories in
almost all areas rclating to the national dcvclopment cffort: fuels. cerarmcs and glass,
chemicals, metallurgical and electro-chemical products, etc. Silk & Art Silk Manufacturing
Research Association (SASMIRA) in Bombay and Indian Jute Industries Research
Association (IJIRA) in Calcutta. which are maintained jointly by the collaborative efforts of
the Government and the industries concerned, are active in their fields. Regional research
laboratories maintained by the CSIR at different places like Trivandrum, Jammu,
Hyderabad; ~ h u i a n e s h w a rand Jorhat, look after the regional research and development
needs.
Before dealing with current technological changes in some industries, let us look at tne thrust
of our developments in the area of energy.

28.4.1 Energy Sector

The energy related developments have been in the direction of energy saving and search for
new energy sources for present and future needs.
It has been estimated that in 1850 coal, oil and gas were responsible for 5% of the world's
energy, while human and animal labour did about 95% of the work. Today, coal, oil, gas and
nuclear sources account for approximately 94%. water power about 1% and human and
animal labour the remaining 5% of the world's energy. While this is the overall picture of
the world, in our country the picture is quite different. Human and animal energy and
burning of wood and dung cakes accounts for a much higher proportion of energy in India.
Our nuclear power generation is just gaining momentum.

From Unit 17, you know that among the energy sources available in India are fossil fuels
(like lignite, coal and petroleum) the sun, wind, geothermal energy (for example, hot springs)
water (hydro-electric power) and human and animal labour. The cost of energy varies. It is the
lowest in the case of direct combustion of biomass and peat, which is wet, partially decomposed
organic matter. The cost of energy is also quite low in the case of fossil fuels. Large deposits of
lignite have been found in Tamil Nadu. But it costs more than coal, as it has tobe processed into
briquets before it can be used. Gaseous fuels and manufactured gas, such as fuel gases like cokeoven gas. water gas, producer gas, etc., cost much more. There have been attempts to
prepare ethyl alcohol by biomass conversion and methane by fermentation. Vegetable oil,
in recent years, is also being used as a replacement for diesel.

Among the other energy sources, nuclear energy is considered to be one of the proven
alternat~veenergy sources, and, in some countries, such as France, 70% of their energy is
now derived from nuclear sources. In the Bhabha Atomlc Research Centre, apart from
uranium, thorium, obta~nedfrom monazite sands from the beaches in Kerala, has been
successfully used to produce nuclear power. The first such reactor has been commissioned in
Kalpakkam near Madras There arc o w r 550 nuclear power plants all over the world
Indla. at the moment. has OIIIV five A few morc power plants are soon to be put lnto servlce.

Technology and Economic

Develepment . ,

Other energy sources which have received considerable attention a& geothermal energy,
wave and tidal energy, solar energy, ocean thermal energy and electro-chemical cells which
generate electricity. Conversion of biomass into biogas needs particular mention. In India, at
present, fossil fuels. hydro-electric power, biomass conversion. and nuclear power are the
ones which are being used. Others still remain more or less in the experimental stage as far
as practical utilisation is concerned.

-.

28.4.2 Some Key Industries

We will now talk about recent developments in some of the key 'industries, namely, the
textile, sugar, pharmaceutical, steel. chemical and electronic industries.
!

The Textile Industry: A current development in the textile industry has been the
remarkable development of synthetic fibres. Naturally occumng cotton, wool and silk are
being replaced by man-made fibres. At present, synthetic fibres represent about 50% of the
world's fibre product~on.In 198 1 , 14 m~lliontons of man-made fibres were produced in the
world. while natural fibres prepared amounted to 17 million tons. Earlier developed fibres
l ~ k erayon were based on celluiose. Nylon was the first wholly man-made synthetic fibre. It
chem~callybelongs to the group called polyamides. The next fibre to be developed was
polyester:commonly known a5 terylene.
Today, the range of synthetic fibres has been enlarged and also includes glass fibre. Mult~component limes, which are superior to fibres spun from only one of-the components, are also
b a n g manufactured. These fibres are prepared by s ~ i n n i n gtwo or more polvrners together
The manufacture of any synthetic fibre begins with the preparation of a ?olytner consisting of a
very long i-ha~nof molecules. By controlling the average chain length of the molecules, a
single'polymer can be used to make a number of fibres with widely differing mechanical
properties. They can be made weak and stretchable or strong and stiff.

Along with the above mentioned synthetic fibres, mention should be made of the fibres
which nave been developed from cellulosic raw materials like cotton. Examples of fibres
made of these materials are raw nylon or viscose. Viscose is made from wood pulp by
chemical processes. Polymeric films like cellophane are also manufactured from cellulose
by a special process. A recent development has been the manufacture of carbon fibres which
h a y be prepared from rayon or polyacrylon. These carbon fibres can withstand high
temperatures and are used for manufacturing heat shields for nose cones of rockets,
particularly those that return to earth from space voyages. I t has also been possible to
prepare such fibre from coal-tar or petrokum pitch. Carbon fibres are used for reinforcing
engineering plastics and plastics which are used for sports goods.

Cotton or woolen textile industries are major traditional industries in India. Recently, some
d e v e ~ o ~ m k nhave
t s taken place improving their spinning. dyeing. bleaching and printing
methods. and also in the methods for giving special finish, such as for crease recovery,
dimensional stability. resistance to nlicrobial attack and ultraviolet light, flame resistance,
btc. Treatments are also aimed at changing their properties to improve their usefulness. For
:example. it is possible. through appropriate treatments. to achieve flame proofing by.
application.of certain chemicals. Mildew proofing or rot proofing can be done by the use of
many organic and inorganic compounds. There are special chemicals which can be used to
produce a water repelling property. Shrink proofing of wool can be done by applying
various chlorinatirrg~processesor by coating the fibres with a melamine formaldehyde resin.
In recent years chemical finishes have been used to react with fibre material such as c'otton .
f@rchanging its properties.

Sugar Industry: The sugar and starch industries in India are considerably important. Sugar
1s nece~sary~for
the energy i t gives. Of course it is liked for its sweet taste'also! Sugarcane is
the main sourcq of sugar in India. The states which are important for our sugar industry are
Mahamshtra.'llttar Pradesh. Mamataka. Bihar. Andhra Pradesh and Tamil Nadu.
, The method used in India for manufacturing sugar from sugarcane has not changed over the
-years. But the use ot'bagasse, the residue left after cane juice extraction, has changed. It used
tp be utili5ed as a raw material in manufacturing paper. A recent development is its use for
tkrmentation to produce alcohol. Raw sugar is decolorised with bone charcoal or activated
carbon. A decolor~singchemical additive has now been developed. For removal'of inorganic
431ts. a recent developnient is the use of ion exchange resins.
The other raw mdter~alfor obtain~ngsugar. whlch is now in the process of development in
India. is sugar-beet. The sugar-beet differs from ordinary table beetroot. It is much larger and
J

-J

Science, ~echnologyand
Development

is not red. The sugar-beet industry is being sought to be developed in such areas like
Sundarbans of West ~ e n ~and
a l a few other places. But sugar-cane is likely to remain the
major source of sugar in India.
The Pharmaceutical Industries: This is a major industry in Indla. India is meeting 70% of
its requirement of bulk drugs, and almost all its requirement of formulations. The products are
usually classified according to chemical structures, or by chemical reactions needed to
manufacture them, or by their use. There are about 50 commonly prescribed drugs.

Some of these drugs are prepared by isolat~onfrom natural raw materials. For example,
Serpasil, a drug given to patients suffering from high blood pressure, is obtained from a plant
called Rauwolfia Serpentina. A drug against blood cancer, Vincrystine, is obtained from a
common plant, Vinca-Rosea. Digitalis, a drug for heart patients, is got from the fox-glove
plant.
But many drugs are prepared by synthesis. For example, Aspirin, the common analgesic. is
obtained from salicylic acid. Antibiotics Iike'Penicillin or Streptomycin were originally
prepared by fermentation. or through a process of biosynthesis. Now they can be prepared
synthetically. Again, the chemical compound, Isoniazide, is one ol'the most potent and
selective medicine5 against tuberculosis. One of the important developments has been in the
manufacture of Insulin, an anti-diabetic drug. Earlier this was being produced from the
pancreatic glands of animals. Now, it is prepared by gene splicing, of which you-will read
more in Sec. 29.6.1.
Two public sector undertakings, Hindustant Antibiotics Limited and Indian Drugs and
Pharmaceuticals Limited, manufacture many of the 50 commonly used drugs mentioned
earlier by processes of synthesis and/or isolation from plants or animals.
Steel Industry: In India this industry has developed significantly since Independence, and is
now under acentral authority, namely, Steel Authority of India Limited (SAIL). Somesteel
plants come under the public sector, such as those at Durgapur, Bumpur, Bokaro, Rourkela?
Bhi1ai;etc. Some are in the private sector such as the Tata Iron and Steel Company at
Jamshedpur. The most significant development has been the use of a multi-pronged
approach in getting technology from a number of developed countries. The earliest Tata
plant was put up with American technology. Now we are using Soviet technofogy at Bokdro
and Bhilai, and German technology at Rourkela. The Tatas are trying to develop indigenotls .
technology.
,
Chemical Industry: Under this heading we include the manufacture of caustic soda,
chlorine, cement, carbon, coal, urea. nitric acid, super phosphates and gases like hydrogen,
oxygen and nitrogen. We have a sizeable glass and ceramic industry, surface coating
industry, food and food by-product industry. Our agrochemical industries have developed
indigenous technology for the manufacture of pesticides and insecticides. Our soap and
detergent industry manufactures soap, detergents and glycerine. Our oils and fats industries
manufacture vegetables and animal oils and fats. A major breakthrough has been achieved in
the field of petrochemicals. We have a number of petroleum processing plants and
petrochemical industries, the biggest being in Baroda. India produces two-thirds of her
petroleum requirements. The rest is imported from countries of the Middle East, the Soviet
Union, some East European countries and some South American countries. We have a
number of petroleum refineries situated in, Bombay, Visakhapatnarn, Assam, Bihar, West
Bengal and Kerala. Some more are expected to come up during the present plant period.
,

Electronic Industry: In recent years the whole world has seen a revolution in electronics. It
is a very important part of practically every industry, as well as many spheres of human
activity like communications, transport, education and entertainment. The computer industry
has been radically altered in recent years due to a shift from the analogue to the digital
technology. This has led to a very big change in communicatit-ms technology. A combination
of analogue and digital technology has made distant or remote control of machines possiMe.
Computerisation has also helped in various fields of engineering. In the old days, in
mechanical, civil or chemical engineering, it would take a long time from the first stage of
designing to the last stage of creating the actual product. Since the advent of computers,
through computer-aided designing methods, much of the labour and cost involved is saved.

Also, with the help of the computer, the sensitivity, accuracy and dependability of a
particular design can be tested quite easily.
In computer and electronics based industries, the percentage of employees involved in
research and development may be anywhere between 33% and do%, because, in these areas,
the competition is high and development of new materials and new technology is very
important for maintaining a lead over other competitors. There may be a new model of a
ccmputer design every 2 or 3 years.
In&ars annual electronics production level is more than Rs. 1,00,000 million (in 1994).
India has started producing:
electronic switching systems:
VLSl (Very Large Scale Integration) circuits, which form the basis for modern electronic
systems;
polysilicon to meet the requirements of integrated circuits, and to harness solar energy;
highpower microwave tubes, which form the basis for radar systems;
computers.
One of the most important programmes in education that has been igtroduced is
C L A S , computer Titewcy and studies in schools. In this programme school children are
being taught to use and appreciate computers, which have been'installed in about
4000 schools i n In&a.
The general outlook ofthe electropics industry seems to be bright. There have been
substantial growth rates recorded in computers, office equipment and software exports. In
the coming years the communication sector is expected to grow rapidly.
To conclude, it can be said that industries in India are progressing, but we have far to go.
Often, we need to import current technology. According to one estimate, 35% of druis and
pharmaceuticals, 70% of agricultural machinery, 7 5 6 of electronics, and almost all
petrochemicals and fertilisers are products of forkign technology. This position has to be
changed by conscious policy and careful planning combined with increasing support for
educatio", research and development.
$.A()

Fill in the blanks:

II

ii,

A recent development in the .....................industry is the manufacture of .....................

fibres for reinforcing plastics. They can be prepared from ......................

......................a drug 10 combat diabetes, is now prepared synthetically.

iii) In the steel industry we are still .....................technology from a lot of .....................
nations.
i\l)

In the chemical industry, the major recent development has been in the production
of.. ....................

28.5 LIMITED ACCESS TO TECHNOLOGY

lndia has made rapid advances in technology since Independence. A lot of technological
innovations are available here. But, for a number of reasons, the weaker sections of our
society have not been able to benefit from these technologies. Two important reasons are
lack of awareness of them and lack of access to them.
Let us figst discuss the lack of awareness. A major reason is the lack of even primary
education. In our country about 48% of the poplilation, that is about 48 crore people, are
illiterate. Schools are not available to everyone within a convenient distance. On top of it.
the massive poveity m a large section of the Indian society does not allow them enough
time to go to school, even if the school is nearby. All the members of a poor family have to
work and struggle for the basic necessities of life.
Again, because of a lack of communication, the illiterate people feel that technological
progress is beyond their comprehension and not of any use to them. There have been
artempts through the media, like radio and T.V.. to reach our population who live in villages
and tell them aboM the benefits of;modern technological innovations that are available in
India. But these ate not enough.

Technology and Economic

Qevelopmenr

Science, Technology and

Development '.

Often, when people know about the technological advancements that are available, they are
reluctant to utilise them. This is due to prejudice because of religious beliefs, superstitions
and old customs. For exkample,although vaccinations have been available to us for nearly
100 years, there are people in our society, even in the cities, who are opposed to vaccinating
their children against DPT (Diphtheria,pertussis, typhoid). Similarly, it is known that water
can be polluted and cause disease. Though boiling the water can easily prevent many water
borne diseases, most people in the villages, where pure drinking water is not available, don't
bother to do it. This is because of old customs as well as lack of fuel.
Thus, we have in the country today, the urban society which has had an exposure to ~ 0 d e m
ideas through education. They have accepted technological innovations as a means for
progress. But the majority of Indians remain indifferent. Elementary scientific knowledge or
exposure to science is not available to them. The only way to right this wrong is to spread
elementary education and science education. This can be done through radio and T.V. But,
these we not available to all the rural masses. It may be necessary to approach them through
their own social hierarchy and village level organisations like Panchayats. This aspect of
society's transformation has to be kept in view in our mass education programme if the interrelationship of science, industry and technology is to be brought home to them. Through
rural development programmes and rural science programmes, it can'be shown, how simple
labour saving devices can reduce their daily load of work, or how, for example, solar energy
or wind energy can make lighting or imgation possible. The efforts should be concentrated,
therefore, in spreading awareness to this deprived section of our population so that they
understand the benefits of technology, which can bring a change in their lives.
But is awareness enough? You may be aware of a better technology for imgation, but if you
do not have enough funds to obtain it, the awareness will not help you. In India, there are
millions of people who can? benefit from advanced technology only because it is beyond
their budget. This is where the government can help. It can subsidise the technologies that
will aid the weaker sections of our society. It can also market them to ensure that these
technologies are available wherever rhey are needed. Such a strategy would certainly make
the advantages of technological progress available to more and -morepeople.

SAQ 7
Which of the fc!lowing statements are true? Put T for a true statement in the box provided,
and F otherwise.
i) Villagers have far less access to information about technology than the people
living in cities.
ii) Rural women have generally remained untouched by, and unaware of, the
benefits of technology.
iii) By producing more radios and televisions we can.raise the level of awareness
of science in India.
iv) If the purchasing power of every Indian is increased, the benefits of
technological developments will filter down to all strata of our society.

28.6 SUMMARY
We end this unit by summarising what is covered in it.
Why

is necessary for India to develop its own technology.

11
I

The Technology Policy Statement.

Technology transfer encompasses import of technology from developed nations,
exporting technology to lesser developed nations and transferring indigenously
developed technology from the laboratories to industry or agriculture. The import of
technology has a lot of drawbacks and should be minimised.
Current developments in the following Indian industries: textile, sugar, pharmaceuticals,
steel, chemical, electronics.
Why all strata of Indian society have not utilised India's technological advancement
fully.

-28.7 TERMINAL QUESTIONS

If you have been through the unit you will be able to answer the following exercises.
1) Give three reasons for the need for a nation to develop its own technology.

-2) While choosing appropriate technology, that is, technology suited to our needs, we must
keep certain factors in mind. can you list three of these factors?

3) How does import of technology relate to self-reliance, in the Indian context? Answer in
about 100 words.

4) List two recent developments in the technology related to

a) the textile industry,

b) the electronic industry,

c) the pharmaceutical industry.

Technology and Fxonornic

Development

5 ) Why is SAQ 7 (ii) true? Answer in about 75 words.

28.8 ANSWERS
Self Assesment Questions
1) i) T; ii) T; iii) T; iv) F
2) i) b; ii) j; iii) d; iv) i; v) e.
3) latest, indigenously, political, receiving, self-reliant.
4) Yes. This is a case of transferring indigenously developed technology to the field.
Technology does not consist only of machines or processes. It also consists of the knowhow needed to use these processes. The training programmes spread this know-how.
5) importing, develop, indigenously, transferred, lab-to-field, export, Burma/Malaysia/
Ethiopia/Mexico/Argentina.

6) i) textile, carbon, rayodcoal-tar/pitch/polyacrylon

ii) Insulin
iii) importing, developed
iv) petrochemicals.
7) i) T; ii) T; iii) F; iv) T

Terminal Questions
1) A nation should develop its own technology because
if it should be self-reliant,
ii) the basic needs of its citizens must be met,
iii) this will lead to an increase in its national productivity,
You can add many more reasons
2) There are many factors. Three of them are:
a) The technology must utilise our human resources optimally.
b) It should utilise locally available natural resources
c) It should be geared towards energy conservation.
3) Since India was a colony, it did not have adequate opportunities to develop
technologically. Therefore, it has had to import technology from the technologically
advanced nations. But, import of technology has several drawbacks. Therefore, we shourd
not keep on importing technology. We must develop our own infrastructure so that, after
a certain stage, we can be in a position to develop our own technology. We should also be
in a position to improve the borrowed technology and adapt it to Indian conditions. This
is the way to self-reliance.
,

Thus, imp~rtoftechnology, to a limted extent, will help us to develop. But, if we always

rely on imported technology, and don't develop our indigenous technology, 'we will never
be self-reliant.
4) There could be several answers. The answer we give is
a) Flame proofing, shrink proofing of wool;
b) Introduction of telematics, production of high power microwave tubes;
c) Synthetic manufacture of Insulin, synthetic manufacture of antibiotics.
5) Rural women have far less access to information about technology than rural men
because, firstly, they are deprived of even basic education. Secondly, since their activities
are often limited to their homes, they are isolated from the world outside. Taking care of
their families and working in the fields takes up all their time. Therefore, they cannot
come into contact with various technological developments unless a special effort is
made by technocrats to reach them.

UNIT 27 SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY IN

INDUSTRY
Structure
27.1 Introduction
Objectives

27.2
27.3
27.4
27.5
27.6
27.7
27.8

The Indian Context

Technology in Industry
Economic Development and Self-relrance
Research and Development in Industry
Summary
Tzrrninal Questions
Answers

27.1 INTRODUCTION
A look into the history of mankind tells us that science WAS being put to practical use,
consciousIy or unconsciously, through the centuries. But it was not until the mid-eighteenth
century that the Industrial Revolution in Britain showed what a profound effect advances in
technology can have on.everyday life. The harnessing of energy gave a-boost to
industrialisation. The Industrial Revolution in Britain triggered off similar revolutions in
various other countries,.and the resultant economic progress of these countries has
encouraged the remaining ones to take up rapid industrialisation.
The dominating feature of the contemporary world is the intense cultivation of science on a
large scale, and its application to meet a country's requirements. It is only through the
scientific approach and method and the use of scientific knowledge that reasonable material
and cultural amenities and services can be provided for every member of the community.
And it is out of a recognition of this possibility that the idea of a welfare state has grown.
,.In this unit, we shall take a look into the interdependence between science and industry. We
shall also see how the two together can help us create a welfare state.

Objectives
After reading this unit you should be able to :
discuss the current status of science and technology in India;
describe the role technology can play in improving productivity, leading to economic
development,
explain the need for mobemisation of our industrial machinery and processes,
summarise the importance of R & D in industrial growth, and national development,

interpret natibnd devel4mejt hfokation and suggest an approach to solutions of some problems in
tius field.

27.2 THE INDIAN CONTEXT

Science and technology have totally transformed life from what it was in the beginning of
this century, when there were no cars, buses or aeroplanes, no telegraph, telephone, radio or
television, and when medicine and surgery.had not advanced to raise haman life expectancy
to over 50 or 60 years. This has been possible through the gdowth of scientific knowledge,
and related skills, as also by the or anisation of the production of numerous goo&&?As the
Scientific policy Resolution ad^ ted by the Government in 1958) says, such high levels of
/
production of the basic W a l s needed for a reasonable standard of living for all, have
made it possible to think of a "weJfare" state-which involves management of distrib&on
of goods so that every one can benefit from them. Our Constitution, indeq, s aks-of
socialism which involves "distributive justice" and equality of opportunity to a 1. Without
the help of science and technology, we shall not be able t~ produce enough goods for our
needs. For example, we all know that with the help of a tractor a farmer,can plough far more

"i

Science, Technology and

Development

land than shehe can with the help of an ox. ~echarusationincreases the area of ploughed land,
P
and thus improves human productiv!ty.
One aspect of the development of science and technology is fuller utilisation of the wealth or
resources with which a country has been endowed. Without science and technology, neither .
could'electricity be generated from the water running in m r r i m s , nor could theoil resources
buried deep under land or sea be tapped,. nor even could our books and newspapers be prhted
on the paper obtained from the forests that we have. Science provides the key for unlock~ng
the wealth of our natural resources.
When we study science, we look into the laws of nature which, in their turn, indicate the
methods of utilising the natural resources of the cQuntry for the production of the necessities
of life and for their efficient distribution. Mere indication of the methods is, however, not
enough. To implement the methods indicated, one has to do work, and here again science
comes to our aid. Science provides power, machines and tools for doing the work; devices of
all types-those for work involving only muscular effort,for work demanding manipulative
skill and, in recent years, even for work requiring briiin & ~ t (Fig. 27.1). Without such aids;
the rate of production would be extremely low and the country would not be able to produce
enough to be wealthy by any standards.

(a)

(b)

Fig. 27.1: Dev~cesfor work involving

(a) muscular effon

(c)

( b ) manipulative,skill

(c) brain power

We look at India with about 35% of its people living under the poverty line. The reasons for
tne poverty of the masses In India are:

1) Methods of product~onare out of date by and large. In recent years, however, some
remedial measures have been taken.
Aperson is saidto live underthe
poverty line if shehe is not able to
provide 1SO0 calslday for herself
or himself.

2) Since 2/3rd of the work force in agriculture

and industry is illiterate, the knowledgeand
skills are very poor. This factor affects production.

3j In India, where 70% of the people are engaged in agriculture, the use of methods to
lmprove production i s m the soil and to protect crops 1s not In keeplng W I L ~the actual
need.
4) In agriculture' the small means at the disposal of a farmer and small holdings make it
impracticable to use modem technology.

5 ) Industry, in gqeral, and private industry, in particular, has been unwilline to invest its
profits in modemising the machinew. A typical case is hatof the-jute industry, which is in
\rev bad shape now.
6) The lndustrial Policy Resolution, which had been adopted at about the same time (1958)
as the Scientific Policy Rebolution. has not been implemented effectively due to a number
of socio-economic and political constraints.

Again, even where the proauction methods have been sought to be upgraded, our unit cost of
production of many items, for example, steel. is much higher. This is mainly due to the low
levels of skill and managenent in our industries.' For instance, Japan and some other
countries import iron ore from India. They have high labour cost but because of the
efficiency of their production systems. thtir unit cost of production is lower than ours.
.Further. a curious phenomenon is noticeable. We have imported technology for alloy steels
some 30 years back. But we have been unable to keep pace with the modem developments in
the production of alloy steels through our indigenous efforts. As a result, we still have to
imnort werial steelc from develnned co~~ntriec

But what is a developed country? Try to solve this SAQ and match your answer with the one
given at the end of this unit.

SAQ 1
Which of the following countries would you call a developed country? Make a tick mark in
the appropriate box.
i) A country rich in natural resources.
+

ii) A country with a high per capita income.

...
111) A country with advanced health and social security schemes.
iv) A 'country with a high per capita productivity.
-

Lead Times of Scientific Development

When we compare the current status of scientific development and technological fall-out
from the same, we find that the lead time of scientific discovery and its applications is much
shorter in the developed countries. This is because of thelr constant efforts of research and
development for technology upgradation which, unfortunately, have been lacking in our
country. It is to be admitted that e v y in developed countries there is a wide variation in the
lead times of different discoveries. These lead times may be quite long in certain cases and
quite short in others. For example, aluminium was first obtained in pure form in 1825 and lt
was only in 1886 that the process of its large scale production was finali5ed. The lead time
in this case was 60 years. On the other hand, the process of hydrogenation of oil in the
manufacture of vanaspati originated in 1905, and by 1911 Procter and Gamble Company,
U.S.A. had placed its hydrogenated cotton seed oil, which is s~milarto vanaspati, on the
market. As you can see, the lead time in this case was very short: only 6 years.
Fig. 27.2 gives us an idea of the lead times of certain inventions.
1953
1948

,1955 2 yrs Solar battery

8 1951 3 yrs Trans~stor

942 10 yrs Nuclear reactor

1913 18 y rs X-ray tubes

1915 33 yrs Vacuum tube

6 56 yrs Telephone
1886 65 yrs Electrlc motor
1727
1

1700

1800

1900

2000

Fig. 27.2: Interval between drscovery and appl~cat~on

m physical sclence (after Ell Grnzberg, "Technology and
Socral Change", Columbra Unrvers~tyPress. 1964).

The lead times of scientific discovery and its applications in the field of computers have
been among the shortest. One can, therefore, say that the application of any scientific
discovery relates to the needs, or compulsions of the situation. It is also a fact, that this
depends, to a large extent, on the state of industrial d~velopmentof the nation and the
priority given by the nation to that particular area. From the Indian example we can say, that
in such sophisticated areas like nuclear science and technology and nuclear power
production, our lead times have been very short. This was possible as appropriate facilities
were created, resources were made available, and scientific responsibility clearly given to an
, organisation. On the other hand, in agricultural technology, India is one of the
backward countries in the world, in spite of the fact that 70% of our population llves on
agriculture and our primary products are our major foreign exchange earners.

Science and Technoio@f~

Induktry

'

Science, Tcchnokgr and

Dcvclopmcnt

Now, if you have understood the points discussed in this section, you will be able to solve
this SAQ.

SAQ 2
Do you think we have been able to take advantage of the benefits of science and technology?
Give reasons for your answer in 4-5 sentences.

27.3 TECHNOLOGY IN INDUSTRY

One aspect of technology is that the latest scientific methods are used in prduction. This, in
turn, depends on the availability of the-right type of scientific manpower. We shall e x k i n e
in the next unit (Unit 28) how deeply the question of buying technology or developing it
within our own country is related to the whole question of economic and political
independence. But at this stage it is sufficient to mention that it might seem simple to impon
technology from the developed countries and use it in our own processes of production, but
it is not, in fact, so. It is seen very often that a country from which a technology waS
imported had access to raw materials of a particular type which may not be available in our
country. In other words, it is often necessary, in the absence of a particular raw material, to
substitute it by another, or to modify the process.
To give a common example, earlier the composition of vanaspati, the well-known cooking
and edible fat used to be 95% groundnut oil and 5% seasame oil. About 30 years ago,
groundnut oil was available abundantly. For the last decade or so, both due to paucity of
supply and increase of demand abroad. Indian manufacturer$ had to switch over to other
oils, and in recent years more of these have had to be imported. For example, we now have
dils such as soyabeanoii, Canadian rapeseedoil (Canola) or palm oil imported from U.S.A.,
Canada and Malaysia respectively,as the maor raw material for the vanaspati industry. But
the quality, appearance and other properties of vanaspati have been kept the same, because
of stringent government regulations. So research and development efforts had to be made
by Indian scientists for this adaptation.
Similarly, imported tallow, which was once a major raw material for our soaps and
detergents has been totally banned. Indian scientists had to adopt other oils for preparing the
same quality of soap, and many processes have' been developed. For example, stearine and
tallow substitutes have been prepared from castor oil, (one of our industrial oils) by chemical
reactions. Such examples can be multiplied from other industries. Further, it would not have
been possible to effectively utilise imported technology in many other important industries
without the help of skilled human resource. In this resDect, trairiing of slulled human resource and
maintenance of research laboratones ana organisatlons have played a major role.
From our first five year plan onwards, efforts have been made to increase scientific and
technical human resource by creation of engineering and technology departments in our
universities. We now have about 200 such institutions as against 21 before independence. In
addition to the university departments, six Institutes of Technology (IITs) have been established
qt Kharagpur, Kanpur, Mumbai, Chennai, Delhi and Guwahati. The first five were set up with the
help of developed countries, such as U.S.A., U.S.S.R., U.K. and West Germany. Even before
independence, the three old universities of Calcutta, Bombay and Madras, the Indian Institute of
Science, Bangalore, engineering colleges like that of Roorkee and Bengal Engineering College,
the National Council of Education, the present Jadavpur University, had created many
engineering departments.
However, in practice, industries have retained a lot of dependence on imponed technology.
Often industry prefers to have "turnkey" technology, that is, technology and machines which
can be installed and can start producing on turning a key or pushing a button. Thus, the pace
and character of their development have reduced job opportunities for engineers and

technologists who are being trained in our institutions. The result is that many of our skilled
technical personnel and scientists have to seek opportunities abroad in developed countries
es
like U.S.A., 0rU.K. This is called "brain drain". Our ~ o u n ~ ~ l o s e s ~ c rofo rrupees
every year, as the expense incurred o n themining of these persons, and the much needed
technical h u m resource is lost to India.

Sclence m d Technology in
,

Technology in Small Scale Industries

Many people have a misconception that application of science and technology is important
only for big industry. Since India consists of more than 600,000 villages, we cannot ignore
the relevance of village and small scale industry for giving employment to a large number of
our population, who are now dependent on primitive methods of agriculture. Science and
technology are equally important in .the ha~dicraftsand small scale Industry. Agriculture,
also. has been moderni5ed with the help of machines like tractors, power tillers, mechanised
harvesters, etc. Bot these attempts have not been very successful, because of educational and
financial constraints, size of land holdings and soc~alstructures.
Improved technology results in improved productivity in terms of cap~talInvestment and
human resource requirement. A t h e same tune it r e d u c ~ the
s job opportunities of a larger numberof people. We are faced w ~ t ha paradox that, whereas on the one hand we need more jobs for
the bulk of our population who are jobless, on the other, modem mechanised and automated
industries would result in utillsing less tradi~onalhuman skills. Now, how do we resolve this
paradox? One way would be to organlse a network of small or medlum scale i~idustnesand vi!$ ge
level industries. Then, this network can be used to feed raw materials or intermediates to
large scale industries.
The use of electric power and electronics in small scale and village level indust:ies can make
efficient quality production possible, as has been demonstrated in Japan. There has to be,
therefore, a planning process to make the production methods in village level industries
more efficient by the use of appropriate devices and to use the produce from these industries
as the feed material for large scale production units. This has been dnne partially in India, in
states like Punjab and Haryana in the engineering industry and also, to a smaller extent-; in
other states. The role of technology in improved productivity will always be a major role
and there will be a need for slulled human resource for this. But a part of them may be deployed
in training human resource forthe village'level industries, miniaturisation of machines, and using
the right type of electronic or other devices for working them.
Maintenance of machines in such industries, as also in large scale industries, has always been.
3 neglected area in our country. We have to be very careful about maintenance at all levels.
Infrastructure for creation of skilled human resource already exists in the formof Industrial
Training Institutions, Polytechnics and the training centres of different industries. These
have to be strengthened and re-oriented to serve the present-day needs.
Paucity of capital is one of the difficulties in establishing industries, particularly for small
and medium scale entreprenellrs. However, after the nationalisation of banks and creation of
financial institutions such as lndustrial Development Bank of India (I.D.B.I.), State
lndustrial Development Corporations. Industrial Credit and Finance Corporation, Unit Trust
of India and other financial institutions, nowadays institutional finance is available in the
form of loans to any creditworthy industrial enterprise. Both the Stqte and the Central
Governments are strengthening these institutions through various savings programmes. The
developmeit of such programmes as Science and Technology Entrepreneurship Parks
(STEP) in which new entrepreneurs are helped in testing a new technology on a smaIl scale
through a pilot plant, to gain confidence before they go in for large scale production by
themselves, is also very encouraging. These programmes are assisted by banks. Therefore, a
beginning has been made in the right ditection.
Such improvements in production methods as automation and use of robots have been
demonstrated to be very effective in reducing production cost and, improving the quality of
production. Unfortunately, apart from their being capital intensive, they oppose labour
intensity and create lesser job opportunities. In our country, we have ro have a balanced
approach. We should keep automation for selected areas, particularly, for our export
or;ented areas, and use somewhat older, but still efficient, methods of production, which are
labour intensive, in other areas. So, while the advantages are there, the implications in the
context of our country have to be kept in view and over-mechanisation and over-automation
at this stage of our development need to be avoided.

Industry

Science, Technology and

Development

TV studio equipment have also been licenced to different industries. This is just one example
of our research programmes leading to industrial growth in related fields. In every field of
scientific activity we find that innovations have paved the way for setting up of new
industries and also the growth of the existing ones.
In fact, the example of Japan can, to a great extent, be a model for us. In the beginning of
this century Japan was a comparatively le5s developed country. They tried to modernise
themselves by importing technology but then they improved the imported technology by:
creatlng R & D facilities for adaptation and further improvement of the imported
technology,
creating and sustaining the improvement of technological efforts through their own
scientific manpower originally trained abroad, and
creating a base of sc~entifichuman resource to improve their educational system and training
facilities.
In 1946. the late Sir Winston Churchill. In a v e y well publicised speech, stated, "The rise'of the
Soviet Union as a super power has been mainly due, not so much to their political system
which might have helped hut to the creation of the right type of institutions for
manpower training. " Japan has again provided an example of how, from a comparatively
undeveloped technological base, they could rise to be one of the most modern technological
nations, offering technology not only to the developing and undeveloped countries, but
even to the developed countries like U.S.A. and U.K.
Therefore, for international competitiveness, and even for survival, there is-need for
nod ern is at ion through our own research and development efforts and with the help of our
own research organisations. One can think of close cooperative effort between government
research laboratories, like those under the Council of Scientific and Industrial Research and
the research laboratories of universities and higher technological institutions.
Our government has realised the importance of indigenous research to promote profitability
and international competitiveness. A number of policy measures were taken to provide
incentives to induce industries to set up in-house R & D units. m y are given certain
facilities for import of raw materials, equipment etc., besides some financial incentives.
These policy measures seem to have worked well, as you can see from Fig. 27.5.

[
STATE

mPRIVATE
CENTRAL

YEARS
Fig. 27.5: Trends in national expenditure on R & D. (R & D srat~slics1984-85. Dep~.of S & T)
b'

You can alsp see from the charts that a major share of the R & D expenditure in our country
is borne by the government. This situation is different from the one we find in the developed
countries. In those countries a large amount of R & D work is'carried out by the private
industry. The capital spent in financing R &.D units is seen as a good and necessary
investment towards future economic progress of that industry. In India. industry spends a

very mihor fraction of total money spent on research. In Table 27.1 you will find that only
I1 leading industrial groups account for 86% of the total expe~iditureof R & D incurred by
industry in our country.
Table 27.1 : R & D expenditure by industrial sector 1YU4-85
SI. Industry Group
No.

Public Sector

Private Sector

Nu. of
Units

R&D Exp.
(Rs. Iakhs)

15

5050.40

11-0

2. Defence Industry

5772.63

3. Fuels

56142.12

4. Chemicals
(other than
fertilisers)

67 1.21-

124

14 '

1922.62

51

23575.50

682

I . Electricals &
Electronics

5. Metallurgical
Industries

Industrial Sector

No. of R&D Exp.

Units (Rs. lakhs)

No. of
Units

R&D Exp.
(Rs. lakhs)

135

8360.42

5772.63

92.27

13

5734.39

3074.17

13 1

3745.19

1222.04

65

3144.66

762

43682.17

3310.02

6. Drugs and
Pharmaceutical,
7. Industrial Machinery
' 8. Telecommunication

9. Transportation

10. Fertilisers
I I. Textilea

12. Other Croups

Total

80

20106.67

There have also been a number of cooperative research associations in our country. The first
such institute was set up in 1950 in Ahmedabad for the textile industry. There are many
rnoperative research associations now in fields like jute, rubber, tea. wool. c a s h e ~ n u tetc.
,
Since small industrial units are not able to bnance a complete R & D set-up on their own,
such cooperative efforts are the best way out.
A developing country like ours aims to reduce its technological dependence on other
countries. We shall be able to achieve this by increasing our R & D efforts. Products and
procesges developed in our own country will be based on local raw materials and will take
into consideration other local factors such as weather. In the process, we will also have the
requisite manpower for maintenance as well as further improvement of technology. We
should match our R & D efforts with the objectives and policies of.our country. Apart from
the government laboratories, private industry should take roore and more active part in
research activities. The commercial application of scientific discoveries can be carried out
more easily if there is a direct link between the laboratory and industry. In other words. it
would be better if industrial units have an R & D set up within themselves.
Our indigenous R & D units should try to reduce the threat to our environment through
innovations in industrial proce_sses. Pollution of environment by industries is a very serious
menace in the developed countries. As you know. most of our big indubtries were set up
before the oil prices sky-rocketed in 1973. As a result they rely heavily on oil as their source
of energy. With the unprecedented rise in oil prices, and also taking itito conhideration the
limited world reserves of oil. we should try and look for alternative source\ ot' energy which
will increase our profitability in the long run. Some experiments are being done with holar
energy, and it has a ~ s dbeen put to use in some places. But we haven't yet t.~ppedits full
potential.
I t may be noted that the concept of modernisation is integrally related to thc Improvement of
processes and products. But modernisation as mere gimmickry. for cxiunplc.. to introduce
i,computers where one can do without them. or installing remote control co~nmu~iication
systems and'the like can only increase overheads and lead to handicaps in trade. A balanced
approach to modernisation xemb to be the need of the hour. and w e need to \trengthcn our
own-,R & D efforts for this. See if you can do this SAQ now.

Science and Technology in

Industry

Science.Teekmlogy and
Developmnt

won't be able to Compete in the international markets. The use of technology also helps
us produce goods on a large scale. This mass production helps to bring down the cost
per unit. If our goods are reasonably priced, they stand a better chance in the
international markets.

3) India should follow the example of Japan. If we keep importing the latest technologies
and do not strengthen our base of R & D, we shall always remain dependent on other
advanced countries. And unless we become self-reliant, we shall have to bow down to
the wishes of these advanced countries even though they go contrary to our ideals. At
the same time we cannot remain isolated. We have to imbibe the latest technology to
fulfil the basic needs of the entire population and to abolish poverty. If we try to acquin
the latest technology entirely through our own efforts, it will take a very long time, and
we may not be able to catch up with other nations.
If some other countries have already developed modem technologies, we should try and
import them to revamp our industry. But once we have imported these technologies we
should keep them up-to-date with our own R & D efforts.
4) There are many reasons for our productivity being lower than the acceptable norms. o n ~
reason is that our industry does not use the latest technologies because of the heavy
investment needed to install modem machinery. Even where modem machinery has
been installed, it is nat being properly utilised since the workforce is not adequately
trained.
Sometimes entrepreneurs do not realise the importance of constantly adapting their
technologies and refuse to finance R & D programmes. This adversely affects their
productivity as their counterparts in other countries are able to achieve'a higher
productivity by the use of new production processes.

!-

UNIT 30 MODERN DEVELOPMENTS IN

SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY-11
30.1

Introduction
Objectives

30.2

Semiconductors
What is a Semiconductor
Semiconductor Devices and their Uses

30.3

Computer Technology
Computers at Work
Micms. Minis, Mainframes, 'Monsters' and their Uses
Artificial Intelligence

30.4

Robotics
An Insight into Robotics and Robots
'Where Robots Star
Getting Ready for Robots

30.5
30.6
30.7
, 30.8
30.9

Materials Science and Technology

Technology Forecasting
Summary
Terminal Questions
Answers

30.1 INTRODUCTION
In Unit 29 we gave a brief description of some modem technologies, such as lasers, fibre
optics, fission and fusion, space technology and biotechnology. We also discussed their
applications and how society could benefit from their proper use. We continue the discussion
in this unit and desribe other technologies, such as semiconductors, computers, artificial
intelligence, robotics and materials technology. As you have studied in Unit 27, now-a-days
the time interval between a scientificdiscovery and its use as technology has been considerably
reduced. Therefore, an emerging area of study is that of being able to forecast future trends
of research and development in science and technology. So, we will end this unit with a
brief discussion of technologv forecastirlp;.

Objectives
After studying this unit you should be able to :
state what a semiconductor is and describe briefly some semiconductor devices, such as
p-n junction diodes, transistors and integrated circuits,
describe briefly the working of the five basic units uf a computer, and distinguish
between computer hardware and software,
&plain what is meant by artificial intelligence,
explain what a robot is,
describe how the development of new materials has helped the advance of new
technologies,
describe the applications of each of the above mentioned technologies,
discuss the importance of technology forecasting.

30.2 SEMICONDUCTORS
By now you have studied more than half of this course. You may have been to the study
centre a few times. You might have taken lessons on aud~ocassette-recorders and watched
video programmes on the television set. You niay even have heard some programmes on the
radio. All these gadgets that you have come across, the radio, television, taperecorders,
video cassette-players are products of the semiconductiir techilology.

Scieke, Technology and

Development

Semiconductors are the basis of all the sophisticated electronics we have today. ~ i s t a l
watches, calculators, aircraft, spacecraft, satellites, telephone exchanges, lasers and dany
more devices have components or equipment made up of semiconductors. There is hardly a
tool, appliance or item of cnmmunicat~on,long distance transportation, entertainment or
defence that does not use semiconductor technology. These products and the semiconductors
which are used in them have created great impact on many aspects of our social, cultural and
economic development. Therefore, you may like to know what a semiconductor is.

30.2.1 What is a Semiconductor

You must have seen various metals like copper, iron or aluminium. They are all good
conductors of electric current. You also know that many materials like wood. plast~cor
quartz do not conduct current. Such materials are called insulators. A semiconductor, as the
name indicates, is a material whose ability to conducr electric current is greater than that of
an insulator but less than that of metals. Silicon and germanium are the most commonly
used semiconductors. Some othgr compounds like galli~marsenide, inhum antimonide
are-also used.
The ability of semiconductors to conduct electricity depends critically upon their purity, or
rather their impurity. A pure crystal of silicon or germanium acts more or less as an
insulator. However if an impurity is added to the crystal it becomes more conductive. By the
way, "impurity" does not mean a 50-50 mixture or even one part of impurity in ten parts of
silicon. In useful semiconductors, a ton of silicon may have I mg of the element arsenic.
Even the tiny bit of arsenic contributes surplus electrons to silicon, which then becomes a
better conductor. Such a piece of silicon would be called an n-type semiconductor. On the
other hand, a like amount of boron would cause a different kind of conduction to take place
and the piece of silicon so treated would be called p-type semicondvctor. The word 'doping'
is used by scientists to describe introduction of such small impurities.

mg is an abbreviation for
milllgramand mg = 1/1000gm.

SAQ 1
Wh~chone of the follow~ngstatements is correct about germanium, a semiconductor? Its
ability to conduct current is:

A pnjunction diode allows current

to flow if its p end is connected to
to the positive end ofthe battery,
thus acting as a switch. When the
p end is connected to the negative
end Of
battery, it does not allow
current to flow in which case the pn
junction acts as an open circuit.

i) greater than copper and less than plastic.

ii) greater than copper and plastic.
iii) greater than plastic and less than copper.
iv) less than both copper and plastic.

the

30.2.2 Semiconductor Devices and their Uses

If a junction is formed between a p-type and an n-type'semiconductor, the device called a pn junction diode acquires a peculiar pppeny. It conducts current only in one direction!
Hence, ~t is usedto convert alternating current (a.c.),intodirect current (44 (see Fig. 30.1)
The device acts as a w'itcl'in Fig. 30.1 (a). It acts as ag open circiit h-Fig. 30.1 (b).
And since it is a non-mechanical switch, it acts very fast.

PtYPe
- --

n-type

no current flow.

111111battery

flow of current

"-type

P-type

ICCI
+
battery

Fig.30.1 :(a) C u ~ mflows

t
in a p n junction diode only when its p end is conneltd to the positive end of a battery;
(b) if the tamery terminals are reversed. there is no flow of current.

More complicated devices using n-p-n or p-n-p combinations of semiconductor mat6rial are
called transistors. They have even more interesting properties. They can be so connected to
batteries that a small variation of current on one side, can lead to a large variation on the
other side. In technical jargon, the transistor can 'amplify' small signals. Transistors can also
be connected to other electrical components (resistors, capacitors etc.) to produce a.c. of
high frequency.
Emitter

Base

Modern bvelopments in
Science and Technology-I1

Collector

Output
Signal

Input
Signal

L, IJ%
Low Voltage

High Voltage

Fig. 30.2 :An n-p-n- transistor.

Semiconductor devices are extremely small in size. Their properties can be controlled at
will. This may be done by changing the amount of doping or by introducing more sections
of p-type or n-type semiconductors on the same crystal. A large number of new
semiconductor devices have been made in this way. Further, by suitable methods, they can
be produced in a large chain or according to a desired pattern'on a non-conducting surface
called a chip. When a large number of semiconductor devices are produced on a single chip
to perform specific functions, the resulting device is called an integrated circuit (IC).
Because of their small size and their sturdiness, and because they consume almost no
energy, these devices hive become very popular as components in TV sets, computers and
many kinds of instruments used for communication and control.
With the present state of technology, we are able to produce millions of semiconducting
elements on a chip of 1 sq. cm., reducing the size and weight of the equipment. For example,
in the 1950s a three ton computer costing a few crore rupees occupied a large room. Less
0
than four decades later, a microchip based computer costing a few thousand rupees and no
larger than a big brief casecan outdo its forerunner. Radio transmitters or receivers as small
as the head of a pin can be produced. This kind of development opens up many possibilities.
For example, the flow of blood in the veins in a human body can be monitored by tiny
semiconduct~ngdevices.
SAQ 2
Match the semiconductor devices listed in column 1 with their descriptions listed in column 2.

a) p-n junction diode

i) a single small chip containing a large number of

semiconducting devices in a definite pattern.

b) transisror

ii) devices in which one side of the semiconducting

crystal is p type and the other n type.

c) integrated circuiE

iii)de-lices using p type or n type semiconductor sandwiched between two n type or p type semiconductors,
respectively.

Science, Technology and

Development

I
I

Indeed, the semiconductors, tiny and frapile as they are, have come to occupy an important
place in our societies. As we have said earlier, the development of semiconductor technology has
had a deep influence on the way we live and on the possibility of man's control over nature.
Apart from providing jobs to millions. as well as mcans of recreation, it has worked uonders
in global communication. However, fears have been expressed that this hind or development
of very versatile equipment will throw people out of jobs. For example, computers will make
large clerical staff unnecessary. Or robots will throw factory workers out of jobs.
But even in the past, old technologies were repkaced by new ones, e g., horse-drawn carriages
by motor driven vehicles. And the past experience shows that while society progresses in
this way, a whole lot of new employment opportunities are created For instance,
introduction of motor vehicles has created jobs in manufacture. maintenance and repair
which are at least as numerous, or even more in number, than the jobs of tonga drivers and
veterinary doctors looking after horses. In the same way. \emiconductor technology has
created job opportunities of its own. The difference is rhar the\e johs requlrr education and
training. Thus, the solution lies not in rejecting the new technology hut in retraining and
orienting people to fit Into new kinds of jobs, using the new technology.
As you have read just now, semiconductor technology has many applications, computers
being the foreinost among them. Let us find out more about the computers.

30.3 COMPUTER TECHNOLOGY

-

--

You may not have seen a computer yet. But their pre5ence in your life I V a fact that cannot be
ignored. Your school marksheet4 may have been preparetl r3n a computer. the electricity and
water bills that you receive may be made on a computer. If you book your ra~l\cayticket in a
big city like New Delhi, it will be done on a computer. The cheque hooks i\sued by banks
are computerised. Indeed, computers have entered many a:pects of our 11bcs
A few decades ago, ,there were only a f e computers
~
in our countq. The! werc enormous and
expensive machines. They were often used for special scientific purposes. Thus, they had
little direct impact on the lives of most people. But, because of the advances in
semiconductor technology, things have changednow. ~housandsof computers, from small
relatively cheap units to large and expensive computers can be found in offices, factories,
schools, hospitals, banks,' airports, railway stations and homes. Plans are already afoot
to equip each district headquarter in lndia with a computer which will he linked through
satellite communication with a large central computer. This computer "network" will maintain alP
kinds of up-to-date information for the whole country. Indeed computers have become a way
of life with us. They have tremendously increased our capacity to exchange mformation,
undertake planning down to the grass roots level and faciliiate solution of very complex
problems.

30.3.1 Computers at Work

Computer networks link computers
through various communicatjon
c h a ~ e l like
s satellites, telephone
lines on optical fibres and a special
device calledmodem. Thelinkingof
computersal' Overthe wor'dthraugh
networks such as INTERNET has
made communication faster. It has
also provided access to a vme5' of
information right at our doorstep.

The computer is a simple machine and should not be held in awe. Basically, a computer
simply accepts infoxlnation and stores it. It then processe? intorir~ation,for example,
arranges it in some order, adds numbers or multiplies them. Finally, it produces the desired
information on an output device, for example. on a screen where it can he wen, or on vawr
..
This is much like what we ourselves do daily. We abqorb information through our senses,
our brains store and process it and then we act. To give an example, if we are asked to
multiply two numbers, our brain accepts the input through our eyes or ears, stores the
numbers and cames out the multiplication. The answer may then be told orally or recorded
on a piece of paper.
The only difference here is that a computer can do all these tasks much faster than us.
Calculations and paperwork that would take weeks, months or years for us to do, can be
done in a few seconds or minutes on a computer. For instance, the average individual can
make 5 to 10 simple calculations per minute. The average computer can make 10,000
complex calculations per second. Fast computers can make millions of complex calculations
in a second. And there would not be a single error in any of these calculations. Computers
can also stort a large amount of data. It 1s because of these factor? that the computers are
being used in almost all walks of life.

There are two major aspects of computers, hardware and software, AN the complex
electronic circuitry and various other magnetic and mechanical devices make up computer
hardware. Computer software consists of a set of instructions or programmes which run the
computer hardware. A programme is a set of instructions which the computer executes step
by step. We will now descnbe these two aspects in brief.

.Computer Hardware
The computers used today are many and varied. But each one of them has five basic units.
These five units are shown in a block diagram (Fig. 30.3). Study it carefully and answer the
following question.

Central Processing Unit

Input

Output

ru
Permanent Memory

Fig. 30.3 :The five basic units of a computer

SAQ 3
What are the five units of a comauter? List them here.

You have put down input as one. If you were to use the computer, you would feed in your
information and instructions using an input device such as a typewriter-like keyboard (Fig.
30.4a). The information and the programme will be lodged in a computer memory which
could~besomething like a gramophone record (called a "floppy disc" because of its
flexibility) or on a tape.
Once the programme is fed in the computer, the control unit takes over. It selects the
instructions, puts them in a sequence and directs other units to cany out their operations. It
acts like the central nervous system of the computer body.
For example, the control unit directs the memory to supply certain numbers to the
arithmetic and logic unit (ALU) and tells the arithmetic and logic unit to add, subtract,
mul~iplyor divide numbers as the case may be.
1

The control unit and ALU together are called the central processing unit (CPU). This is the
most important part of a computer. Numerous transistors and components constituting
integrated circuits (ICs), about which you have already read in the previous section, make up
the electronic circuits of a CPU.
Finally, the control unit enables the output to obtain finished results. The results could be
displayed on a monitor like the TV screen, or could be printed on a paper by the printer.
They could also be transferred to a floppy disc (Fig. 30.4b).
The overall cont?ol is exercised by the person operating the computer. Lights, switches and
buttons enable the computer operator to monitor what the various units of the computer are
doine at anv moment.

Modem Developmentsin
S e i c e and Technolo@l

Science, Technologyand

Development

Fig. 30.4 (a) Some input devices and (b) output devices.

SAQ 4
a) Fill in the blank spaces in the following statements about computers, using the words
given below:
Computers have the advantage of ...................... and ...................... over the human brain.
They can make ...................... of calculations per second without making a single
....................... They can also store ...................... amounts of ...................... and
large, thousands, accuracy, data, mistake, information, speed
b) Match the computer components given in column 1 with their characteristics/functions
listed in column 2.

i)

Computer hardware

ii)

Input

iii)

Memory

iv)

Control Unit

C) displays, records or prints information.

d) comprises of all magnetic tapes, printers and the
electronic circuitry.

v)

Arithmetic and Logic Unit

e)

is responsible for the storage of data.

vi)

Output

f)

like a traffic officer, it directs the tlow of

instructions between various units.

vii)

Computer Software

g) compares two numbers, adds, subtracts, multiplies

a)

I b)

transfers the data from the user to the memory of

ALU.
is made up of a set of programmes.

or divides numbers.

Computer Software
Computer hardware will do nothing until we tell it what to do. In oiher word\, we must give
it a programme to execute. A computer will do only what it i\ programmed to do and
nothing else. It cannot think the way we do. Through proper programmes, a computer can be
instructed to caby out not only simple arithmetical operations. hut al\o very complex
calculations and reasoning, apart from keeping accounts and making out bill3 etc. There are
two ty,pes of computer software, the application software and the systems software:

Application software is a set of programmes to solve problems or produce information or

data. These programmes are written in special code or notation or "languages". They are
given names such as BASIC. FORTRAN, COBOL. PASCAL etc. Some are more suitable
for accounting, others for mathematical calculations or logical processes.
The systems softbare provides the link between computer hardware and application
software. The code or programming language is converted into appropriate electrical signals
necessary for the operation of the hardware. The systems software is not controlled by the
user, it is built into the system.
SAQ 2
a ) I \ FORTRAN

language ot appl~cationsoftware or systems software or both'?

b) In the space given below. dram-a diagram showing the relationship between computer
hardware, systems software, application software and the user.

3Q.3.2 Micros, Minis, Mainframes, 'Monsters' and their Uses

Computers come in many sizes and have a large range of computing abilities. The
classification of the variety of computing system> i n tcrrns of size, cost and performance is a
rather difficult task.
Yet one does hear or read about microcomputers. minicomputers, rnainfmes and
superc6mputers (or 'monhters'). This kind of a classification is quite arbitrary. The cost and
perforniance capability of different machines are likely to overlap. For example, a powerful
computer sold as a mini by its maker may do Inore computations. store more data and cost
more than a'small mainframt. computer. Or often you nlaq come across a powerful
microcomputer which perfornib better and ccjstk less than a minicon~puter.
Small computers for use at home. office or business are called microcomputers or personal
computers (PCs). A large variety of tasks can be done on a PC. Its capacity to store and
handle large volumes of data has found many uscs in businehs. Bills and statements can be
processed i n much less time and wit11 rnucl~less effort now. PCs help rnanagers to organise
and handle financial data. and plan accordingly.
A computer aided design (CAD) programme enables engineen to destgn and test their
proposed product on the computer. I n this u;i! t h e are able to correct all the flaws in the
trial design and c o n e out with ,just the right prcbduit to nlanufacture. 1ntercstinglY,the
complex 1Cs that make up the computer harcibarc .lrc thc~iizcl\e\designed on a computer.

At IGNOU. we use PC$ a\ "uordproce\\k)r\" to tlpc and Lorre~tthe mdnu\cnpt\ of the

course\ you redd (Flp. 30.5). W ~ t h typeunter. cha~~pl!lr
one nll\pl.l~edfiord or delet~nga
paragraph might require retyping the whole page. In :I PC', the tcxt I\ stored on a floppy disc,
and can be displayed on a screcn. at will. We can make as m m y corrections, additions o r
deletions, as we wdnt. We need to prlnt the cop) un1j dttcr we are fully satisfied.
PC5 can be I~nhedw ~ t hm~rnfrdnleor \upercc,mputer\. Thu\. user\ are now able tci run their
prograninie\ on the md~ntrdmecomputer\ anti obtain re\ult\ on the~rown PC\. A\ the
c
a n ~nseparablcpar1
integrated circults tcchnolog has rmprobed, PCs h a ~ bcconic
of our daily lives Alreadj pcople use PCs for preparing household budgets

Modern Developmentsin
Science and Technology-11

Science, Technology and

Development

At the first station, a robot pastes on each casing a computer printed label. The label tells
which parts are to be fixed into which casings. At each succeeding station, robots read the
label and follow the instructions. Finally, a laser printer prints the information about the
product onto the casings. They are then automatically sorted, packaged and shunted off to
the shipping dock.
Does it seem to be a scene from 2050 A.D.? Well, it's not. This is a real scene from a
computerised factory in USA. The workforce in this factory is made up of robots. Robots
work under the overall control of only four human technicians and produce 600 units per
hour. What are these marvellous machines that are called robots? In this section, we'll
learn about robots and robotics.

30.4.1 An Insight into Robotics and Robots

The science of designing, building und using robots is called robotics. And what is a robot?
Many people think of robots as mechanical people that can see, hear, feel, walk and talk.
This kind of a robot is yet a distant dream. The robots in use today are basically
computerised machines. They can be programmed to d o a variety of tasks. Let's take a
look at a few ex amp::^ that will help us understand what robots are.
A robot can be made to do a large number of jobs. For example, a robot can drill holes of
several different sizes. Robots are also made to sort vegetables, shear sheep, pluck chickens,
form rice cakes and assemble mechanical parts. Robotic trains carry commuters to and from
work. Robots can even assemble delicate watches and computer components. In factories,
robots do spot welding and spray painting.
A robot can also be programmed to change from one job to another and can be 'taught' to
handle new tasks. For example, the same robot could drill a hole as well as place bolts into
the holes drilled by it. A robot can d o one thing for a while, then another and then yet
another. For instance, it can select English character keys and put them into a few
typewriters, then put Hindi keys into another few and then Arabic keys into a third batch.
An industrial robot called 'T' can select its own tools from a rack, drill holes accurate to
0.005 inch and measure the perimeter of 250 different parts. It helps build F-16 fighter
planes.
From these examples, it should be clear that u robot is a compulerised, multifunc~tionaland
reprogl-ummable machine lhar peflorms a large variety of l a s h .
However, there's more to a robot than what we've learnt yet. Through the use of artificial
intelligence systems, robots have been given a wide range of human abilities. We will
describe some of them in brief.

Giving Robots Sight

Robots can be made to 'see' an object or a scene. Optical sensors in a robot record the
varying brightness of light coming from the object. To identify an object, the computer
compares its brightness at each point. with the brightness at different points of an image
stored in its memory. If the brightness matches, it "sees" the object and carries out the task
it is programmed for (Fig. 30.6).
Robotic vision is tailored for specific jobs. In industry such vision systems help robots to
install car windows or pick objects and place them elsewhere. 'Seeing' robots are used for
simple inspection jobs.such as verifying whether bottles are filled to the proper level. A
robotic quality control system can be used to detect flaws in products and remove the
rejected ones.
Like every modem technology, robots are also used for modem warfare. An example of
'seeing' robots is the Tomahawk cruise missile which can carry several nuclear warheads
and drop them on a target with deadly accuracy. It can be launched from a ship, a
submarine or a ground unit. several thousand kilometres away from its target. Stored in its
computer memory are a series of images of the landscape along its intended flight path. The
missile surveys the landscape, matches the images with the ones stored in its memory. If it
is drifting off course, it makes correction in its path. It makes a final adjustment before
heading for the target.

Modern DeCelopments in
Science and Technulvgy-11

Fig. 30.6 : A bin-picking rohnt. A laser is used to illuminate a bin full of parts of varied shapes and sizes. A camera records the
brightness of the objec:s at different points. The ~nbuiltcomputer programme looks for unique features in [he brightness
pattern of the object. The computer then positions and claw the gripper to pick it up.

Robot Arms in Action

A robot can be designed to act like a human arm. Robot specialists draw on the skills and
resources ofboth computer science and mechanical engineering to build robots with "arms"
In the course of a work, the joints of a'robotic arm may have to move into many positions.
Hundreds of thousands of numbers corresponding to these positions are stored in a robot's
memory. Special mechanical devices in the arm translate those numbers into elementary
movements.

Typical robot arms do not have fingered hands. Instead, special purpose devices are fitted to
serve as arms With the help of ihese devices, the same robot could spray paint using a spray
gun, or weld metals, or pick up objects to put them in an order (Fig. 30.7).

Walking Robots
Sit back for a while and try to think of a few advantages our legs have over wheels in
moying around.
Wheels can't climb stairs. They can't also step over obstacles or gathrough narrow spaces
or move on soft or uneven ground. Humans and animals can choose the foot-holds that offer
the best support, specially in mountains. In fact, about half the earth's surface is such that it
is very difficult for wheels to move on it. Creeping, climbing, balancing, walking and
running are all possible for legged creatures. Our legs can also bend at knees which makes
adjustment easy.
Therefore, a robot must be given legs so that it is able to move around easily. Making legged
robots has proved to be a challenging job in robo!ics. Although computers have been built
into legged vehicles, the problem4 of balance, coordination and walking on rough ground
have proved difficult to solve.
Along with robot movement, building in natural flexib~lity,manual, touch and hearing
ability in robots are active areas of research in robotic$ these days.

I
1

Naturally, robot eyes, ears, hands and legs have a long way to go befcre they can approach
human ability. Robotic Skills of sensing and thinking are elementary at best. Do not forget

Science. Technology and

Development

The fuels are other kinds of materials-either in colid or liquid state whic-h have'to be light.
give off a lot of energy on burning. and must he such as to bum fast or slow according to
control. These material, have allowed loads of homething like 200 tons to he lifted off from
the earth by a powerful space rocket. 200 tons is the weight of 200 average 5ized cars!
Great developments have taken place in materials which are called polymers, and consist.of
long chains of small molecules joined end to end. Plasticsare one k ~ n dof polymers used
extensively in machines and devices. and so commonly even in rural areas-in the form of
cups, buckets, ropes, bags, rain-coats and other clothing etc. Rubbers are alsa$olyrners. and
so are ceramics from which china-ware and all kinds of insulators are made. There has been
great development in this field. Ceramic car engines are being developed which m i l l be
much lighter than the present cast steel and will be able to operate at a higher inner
temperature and pressure. Engine weight may be reduced to a quarter of what it is today, anti
power may be increased four times. Ceramic magnets are now in conimon use: the ratio of
the magnet's force to its lueight has k e n increased more than a hundred times. Tiny magne1.s
have now the strength of large old-time magnets.

An area of considerable excitement is the de\relopment'of ceramic

superconductors working at much highcr temperatures than before. I t wa5 known for many
years that certain materials became ~ u p c r c o ~ ~ d u c ~m.hen
i n g . they mere cooled to about minus
270 degrees celsins. is.,a small voltage caused a huge current to flow in them, or their
resistance to flow of current becanic. nearly zero. The property was of academic interest only
because reaching 270 degrees helow l'reerlng temperature was itself a veiy difficult icb.

'

Recent excitement 1s based on tRe tact, that the temperature at which certain ceran1;become superconductors has been found to bc nearly 170 degrees higher! This stron;,lj
suggests that with modified ceramic materials we may. one day, have superconducting
materials at room temperature. That would be wonderft~l,as i t would revolutionise all
electric power generation because machines would become tiny as compared to present
heavy weights. Pourer transmission would changc radically because there would hardly be
any loss of power on the wires, and s o would comlnunication systems. It could make electric
trains much cheaper to run, and perhapc lead to electric cars and trucks. Then it would be
possible to replace the present pollution producing and non-renewable resource (oil) using
vehicles.
Without going into details of other types of materials uwd in medicine and agriculture. some
produced in chemical or drug factories and others hy biotechnological means, it should be
clear that new technologies and new materials go hand in hand - progress in one depends
on the other. The motor car could never have succezded without great advances in
metallurgy and precise machining. lubricating oils and greases. petrol technology, electrical
systems, and production of uear-resimnt ruhher. pneumatic tyres. synthetic materials etc.
Materials have become a subject of research and development in their own right, and science
has so advanced that we are near to the position of making materials with any desired set of
propertieb.

SAQ 8
a) List at least two products made of each of the following materials
Metals, alloys. polymer>,fibreglass. vynthetic fibres. liquid crystals.

b) What special kinds of materials have mad= possible advances in fibre optics,
semiconductprs. space technology and superconductors?

.......................................................................................................................................................

.......................................................................................................................... .............................

........................................................................................................................................................
........................................................................................ ..............................................................

Modern Developmentsin
Science and Technology-I1

30.6 TECHNOLOGY FORECASTING

I
I

With such power of science in relation to technology, and consequently to satisfy social
need, the question arises, can technologies of the future be forecast? Can one say what kind
of devices, machines, weapons etc. will be available ten years from now? This has become a
relevant question from the point of general planning, let us say in a country like India. But
equally, the answer to the question of future technologies is of interest to private
manafacturers because their profits would depend on it.
The question is more complex than it appears at first sight. The path from science to
technology and then to useful devices and goods in society is not straight forward. Scientific
discoveries sometimes took several decades before society made use of them as devices,
and, thus, produced the need to improve such devices, and add to technology and science. It
was Faraday who discovered the laws of electric induction in 1831, on which all electric '
generators and motors are based, but the generators or motors were'not needed. People were
doing without them. You may think why they did not use electricity for lighting homes and
street. The answer is simple. The bulb had not yet been invented. When the first hot filament
lamp was invented, it could not bum for many hours because good vacuum pumps were not
available. The greater hurdle was, however, the ability to sell electricity and make profit.
This was cleared only in 1881 when Edison developed the electric power station from where
electricity could be distributed, like water, to homes and factories. Its first extensive use was
in factory lighting so that workers could work for longer hours after sunset. So, the idea or
discovery made by Faraday had to wait for almost fifty years before other technologies and
devices were developed, and business could make profits from sale of electricity and longer
hours of factory work.
Although waiting periods between discovery and application have shortened now (see Sec.
27.2), in some technologies they are just a few years, the model described in the previous
paragraph is still valid. There is scientific research in various branches; some of it is abstract
or theoretical, some applied or practical and it makes certain technologies possible. But
other technologies from other areas of research and development may be needed to convert
the possible into likely to be successful technology. The society must also be ready to
utilise it, or the market must be there to make profit (or it must be created by advertising!),
before the likely becomes an actually available technology (see Fig. 30.8). Of course, this
is a highly simplified picture. For example, time delays have not been shown, but they are
involved at each stage, and the connections could be many more than shown here. You also
know, at this stage of the Foundation Course, that today's great multinational corporations
use advertising in a big way to create a market, to make people buy things which they could
do without. They may be made ready to buy a thing simply because it is made to appear as a
status symbol, or just because the neighbour has it.

Scientific

FSocial need
j or market

Theoretical. ~ o o l i e d l

Research

Areas

Likely

Theoretical, Applied

: Possible

i/

L - 2

Fig. 30.8
I

I
I

The other side of the picture is that in order to foresee the technology of tomorrow, one has
to keep an eye on the various areas of scientific research, as well as on social and economic
aspects-not only in one country, but in the world at large. And one who is effecfively able
to do so stands to gain tremendously. More scientific research and technological
development can be directed so as to obtain highly useful products-unfortunately, also
weapons! A great amount of money is being spent by countries on research and
development in order to keep ahead of others. Some countries spend a few percent of their
gross national income on this enterprise. We in India spend, at present around 1%. And

'

c) Seema is a .............:............................... She specialises in designing programmes that

are built in the computer to contrpl its operation.
d) Feroze prepares software that allows a computer to perform specific fhctions. He is
e) Sharon is a ............................................ for a user organisation. She enters the data
and monitors the computer as it runs.
Systems programmer, electronic engineer, computer operator, application
programmer, hardware sales person.
4) List at least thiee advantages of a robot.

........................................................................................................................................................

5) State two reasons why technology forecasting is an important area of study today.

........................................................................................................................................................
........................................................................................................................................................

30.9 ANSWERS
Self Assessment Questions
1)
iii).
2) a) ii, b) iii, c) i.
3) Input, Control Unit, Arithmetic and.Logic Unit, Memory, Output.
4) a) speed, accuracy, thousands, mistake, large,.data, information
b) i) d, ii) a, iii) e, iv) f, V)g, vi) c, vii) b.

5) a) ~ ~ ~ l i c a tsoftware
ion

6)

Artificial intelligence is the ability of a computbr system to produce an output that

seems to corn? from an intelligent human being.

7) a) An automatic machine is usually not computerised. It cannot be made to do any other

job except the one for which it is made. It cannot also usually be recast for an entirely
different use. A robot is.a programmed computer which can do many jobs at a time
and also can be reprogrammed for different uses.
b) A robot 'sees' by comparing and matching the brightness of an object with that of its
image, stored in its computer memory. For robots to act as arms, hundreds of
thousands of numbers giving'their positions are stored in the robot's memory, which
are used in the set of programme guiding the robbt's application. Whenever the

Modrrn &ielopments in
Scienrt md Technology41

gene splicing: joining pieces of DNA fragments

geostationary: moving so as to remain always above the same point on earth's surface.
hologram: a photograph which on being illuminated produws an image of object in two or
three dimensions
hydrogenation: chemical combination with hydrogen
indigenous commodity: originally from the country where it is found
infrastructure: the facilities, services and equipment that are needed for proper functioning
innovation: introducing new ideas and changes in the way something is done or produced
insulator: substance which does not conduct electrical current or heat,
laser: special kind of light with several usefuI properties, such as coherence
lead time: the time gap between the discovery and its actual application in industrial
procession
life expectancy: the average period that a person at a particular age is expected to live
malleable: substance that can be hammered or pressed out of shape without tendency to
return to its original form or to fracture
manipulative skill: skilful way of controlling equipment
neural processing: processing of s i g d s by neurons
nuclear fission: splitting of heavy atomic nucleus into smaller fragments, with release of
neutrons and energy
nuclear fusion: union of atomic nuclei to form a heavier atomic nucleus with release of
neutrons and energy
obsolete: out-dated
open circuit: an electrical circuit in which no current can flow
optical fibre: a special fibre used to carry signals on light beam
paradox: a situation that is strange because it involves two opposite facts which should not
be true at the same time
petroleum pitch: residue left after the distillation of crude petroleum
pneumatic tyre: tyres inflated with air
polymer: a substahce containing largemolecules built as a chain with repeated units
resistor: device which offers resistance to the flow of current
rqbot: computerised machine which can do many jobs and be reprogrammed for use in
other kinds of jobs
robotics: science of designing ahd making robots
Want: a substance used for sealing gaps, cracks or leaks
semiconductor: solid substance whose ability to conduct current is greater than insulators
and less than conductors
socialism: political and economic theory of social organisation which advocates that the
community as a whole should own and control the means of production, distribution and
exchange
spot welding: welding between points of metal surfaces in contact
stearine: a substance found in oils and fats, which is used in manufacturing soaps
superconductor: conductors that offer no resistance to flow of current
systems software: software built into the computer
tallow: animal fat
technology: application of science for problem solving
transistor: a semiconductor device with three electrodes used to amplify signals
turn key technology: technology that is ready to use

FURTHER READING
1. ~ e ' ~
w u i dto
e Sci-,

Isaac Asimov, Penguin, 1987.

Modern Devdopmentn in
Science end Technology-II

Unit 28 Technology and Economic Development

Unit 29 Modem Development in Science and Technology Unit 30 Modem Development in Science and Technology Block 8 : New Perspectives
Unit 3 1 Perceptions and Aspirations
Unit 32 Science -The Road to Development
AudioNideo Programmes
Audio : , 1) Science and Society (Block 1)
2) Astronomical Development in India (Block 3)
3) Measuring Astronomical Distances (Block 3)
4) Evolution of Man (Block 3)
5) The Forest Ecosystem (Block 4)

6) Population Pressure (Block 4)

7) Common Misconceptions about Health (Block 5)

8) Human Factors in Engineering (Block 6)

9) New Information Order (Block 6)

10) Technology and Self-Reliance (Block 7)

11j Nuclear Disarmament (Block 7)

Video :

1) Method of Scienge (Block 2)

2), A Window to the Universe (Block 3)

3) The Story of a River (Block 4)
4 ) Green Revolution (Block 5)
5) Infectious Diseases (Block 5)
6) Jean Piaget Development Stages of a Child (Block 6)
7) JNSAT (Block 6)

UNIT 31 PERCEPTIONS AND

ASPIRATIONS
-,

Structure
3 1.1

Introduction
Objectives

3 1.2

Science and Society Interaction

Science Influences Entire Social Edifice
Society lnfluences Scientific Development

3 1.3

Need for a Systems Approach

Primacy of Social Objectives
Evolution of Science and Some Social Ideas

31.4

Relevance of Past to Present

Science and the Creation of New Vision

3 1.5
31.6
3 1.7
3 1.8

New Perceptions and Aspirations

Summary
Terminal Questions
Answers

31.1 INTRODUCTION
You have studied how science and technology have always been an integral part of
human endeavour. By now, you are also aware of the immense potential of science and
technology in mobilising resources for producing food for all, eradicating disease,
providing better materials and processes for improving the quality of life. In thls unit, we
will have an overview of the science-society interaction and stress on the need for a
systems approach. The orientation, which science and technology take, is determined by
a number of factors includmg social factors: Science and Technology can be used for
human welfare as well as to create instruments of coercion and mass destruction. We will
dscuss the perceptions and aspirations humankind has today, in thls broad framework. In
the next unit, we will discuss how science and technology can be used for all round
development and for self-reliance.

Objectives
After studying thls unit you would be able to:
recognise that science influences the entire social edifice and in turn scientific
development should be influenced by social needs and perceptions,
realise the need for a systems approach in overall planning, in which social
objectives must be the primary concern and
appreciate the aspirations of hunlankind in a situation where science and technology
can be used for human welfare or for creating instruments of coercion and mass
destruction.
'

We are nearing the end of the Foundation Course on Science and Technology. It is time
to surn up and get an overview of the relationship between human society and its
endeavour which is called science and technology.

On the basis of the units you have studied so far, it would be obvious to you that science
and technology are an integral part of human activity and society; they were, indeed,
founded when the first human beings acted to procure food or shelter. They have grown
into a magmficent body of tested knowledge, and t h s knowledge is growing continually.
Science and technology influence society by improving the methods of production and
by bringing a change in social outlook. In its tun,conditions prevailing in a society

New Perspectives

affect the path and the rate of growth of science and technology. Let us hrther discuss
these two aspects.

31.2.1 Science Influences Entire Social Edifice

Science and technology are involved in all the processes of production, and, therefore,
with all the goods we have at our disposal. The pen you write with, the paper you write
on, the food you eat, the clothes you wear, the medicine you take, are a few examples. To
produce these articles, work is done at home or in factories, or in the fields and forests.
Since millions of goods are needed to sustain society, production has become a highly
organised activity. You have seen in Block 1 and 2, dealing with the History of Science,
how different kinds of social organisations arose as the methods and means of production
changed in a society. For example, when inhviduals could not sunlive due to difficulty
in procuring food and facing wild animals, they had to live in groups, Since they had no
way of preserving food, they had to share equitably whatever was gathered by way of
food. This "primitive" society changed when agriculture was discovered. 'This step by
step process has been traced in the earlier blocks, right up to the present times, when
robotic production and biotechnology are indicating the path which a future society
might take.
The great variety of goods produced through industry or agriculture has to rcach buyers
or consumers. For that, trade and commerce and a system of transpcrt are necessary,
which science and technology have provided. You know of the discovery of the wheel,
which made animal drawn carts possible in the olden days. Nowadays, we have jet
aircraft travelling faster than sound, and huge ships transporting grain, oil or machines
from one country to another. From inter-tribal exchange of goods, we have come to have
international trade. In a sense, the world has shrunk. Once upon a time, 500 km was "too
far" and one could not contemplate such a journey, then perhaps 2000 km was too far,
because the earth was thought to be flat and you could just drop off the edge, and now
one can go from Delhi to London by regular airlines in eight hours!
The great production system, supported by an equally great and intricate trade and
transport system, has brought people and countries into greater interaction. Therefore, a
system of communication has had to be developed using science and technology. Here
again, tlungs have changed from shouting to one another, or signalling with arms or
lighting fires, to communicating by telephone, radio or computer. Our entue "cultural?'
life has thus been altered, or enriched, by modern means of communication. When
decisions are to be made, information is needed, and that is now increasingly stored by
computers and retrieved as required.
Wlth change in the means of production, social organisations have also changed.
Problems of managing large societies have continuously been tackled by evolving newe
meihods and patterns of governance. Thus, society has evolved from the early stages of
primitive community living to slave societies, kingdoms, republics, capitalism. and
socialism.
Science and technology have played a vital role in the transformation of human society.
They have allowed us to use the resources of the earth, the oceans and the air, and to
l m e s s the energy which makes the wheels of production or of transport to move, and
communication to take place.
We also need education and Waning for the people to man the vast network of
production, distribution, coinmunication and administration. Therefore, there is the need
to continuously advance knowledge and to improve all products and systems for the
benefit of humankind. Men and women of ldeas are needed, whom an educational system
suited to a particular society could help to train. Such an education system itself would be
based on science and technology. For*instance, printing presses to produce books,
factories to produce paper, audio-visual aids. all kinds of apparatus needed for
laboratories are products of science and technology. In addition, science and technology
would also influence the ideas, philosophy and attitudes prevailing in our times.

Perception- and \sprr::tic>ns

Society Influences Scientific Development

But just as science and technology provide all thc "nuts and bolts", as well as many of
the ideas that hold our society together, society itself provides the environment and
atmosphere for science and technology to either grow fast, or stagnate or even decay!
Science and technology do not exist independent of the society, its culture and the value
system. They are a part of the socio-economic and political framework of a given society.
Motivation for the practical application of science and, hence, its growth and use comes
from the economic needs of the society. The economic planning and policy of a society
tletermine its social programmes and the purposes and goals of society's production
activity, which in turn provides the incentive for scientific growth. However, answers to
questions like what kind of economic policy will be pursued, whether the social
programmes will be implemented, and to what extent, depends on the political and social
organisation of a society. Thus, science and technology can be more directly influenfed
by the general policies and social structure of a society.
For example, when economic growth is purely determined by market demands, artificial
demands for goods are created by advertising, even though there is no pressing need for
them Ideas -f people are sought to be moulded by propaganda carried on by raQo or
television or even by education. The competition to produce more goods, increase profits
or the desire to provide fancy goods to an influential section of a population results in
one kind of development of science and technology. On the other hand, if a society
desires and plans to improve rural Me or give priority to public health or provide a
certain level of nutrition to all citizens, the tasks and consequent development of science
and technology should follow a different path.
Still another example is. the question of spending money on weapon of offence or defence
that naturally affects science and technology. It is known that the world today is annually
spending Rs. 15 lakh crores (15x 10" rupees) on weapons and their development. This
not only takes away money needed to feed, clothe or provide health and shelter to people,
but it also prevents the development of science and technology for constructive purposes.

SAQ I
Discuss briefly how developments in the following areas have affected the living styles
of people Write your answers in the given space.
i)

Transport
................................................................................................
................................................................................................
................................................................................................

ii) Commu~iication
................................................................................................
.................................................................................................
................................................................................................

1 ...

ui) Education

................................................................................................

................................................................................................

t We can conclude that science and technology are part and parcel of a larger social

system, whose other components are industry, agriculture, trade, distribution of goods,
communication, education, government and admixistration etc. As human beings
interestzd in human welfare. if we wish the greatest hwnan assets-science, technology.
education and culture to flourish and advance, we shall have to adopt an "over all' or a
systems approach.

Ncw Pcrspeetives

31.3 NEED FOR A SYSTEMS APPROACH

Science and technology cannot be advanced by viewing them in isolation. The whole
social, economic and political system will have to work in unison so that all round
advancement can take place.

31.3.1 Primacy of Social Objectives

Furthermore, we see that every thng has two sides -the good and the bad. Science and
technology can benefit people; we can protect our environment, make good use of earth's
resources, provide enough food for all, and cure diseases. On the other hand, one could
develop weapons of mass destruction; in fact, the world arsenal of nuclear weapons is so
large that just 1% of it, used deliberately, or by some error, can destroy all life on earth.
The choice is to be made by human berngs constituting socrety.

Society can be so organised as to maximise profits or to rnaximise human welfare.

Society may put emphasis on "economic growth which may make the rich richer and
the poor poorer; or it may choose to combine growth with egalitarian distribution of
benefits. Society may emphasise industrialisation, irrespective of what impact it has on
human environment or the finite resources of the earth. as has been happening in some
countries ever since the Industrial Revolution in the middle of the 18" century. Or society
may choose such technologies or such industries as tend to preserve our resources and
living environment.
It is obvious, that first of all, any country, such as Inha, must clearly spell out a
consistent set of social objectives that it wants to achieve. Then, the tasks can be set for
various sectors, such as industry, agnculture, transport, communication, health and
education etc. The science and technology either available or to be developed can then be
visualised. Planning and gradual achevement of targets are necessary to get to the
desired goals.
Healthy social hnking which reflects one's concern for others, and a responsible social
action stemming from that are needed. And if this Foundation Course in Science and
Technology has helped to generate such ideas, it has served a truly educational purpose.
With this overview, you would be able to read the following short description c t
scientific and social evolution of our institutions. What you have studied in carlier blocks
has in a sense, been summarised and brought to a focus in what is presented below.

31.3.2 Evolution of Science and Some Social Ideas

In antiquity, when human beings picked up a stone, p d thre-&it at another animal, either
to kill it or to save themselves, the first step in the e;olution of science was taken. With
the increasing use of discovery and invention, their pattern of development became
markedly different from that of other animals, zind a complex set of social institutions
grew around them. Thls also posed before them two sets of problems, which beset them
even today:
control of the material world, and
control of human beings.

Control of the Material World

Human culture has evolved through a number of important steps: from use of stone
implements to use of copper (c. 5000 BC) to the invention of wheel (c. 3500 BC) to use
of iron (c. 1500-1000 BC), and to more recent developments in the use of various metals.
On the energy front, fire was discovered long ago. ~rahtionally'powerhas been supplied
~
by human and animal muscles, wind and flowing water. Use of steam in the 1 8 century

ushered in the industrial revolution. Now of course, other sources of power such as
nuclear fission have become available.
The experience gained in deahng with the world of materials resulted in creation of
knowledge, which when abstracted and systematised became science; and when applied
to develop new articles and the processes of making them, became technology.

Control of Human Beings

The art of acquiring knowledge, and using it for malung the articles needed brought
different people together in a common endeavour. With increasing complexity of jobs to
be performed, the problem of initiating and directing people to perform the jobs came to
be of critical sigruficance. The task was divided into two broad areas; actually doing the
work, and directing it. Consequently, people were also divided in two categories, those
who did the work and those who directed them. With the advent of agriculture, it became
possible for human beings to produce more than their need, and, thus, it became possible
for some to live without actually doing any work. The invention of writing, further
strengthened the division. Those who directed others to do the work became guardians of
knowledge. As tlus &vision hardened, the question of malung people do things which
were required to be done, became more and more imponant. Techniques had to be
developed to make people acquiesce into the scheme of things organised by the guardians
of knowledge, who lived on the surplus produced by those who laboured, without doing
the work themselves.
Looking back at the evolution of human society, it appears that three approaches to
control human beings have been followed:
obtaining voluntary co-operation
through dsciplining, such a s ~ the
n army, and
by instilling fear.
The use of a part~culartechnique depends upon the type of society. To organise an
equitable and just society, the techmque of voluntary co-operation was adequate. This
technique meant an understanding, on the part of citizens, of the issues involved, and
dissemination of the existing knowledge. In the past it was, sometimes, done by religious
leaders and later by political parties. In societies in which a few lived at the expense of
others, cornering all the gains to themselves, the other two techniques were used. To
increase the efficacy of these techniques, a number of stratagem were employed. Severe
punishment was prescribed for breaking the prescribed rules; fatalism was encouraged;
rewards were promised in the after-world, that is after death; and myths were created to
justify and perpetuate superiority of a small segment over the vast majority.
The problem of controlling people created a dual vision: of an equitable and just society
as preached by religious prophets, social reformers and political thinkers, and of
unlimited control of a few men over a large number, to make them obey their command
and do things at their bidding. In tlus process, it may appear ironical that the control of
material resources (which created the basis for bringing people together) became
secondary to control over people. The more was the society patterned and command, the
greater became the use of materials to control them through propaganda mach~neryand
weapons of coercion and war. However, control of human beings has been found to be
far more difficult than the control of materials of all kinds.

Fill in the blanks in the following, using appropriate words:

i)

A ........................ approach is needed if we wish science and teclmology to be

used for . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Perceptions and Aspirations

New Perspectives

ii)
iii)

Systematised howledge about the material world became .........................:.;

This when applied to develop new materials or processes became
......................
While control over material world has opened immense .............................
for human welfare, control over human beings has resulted in .;. ....................
conflicts.

31.4 RELEVANCE 0.F PAST TO PRESENT

One may question the relevance of all this to contemporaq society. Why should one be
concerned at all with what has gone before? Is it not better that attention be directed to
the problems of the present rather than go back into history?
Our contention is that, though the scale of the present day problems is different, they,
nevertheless, are in essence a continuation of the age old dilemma of the control of
human beings. Should it be done through voluntary effort, by creating an understandmg
of the problems and in the light of existing knowledge, by motivating people towards a
common cherished goal and to arrive at decisions by participation of the people? Or,
should men and societies be controlled for the benefit of a few, maintaining a high level
of ignorance and fear? The shape of the future society would depend on the decisions
which are taken now.
It is a fact of history that the crisis of each of the earlier societies led to their total
disruption. An unjust society, maintaining inequality, cannot last .long. Thg wasteful use
of paterials creates an economic crisis whch cannot be overcome without reforming the
society. Each reform or re-arrangement of society created the hope'and vision of a just
society, soon to turn sour, leading again to a new unjust society based on inequality.
Many countries of the world, today, are passing through one or the other stage of a crisis.
Before a closer look is taken at the present crisis, it may be worthwhile looking at how
some of the features of the present so

31.4.1 Science and the Creation of New Vision

dL

Rapid development of science in E

material world bcgan to be clearly
human intellect. And it generated
in order to solve problems and improve conditions of living for all. It created the
possibilities of a new prosperity and brotherhood of men. The development of
technology generated new resources, particularly in terms of steam and electric power !
and it provided to people, materials and products htherto outside their reach. Each new
step, each new success, created new aspirations and hopes, and generated the feeling that
a world-wide fair and just society, bestowing dignity to man, would be created.

In the process, results were acheved and s&ling new opportunities were created, but
soon the vision and hopes turned sour. The capabilities generated by the growth of
science and technology started being misused for the purpose of exploitation of human
beings and whole societies, and for the purpose of conquest and destruction. The
beneficial uses which should have been shared by the people at all levels of society were
limited to, and served, only a small group of people and a few countries. For example,
inequality among people continued unabated in 'England, the exploitation of the I n b
resources and dumping of British goods in India created greater poverty here and ruined
Indian handicrafts and industries. Freedom of the Indian people was trampled upon.
Numerous wars were fought for the possession of colonies, and this became more and
more destructive because of advances in technology of weapons.
In the last five decades, many countries have thrown off the colonial yoke. However,
since they still depend on the developed countries for scientific and technical know-how,

dley are now able to make their choices about the way they want to develop. A growing
realisation of this situation has emerged among the people of these countries.

31.5

--

NEW PERCEPTIONS AND ASPIRATIONS

These developments and disappointments with the social outcomes of scientific advances
have served to awaken scientists to a new dimension of problems which had been glossed
over so far. It is instructive for us to have a glimpse of what new perceptions are arising.
Contmy to the belief held until a few decades ago, that man, society and environment
have infinite capacity to absorb technology, it has been found that serious damage is
being caused to all three. Therefore, alternatives are being thought of.

lathe last few hundred years, greater emphasis has been laid on the rights, privileges,
intellectual growth .and the like of the individual. At the same time, technological
innovations have been aimed at meeting individual requirements, in fact, even individual
fads and fancies. All kinds of goods, whether they are clothing or fashion items, or food
and smoke or even entertainment are designed, with numerous alternatives for each, and
advertising is done for promotion of their sale. It has come to be realised that in doing so,
a heavy cost has been paid in terms of wasteful utilisation of scarce resources,
consumption of energy and other problems connected with urbanisation. Let us take the
example of making motor cars each one more beautiful, bigger and shinier than the other.
It involves spendlng a great deal of petrol for the need of one person. Besides, roads are
being choked with M i c , and the environment is being loaded with fumes, while most
people travel in crowded buses with great discomfort. It is being felt that to fully utilise
production cagcities and to avoid wasteful consumption and other problems, individual
options have to be limited and social solutions have to be found and promoted.

,'

I.
1

1
I
I

There was a time when scientists pressed unconditionally for more money to be spent on
scientific research. But in this case also, the situation is changing. Huge amounts are
being spent on research; either on weapons. like more powerful bombs or on systems of
delivering them by planes, rockets and missiles. Large scale research in being done to
s
of
instal powerful lasers in satellites etc. It is being increasingly felt that t h ~ kind
research and the use to which it is put only threatens humanity, while not enough is being
done to eradicate diseases. Firstly, the opportunity was seized by some in advanced
countries to attack science itself, rather than its misuse. Science is portrayed as if by
nature it is a disrupter of human values and societies and an instrument of exploitation.
The other trend is to assess technological solutions in terms of their human, social and
environmental consequences, and to subject the choice and application Of technology to
such a total assessment.
One can say that these developments mark the end of the euphoria towards science and
technology and the emergence of more sober and mature views on technological
developments and their applications.
In the era when technology was considered an unmixed blessing, it was )$Aiqyed that
technological developments had an inevitable direction, starting from &'simplest to the
most complicated. For instance, the historical development of the produqion of energy
was considered to'be "progress" from the use of wood to nuclear energy, through various
inevitable intermediate stages. However the energy crisis and the health.&d
environmental hazards related to big industries pulping pollution &to the air, rivers and
the sea, and rapid consumption of finite resources of the earth, such as coal, wood, oil
etc. have dlrected attention to the non-conventional sources of energy, which used to be
utilised extensively prior to Industrial Revolution. There is a realisation that it is no
longer possible to continue to use resources indiscriminately, on the scale at which they
have been used so far. This has dlrected attention to the use of raw materials and
generation of energy from renewable sources, such as wind, water, biogas, sunlight etc.
In terms of scientific research, this has given great significance to research in new firlds,
m order to develop new technologies.

Perceptions and AsPhdons

New Perspeciivea

Such perceptions about science, techno1,ogy and society have found reflection in the
growing aspirations of the peoples of the developing world. The developing countries
have in the recent years tried to bridge their social barriers to establish relationships
which help them in breaking the vicious circle of under-development. Their peoples have
raised demands for self-reliant growth and a certain minimum quality of life for all
sections of the population. Realisation has also grown that science and technology can
be harnessed to meet social goals.

SAQ 3
Write in the space given, at least two ways in which communication media can be used
for:
i) Social good

ii) To serve the interests of a few

31.6 SUMMARY
In this unit, you have had an over-view of science and society interaction. You have
learnt that science influences the entire social edifice, the matenal as well as
ideological, and in t m science itself is influenced by the society and its objectives.
Before any project is taken up, its positive as well as negative aspects, the effect it
will have on human beings and environment must be properly evaluated. "Social
good" must have primacy in the overall planning and the use to whch science and
technology is put. With the immense potential of science and technology to better
the quality of life for all, or to generate weapons of mass destruction, the choice
before mankind has become imperative. New perceptions and aspirations have
arisen in a changed world situation.

31.7 TERMINAL QUESTIONS

-1) In a total systems approach, what are the various factors which should be kept in
mind while planning a large dam or a thermal power station?
................................................................................................
................................................................................................
................................................................................................
................................................................................................

2) What do you think are our social objectives in India? List at least three areas in
which science and technology can help us in acheving them.
................................................................................................
.................................................................................................

................................................................................................
................................................................................................
3) Comment on the statement, "The immense potential of science and technology has
set humankind rethinlung about its use."

Perceptions and Aspirations

31.8 ANSWERS
Self Assessment Questions
1) i)

Transport: with the development of transport, goods produced in the industry

can reach the people. Transportation has helped in the establishment of national
and international trade. With the help of various means of transport, people can
cover the distance of hundreds of kilometres in just few hours.

ii) Communication: with the advancement in commurucation, people can see what
is happening elsewhere in the country or the world, and talk to each other
though separated by large distances. Further, radio and television has also
brought cultural harmony amongst people.
iii) Education: education is the primary requirement for people to understand the
developments in science and technology. With the help of education, they are
able to make full use of the various resources.
2) i) Systems, human welfare
ii) Science, technology
iii) Possibilities, social

Social good-awareness of hygienic conditions, diseases etc. amongst people.

To tell people about their rights, privileges and responsibilities.
ii) To serve the interest of a few - advertisement about variety of T.V. sets,
telephones, cars etc.
Advertisementsabout new fashions in clothes.

3) i)

Terminal Questions
1) Factors ta be kept in mlnd:
a) Total capacity of the dam, thermal power and how inany people will be
benefited by it.
b) Situation, i.e. whether it is away from the clty or not.
c) What effect will it have on the environment of that area.
d) How many people will be displaced.
2) a) Increasing industrial production
b) Growth in agriculture
c) Egalitarian distribution of benefits
d) Science for human welfare
(Elaborate these points, i.e. how science and technology help to achieve these
objectives)
3) Science can be used for the welfare of human beings and also for the destruction of
humankind. It is up to an indvidual person, community or country, how to make
use of sciencc.

New Perspectives

UNIT 32 SCIENCE - THE ROAD TO

DEVELOPMENT
Structure
32.1

Introduction
Objectives

32.2

Quest of Prosperity For All

Technology as a Tool of Domination

32.3
32.4
32.5

Ncw International Economic Order

Exploded Myths
Self-reliance
Science and Technology for National Development

32.6
32.7
32.8

Summary
Terminal Questions
Answers

32.1 INTRODUCTION
In the previous unit you have learnt about the interaction between science and society.
You have also learnt that social objectives must be kept in mind while deciding what
onenlation science and technology should be given in a parhcular social context. In tlus
unit, we will see how, in an unequal world, science and technology have been used as
tools of domination, rather than as means of prosperity for all. From this situation his
arisen the call for a "New International Economic Order", an expression of the urge of
the peoples of developing world to share equitably natural resources and the knowledge,
which are the common human heritage. The countries who have thrown off the colarual
yoke are eager to use science and technology for the welfare of their vast masses. They
want to create indigenous infrastructure of science and technology which will enable
them to become self-reliant and take their own decisions, while participating in global
economy.
Objectives
After studying this unit you should be able to:
realise that the natural resources as well as the fruits of science and technology are
not shared equitably between the developed and the developing countries,
appreciate the urge of the developing countries for a New International Economic
Order and
appreciate the aspirations of the developing countries to become self-reliant, which
can give them the freedom of choices and the freedom of action.

32.2 QUEST OF PROSPERITY FOR ALL

There is an all-round desire to create a society where every one can equally draw the
benefits of development and is provided a minimum decent standard of living. As we
have said earlier, science and technology by themselves do not ensure social jushce or
equity: these are goals of a society and a people, in the pursuit of which, science and
technology can be of great help. In In&& the Parliament passed a Scientific Policy
Resolution in 1958, which 1s said to have been drafted by our first Prime Minister.
Jawaharlal Nehru. This point was made in the document by saying that the very idea of a
welfare state (which became popular in many countries) is based upon the ability of
science and technology to help us produce enough of everything-food, medicine,
clothing, housing materials and so on, so as to be able to fulfil the needs of all.
Internationally, however, there is hardly any movement or desire to make the benefits of
science and technology available to all inhabita~tsof the world, cutting across national

and political boundaries. The world remarns divided. There are now two well-defined
categories of nations: industrialised or developed countries; and others, optunistically
called "developing" countries (in place of the more blunt terms such as poor or semiindustrialised or non-industrialised countries. The developing countries are also known as
Third World countries, although there is no "second world.)
The dispanties between the developed and the developing countries are tremendous, and
%byall accounts they are only increasing, because of the advanced level of science and
technology possessed by the developed countnes. There are many ways of expressing
these disparities. For example, three quarters of world's income, investment, services
and almost all research are in the hands of these developed countries, which represent
one quarter of world's people. Per capita grain consumption in the USA increased from
700 kg in 1965 to 900 kg in 1975- an Increase of200 kgper head- which is almost the
total per head consumption in Indiaper year. Similarly, energy consumption per head in
the United States is so high that if the whole world consumed at that rate, the planet's
non-renewable resources would be finished in a decade. The disparities were built
mainly in the colomal period, as explained earlier, but the advantage once gained has
been mcreased with the help of science and technology.

32.2.1 Technology as a Too1 of Domination

Production of knowledge and its dtssemination through books, journals, magazines etc. is
very largely in the hands of the developed countries. It is estimated that these cowtries
spend about 98% of all money that is spent on scientific and developmental research. In
the remaining 2%, all the more than 100 developing countries includmg our own, have a
share!
We, in India, have hundreds of research laboratories, and we are proud of this- but when
we compare our effort with that of the developed countries, we realise our limitations.
Our expenditure m R&D is not as productive, because much of it goes into maintaining
personnel and laboratories. The equipment, which has to be largely bought from the
developed countries, is not the latest. Besides, our science and technology lacks the
linkage with the processes of production. The productive system in our society is still so
backward generally, that it does not make many demands on our indigenous R&D. At
the slightest necessity we import technology, machines or other equipment, at times even
when such needs can be met indigenously.
Furthermore, we are affected by the phenomenon of brain drain. It is estimated that close
to a rmllion scientists, technologists and medical persons from the developing countries
are living and working in the developed countries. The reasons are many. The
developed countries have more challenges and better opportunities to offer. There is lack
of demand on high quality sophisticated science and technology at home and, therefore,
employment oppomnities are scarce. This flow of trained human resources to the
deygfdped countries is of more value, even in monetary terms, than all the aid the
dkveloping countries receive from them.
It is not surprising then that all new inventions emanate from developed countries They
create technological wonders, and we have only to wonder! For everything we want to
do in an up-to-date manner- make special type of steel, of fertiliser, or aircraft - we have
to look for technology from the developed countries. If we produce goods with out-ofdate technology, we will not be able to sell them in a competitive market.
Much of the science and technology being developed in the advanced countries is in
areas whidh do not even exist In most of the developing countries. Even a country like
ours, which is bit forward, cannot take full advantage of the major developments in many
areas of science, either because of secrecy or because the techniques used are too
sophisticated. The developed countries spend billions of dollars per year on syntheucs,
plastics, fibres, glasses etc. In many cases, these products tend to displace the raw
matenals produced by the developing countries, such as rubber, cotton, tin. vegetable oil
etc.

Science--The Road to Development

New Pempectives

Furthermore; the technologies evolved in developed countries are capital intensive and
use much less labour. Thus, by importing such technologies, we end up spendmg more
capital, our labour force is under-utilised and the goods produced have a higher price so
they cannot sell in the international market. Thus, the superior quality of science and
technology in the advanced countries has a-nonetoo healthy effect on our own science
and technology. It also perpetuates our general backwardness, through the benefits do
accrue to a small privileged section of our population.
A significant change has taken place in the world. The collapse of the Soviet Union has
made the word unipolar, with USA as the solitary superpower. During the last few years,
India has been making cowerted efforts to liberalise its economy to integrate it with the
world economy at large, and to permit ever-increasing interplay of market forces.
In the changed circumstances, it would be necessary to strike a balance between purely
economic forces on the one hand and social forces on the other. It is imperative that all
obstacles in the path of rapid industrialisation and buil&ng of strong infrastmcture are
removed, that competitiveness,quality and profitability become the mantra of our
factories and production centres. At the same time, it is imperative that people and their
problems are not ignored, that long-standing problems pertaining to poverty and social
justice are solved quickly. h e key phrase of the new economic era should be production
of industrial wealth accompan~edby social justice.

SAQ 1
Namc two instances where efforts are being made to develop iahstructure in India.

32.3 NEW INTERNATIONAL ECONOMIC ORDER

The developing countries mostly threw off the colonial yoke in the 1940s and 1950s, and
ever since they have been struggling to stand on their feet for the Iand of development
which would benefit their people. You would have realised that a crying need of our
times is development which would satisfy the national needs as well as the aspirations of
the common people of the developing countries. Right now, there exists a cumulative
backlog of poverty, ignorance, ill-health, unemployment and untold misery among vast
sections of populations in these countries. These problems are mounting day by day.
Lack of resource for all-round human development is known to be continuing cause of
explosive growth of population and environmental pressures. Many of the countries have
tried to reconstruct a society where satisfaction of the minimum needs of the entire.
population would be the first priority of development. But this development has mostly
eluded us.
We have not been able to make policy choices in keeping with our national needs and
aspirations. The strategic, industrial and commercial interests of the countries criss-cross
in %highly interdependent world of today. Experience has shown that the developing
countries are forced by circumstancesto do what suits the developed countries most. For
example, to defend ourselves, we have to buy modern weapons from the developed
countries, and replace them as new weapons are introduced by them; we buy modem
goods or import technologies from them to produce those goods.
This has given rise to discussions in the developing countries about adopting a totally
different path of development, i.e., a path of development which would not be an

imitation of the stages through which the developed countries h i e passed. The term
"alternative development strategies" is used for this purpose. We would not be copying
any one, we would be findmg our own way of sati&ing the most urgent needs of our

We would like to evolve a new economic and political system, which would combine
competition and enterprise with human welfare and planning. A strategy would have to
be developed in which the character, content, direction and pace of development would
be firmly under national control. The strategy would need to be followed by a plan to
rearrange production, to mobilise resources and allocate them to all relevant sectors.
Steps would have to be taken to generate and put to use appropriate science and
technology for national devcloprnent.

Internationally, such feelings were so strong that, in 1974, the United Nations passed a
resolution called the "New International Economic Order-Declaration and Programme of
Action" We give you just a few lines from it, whlch reflect the conditions whch prevail.
Para 1 of this resolution say, "The greatest and the most significant acllievement during
the last decades has been the independence from colonial and alien domination of a large
number of peoples and nations which has enabled them to become members of the
community of free peoples. Technological progress has also been made in all spheres of
economic activities in the last three decades, thus providing a solid potential for
improving the well being of all peoples. However, the remaining vestiges of alien and
colonial domination, foreign occupation racial discrimination,apafheid, and neocolonialism in all its forms continue to be among the greatest obstacles to the full
emancipation and progress of the developing countries and all the people involved. The
benefits of technological progress are not shared equitably by all members of the
international community. The developing countries which constitute 70% of the world's
population, account for only 30% of the world's income. It has proved impossible to
achleve an even and balanced development of the international community under the
existing international order. The gap between the developed and the developing
countries continues to widen in a system which was established at a time when most of
the developing countries did not even exist as independent states and which perpetuates
inequality."
Para 4 spells out the principles on which the New International Economic Order can be
based. To quote, " The new international economic order should be founded on full
respect for the following principles.. . full permanent sovereignty of every state on its
natural resources and all economic activities. In order to safeguard these resources, each
state is entitled to exercise effective control over them and their exploitation with means
suitable to its own situation including the right to nationalisation or transfer of ownership
to its nationals, this right being an expression of the full permanent sovereignw of the
state. No state may be subjected to economic, political or any other type of coercion to
prevent the free and full exercise of this inalienable right", and further
"Just and equitable relationship between tlic prices of raw materials, primary products,
manufactured and semi-manufacturedgoods exported by developing countries and the
prices of raw materials, primary commodities. manufactures, capital goods, and
equipment imported by them with the aim of bringng about sustaiiled improvement in
their unsatisfactory terms of trade and the expansion of the world economy."
Thls should given you an !Ldzaof the kind of situation which prevails in the world
economic relations, which is to the great disadvantage of countncs whose industry,
science, technology and social development should rcccive a boost now.

32.4 EXPLODED MYTHS

Experience has shown that some ideas which were popular soon after the Second world
war (1939-45) are not vahd in practice. It was thought that the highly industrialised
countries, or the developed countries, would serve as a "bank" from which capital, slulls,

Sciencb-The Road b Development

New Perspectives

technology and management could be transferred through "aid which could raise life to
a better quality in the developing countries. It was the general belief among scientists
that modem science and technology could flow freely to'our developing countries for the
benefit of our people. These ideas or premises have been found to be largely invalid.
As sumwised in an important international symposium, Pugwash on Self-reliance, "the
fact [is] that the [supposedly global] technological revolution has been conceived,
planned and executed so as to enable the attainment of the economic and security goals
of the highly industrialised countries; what IS more, ~thas also been contributing greatly
both to the unprecedented scarcities of basic resources and to serious maldistribution in
their use, with a steadily larger share being consumed by the industrialised nations".
In this connect~on,it would do us well to remember the fact that the key of human
progress is Knowledge. After we were able to win our freedom, the developed countries
were no more in a position to put any restriction on the spread of knowledge in our
countries. But they have played a part in maintaining a great difference in the level of
knowledge available to them and that available to us. You have read in Unit 28 about
patent laws which prevent us from making anything by a known process.
Even in science and technology, knowledge is restricted in its flow due to potential
application, which could lead to developing countries making new kinds of products.
There are trade secrets, as also government imposed restrictions on spreading knowledge
about fresh scientific and technological discoveries. In superconductivity, about which
you have read in Unit 30, for example, what is being freely published is just a fraction of
what is being discovered in the laboratories of the developed countries. So is the case
with biotechnology, lasers, nuclear science, electronics and many emerging areas. They
don't want us to be able to convert,some of the ideas into products, which may find
markets in their countries, or shut off our markets to them.
Not only that, there are several instances to show that if a developing country like ours
develops its own technology in a particular field, all efforts are made to scuttle it. It is
not rare to find frustrated researchers in our country 'whose dedcated efforts were put to
waste by importing the process or the product at the last moment.

32.5 SELF-RELIANCE
On the basis of this historic lesson on harsh realities about science, technology and
national development, a new concept of "self-reliance" has become popular, particularly
ainong the developing or the thud world countries. It is realised that for the developing
countries, freedom of action is crucial, which is impossible in a state of dependency, in
which the individual or the nation will always be at the mercy of the benefactor.
Therefore, a country has to build up its scicnce, technology and economy in such an
integrated way that it can take and implement decisions independently, in its own interest,
in the global order.
irrespective of external pressures, while at the same time participali~~g
Self-reliance can also be said to be a state of mind that pronlotes confidence in oneself,
and one's ability to determine onc's destiny. The idea can be given meaning by
expressing it in different ways. For example, if diere are choices In economic or social
objectives, those should be given precedence, which can be fulfilled wit11 a minimum of
dependence on other countries. If there is a choice in setting up industries, those should
be preferred which can be set up with our own effort. If there is a choice between
technologies, thosc should be adopted which rcly on what is available in the country and
so on. Naturally, this has to be accompanied by scientific and technological developmen~t
in our own institutions, backed up by suitable education, training ,and research. Thus, the
areas of our choice should be constantly enlarged.
Self-rcliance does not mean shutting ourselves off from the world of science and
technoloa, or stopping import of whatever is essential or unavoidable, but to constantly
strive and plan to enlarge the scope of "avoidable". The implication is that luxury goods,
whether in manufacture or in import , ought to havz the lowest prior*. To run trains at

200 km/hr is not as urgenl, since matenals and technoiogy would 11avc to be imported, as

running more trains or opening up more routcs to fXaway parts of our country. In
matters of national defence, the scope of what we can produce by our ever-advancing
technology should be enlarged, but then whatever is left and needs to be updated can be
bought.
Perhaps. you can see that self-reliancc as a policy admirably fits with the objectives of
tackling problems which concern large masses of people. 70% of our population lives in
'villages and hardly uses anything which requires imported goods or technology. Even if
pulses or edible oil are imported today, we can easily increase our own production. Our
large population does not need so Inany kinds of tooth pastes, shampoos, electric shavers
etc.: but it does need food, medicine, clothing, shelter and the Ilke. Economic and
technological effort directed to uplift their condition ~vouldnot require leaning on other
countries and exposing ourselves to their blandishment or pressure or foreign exchange.
On the other hand, betterment of the conditions of living of the common people is bound
to contribute towards greater satisfaction and consolidatic?n of thc nation, increasing our
inner strength. It can be said with justification that such self-reliance would be in
accordance with what father of our Nation, Mahatma GandhiSpreached,and personally
practised. His word for it was Swadeshi.
Propagation of Swadeshi was an important ideological weapon in our freedom
movement. Besides the upliftrnent of economic conditions and improvement of general
welfare, it brought about az amfakening which afforded Indian people the slrcngh, unity
and above all the deep love and respect for their culture and Itexitage.. This lund of
weapon was used by Candhiji from distnct level down to the village level, and the whole
country was roused.
You can per!laps also see thal self-reliance of the b n d we arc discussing involves choices
made 2nd actions takca at different levels, h e i~:di\:~dual(sc1:-confidence and finlFi11nent
of personaljtyj, viilage, district and State-or forms, factories. schools, research
institutions. Sc, ii has to become a movement in whlch people participate - and for the
country as a w!lols, it becomes a new strategy for dcvelopmerd.

32.5.1 Science and Technology for National Development

Science and technology arc a major national resource and a vital elc.ment in the task of
aclGeving sclf-reliance. W i a the ideal of self-reliarice, presented above: xvhat role can
science arid tcclmoiogy be made to play for national dcvciopment? As you know, the
needs for food, shelter, clothing. 11~4thand education for all
stil! the most pressing
needs of our society. A rapid fulfilment of tbesc rxeds wcr1I3need new advarrce.; i:~
agriculture, food tcchn~logy,11ca:th science and mcaiclnc. building materials. clothing,
tapping new resources etc..Solution c!' prcblerns rcicvani i.o our own society or econamv
poses a fundamental challenge bct'or: our scier!rl5c ;ir?d ~cd!noiogicalactivity. And in
pursuing this challenge, new qnestioi~sand ncv answzrs. new technologics and new
areas of scientific work ;Ire bound to emerge To iacklc the prob1err;s experienced In such
an endeavour would need !he iagcnuiiy arid rcso:r?-ccsof mcn, materials and ideas.
In India, we have a great potcntial of nraterral resources and in!e!ligen~ peopic. We have
also a democratic systern where i d e x clui bc testcd and the best can prevail. The task is
to optimise knowledge of all kinds, whcrner in social sclencc. natluxl sciences or
tcclmolog);, by innking it il~ailablcto the largest number. It wolild do our society well to
produce at all levels of education, creative and cntical thinkers who can use the scientific
method to question the social reali? on :he basis of rele~antdata arid prob!ems. Thcrc is
a need to re-examine ideas which have been uncn:rcall> accepted by the people as well
as the political and administrative set-up in our society. The task of getting out of the
vicious circle of uader-devclopment shoald not be under-estimated. Science, technology
and other kinds of knowledge have playcd a crucial role in cstablislung the present
structure of societies, their trade, industry and dislr~butionof benefits. Let us hope that
they will also be made to play an increasing rolc in taking our country to the right path of
future dcvclopmel~l.

Science--The Road to Development

New Perspectives

SAQ 2
Fill in the blanks with appropriate words.
i) The new internal economic order should be founded on the .............. of full
.............. of every state on its ................ and all.. ................
ii) Self-reliance is a state of ........................., that promotes ..................... in
oneself.
iii) Freedom of ..................... .is impossible in a state of .........................
iv) For self-reliance our scientific and technological development has to be backed up

32.6 SUMMARY
In this unit you have learnt that in spite of the age old human quest for an egahtarian
and just society, the world today presents a very different picture. There are the rich
developed countries who control most of the world resources and the s c i e n ~ i and
c
technical know-how. There are the poor developing countries, wluch in the absence
of h s know-how and capital, are unable to utilise their resources for their own good;
or ensure that the fruits of science and technology reach their vast masses. This
realisation has found expression in the developing countries' call for a New
International Economic Order based on equ~tablesharing of resources and
knowledge. They want to become self-reliant, so that they can have freedom of
choices and action, and seek a path of development where science and technology
can be used for upliftment of their vast masses.

32.7 TERMINAL QUESTIONS

1) Spell out briefly the essence of New International Economic Order. How does Inha
stand to benefit from it?

A .

2) a) What are the requisites for self-reliance?

................................................................................................
................................................................................................
................................................................................................
...............................................................................................

b) Name two areas where we do not depend on imported technology or know-how.

.................................................................................................
................................................................................................
...............................................................................................

32.8 ANSWERS
Self Assessment Questions
1)

2) i)
ii)
iii)
iv)

Power generation, roads

principle, permanent sovereignty, natural resources, economic activities
mind, confidence
action, dependency
suitable education, training and research.

Terminal Questions
1) New International Economic Order was declared by UNO in 1974. It includes:

Independence from colonial and alien domination.

Technological progress and its distribution.
Sovereignty of every state on its nahiral resources and all economic activiti 6.
Better terms and conditions for trade and expansion of world economy
Just price for the importlexport of raw materials, pnmaq products, capital
goods etc.
As In& is also a supplier of many raw materials to the developed counLries and also
impoits goods from them, fixing just prices for these items will help to improve the
economic conditions of our country.
(Elaborate your answer on these gudelines).

2) a) Development of confidence.
Freedom of action and independent implementabon of decisions
Advancement in science, technology and economy for one's own interest.
b) Nuclear science, missile technology.

:New Perspectives

In t h ~ Foundation
s
Course on Science and technology, we have covered a vast ground.
Beginning with some comments on science as a great human endeavour, whose growth
has been entwlned with that of civilisation itself, we gave you a glimpse of hlstory of
science with particular reference to India. We concludcd that by remarks on the nature of
scientific knowledge and on the method of science.
It was then time to cross over to some specific, attractive and significant areas from the
point of view of a citizen of modern India. Even so, there was some arbitrariness in our
choice of subject areas; we talked about the universe to locate the planet Earth in the
larger context, and then we discussed the origin of life, and its evolution right up to
humankind. We explored with you the ecosystem, the environment and natural resources
of our habitat, the Earth.
Food, agriculture, health and disease are subjects of great relevance to us and so we
acquainted you with some technicalities and social and economic problems connected
with the subject. We briefly went into the very interesting subject of mind and the body,
leading to a glimpse of psychoIogy, and of the powerful tool that man needs and uses
today, called communication. All the wanderings then led us to the topical question of
science, technology, industry and economic development. This was followed by a peep at
the future - the new, round the corner, technologies.
In dus broad-based survey of science and technology meant for the young reader, who
may not have studied science at all, except, perhaps, a little bit through newspapers or the
radio, we tried to portray the objectivity, rationality and the openness of a scientific
approach. But we have not failed to underline the fact that scicilce is not an abstract body
of knowledge, it is very much a knowledge of the reality as it exists, from the
environment, to the mind and body, and on the human society. Being itself a part of
reality, science can change the material and social reality from within.
When one discusses the interface of science with social reality, the author's way of
looking at the reality, or their world-view comes into play. It is inevitable. Therefore, our
point of view of looking at Indian society and its problems, or what colonialism &d to the
countries it ruled, or how the means of communication give a handle to regulate common
people's thinking - in fact in eveqthing, our point ofview has been present. If we had no
point of view, or if we suppressed it, to present a sterilised picture to you, we would have
done great injustice to you - presenting figures, tables, charts, separate statements, a
jumble of images, without a message. Some authors are able to do so, but they also get
blamed for having confused every issue-perhaps to a purpose!
But, we have constantly urged you to thlnk for yourself, to scrutinise material presented
before you, and to develop your own connected set of ideas. You may like to pursue
some of these subjects further, and that would be a positive gain for all of us.
We can close this course m many ways, but we have chosen to do so by quoting
Jawaharlal Nehru - who was not only a thinker, a scientist, one of our country's most
beloved leaders, a maker of modern IndIa, but also a most charming communicator who
used to capture people's minds with h s beautiful imagery.
"Though I have long been a slave driven in the chariot of Indian politics, with little
leisure for other thoughts, my mind has often wandered to the days when as a student I
haunted the laboratories of that home of science, Cambridge. And though circumstances
made me part company with science, my thoughts turned to it with longing. In later
years, through devious process, I arrived again at science, when I realised that science
was not only a pleasant diversion and abstraction, but was of the very texture of life,
without whch our modern world would vanish away. Politics'led me tb economics, and
this led me inevitably to science and the scientific approach to all our problems and to
life itself. It was science alone that could solve these problems of hunger and poverty, of
insanitation ind illiteracy, of superstition and deadening custom and tradition, of. vast
resources running to waste, of a rich country inhabited by starving people". (From an
Address at the Indian Science congress, Calcutta, December 1937).

..

COURSE CONTENTS

Block 1 : History of Science

Unit 1 Science as a Human Endeavour

Unit 2

Science in the Ancient World

Unit 3

Iron Age
The Golden Age of Science in India

Unit 4

Block 2 : Emergence of Modern Science

Unit 5

Science in the Medieval Times

Unit 6

Renaissance, the Industrial Revolution and After

Unit 7

Science in Colonial and Modem India

Unit 8

The Method of Science and the Nature of Scientific Knowledge

Block 3 : Universe and Life -The Beginning

Unit 9

Universe as a System

Unit 10 Exploring the Universe

Unit 1 l Solar System
Unit 12 Origin and Evolution of Life
Unit 13 Evolution of Man
Block 4 : Environment and Resources

Unit 14 Ecosystem
Unit 15 Components of Environment
Unit 16 The Chariging Environment
Unit 17 Natural Resources
Unit 18 Resource Utilisation, Planning and Management
Block 5 : Agriculture, Nutrition and Health

Unit 19 Food and Agriculture

Unit 20 Scientific Possibilities and Social Realities
Unit 2 1 Food and Nutrition
Unit 22 Health and Disease
Block 6 : Information, Knowledge, Insight

Unit 23 Mind and Body

Unit 24 Psychological Aspect of Behaviour
Unit 25 Information and Comnlunication
Unit 26 Modes of Communication
Block 7 : Science, Technology and Development

Unit 27 Science and Technology in Industry

Unit 28 Technology and Economic Development

Unit 29 Modem Development in Science and Technology - 1
Unit 30 Modem Development in Science and Technology - I1
Block 8 : New Perspectives

Unit 3 1 Perceptions and Aspirations

Unit 32 Science -The

Road to Development

AudioNideo Programmes
Audio :

1) Science and Society (Block 1)

2) Astronomical Development in India (Block 3)
3) Measuring Astronomical Distances (Block 3)
4) Evolution of Man (Block 3)
5) The Forest Ecosystem (Block 4)
6) Population Pressure (Block 4)
7) Common Misconceptions about Health (Block 5)
8) Human Factors in Engineering (Block 6)
9) New Information Order (Block 6)
10) Technology and Self-Reliance (Block 7)
11) Nuclear Disarmament (Block 7)

Video :

1) Method of Science (Block 2)

2) A Window to the Universe (Block 3)
3) The Story of a R~ver(Block 4)
4)

Sreen Revolution (Block 5)

5) Infectious C ist tses (Block 5)

6) Jean Piagt. D ,velopment Stages of a Child (Block 6)
7) INSAT (Blc ,k 6)