234

INTERNATIONAL SCHOOL ON NONSINUSOIDAL CURRENTS AND COMPENSATION

JUNE 15-18, 2010, AGW, POLAND

Choice of Power Factor Corrector for Effective

Operation of MicroGrid and its Elements
M.sc.ing. Alexander Suzdalenko

M.sc.ing. Andrew Stepanov

Dr.sc.ing. Ilya Galkin

IEEI
Riga Technical university
Riga, Latvia
[email protected]

IEEI
Riga Technical university
Riga, Latvia
[email protected]

IEEI
Riga Technical university
Riga, Latvia
[email protected]

AbstractThe given paper deals with power factor correction

circuits in the context of improvement of power supply grids.
The concepts and key elements of SmartGrids and
MicroGrids are discussed in the beginning. Then their
possible configurations are compared (planned) and DC
MicroGrids are emphasized. Power factor correctors for such
MicroGrids are experimentally compared and the most
promising solution is chosen.
Keywords-MicroGrid, DC Supply, Power Factor Correctors

I.

INTRODUCTION

II.

MICROGRID CONCEPT

During past decades the development of the electricity

generation technologies from renewable energy sources, as
well as modernization of microturbines and generators of
low power support its accessibility and prevalence of usage
at user-side. Such experience has lead to inevitability of
modernization of low voltage distribution grids and other
infrastructure, to enable energy flow in both directions that
defines that every consumer takes an active participation in
stability of the energy distribution system [5].

Nowadays energy distribution grids provide electrical

energy generated by centralized power plants (like TES,
AES, HES) to distant consumers that may be located in the
distance of several thousands kilometers. In such case
significant part of the generated energy is lost in the
distribution grids, due to non ideal power distribution
equipment, that takes about 10% of transferred energy. The
total efficiency of primary energy sources (fossile fuel,
hydro resources, etc.) in such configuration may be very
low (some research shows that 100kW consumer requires
1MW from primary source). This assumes that about 20%
are consumed at transportation stage of primary resource,
another 10% are lost in different storages, 40-50% - at stage
of electricity generation, 10% - in the distribution grids and
more 10% are lost in convertors at user side. It is seen that
significant part of energy is lost during transportation
(mechanical and electrical). Beside that nearly 90% of all
power outages and disturbances are caused by problems in
the distribution grids. It may, therefore, be concluded that
the real energy consumers have to be situated as close as
possible to the location of the primary resource [6].

To realize the concept of MicroGrid, a common

electrical grid needs to integrate some key elements, like:
distributed generation elements (to provide stability),
distribute storage system (to ensure autonomy),
interconnection switch (which connects the MicroGrid with
outer energy distribution grid) and control system (to
manage effective work of MicroGrid elements) [5].

Several concepts of modernization the energy

distribution grids have been proposed. They integrate
modern communication and information technologies with
power part. The concepts differ by the scale: SmartGrid
concept is developed for total energy distribution system
modernization; MicroGrid is a customer focused concept
for local electricity generation with small energy sources
(both from renewable and non-renewable), storage and
intelligent power usage.

B. Interconnection Switch
The MicroGrid has a point where it is connected to the
rest of the distribution grid by means of Interconnection
Switch, which provides several functions: power
commutation, protective relaying, measuring on both sides
and data communication between grids [5].

It is expected that the future power grids will involve an

increasing level of intelligence and integration of modern
technologies in every aspect of the electricity system, from
demand-side devices to wide-scale distributed generation to
a variety of energy markets.

A. Control Systems
The control system manages the effective cooperation
of all MicroGrid elements at different modes: gridconnected and stand-alone (islanded) modes. This system
can be realized with central controller or by means of
integrated electronics into distributed generation elements.
When the MicroGrid is disconnected (for different reasons:
quality of the distributed grid voltage or by economical
aspect), the control system takes regulation of the voltage,
frequency, generation (or absorption) of reactive power for
local grid needs. Also this system should synchronize the
MicroGrid voltage and phase, when it connects back to the
distribution grid [5].

C. Distributed Generation
Distributed generation (DG) is needed to provide
necessary autonomy and reliability levels, as well as to
match efficiency conditions (as it was mentioned in the
introduction). The generation of electricity can be realized
in traditional way by using both renewable (PV, wind,
small HES) and non-renewable (micro turbines, diesel
generators) energy sources. It may combine the power
generation with recovery of waste heat that makes the
system more efficient.

978-1-4244-5435-8/10/$26.00 2010 IEEE

INTERNATIONAL SCHOOL ON NONSINUSOIDAL CURRENTS AND COMPENSATION

JUNE 15-18, 2010, AGW, POLAND

The right generation method should be chosen

accordingly to the requirements of the certain application,
which are [5]:

Standby mode generation of electricity during

grid outages;

Stand alone autonomic application without

possibility to be connected to distributing energy
grid;

Peak load clipping generation of power during

peak load periods, when the electricity price is
maximal;

Combined heat and power (CHP) an effective

approach to increase the total efficiency of the
system;

Base load is used to provide some part of

required power at generators best efficiency point,
reducing power losses and improving the quality of
the power grid.

D. Distribute Storage
Distribute storage (DS) plays a significant role in
MicroGrid to realize its stability. In the case of using
microturbines or generators with liquid fuel, DS allows
achieving generator work at maximal efficiency point, by
releasing stored energy in peak demand hours and
accumulating energy during low energy demand (working
as additional load for generator). In the case of renewable
energy sources, the power output of which varies on
weather condition, DS systems ensure power supply
stability over larger periods of time, than renewable energy
source is able to provide [5].
There are several forms of energy storage available that
can be used in MicroGrid; these include batteries,
supercapacitors, and flywheels. Battery systems store
electrical energy in the form of chemical energy.
Supercapacitors are electrical energy storage devices that
offer high power density and extremely high cycling
capability. Flywheel systems allow supporting critical load
during grid power interruption because of their fast
response compared to electrochemical energy storage [5].
AC OR DC NETWORK?
There are many different distributed energy generation
and storage technologies. Each of them performs particular
type of energy conversion. For example, AC grid related
PV technology requires DC/AC inverter, wind generator
AC/DC and DC/AC converters. In the case of DS power
interface must provide bidirectional energy flow, allowing
energy to be stored, converting it to an appropriate form,
and later to be used to supply loads, being converted back
to the grid AC voltage.
Analyzing modern electricity consumers, it can be
concluded that the most of todays small office and home
loads (like computer techniques, kitchen electrical
equipment, lighting devices etc.) are, in fact, DC loads.
They always have an internal AC/DC converter.
Considering this and the fact that the most of distribute
generation and storage elements also generate DC voltage
(fuel cells, batteries, PV, supercapacitors etc.), it is
reasonable to assume that DC systems are more effective

235

due to the smaller number of converters in the overall

supply chain.
If a MicroGrid is of DC type it requires an AC-DC
converter only for interfacing with the utility grid. There are
many types of such converters (rectifiers). Their
constructions have significant impact on both the
MicroGrid and the supply main operation. The shape of the
input current is especially important. If the current is nonsinusoidal or has some phase shift with the voltage it leads
to additional energy losses in the utility grid. The shape of
current is important also in some other occasions. For
instance, wind or diesel generators produce the maximum
power at sinusoidal output current with no phase shift. To
resolve the problem of non-sinusoidal current an active
rectifier with power factor correction (PFC) must be used.
There are several topologies of PFC circuits. The next
section of this paper contains the analysis of efficiency of
various PFC circuits.
III.

MODULAR AND VERSATILE POWER CONVERTER

DESIGN

Many of power electronic converters consist of the

same element base (diodes, transistors, capacitors
inductors), combining which can be achieved certain
converter rectifier, inverter or PFC. Preliminary analysis
revealed versatile unit, which can be used to build
multipurpose modular power converter. It is half-bridge,
consisted of two serial connected transistors in parallel with
two serial connected capacitors (Figure 1. ). Implementing
certain converter schematic power modules transistors can
work as diodes or thyristors, by realizing special driving
algorithm. As well as in some cases the transistor or
capacitor can be excleded from the circuit by replacing with
0 Ohm shunt.
This concept has been realized in [2], to build modular
converter, which is based on transistor IXSN35N120D1
(35A, 1200V, integrated diode and SOT227 package
(because of the water cooling system)) and
PEH200YK4100MU2 capacitor (1mF, 450V). The custom
design inductor of 2.2mH, consist of iron powder core (30
material) with 160 windings, which resistance is 0.13Ohms
(Figure 1. ). The working frequency for power module has
been chosen as a compromise between the amount of
switching loses and quality of modulation 20 kHz. The
power module also contains necessary elements for voltage
and current measurement.
The modules can be controlled via an adaptor from
MSP430 training kit or ezDSP kit (with TIs TMS320 DSP)
or dSpace CP1103 module. The last mentioned control
solution is more preferable because of its excellent
compatibility with Matlab-Simulink models.

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B. Full-Bridge PFC topology

The full-bridge PFC is a versatile converter, because of
its ability to work both in rectifier mode and in inverter
mode. Additionally this converter can be used to
compensate reactive power, due to fully controllable
switches [1]. In experiments this PFC topology were
realized with two parallel power modules by switching
pairs of transistors VS11VS22 and VS21VS12 (Figure 4.
).
VS11

VS21

VS12

VS22

Figure 1. Power board of versatile modular converter

IV.

CONFIGURATION OF THE POWER MODULES

Boost PFC topology

The simplest PFC topology consists of a diode rectifier
and a common boost DC/DC converter with PFC control
applied to the switch (Figure 2. ) [3][4]. Due to the
simplicity of the scheme it is widely used, however, it is not
efficient, because of the three semiconductor elements in
the current path. It has been implemented with one power
module where the upper transistor was always off, but the
lower capacitor is excluded from the scheme. The diode
bridge and the coil were connected externally through
FL1 and terminals.

Figure 4. Full bridge PFC converter

Controlled with different algorithms, this circuitry can

be recognized as bridgeless and bridgeless totem-pole PFC
topologies.
C. Bridgeless PFC topology
This PFC converter is realized in the full-bridge
configuration with lower transistors (VS12 and VS22)
driven, while VS11 and VS21 are represented only with
their diodes (Figure 4. ). While the transistors are switched
on, the inductors current rises, flowing only through the
transistors. When the transistors are off this current
commutates through the load. This is another PFC topology
of boost-family converters [3].

Figure 2. Boost PFC converter

A. Interleaved PFC topology

The configuration of this PFC is similar to the
previously described, but completed with additional boost
branch (Figure 3. ). Modulation periods of these two
branches are shifted by the half of its value. This makes
input current pulsation smaller that has positive influence of
the consummated current form.

D. Bridgeless totem PFC topology

Bridgeless totem topology is built on two power
modules, where only the transistors of the first module are
driven (VS11, VS12), while the second power module
(VS21, VS22) provides only diodes (Figure 4. ). Each
transistor is used to regulate current in certain half period
(lower in positive period, upper - in negative). It can be
seen that the two last topologies have smaller number of
controllable switches [3].
E. Half-bridge PFC topology
This PFC topology is native for proposed modular
converter and can be realized in single module (Figure 5. ).
The most significant advantage of this topology is that the
current is flowing through only one semiconductor element,
what makes it theoretically more efficient in compare with
other topologies. This is also versatile converter, which
allows bidirectional power flow, as well as compensation of
reactive power, by using only two controllable elements.
Disadvantage of this topology could be mentioned only
doubled DC link voltage in compare with other topologies,
what could cause additional safety requirements [3].

Figure 3. Boost interleaved PFC converter

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INTERNATIONAL SCHOOL ON NONSINUSOIDAL CURRENTS AND COMPENSATION

JUNE 15-18, 2010, AGW, POLAND

Bridgeless
Bridgeless
totem
Full-bridge
Interleaved

96.3

96.6

93.5

3.7

4.66

96.3
95.4
96.4

32

96.6

96

3.6

4.6

34

96.4
96.7

94.6
94.5

4.4
3

6.3
3.6

33.8
37

Advantages and disadvantages of the described and

simulated circuits are presented in TABLE II.
TABLE II.

COMPARISON OF ACTIVE PFC CONVERTERS

Converter
topology
Figure 5. Half-bridge PFC converter

V.

One transistor
Easy to control

low efficiency
Cant work in
inverter mode

Interleaved

Higher efficiency than to boost

converter
Smaller input current pulsations

2 transistors
More
complex
control then in
boost

Halfbridge

Smallest number of
semiconductors
Current flows through 1 switch
only
Can operate in inverter mode
Can compensate reactive power

High DC-link
voltage
2 DC-link
capacitors

Bridgeless
rectifier

Current flow through 2

semiconductors
Easy to control
One driver for both transistors

Bridgeless
totem

Current flow through 2

semiconductor

Cannot
operate in
inverter mode

Full-bridge

Current flows through 2

semiconductors
Can operate in inverter mode
Can compensate reactive power

4 transistors

Figure 6. Matlab simulink model of Modular converter

Depending on the simulated PFC circuit the model of its

power board consists of one or more half-bridges, 1 or 2
DC-link capacitors, input inductor, AC voltage source and
resistive load.
The measurement boards consist of imitations of
isolation amplifier HCPL-7400 and imitations of Hall
sensor LEM LTS-15. These elements ensure the same
voltage levels as the real feedbacks integrated into modular
converter. Beside that the delays of measurement circuits
can be also taken into account in the models.
The control board represents the control core composed
of Matlab-Simulink blocks. During the experiments it is
converted into the executable program for dSpace CP1103
module.
VI.

SIMULATION RESULTS

All the above mentioned circuits were simulated with

various values of the output power: 10%, 25%, 50%, 75%
and 100% of the rated power (4700W). The results of
simulation (TABLE I. ) show that all the discussed PFC
topologies ensure sinusoidal current and are of comparable
efficiency.
TABLE I.

Converter
topology
Boost
conv.
Halfbridge

MODELED EFFICIENCY OF ACTIVE PFC CONVERTERS (AT

100% , 75%AND10% OF RATED POWER)
Efficiency (%)

THD (%)

100%

75%

10%

100%

75%

10%

95.8

96.2

96.1

3.9

4.7

32

96

96.8

93.5

4.3

6.2

40

Disadvantages

Boost

SIMULATION OF PFC CONVERTERS

The simulation of PFC topologies was implemented in

Matlab-Simulink. The model of Matlab consists of three
submodels: power, measurement and control (Figure 6. ).
The first two submodels have real life analogs, which are
used during experiments.

Advantages

Cannot

operate in
inverter mode

VII. EXPERIMENTAL RESULTS

All the described PFC converters were experimentally
tested only at 75% of rated power. Higher loads were not
measured because of the precautions (some elements and
bus bars of the power module were relatively hot at 75% of
nominal load). The results are shown in 0 The experiments
were provided with standard electrical grid (223V) on the
input and with purely active load (laboratory rheostats)
attached to DC-link (DC-link voltage - 375V or in case of
half-bridge - 750V).
TABLE III. EFFICIENCY OF ACTIVE PFC CONVERTERS (75% POWER)
Converter topology
Boost conv.
Half-bridge
Bridgeless
Bridgeless totem
Full-bridge
Interleaved

Efficiency (%)
92.6
90.2
93.8
92
91.4
91.9

THD (%)
2.2
3.8
3.7
3.7
13
10

Experiments with described above full-bridge and

interleaved PFC converter topologies showed that they have
very high common-mode noise and they have to be
improved by additional elements, what should be
implemented in the nearest future.

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Experiments with interleaved boost converter show that

it has smaller current pulsations on its input than has boost
converter. However, an undiscovered problem leads to
significant distortions appearing at the amplitude value of
the current and reduces the overall THD significantly
(THD=10%).
VIII. CONCLUSIONS
The common power grid has large amount of losses due
to centralized generation of electricity. This is a significant
reason for their modernization. The MicroGrid concept is
shortly described. Attention is focused on distributed power
generation, introduction of energy storage systems, as well
as on the integration of modern communication and
information technologies into power grids, for real time
messaging, intelligent utilization and bidirectional energy
flow. The benefits of DC grids are founded. Elements of
DC grids are discussed and the most important part (PFC
rectifier) is especially and carefully analyzed. Several
topologies of PFC converters are shortly described,
simulated and tested experimentally.
The theoretical calculations for the mentioned PFC units
gives 3-5% different efficiency than the measured one,
probably, due to non-ideal Matlab model, where some loses
are not taken into account. For example, the reversal
magnetization loses are significant (during experiments the
inductors core was warmed up till about 100). This
matter should be improved before the next test.
The THD data are quite identical comparing simulated
and practical data, however in real life model full-bridge

and interleaved PFC topologies have significantly higher

distortion level due to common-mode noise. In this case
additional analysis and experiments are needed to improve
both Matlab control and element base of modular converter.
The conducted experiments lead to overall conclusion
that the preference can be given to the boost bridge
topology due to its simple construction and control
providing at the same time high enough efficiency and
rather small THD.
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[2]

[3]

[4]
[5]

[6]

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modular power converter, 50th International Scientific Conference,
Riga, Latvia, October 11-13, 2009
A. Pandey, D. P. Kothari, A. K. Mukerjee, B. Singh, Modelling
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