Selecting Texts for Students

IN YEARS 4 TO 8

One of the most important tasks for you as a teacher is selecting appropriate texts to use with
your students.

Teachers need to choose tasks and texts that will reflect their students lived
experiences and support their development of literacy as they develop the
knowledge and understandings required in the various areas of the New Zealand
Curriculum.
The New Zealand Curriculum Reading and Writing Standards, page 7
When selecting texts for learning across the curriculum, a key consideration is their relative difficulty for
your students. Many series, such as the instructional series1 provided by the Ministry of Education, are
accompanied by information on reading year levels. However, when you are selecting texts from a wide
range of sources, many of the texts will not come with this information.
These guidelines have been designed to help you with such texts. They support you to:


estimate the relative difficulty of texts in English for your students

identify the characteristics of the texts that will support or challenge your students

consider specific approaches and deliberate acts of teaching to address the challenges identified
in the texts.

The framework included in these guidelines is an easy-to-use tool

that will help you to quickly estimate the reading year levels of texts
from a wide variety of sources, for example:


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magazines

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DUHPRVWOLNHO\WRDIIHFWWKHGLIFXOW\RIWH[WV7KHVHDUHH[SODLQHGLQ
Appendix One.
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2QOLQH6WXGHQWQHHGV3ODQQLQJIRUOHDUQLQJ

The guidelines and their

accompanying framework
are based on the levelling
process used for the year
48 instructional series
produced by Learning
Media for the Ministry of
Education. The process
is described in detail in
Curriculum Update 13 (see
page 16). More information
about text levelling can be
found in Appendix Two.

MATCHING TEXTS TO READERS

This framework cannot take account of individual readers needs and abilities. Characteristics of a text
that provide support for some readers may be challenging for others.

Terms like hard or easy are always relative ... A book is easy or difficult only
in terms of a particular reader or even a group of readers.
Fountas and Pinnell, 2006, page 2

The instructional series include Ready to Read, Junior Journal, School Journal, Connected, School Journal Story Library,
and the electronic storybooks. Reading year levels are listed in their inside front covers and in the teacher support
materials, which also include text characteristics. See Curriculum Update 3 (see page 16) for further information on
these series.

SELECTING TEXTS FOR STUDENTS IN YEARS 4 TO 8

In order to select and use appropriate texts for your students, you will need to draw on your detailed
understanding of your students individual learning needs, skills, interests, and knowledge both of texts and
of the world. You will also take account of each students identity, language, and culture.
The texts you select for your students will be used for a wide range of purposes for example, to
access information and ideas related to a particular curriculum area or to foster students critical literacy.
Occasionally, you might deliberately choose a text that you know will challenge some students, in which
case you will need to plan plenty of extra support, such as a shared reading approach followed by repeated
readings of the text.

USING THE FRAMEWORK

The framework on page 3 provides both a process for estimating the difficulty of a particular text and a
record of the supports and challenges it presents for your students. This will enable you to plan strategies
for building on the supports and addressing the challenges while drawing on your students prior knowledge
and skills.
The examples on pages 410 show the framework applied to three texts: a newspaper article, an extract
from a chapter book, and an extract from the Internet.

1.

Identifying the context for using the text




2.

At the top of the framework, write the title and author and, if appropriate, the source of the text.
Texts can often be used to support learning in several curriculum areas or at more than one
curriculum level. You will have already skimmed the text to assess its suitability for the topic that
your class is working on. In the space provided, identify the curriculum area in which you intend to
use the text with your students and the curriculum level they are working at.

Considering the factors (sets of characteristics) affecting text difficulty




3.

In the box beside each set of characteristics, write your estimate of the reading year level that is a
best fit for those characteristics.
You may wish to make brief notes about particular text characteristics that may be either supportive or
challenging for your students. This will help you to decide how best to use the text with your students.

Estimating the difficulty of the text




4.

Taking all your estimated levels and notes on particular characteristics into account, make a
decision on the most appropriate overall reading year level for the text.
At times, this will be an average of your estimated reading year levels for the different sets of
characteristics. At other times, you may decide to weight some characteristics more heavily than
others. Use your knowledge of your students to decide the relative importance of the supports and
challenges that you have identified in the text.

Deciding how to use the text




Sometimes your estimate of the difficulty of a text may place it either well above or below the
reading year level of the students you intend to use it with.
If the text is very challenging, you will need to plan a high level of support for your students (for
example, using a shared reading approach and modelling ways to address particular challenges
such as technical vocabulary or complex sentence structures).
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reading year level of a text. When literacy leaders and teachers work through
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factors and text characteristics that may support or challenge their students.

FRAMEWORK FOR ESTIMATING TEXT DIFFICULTY

Title and source:
Author:

Curriculum level and area:

Factors affecting text difficulty

Reading
year level

Notes

Age appropriateness
Consider:
 age of the main character(s)
 prior knowledge assumed by the text
 maturity required to deal with the themes
 familiarity of contexts, settings, and
subject matter
 likely interests and experiences of readers.

Complexity of ideas
Consider:
 implied information or ideas (requiring
readers to infer)
 irony or ambiguity
 abstract ideas
 metaphors and other figurative or
connotative language
 technical information
 support from illustrations, diagrams,
graphs, and so on.

Structure and coherence of the text

Consider:
 flashbacks or time shifts
 narrative point of view
 mixed text types
 connections across the text
 examples and explanations
 competing information
 length of paragraphs
 unattributed dialogue
 use of headings and subheadings.

Syntactic structure of the text

Consider:
 sentence length
 the balance of simple, compound, complex,
or incomplete sentences
 use of passive voice or nominalisation
 repetition of words or phrases
 changes in verb tense.

Vocabulary difficulty
Consider:
 unfamiliar vocabulary
 technical and academic terms, nonEnglish words, and proper nouns
 sentence-level and/or visual support
 contextual clues
 the use of a glossary or footnotes.

Length of the text

Estimated reading
year level:

Notes:

Available at http://literacyonline.tki.org.nz/Literacy-Online/Student-needs/Planning-for-learning

EXAMPLE 1

ESTIMATED READING YEAR LEVEL 5: NEWSPAPER ARTICLE

Title and source: +RSHWKDWSLORWZKDOHVZLOOUHRDWDWKLJKWLGH (The Dominion Post, 24 January 2012)

Author:

Curriculum level and area: Level 3, English and Science

Factors affecting text difficulty

Reading
year level

Notes

Age appropriateness

Some upsetting details

Consider:
 age of the main character(s)
 prior knowledge assumed by the text
 maturity required to deal with the themes

 familiarity of contexts, settings, and

subject matter

Whales a high interest topic

 likely interests and experiences of readers.

Complexity of ideas

Ideas that people want to help even when there is

little chance of success; that whale strandings are
common, and many whales die

Consider:
 implied information or ideas (requiring
readers to infer)
 irony or ambiguity
 abstract ideas
 metaphors and other figurative or
connotative language

Prior knowledge of whale strandings will help

(eg SJ Level 3 September 2011)

Need to infer why volunteers have to leave

DEVWUDFWFRQFHSWRIVDIHW\UHDVRQV
Unresolved outcome could research online

 technical information
 support from illustrations, diagrams,
graphs, and so on.

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Structure and coherence of the text

Newspaper report includes different points

of view

Consider:
 flashbacks or time shifts
 narrative point of view
 mixed text types
 connections across the text
 examples and explanations

 competing information

Mix of reported and direct speech

 unattributed dialogue
 use of headings and subheadings.

Some long and complex sentences (including sixth

one)

Syntactic structure of the text

Consider:
 sentence length

 use of passive voice or nominalisation

Connections between paragraphs not always obvious

Reference to earlier strandings in same area

 length of paragraphs

 the balance of simple, compound, complex,

or incomplete sentences

Not in chronological sequence

Some passive constructions: medics were also

FDOOHGeZKDOHVEHFDPHVWUDQGHG

 changes in verb tense.

Typical headline format, with words omitted (Hope

WKDWe

Vocabulary difficulty

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 repetition of words or phrases

Consider:
 unfamiliar vocabulary
 technical and academic terms, nonEnglish words, and proper nouns
 sentence-level and/or visual support

Some colloquialisms (challenging for ELL

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 contextual clues
 the use of a glossary or footnotes.

Length of the text

Estimated reading
year level:

Some vocabulary may be unfamiliar: volunteer;

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coincidence

Notes: Although

some details may be upsetting, the text is a typical news

report, with few major vocab challenges. Year 5 students may need
some support with the typical features of a news report (eg, passive
constructions).
4

EXAMPLE 1

ESTIMATED READING YEAR LEVEL 5: NEWSPAPER ARTICLE

Source: The Dominion Post, 24 January, 2012

EXAMPLE 2

ESTIMATED READING YEAR LEVEL 4: EXTRACT FROM A CHAPTER BOOK

Title and source: Strange Creatures: Chapter One: Out of Control (from Skyrider Chapter Books, 1999)
Author: Pauline Cartwright
Factors affecting text difficulty

Curriculum level and area: Level 2, English

Reading
year level

Notes

Students familiar with sci-fi space fiction

Age appropriateness
Consider:

High interest

 age of the main character(s)

 prior knowledge assumed by the text
 maturity required to deal with the themes

4-5

 familiarity of contexts, settings, and

subject matter

Alien setting and characters idea of exploration of unknown

worlds; crash landing
Knowledge of meteor showers

Technical knowledge (loaded a scanner)

 likely interests and experiences of readers.

Complexity of ideas
Consider:

Implied ideas: Astra is the support ship; Zimm and Tarek are
from different planets; both are missing home

 implied information or ideas (requiring

readers to infer)
 irony or ambiguity
 abstract ideas
 metaphors and other figurative or
connotative language

Simple abstract ideas: keep in touch; trouble; excited; something

unusual; gone crazy; lost contact
Illustrations help visualise characters and spaceship

 technical information
 support from illustrations, diagrams,
graphs, and so on.

Structure and coherence of the text

Introduction a sequel to earlier book (but can stand on its own)

Consider:
 flashbacks or time shifts

Connections with earlier text (Remember the trouble )

 narrative point of view

 mixed text types
 connections across the text
 examples and explanations

Unresolved chapter ending

3rd-person point of view
Dialogue all attributed

 competing information
 length of paragraphs

Short paragraphs

 unattributed dialogue
 use of headings and subheadings.

Syntactic structure of the text

Consider:
 sentence length
 the balance of simple, compound, complex,
or incomplete sentences

 use of passive voice or nominalisation

A few complex sentences. Mostly simple

Consistent past tense apart from dialogue

 repetition of words or phrases

 changes in verb tense.

Vocabulary difficulty
Consider:
 unfamiliar vocabulary
 technical and academic terms, nonEnglish words, and proper nouns

 sentence-level and/or visual support

 contextual clues

Very few unfamiliar words: sensors; meteor; shuttle; starship;

scanner
Illustrations give clues (eg meteors)

 the use of a glossary or footnotes.

Length of the text

Estimated reading
year level:

Great for ELL students no significant vocab or structural challenges; sci-fi/space

fiction may be unfamiliar, but peer reading can support this.
Notes:

EXAMPLE 2

ESTIMATED READING YEAR LEVEL 4: EXTRACT FROM A CHAPTER BOOK

EXAMPLE 2

ESTIMATED READING YEAR LEVEL 4: EXTRACT FROM A CHAPTER BOOK

EXAMPLE 3

ESTIMATED READING YEAR LEVEL 8: EXTRACT FROM THE INTERNET

Title and source: Logging Native Forests: Conflicting Views (from Te Ara The Encyclopedia of NZ)
Author: Nancy Swarbrick
Factors affecting text difficulty

Curriculum level and area: !Level 4, Social Studies

Reading
year level

Assumes some familiarity with conservation issues, conflict

and protest, political background

Age appropriateness
Consider:
 age of the main character(s)
 prior knowledge assumed by the text
 maturity required to deal with the themes

 familiarity of contexts, settings, and

subject matter

Complexity of ideas

Many complex abstract ideas (selective logging; social and

economic interests)

Consider:
 implied information or ideas (requiring
readers to infer)
 abstract ideas
 metaphors and other figurative or
connotative language

ELLs students may not be familiar with NZ political

background
Maturity needed to deal with opposing viewpoints
(conservationists/commercial interests)

 likely interests and experiences of readers.

 irony or ambiguity

Notes

89

Connotative/metaphorical language (Public opposition to

logging swelled, communities faded away)
Lots of historical and political information

 technical information

Support from photos and videos (online version)

 support from illustrations, diagrams,

graphs, and so on.

Structure and coherence of the text

Consider:

Subheadings make structure clear

 flashbacks or time shifts

Chronological structure helps reader make meaning

 narrative point of view

 mixed text types
 connections across the text
 examples and explanations

Features of a report topic sentences followed by examples

Mostly short paragraphs

 competing information
 length of paragraphs

Connected ideas e.g., about protest and conflict

 unattributed dialogue
 use of headings and subheadings.

Syntactic structure of the text

Consider:
 sentence length
 the balance of simple, compound, complex,
or incomplete sentences

89

Some long and complicated sentences, including complex and

compound sentences
Frequent use of passive voice

 use of passive voice or nominalisation

 repetition of words or phrases
 changes in verb tense.

Vocabulary difficulty
Consider:

Many proper names may be unfamiliar to ELLs

 unfamiliar vocabulary
 technical and academic terms, nonEnglish words, and proper nouns

89

Many terms used in a specialised way, e.g., privatised, scenic

and recreational value, confrontations, deregulation

78

A short text for this level, but a lot compressed into it

 sentence-level and/or visual support

 contextual clues
 the use of a glossary or footnotes.

Length of the text

Estimated reading
year level:

Because of the many unfamiliar words, some long and complicated sentences, and
the large amount of detail compressed into a short text, this will be challenging for most of
my yr 78 students. Best used with a shared reading approach and modelling of appropriate
strategies.
Notes:

EXAMPLE 3

ESTIMATED READING YEAR LEVEL 8: EXTRACT FROM THE INTERNET

Source: Te Ara, www.teara.govt.nz/

en/logging-native-forests/6,
updated 2 March 2009
Licensed by Manat Taonga
for re-use under the Creative
Commons AttributionNonCommercial 3.0 New
Zealand licence
10

SELECTING TEXTS FOR STUDENTS IN YEARS 4 TO 8

APPENDIX ONE: FACTORS AFFECTING THE DIFFICULTY OF TEXTS

The following factors need to be taken into account when determining the difficulty of a text:








curriculum level
age appropriateness
complexity of ideas
structure and coherence of the text
syntactic structure of the text
vocabulary difficulty
length of the text.

These factors are linked to the descriptions of the key characteristics of texts described in the National
Standards for reading. These descriptions show how the texts at each successive level become more
complex in terms of content and theme, structure and coherence, and language. The descriptions have
been carefully developed to guide teachers decisions as they select appropriate texts, not just for reading
instruction but for all curriculum tasks. (The New Zealand Curriculum Reading and Writing Standards, page 12)
The factors are often interrelated, and it is generally the balance of the supports and challenges they
present as a whole that determines the reading year level.

Curriculum level
The content of a text may be appropriate for the level of the New Zealand Curriculum that your students are
working at, but its language, structure, and complexity may give it a higher level of difficulty. In this case, you
may still decide to use the text, but you will need to plan a greater level of support for your students.

Age appropriateness
You will need to decide whether the content of the text is suitable for the age of your students. You could take
account of factors such as:






age of the main character(s)

prior knowledge assumed by the text
maturity required to deal with the themes of the text
familiarity of contexts, settings, and subject matter
likely interests and experiences of your students.

(continued overleaf)

11

SELECTING TEXTS FOR STUDENTS IN YEARS 4 TO 8

Complexity of ideas
This includes factors such as:







implied information or ideas (requiring readers to infer)

irony or ambiguity
abstract ideas
metaphors and other figurative or connotative language
technical information
support from illustrations, diagrams, graphs, and so on.

Assessing text difficulty in relation to this set of factors must take account of the following key characteristics
of texts identified in the National Standards.

Year 4

Years 56

Years 78

some abstract ideas that are

clearly supported by concrete
examples in the text or easily
linked to the students prior
knowledge

abstract ideas, in greater

numbers than in texts at
earlier levels, accompanied by
concrete examples in the text
that help support the students
understanding

some places where information

and ideas are implicit and
where students need to make
inferences based on information
that is easy to find because
it is nearby in the text and
there is little or no competing
information

some ideas and information

that are conveyed indirectly
and require students to infer
by drawing on several related
pieces of information in the text

elements that require

interpretation, such as complex
plots, sophisticated themes, and
abstract ideas

figurative language, such

as metaphors, similes, or
personification

figurative and/or ambiguous

language that the context helps
students to understand

metaphor, analogy, and

connotative language that is
open to interpretation

visual language features

that support the ideas and
information, for example, text
boxes or maps

illustrations, photographs, text

boxes, diagrams, maps, charts,
and graphs that clarify or extend
the text and may require some
interpretation

illustrations, photographs, text

boxes, diagrams, maps, charts,
and graphs, containing main
ideas that relate to the texts
content

12

SELECTING TEXTS FOR STUDENTS IN YEARS 4 TO 8

The structure and coherence of the text

This includes factors such as:










flashbacks or time shifts

narrative point of view
mixed text types
connections across the text
examples and explanations
competing information
length of paragraphs
unattributed dialogue
use of headings and subheadings.

Assessing text difficulty in relation to this set of factors must take account of the following key characteristics
of texts identified in the reading standards.

Year 4

a straightforward text structure,

such as a structure that follows a
recognisable and clear text form

Years 56

Years 78

some information that

is irrelevant to the
identified purpose for
reading (that is, some
competing information),
which students need to
identify and reject as
they integrate pieces of
information in order to
answer questions

complex layers
of meaning, and/
or information that
is irrelevant to the
identified purpose
for reading (that is,
competing information),
requiring students to
infer meanings or make
judgments

mixed text types (for

example, a complex
explanation may be
included as part of a
report)

non-continuous text
structures and mixed text
types

13

SELECTING TEXTS FOR STUDENTS IN YEARS 4 TO 8

Syntactic structure of the text

This includes factors such as:









sentence length
the balance of simple, compound, or complex sentences
incomplete sentences
nominalisation (the use of a noun where a verb or adjective would be simpler and more direct, for
example, Her investigation of the project was finished versus She had finished investigating the
project)
use of the passive voice
repetition of words or phrases
changes in verb tense.

Assessing text difficulty in relation to this set of factors must take account of the following key characteristics
of texts identified in the reading standards.

Year 4
some compound and complex
sentences, which may consist of two
or three clauses

Years 56
sentences that vary in
length and in structure
(for example, sentences
that begin in different
ways and different kinds
of complex sentences
with a number of
subordinate clauses)

Years 78
!entences that vary in
length, including long,
complex sentences
that contain a lot of
information
adverbial clauses or
connectives that require
students to make links
across the whole text

14

SELECTING TEXTS FOR STUDENTS IN YEARS 4 TO 8

Vocabulary difficulty
This includes factors such as:







unfamiliar vocabulary
technical and academic terms
non-English words
proper nouns
the extent to which photographs, illustrations, graphs, maps, diagrams, and other visual features will
help to clarify challenging vocabulary
the extent to which contextual clues and information at sentence level and the use of a glossary or
footnotes will help to clarify challenging vocabulary.

Assessing text difficulty in relation to this set of factors must take account of the following key characteristics
of texts identified in the reading standards.

Year 4
some words and phrases that are
ambiguous or unfamiliar to the
students, the meaning of which is
supported by the context or clarified
by photographs, illustrations,
diagrams, and/or written
explanations

Years 56
a significant amount
of vocabulary that
is unfamiliar to the
students (including
academic and contentspecific words and
phrases), which is
generally explained in
the text by words or
illustrations

Years 78
words and phrases with
multiple meanings that
require students to
know and use effective
word-solving strategies
to retain their focus on
meaning
academic and contentspecific vocabulary

Length of the text

Longer texts are usually associated with greater difficulty.

Particularly for students who do not read fluently, length alone can be a formidable
obstacle.
Grobe, 1970, quoted in Graves, 2003, page 7
However, longer texts may sometimes include more illustrations and examples. These may help to
explain and clarify the information, thus making the text easier to understand.

Published 2012 for the Ministry of Education by Learning Media Limited. Copyright Crown 2012 except for pages 5
(copyright Fairfax Media NZ 2012), 78 (copyright Pauline Cartwright (text) and Lorenzo van der Lingen (images)
1998), and 10 (copyright Crown 2009). All rights reserved. Enquiries should be made to the publisher.
ISBN 978 0 7903 4030 2
Item number 34030

15

SELECTING TEXTS FOR STUDENTS IN YEARS 4 TO 8

APPENDIX TWO: TEXT LEVELLING

How are texts levelled?
The huge range of different methods used for levelling texts can be
very confusing. Its important to remember that no levelling system can
provide an absolute measure of the difficulty of a text. And any system of
levelling needs to be used in conjunction with a teachers own professional
judgment, based on a sound knowledge of his or her students needs and
abilities.
There are two main methods for determining the difficulty of texts:
those that rely on a readability formula and those that use a text
levelling system.

Readability formulae
These are often computerised. They can be divided into counting
formulae (which count characteristics such as word and sentence length)
and counting and comparing formulae (which count characteristics in
conjunction with calculating the familiarity of words in the text).
Readability formulae are generally consistent and accurate, in that
any person or computer applying the formula will get the same score.
However, a readability measure alone can give flawed information because
it does not, for example, take account of a texts theme, concepts, and
ideas, which may be suited to an older or more sophisticated audience.

Text levelling systems

Unlike readability formulae, text levelling systems involve subjective
judgments based on qualitative criteria. They can take into account a large
number of factors affecting the difficulty of a text.
Text levelling systems depend on human judges making decisions.
As such, variability between judges can affect the reliability of levelling
decisions. To help judges make more reliable decisions, levelling systems
can be supported by detailed descriptions of each level and exemplar texts
(sometimes called benchmark texts). Also, several people will often make
judgments together.

Combined levelling systems

To increase its reliability, a text levelling system can include a readability
formula as part of the evaluative process. This is the case with the
levelling system used in the year 48 instructional series published by
Learning Media for the Ministry of Education. These texts are levelled by
a process involving the Dale Chall readability formula (which measures
both vocabulary difficulty and the length of sentences) and a levelling
framework that takes into account a number of other factors affecting the
difficulty of a text. These factors are explained in detail in Appendix One.

References and useful reading

Fountas, I. C. and Pinnell,
G. S. (2006). Levelled Books K8,
Matching Texts to Readers for
Effective Teaching. Portsmouth,
NH: Heinemann.
Glasswell, K. and Ford, M.
(2011). Lets Start Leveling
about Leveling. Language Arts,
vol. 88. no. 3, January 2011.
Graves, M. F. and Graves,
B. B. (2003). Scaffolding Reading
Experiences: Designs for Student
Success, 2nd ed. Norwood, MA:
Christopher-Gordon.
Ministry of Education (2006).
Effective Literacy Practice in
Years 5 to 8. Wellington: Learning
Media. (See especially page 138.)
Ministry of Education (2010).
Teaching and Learning with the
Instructional Series. The New
Zealand Curriculum Update, no. 3.
Available at www.nzcurriculum.
tki.org.nz/curriculum_updates
Ministry of Education (2011).
Levelling the School Journal.
The New Zealand Curriculum
Update, no. 13. Available at
www.nzcurriculum.tki.org.nz/
curriculum_updates
Ministry of Education (2012).
Selecting Texts for Students
in Years 48. The New Zealand
Curriculum Update, no. 19.
Available at www.nzcurriculum.
tki.org.nz/curriculum_updates
School Journal Teacher Support
Materials: www.schooljournal.
tki.org.nz

Detailed information about the levelling process used for the

instructional series can be found in Curriculum Update 13 (see
right- hand column).

16