Manual of Aggregate and Concrete Testing1

INTRODUCTION

This manual is intended to supplement, not in any way to supersede, the various ASTM test methods
for sampling and testing aggregate and freshly mixed and hardened portland-cement concrete. The
manual was prepared by Committee C-9 on Concrete and Concrete Aggregates and has been accepted
by the Society for publication as information only. The manual is not a part of the ASTM methods.
Comments and suggestions on the manual will be welcomed by Committee C-9.
Many specifications for aggregates and concrete are based on the results of ASTM methods of
testing and therefore strict adherence to the requirements of the test methods is important. Improper
use of test procedures can result in inaccurate data and mistaken conclusions about aggregate and
concrete quality. Accordingly, this manual directs attention to many of the factors that might affect the
results of the tests.
This manual does not purport to address all of the safety concerns, if any, associated with its use.
It is the responsibility of the user of these standards to establish appropriate safety and health
practices and determine the applicability of regulatory limitations prior to use.
The subjects covered in the manual appear in the following order:
Availability of Standards
Qualification of Personnel and Laboratory Evaluation
Samples
Terminology
Testing Apparatus
Safety Precautions
Inspection of Laboratory
Unit Weight and Voids in Aggregate (C 29/C 29M)
Making and Curing Concrete Test Specimens in the Field
(C 31)
Compressive Strength of Cylindrical Concrete Specimens
(C 39)
Obtaining and Testing Drilled Cores and Sawed Beams of Concrete
(C 42)
Surface Moisture in Fine Aggregate (C 70)
Flexural Strength of Concrete (Using Simple Beam with
Third-Point Loading (C 78)
Compressive Strength of Concrete Using Portions of Beams
Broken in Flexure (C 116)
Materials Finer than 75 m (No. 200) Sieve in Mineral
Aggregates by Washing (C 117)
Specific Gravity and Absorption of Coarse Aggregate (C 127)
Specific Gravity and Absorption of Fine Aggregate (C 128)
Sieve Analysis of Fine and Coarse Aggregates (C 136)
Unit Weight, Yield, and Air Content (Gravimetric) of Concrete (C 138)
Slump of Hydraulic Cement Concrete (C 143)
Length Change of Hardened Hydraulic-Cement Mortar and
Concrete (C 157)
Sampling Freshly Mixed Concrete (C 172)
Air Content of Freshly Mixed Concrete by the Volumetric
Method (C 173)
Making and Curing Concrete Test Specimens in the Laboratory (C 192)
Fundamental Transverse, Longitudinal, and Torsional Frequencies of Concrete Specimens (C 215)
Air Content of Freshly Mixed Concrete by the Pressure
Method (C 231)
Bleeding of Concrete (C 232)
Flexural Strength of Concrete (Using Simple Beam with
Center-Point Loading) (C 293)
Ball Penetration in Fresh Portland Cement Concrete (C 360)

Sections
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
23
24
25
26
27
28
29

Manual of Aggregate and Concrete Testing

Time of Setting of Concrete Mixtures by Penetration Resistance (C 403)
Molds for Forming Concrete Test Cylinders Vertically (C 470)
Splitting Tensile Strength of Cylindrical Concrete Specimens
(C 496)
Moist Cabinets, Moist Rooms, and Water Storage Tanks Used
in the Testing of Hydraulic Cements and Concretes (C 511)
Total Evaporable Moisture Content of Aggregate by Drying
(C 566)
Capping Cylindrical Concrete Specimens (C 617)
Resistance of Concrete to Rapid Freezing and Thawing (C 666)
Making, Accelerated Curing, and Testing Concrete Compression Test Specimens (C 684)
Reducing Samples of Aggregate to Testing Size (C 702)
Measuring Early Age Compressive Strength and Projecting
Later Age Strength (C 918)
Use of Unbonded Caps in Determination of Compressive
Strength of Hardened Concrete Cylinders (C 1231)
Sampling Aggregates (D 75)
Force Verification of Testing Machines (E 4)

30
31
32
33
34
35
36
37
38
39
40
41
42

Testing and Inspection Agencies as Used in Construction,2 and

Practice C 1077, for Testing Concrete and Concrete Aggregate
for Use in Construction and Criteria for Laboratory Evaluation,2 identify and define the duties, responsibilities and requirements for personnel and equipment used in the testing and
inspection of concrete and related materials.
2.2 The Cement and Concrete Reference Laboratory
(CCRL),3 under the sponsorship of ASTM Committees C-1
and C-9, and administered by ASTM and National Institute of
Standards and Technology (NIST), formerly the National
Bureau of Standards, has a laboratory inspection service (for
details of this service see Section 7) for concrete and concrete
aggregates. CCRL also has a proficiency sample program for
concrete, cement and pozzolans. Identical samples of material
are issued to participating laboratories who test the material
and report the results to CCRL. These results are statistically
analyzed and a final report issued to the participating laboratories including a rating of their results as compared to all other
laboratories returning data. A similar reference sample program
exists for aggregates. This program, conducted by an organization jointly administered by the Highway Subcommittee on
materials of the American Association of State Highway and
Transportation Officials (AASHTO) and NIST, is called the
AASHTO Materials Reference Laboratory (AMRL).4
2.3 A number of accreditation programs for concrete testing
laboratories exist. The AASHTO Accreditation Program
(AAP),5 which uses the CCRL concrete and concrete aggregate
inspection for the onsite review of equipment and personnel,
the National Voluntary Accreditation Program (NVLAP),6 the
Concrete Materials Engineering Council (CMEC),7 and American Association for Laboratory Accreditation (A2LA)8 all offer
accreditation for concrete and concrete aggregate testing laboratories.

1. AVAILABILITY OF STANDARDS
Copies of the current Annual Book of ASTM Standards, Vol
04.02Concrete and Mineral Aggregates, should be readily
available to all laboratory workers and inspectors in the field.
Vol 04.01Cement; Lime; Gypsum contains the Manual on
Cement Testing which includes valuable information on procedures and apparatus. New editions of ASTM standards
should be reviewed promptly for changes so that procedures
can be kept current.1
1.1 Construction specifications may refer to ASTM standards either with or without the year designation. If the year
designation is given, the standard bearing that designation
should be used. If the year designation is not given, normally
the standard in effect at the time the bidding documents are
issued is the one which is used unless the job specifications
state otherwise. Sometimes the job specifications might state
that the standard in effect at the time bids are received, or the
contract is awarded, or the current standard should be used. Job
specifications should be checked to determine that the correct
standard is used, should there be differences. Unfortunately,
sometimes job specifications refer to ASTM standards that are
obsolete and several years out of date. It is possible in some
such cases that the specification writer might wish to use an
older standard because of some provision it contains that does
not appear in later editions.
2. QUALIFICATION OF PERSONNEL AND
LABORATORY EVALUATION
There is increasing emphasis and a requirement in many
cases by building codes, political jurisdictions and job specifications that personnel, laboratories, and plants which test,
inspect, or produce materials or do construction work be
approved, registered, licensed, inspected, certified, or accredited in various ways.
2.1 ASTM Practice E 329, for Use in the Evaluation of

Annual Book of ASTM Standards, Vol 04.02.

CCRL, National Institute of Standards and Technology, Bldg 226, Rm A365,
Gaithersburg, MD 20899.
4
AMRL, National Institute of Standards and Technology, Bldg 226, Rm A365,
Gaithersburg, MD 20899.
5
AAP, 444 North Capitol Street, N.W. Suite 225, Washington, DC 20001.
6
NVLAP, National Institute of Standards and Technology, Bldg 101, Rm A531,
Gaithersburg, MD 20899.
7
CMEC, 649 Vassar Street, Orlando, FL 32804.
8
A2LA, 656 Quince Orchard Road, Gaithersburg, MD 20878.
3

1
This manual is under the jurisdiction of the ASTM Committee C-9 on Concrete
and Concrete Aggregates and is the direct responsibility of Subcommittee C09.97on
Manual of Concrete Testing.
Published as information, October 1965; revised 1967, 1969, 1977, 1978, 1983,
1987, 1989, 1991, 1992, 1994, 1996, 1998, 1999, and 2000.

Manual of Aggregate and Concrete Testing

unless or until excessive variation develops. Inspectors must
take samples in the manner, at the time, and from the location
specified in the sampling plan if conclusions based on the data
are to be of value. The purpose of statistical sampling is to
obtain results typical of the lot. Samples should not be biased
by procedures that intentionally select either the best or poorest
materials. Representative samples upon which the acceptance
or rejection of a material is based should be taken by the
purchasers authorized agent.
3.1 The fundamentals of probability sampling have been set
forth by ASTM Committee E-11. The coal and ore industries,
who have many problems similar to those found in the
aggregate field, have developed practical approaches that can
be adapted to the concrete field. The following references are
useful:
(1) ASTM Practice E 105, for Probability Sampling of
Materials15
(2) ASTM Practice E 122, for Choice of Sample Size to
Estimate the Average Quality of a Lot or Process16
(3) ASTM Practice E 141, for Acceptance of Evidence
Based on the Results of Probability Sampling16
(4) Bicking, C. A. Bibliography on Sampling of Raw
Materials and Products in Bulk, Technical Association of the
Pulp and Paper Industry, Vol 47, No. 5, May 1964
(5) Symposium on Bulk Sampling, ASTM STP 242, Am. Soc.
Testing Mats., ASTTA, 1958
(6) Symposium on Coal Sampling, ASTM STP 162, Am. Soc.
Testing Mats., ASTTA, March 1955
(7) Symposium on Bulk Sampling, ASTM STP 114, Am. Soc.
Testing Mats., ASTTA, 1951
(8) Tanner, L., and Deming, E., Some Problems in the
Sampling of Bulk Material, Proceedings, Am. Soc. Testing
Mats., ASTEA, Vol 49, 1949, pp. 11811188
(9) Symposium on Usefulness and Limitations of Samples,
Proceedings, Am. Soc. Testing Mats., ASTEA, Vol 48, 1948,
pp. 857895
(10) Shook, J. F., Significance of Test Results Obtained
from Random Samples, ASTM STP 362, 1964, p. 13
(11) Duncan, A. J., An Introduction to Acceptance Sampling Plans, ASTM Standardization News, Vol 3, No. 9,
September 1975, p. 10
(12) Duncan, A. J., What Sampling Plan to Use, ASTM
Standardization News, Vol 3, No. 9, Sept., 1975, pp. 1519
(13) Hahn, G. J. and Schilling, E. G., An Introduction to the
MIL-STD-105D Acceptance Sampling Scheme, ASTM Standardization News, Vol 3, No. 9, Sept., 1975, pp. 2030
(14) Abdun-Nur, E. A., Significance of Tests and Properties
of Concrete and Concrete-Making Materials, ASTM STP
169B, pp. 523
Additional information is given in ASTM methods and
specifications, and in publications of the Federal Government,
Corps of Engineers, and Bureau of Reclamation.
3.2 Samples must be adequately identified and shipped in
clean, strong containers. Samples of cement should be shipped
in moisture-proof containers, packed in a suitable shipping

2.4 A number of technician certification programs also

exist. These include the following: National Institute for
Certification in Engineering Technologies (NICET),9 American
Concrete Institute (ACI),10 National Ready Mixed Concrete
Association (NRMCA), 11 Portland Cement Association
(PCA),12 and the Precast/Prestressed Concrete Institute
(PCI).13
2.5 Other programs include an inspection and certification
program of concrete plants by NRMCA, a certification program for special inspectorReinforced Concrete offered by
the International Conference of Building Officials (ICBO),14
and a plant certification program for manufacturers of precast/
prestressed concrete offered by PCI.
3. SAMPLES
Although this manual is primarily concerned with testing,
some brief remarks about sampling are necessary. Sampling is
discussed in more detail in later Sections and in ASTM STP 169
B, Significance of Tests and Properties of Concrete and
Concrete Making Materials. No amount of testing will yield
correct answers if the samples are carelessly taken and do not
represent the material sampled. It is better not to test a material
improperly sampled because erroneous conclusions can be
drawn from the test results. In any sampling system there are
perhaps four stages, each of which requires careful attention
and planning: (1) selection of a sampling plan which will
provide the greatest amount of information at the least cost; (2)
physical selection or gathering of samples in accordance with
predetermined procedures for the preselected locations; (3)
testing; and (4) analysis of the data obtained. The first and last
of these four items are those that are most often neglected.
ASTM Practice D 75, Sampling Aggregates,2 and Practice
C 172, Sampling Freshly Mixed Concrete,2 provide information needed to obtain the samples, but do not discuss the
problem of developing a specific sampling plan. Strictly
speaking, there is no such thing as a representative sample. All
materials are subject to periodic variation. Different shipments,
lots, truck loads, car loads, or batches from a given supply will
vary to some extent. In addition, the material comprising any of
the specific units will seldom be precisely homogeneous.
However, a successful sampling plan can establish the average
characteristic of the material and determine the nature and
extent of variability. As data become available it is possible to
detect trends and decide if changes in production procedures or
processes are required to deliver materials of acceptable quality
with reasonably low percentages of defective or substandard
material. Prior to starting of construction, a statistical or
probability sampling plan should be developed and instructions
furnished to inspectors. Since the amount and nature of the
variations may be unknown, it will be necessary to take
samples more frequently at the start. Later, after patterns are
revealed, it should be possible to decrease sampling frequency

NICET, 2029 K Street, N.W., Washington DC 20006.

ACI, 22400 West Seven Mile Road, Detroit, MI 48219.
11
NRMCA, 900 Spring Street, Silver Spring, MD 20910.
12
PCA, 5420 Old Orchard Road, Skokie, IL 60077.
13
PCI, 175 W. Jackson Blvd., Chicago, IL 60604.
14
ICBO, 5360 South Workman Mill Road, Whittier, CA 90601.
10

15
16

Annual Book of ASTM Standards, Vols 07.02, and 14.02.

Annual Book of ASTM Standards, Vol 14.02.

Manual of Aggregate and Concrete Testing

applicable sections of ASTM standards and publications of the
National Institute of Standards and Technology relative to
weights, weighing devices, measurements of volumetric glassware, and pertinent standard tables. Existing equipment should
be checked to see that it meets requirements of newly revised
specifications.
5.1 Proper maintenance of testing apparatus should be
emphasized not only for the sake of appearance but because
good housekeeping in a laboratory promotes care and interest
in the work. Operators should be instructed and trained so that
the proper use and maintenance of apparatus becomes a habit,
not an occasional observance.
5.2 Because weighing equipment is so widely used in the
concrete and concrete-aggregate tests, some general remarks
about such apparatus are presented here. Scales and balances
should have appropriate capacities, and should also possess the
sensitivity and accuracy required by the particular test method
being used. Sensitivity and accuracy should not be confused as
they are not the same. Noncompensating spring scales should
not be used. The operator is cautioned against small weighings
on scales of large capacity. Weighing apparatus should be
periodically checked to ensure that it is in good condition and
meets the requirements of the aggregate and concrete tests
involved. The accuracy of scales should be checked: at least
every 6 months; when there is some doubt about their
accuracy; or after they have been transported or mistreated.
The accuracy can be verified with test weights kept for this
purpose alone or by utilizing the services of others such as
state, county, or city weights and measures departments or the
service department of scale manufacturers. Information about
requirements and definitions for weighing apparatus, as well as
the methods of testing such equipment are found in the
appropriate federal publications. One reference that should be
on file in every concrete laboratory is a recent edition of the
National Institute of Standards and Technology Handbook 44,
Specifications, Tolerances, and Other Technical Requirements
for Weighing and Measuring Devices.17
5.2.1 All parts of balances and scales should be kept free
from sand and dirt. Overloading must be avoided. Balances
should be located on a substantial, stable base, and should not
rest on easily removable shims. Zero settings are readily
disturbed if the balances rest on uneven, slippery slabs. The
weighing of relatively small quantities of some materials, such
as an admixture, will usually require weighing equipment other
than that used for the aggregates and cement. Balances must be
glass-enclosed if weighings are to be made to fractions of a
gram. All weights used with the laboratory scales and balances
should be plainly marked; their magnitude and units should not
be a matter of memory or guess. The weights should be kept in
suitable protective containers, and they should be periodically
checked for accuracy. Care should be taken not to intermix the
weights from a number of platform scales that may have
different lever ratios; such intermingling of weights has occurred and has caused large errors in the weighings of the
component parts of laboratory concrete mixes. Care should be

box. For coarse aggregate samples, heavy cloth bags, such as

duck of about 9-oz (300 g/m2) weight, is suitable, but in any
case the instructions of the supervising official should be
followed. Bags or boxes for samples containing fine materials
must be tight enough to prevent the loss of the fines. If the
moisture content of a sample is important, the container must
be moisture tight. Containers must be clean. Samples must not
be placed in used sacks that contain residues of undesirable
or injurious material, such as sugar, flour, or certain sack
preservatives. The sizing in some new sacks can contaminate
damp sand samples and entrain small percentages of air if the
sand is used in concrete.
3.3 The sample container should be labeled or tagged to
convey the necessary information. A duplicate label that will
not rot or mildew should be placed in the container. A
transmitting letter should be sent to the laboratory with a copy
of the letter inside the sample container if possible. Tags and
letters should contain all the data requested or deemed pertinent. If the sample container has a removable top, the identifying marking must be placed on, or connected to, the body of
the container, not on the top. (Tops may become interchanged.)
If certain samples are later transferred to laboratory storage
containers, the numbers should be affixed to the containers, not
to removable lids.
3.4 When samples are received at the laboratory, pertinent
identifying information should be recorded in a permanent
book or log. The assignment of consecutive numbers to
samples as received is a common practice, but numbers should
not be repeated, as starting anew each year, unless the numbers
contain additional identification such as using the year designation in the number code. Repetition of numbers has caused
serious confusion in studying the results of old tests. Among
suggested data to be recorded in a sample book are: kind of
material, source, date of sampling, name of the person who
sampled the material, date of receipt of the sample at the
laboratory, project, reference to related correspondence, tests to
be made, person assigned the tests, and date of completion of
the report of tests. Many laboratories use specially printed
forms or books for properly associating results of tests with the
samples they represent.
3.5 Samples that have been tested should be retained until
questions regarding them or the tests are not likely to arise.
4. TERMINOLOGY
Definitions of terms relating to concrete and concrete aggregates are to be found in ASTM Terminology C 125, Relating to
Concrete and Concrete Aggregates,2 and related methods and
specifications.
5. TESTING APPARATUS
Testing equipment should be purchased subject to compliance with ASTM specifications. In any event, the apparatus
should be tested for dimensions, weight, volume, material,
performance, and any other pertinent requirements. The operator should not assume that new equipment meets ASTM
specifications. The operator should be satisfied that the equipment meets all requirements. With equipment use, wear does
occur and the original calibrations may no longer be valid.
Before making calibrations, reference should be made to

17
For sale by the Superintendent of Documents, U.S. Government Printing
Office, Washington, DC 20402.

Manual of Aggregate and Concrete Testing

have persistent or severe discomfort. In case of eye contact,
flush with plenty of water for at least 15 minutes. Consult a
physician immediately.
6.4 When mixing or testing fresh concrete, wear safety
glasses, goggles, or face shields to keep concrete from splashing into the eyes. When working around noisy equipment such
as crushers or screening plants, use ear plugs. Use dust masks
in dusty areas. Safety shoes are always advised.
6.5 A protective screen or curved shield of perforated metal
should be used to surround concrete test specimens that are
expected to shatter at high load. Such a shield can rest loosely
upon the machine platen a small distance from the specimen.
The operator should wear goggles, safety glasses, or a face
shield if the material scatters enough to warrant such precaution. The clutch on the gears of the screw-loaded testing
machine should be kept in proper adjustment so that it will not
fall into gear unexpectedly while preparations are being made
for test of a specimen.
6.6 Keep from under suspended loads. Use a distinctive
color of paint for the moving parts of laboratory machinery.
Provide elevators and freight lifts with automatic gates. Use
goggles, safety glasses, face shields, hard hats, safety shoes,
gloves, and respirators whenever they are needed. Do not use
chisels with broomed ends. Be cautious about flying fragments.
Remember that dry cement splashes like water and that eye
protection is necessary, particularly if the cement is hot.
Provide collectors for such dust as may be produced in dry
grinding, sawing, or otherwise finishing or cutting concrete
specimens.
6.7 Some materials now in use in the concrete laboratory
warrant special precautions, for example, sulfur, sodium hydroxide, mercury, sulfur cements, benzol, alcohol, and carbon
tetrachloride. An emergency eye wash station is advisable.
6.8 Some special lamps must be properly shielded to protect
the eyesight of workers. Proper ventilation should be provided,
particularly in closed air-conditioned laboratories. Hoods
should be provided with suitable fire extinguishing equipment
when warranted. Safety showers and eye wash fountains
should be at hand for operators in some lines of work, and
these should be in working order. Their water supply line must
not be controlled by any valve or valves that can be turned off
by unauthorized personnel.
6.9 Doors to all rooms and special chambers, particularly
fog rooms and freezing-and-thawing spaces, should be fitted
with latches that can be readily operated from the inside as well
as from the outside.
6.10 A telephone should always be available, particularly
when an operator is working in the laboratory alone or at night.
6.11 Capping room, when sulfur is used, should be properly
ventilated with an exhaust fan or hood. A fire extinguisher
should also be located in the room.
6.12 Most of these safety admonitions have been prompted
by recollections of actual happenings and they should not be
treated lightly. Most of all, use common sense.

taken to avoid the loss of set screws or other parts of rider

weights on balances and platform scales.
5.3 It is sometimes helpful to make one member of the
laboratory staff responsible for periodic maintenance and
calibration of equipment. A schedule for this should be
established. The dates and results of calibrations should be
recorded.
5.4 Apparatus for measuring and controlling temperature,
relative humidity, or both, should be frequently checked to
determine whether the specified conditions are being maintained. Recording instruments must be checked frequently,
particularly as to whether the proper charts are being used.
5.5 Parts of apparatus that come into contact with concrete
and mortar should not be made of material that will react with
the concrete or mortar under the conditions of the test.
5.6 Information that relates to the care and use of apparatus
in specific methods of test is usually included in the related test
sections of the manual.
6. SAFETY PRECAUTIONS
Safety precautions are essential, and one person should be
authorized to see that the required safety precautions are
observed. First aid training not only provides instruction on
procedures to be followed in an emergency but also points up
the importance of safety measures. Emergency instructions on
proper storage of combustible or explosive materials as well as
telephone numbers of fire department, doctors, ambulance and
police should be conspicuously posted.
6.1 Among some of the more commonly mentioned precautions are: proper grounds on electric equipment, proper fusing,
suitable extension cords where their use is necessary, and
adequate lighting.
6.2 Provide suitable enclosures for moving parts of machines, particularly belts and gears. Laboratory personnel have
been badly injured by contact with exposed gears or by being
caught in a machine while testing specimens while alone in a
laboratory. In a latter case, the operator managed to kick the
switch off with his foot; this he could not have done if the
switch had been located at a distance. Keep hands out of
moving machinery, and do not touch revolving shafts or rolls,
or even the ends of the moving shafts, even though the parts
may be polished and smooth. It is particularly dangerous to
touch such moving parts with rags or gloves. One experienced
laboratory man lost part of a hand when he touched a moving
roll with his rubber-gloved hand while cleaning the apparatus
in the process of grinding some material. Moving parts will
quickly seize cloth, rubber, etc., and may draw the operators
hand or arm into the machinery.
6.3 Contact with cement powder or fresh (unhardened)
cementitious mixtures can cause skin irritation, severe chemical burns, or serious eye damage. Avoid contact with eyes and
skin. Wear waterproof gloves, a fully buttoned long sleeve
shirt, full-length trousers, and tight fitting eye protection when
working with these materials. Wash cement powder or fresh
(unhardened) cementitious mixtures from your skin with fresh,
clean water immediately after contact. Indirect contact through
clothing can be as serious as direct contact, so promptly rinse
out cement powder or fresh (unhardened) cementitious mixtures from clothing. Seek immediate medical attention if you

7. INSPECTION OF LABORATORY
An occasional inspection of a concrete laboratory by appropriate members of that laboratorys staff is suggested to learn
if the laboratory has proper equipment, employs standard test
5

Manual of Aggregate and Concrete Testing

layer of aggregate in the measure; it is not practicable to attain
this much penetration with many graded coarse aggregates.
During rodding, the measure should rest firmly on a rigid base,
and there should be no shaking or jolting of the measure.
Jigging, vibration, or jolting may give appreciably different
results from those obtained by rodding, particularly in the case
of the finer materials. Reports should state clearly how the
measure was filled. When this method is used for lightweight
aggregate, ASTM Specifications C 330, C 331, or C 332,2 the
shoveling procedure is used.
8.3 It is difficult to strike off the aggregate at the top of the
measure when large pieces of aggregate protrude above the
level of the rim. It may be necessary to remove a few pieces of
the aggregate by hand in order to secure an average filled
condition but no finer aggregate should be added to fill the
voids in the surface. Overmanipulation during strike off will
introduce additional compaction. Strike-off procedures are
particularly important in loose weight determinations made by
the shoveling procedure. Uniform procedures must be followed
if different laboratories, different operators, or duplicate tests
by the same operator are to check within the precision
requirements of the method.
8.4 The method provides the formula for calculating the
voids in aggregates after compacting in a standard size measure
in accordance with C 29/C 29M procedures; the term voids
applies to the space between the aggregate particles under test
and is expressed as a percentage of total volume.
8.5 Determinations of voids in aggregate also can be performed on material compacted on a damp-loose or an inundated basis for special reasons. In addition, flow methods of
loose consolidation as proposed by Rex and Peck (Public
Roads) and M. H. Wills (ASTM) are sometimes used to
determine void content which provides an index of particle
shape which can be used to estimate mixing water required in
concrete proportioning.
8.6 The percentage of voids has an effect on the concrete
proportions determined by ACI 211 procedures. The shape and
grading of particles affects the voids and, generally, smooth,
rounded particles will show less voids contained than crushed,
angular particles.

procedures, practices good housekeeping, and observes safety

precautions. This inspection should indicate managements
interest in the maintenance and improvement of the laboratory
as a whole.
7.1 Since 1929, there has been maintained at the National
Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST) a Research
Associate Program presently known as the Cement and
Concrete Reference Laboratory. This program is a cooperative
project of NIST and the American Society for Testing and
Materials, under the sponsorship of ASTM Committees C-1 on
Cement and C-9 on Concrete and Concrete Aggregates. The
most important function of the CCRL is to promote uniformity
and improvement in testing through the field inspection of
cement, concrete, concrete aggregate, steel reinforcing bar, and
pozzolan testing laboratories. Using load cells, micrometers,
balances, testing weights, and thermometers, which are traceable to the NIST, the CCRL inspectors evaluate equipment and
procedures to the requirements listed in the relevant test
methods. In the concrete and concrete aggregate areas, the
inspection work is based on ASTM C 1077, Practice for
Laboratories Testing Concrete and Concrete Aggregates for
Use in Construction and Criteria for Laboratory Evaluation.2
These services are advisory in nature, utilization is on a
voluntary basis, and there is no direct regulatory action
involved. A second important function is the distribution of
proficiency samples of construction materials such as hydraulic
cements, pozzolan, and concrete. Laboratories participating in
these cooperative testing programs find them to be of great
assistance in evaluating the quality of their work. Charges are
made for both the inspection and proficiency sample services.
Inquiries should be addressed to the Cement and Concrete
Reference Laboratory, National Institute of Standards and
Technology, 100 Bureau Drive Stop 8622, Gaithersburg, MD
20899-8622.
8. UNIT WEIGHT AND VOIDS IN AGGREGATE
(See Test Method C 29/C 29M)2
Samples for test must be carefully selected. Before use, the
sample should be thoroughly mixed and spread to a uniform
depth on a flat surface. The use of a flat rectangular scoop with
sides approximately the same depth as the pile of aggregate to
be tested will tend to reduce segregation when filling the
measure.
8.1 Measures, particularly the larger ones, should be provided with suitable handles for the safety and convenience of
personnel. Attention must be given to the requirements of the
method regarding relation between size of measure and size of
largest particles of aggregate. The measures should be calibrated as described in the test method. A glass plate is used
during the calibration to make sure that the water completely
fills the vessel. A film of water pump grease or chasis grease
placed on the rim of the container will help prevent leaking.
Occasionally the rims of new containers are not plane, and
calibration is impossible unless high spots are removed. The
rim can be made plane by inverting the measure and grinding
it on a steel or glass plate using emery cloth, carborundum, or
valve grinding compound as an abrasive.
8.2 The rodding method requires that for the second and
final layers, the tamping rod shall penetrate the last preceding

9. MAKING AND CURING CONCRETE TEST

SPECIMENS IN
THE FIELD
(See Practice C 31)2
The sampling of concrete is discussed in Sections 3 and 22
of this manual. Improper sampling may be costly to a concrete
supplier by negatively influencing the compressive strength,
and it may affect the slump, unit weight, and air content.
9.1 For compressive strength specimens made in the field in
accordance with Practice C 31 the specified mold size is 6 by
12 in. (152 by 305 mm). The use of smaller sizes is permitted
only when required by project specification. If smaller sizes are
required, the minimum size of the mold depends upon the
maximum size aggregate used. The diameter of the mold must
be at least three times the maximum size aggregate in the
concrete. In cases where the maximum aggregate is larger than
2 in. (50 mm), a mold larger than 6 by 12 in. (152 by 305 mm)
will be required or the concrete sample can be wet sieved as
6

Manual of Aggregate and Concrete Testing

crayons, because in moist air their markings will quickly
vanish. If identification marks are placed on the top of a
cylinder, they should also be placed on the sides to prevent loss
of identification after capping.
9.1.5 Molded cylinders shall be stored at an initial curing
temperature of 60 to 80F (16 to 27C) for 48 6 8 h. Storage
conditions are very important because of the effect on strength
development. Research has indicated that concrete subjected to
high temperature (above 90F (32C)) during the first 24 h and
thereafter cured at 73.4 6 3F (23 6 1.7C) may have lower
strength at 28 days than similar concrete cured at 73.4 6 3F
(23 6 1.7C) throughout the entire 28 days. Any non-standard
curing conditions should be noted in the final report. For
security reasons, curing boxes or buildings in the field should
be provided with a lock and key.
9.1.6 Care should be taken to ensure that the moisture
condition of field cured cylinders at the time of removal from
the site is maintained throughout the period of transportation
from the job, storage in the laboratory, and during capping and
testing. If cylinders are not transported to the laboratory within
48 h, then moist curing at the site should begin within 24 6 8
h of molding.
9.1.7 Three major problems in transporting cylinders from
the field to the laboratory are moisture loss, damage from
jarring, and temperatures outside the curing range. Moisture
loss can be prevented by wrapping demolded cylinders in
plastic or by surrounding the molded specimens in wet sand or
wet sawdust. Damage due to jarring can be prevented by
placing the cylinders in padded containers that prevent movement. In extreme weather conditions cylinders should be
placed in the driving compartment of the vehicle. Practice C 31
requires that transportation not exceed 4 h.
9.2 Practice C 31 also covers the making and curing of
flexural test specimens or beams in the field. The earlier
discussion of selecting a site to mold the cylindrical test
specimens and the curing after molding apply to the flexural
specimens as well.
9.2.1 Practice C 31 requires that molds shall be watertight
as judged by their ability to hold water poured into them. Most
beam molds require the use of a sealant to meet this requirement. In addition to the grease, modeling clay, or molten
microcrystalline wax mentioned in the practice, the laboratory
may wish to consider the use of silicon, latex or acrylic
caulking as possible sealants. Their ease in application, quick
setting time, continued flexibility and availability make any
one of the three a good choice. Care should be taken in
applying the sealant to the joints to avoid excess sealing
material in the interior of the mold. This could result in
irregularities along the edges of the beam. A smooth bead of
sealant approximately 116 in. fillet on the interior corners is
recommended.
9.2.2 Many beam molds are of the reusable type and, as
such, should be maintained in good condition. The inside
surfaces should be smooth and free from a build-up of
hardened concrete. The use of mineral oil or a non-reactive
form release agent is required on the inner surfaces of the
mold. Unless required by project specification the minimum
size of beams made in the field shall have a depth and width of

described in Practice C 172 to remove aggregate larger than 2

in. (50 mm).
9.1.1 The concrete cylinders should be molded where the
cylinders will be stored for the first 24 6 8 h. Cylinders should
not be moved even a few feet if there is any way to avoid it. If
cylinders must be moved they should be supported by the base
of the mold and moved within 15 min of molding. The molds
should stand on a level and firm surface that is free from
vibration. If the axis of the cylinder is not vertical, the ends
may not be parallel and will need to be sawed or ground to
prevent thick wedge-shaped caps. This condition may adversely affect compressive strength results.
9.1.2 Cylinders should be properly filled and consolidated
by rodding or vibration, as required. Lack of attention to these
details can result in segregation and honeycombing. Excessive
over-filling of the last mold layer can cause a concentration of
large aggregate at the top, with accompanying overflow of
mortar. When rodding the second and third layers, the rod
should just penetrate the preceding layer of the earlier placed
material. Ideally, only enough concrete should be added as the
top layer so that it can be finished without addition or removal
of concrete. When rodding each layer, tap the outside of the
mold lightly 10 to 15 times with a mallet to close any holes left
by rodding and to release any large air bubbles that may have
been trapped. If consolidation is by vibration, care should be
taken not to overvibrate. Usually sufficient vibration has been
applied as soon as the surface of the concrete has become
relatively smooth. Continue vibration only long enough to
achieve proper consolidation of the concrete. Over-vibration
may cause segregation. Removal of the vibrating element too
quickly may result in the creation of a mortar pocket. Unusual
care must be used in molding concrete of dry consistency in
single use molds to prevent damage to the bottom of the mold.
The mold should stand on a solid, level surface. When the
single use mold rests on a soft or uneven surface, the bottom of
the specimen may be uneven and difficult to prepare for the
compression test. In fabricating more than one specimen at a
time, the preferred method is to fill and consolidate the same
layer of all specimens before continuing with the next layer.
This will increase the uniformity of the cylinders. Place
identifying marks on the outside of the molds, in case the
specimen molds are disarranged in handling or transfer.
9.1.3 Practice C 31 specifies that the molded cylinder be
protected against moisture loss. The top of the cylinder should
be covered by a plastic or metal lid, a metal or glass plate, or
a plastic bag. When using a cover made from a flexible
material, do not allow the cover to contact the concrete. A
plastic bag placed over the top of the cylinder with a rubber
band near the top of the mold does an excellent job. When
using cardboard molds, the rubber band should be placed close
to the top of the mold to avoid wetting the outside of the paper
mold from condensation inside the plastic bag. Burlap or wood
should not be in contact with the fresh concrete.
9.1.4 When hardened specimens are removed from the
molds, they should be marked to retain their identity during
curing. Black graphite crayon is good for marking a concrete
surface that has been in contact with an oily mold. Felt tip
marking pens are generally satisfactory. Avoid ordinary colored
7

Manual of Aggregate and Concrete Testing

at least 6 in. The length of the mold shall be at least three times
larger than the depth plus two inches. For 6 in. deep beams the
minimum is 20 in. The sides and bottom of the mold shall be
free of warpage and be within 18 in. of the nominal 6 in. width
or depth. Molds not conforming to the requirements of the
practice can adversely affect test results.
9.2.3 In molding the beam, consolidation is accomplished
by rodding or vibration. If rodding is used the number of
strokes per layer is dependent on the top surface area. Use one
stroke for every 2 in.2 of top surface area of the specimen. If
consolidation is by vibration, care should be taken not to
over-vibrate. Usually, sufficient vibration has been applied as
soon as the surface of the concrete has become relatively
smooth. Continue vibration only long enough to achieve proper
consolidation of the concrete. Over-vibration can result in
segregation of the concrete. Removal of the vibrating element
too quickly may result in the creation of a mortar pocket.
9.2.4 If consolidation has been accomplished with rodding,
after closing the voids of each layer by tapping the outside of
the mold, spade the concrete along the sides and ends of the
mold with a trowel. Do not spade a beam that has been
consolidated by vibration.
9.2.5 When demolding the beam, the mold should be
completely disassembled and the beam carefully removed to
avoid damage to the young concrete. Do not attempt to remove
the beam by force. Tools such as hammers, screwdrivers,
mallets, or tamping rods can damage both the molds and the
concrete and should not be used.
9.2.6 An important factor in developing the ultimate
strength of the test specimen is the curing. If the beams are
allowed to dry out during any part of the curing period the
shrinkage cracks may form in the specimen lowering the
flexural strength. It is especially important that beams be
protected from moisture loss during the initial period of curing
in the mold. This may be accomplished by covering the
specimen with a plastic sheet. Additional protection can be
provided by placing a layer of damp burlap on top of the plastic
sheet. A good way to avoid the shrinkage cracks is to store the
beams in saturated lime water for the entire curing period after
demolding. Curing requirements of beams are the same as for
cylinders except that for a minimum of 20 h prior to testing, the
beams must be immersed in saturated lime water.
9.2.7 A major problem can be the transportation of beams
from the job site to the curing environment. In addition to the
problems of moisture loss already discussed, other concerns
are the weight of the beam and the need to continually support
the beam over its entire length. If at all possible, beams should
be made at the location of the final curing. If beams must be
transported, a bed of damp sand and wet burlap covers are
recommended. The beams should not be transported on end.

Prior to testing, cylinder ends should be capped or ground in

accordance with the requirements of Practice C 617.2 An
alternative to C 6172 is the unbonded cap system described in
Practice C 1231.2 The remainder of section 10 assumes that
C 6172 is used for end treatment of cylinders. For information
on the unbonded capping system refer to section 40 of this
manual. However, when using the unbonded capping system,
section 10 should be read for a complete understanding of
making and curing concrete test specimens.
10.1 In order to report the compressive strength, the crosssectional area of the cylinder must be calculated prior to test.
To determine the cross-sectional area the diameter of the
cylinder must be calculated. The calipers and scale shown in
Fig. 1 can be used to measure the diameter of the cylinder
provided the scale is accurate to 0.01 in. (0.25 mm). Another
option for this measurement is micrometer calipers. Two
measurements at right angles at a midpoint on the cylinder
should be made. The diameter used to calculate the crosssectional area is the average of these two measurements. If
cylinders are molded with molds that consistently produce a
cylinder diameter within a range of 0.02 in. (0.51 mm),
measurement of cylinders can be reduced to three a day or one

10. COMPRESSIVE STRENGTH OF CYLINDRICAL

CONCRETE SPECIMENS (See Test Method C 39)2
Test Method C 39 describes the testing of concrete cylindrical test specimens for compressive strength. Molded cylinders
are prepared based on Practice C 312 which describes field
preparation or Practice C 1922 for laboratory preparation.
Drilled concrete cores which are also cylindrical test specimens
are obtained by following procedures in Test Method C 42.2

NOTE 1The outside caliper and the scale are used to measure the
diameter of the cylinder for computing the area.
FIG. 1 Checking Planeness of the Capped End of a Concrete
Cylinder Prior to Testing Using a 6-in. (152-mm) Machinistss
Parallel and a 0.002-in. (0.05-mm) Feeler Gage

Manual of Aggregate and Concrete Testing

fail. The actual observed maximum or breaking load should be
recorded, as well as the computed compressive strength.
10.5 The cylinder must be tested to failure in order to
determine the type of fracture. The type of fracture should be
reported along with the compressive strength. If the compressive strength of a tested cylinder is less than anticipated the
type of fracture may be of assistance in determining the cause.
Fig. 2 shows a typical conical fracture of a concrete cylinder in
compression. Conical fractures are typically better defined than
is shown in this figure. Fig. 3 shows a cylinder which does not
have the typical conical fracture expected. This type of failure
was noted in a large number of tested cylinders in a discarded
cylinder pile at a laboratory and was brought to the attention of
the supervisor. It was found that non-standard testing procedures caused this type of failure. Correction of the testing
procedure resulted in conical fractures and an increase in
compressive strength of about 40 %.
10.6 The following are numerous comments on testing
machines, their use, and maintenance. Some of the remarks are
general, while others refer to only one type of machine.
10.6.1 Testing machines should be inspected and calibrated
every twelve months and there should be some fixed responsibility for maintenance. They should be kept clean with no
accumulation of debris or dust between platens and crosshead
screws and around the base of the loading ram. Use of
protective shields on rams, exposed screws, and test specimens
may prove helpful in this respect. Machines should be lubricated according to an appropriate schedule. Smooth operation
of loading and crosshead screws may be facilitated by applying
a mixture of heavy lubricating oil and flake graphite, worked
well into the threads by a brush and by running the crosshead
up and down a few times. Fuses, travel limit switches, safety
cutouts on gages, and safety by-pass valves on loading lines
should be checked occasionally. The main switches of the

in every ten, whichever number of measurements is greater.

The measurement of the height is only necessary if the length
to diameter ratio exceeds 2.2 or is less than 1.8. If the L/D ratio
is less than 1.8, refer to the calculation section in Test Method
C 39. If the L/D ratio is greater than 2.2, the end of the cylinder
could be saw cut to the proper length.
10.2 After capping the cylinders with sulfur mortar, a 2 h
waiting period is required. During this period considerable
moisture may be lost from the sides of the cylinder unless the
cylinders are stored in moist air, under water, or wrapped in
wet burlap until time of test. Cylinders should never be allowed
to dry for long periods before or after capping.
10.3 Test Method C 39 requires that the cylinder be centered
with relation to the upper spherically seated bearing block.
This phase of the testing operation often does not receive
adequate attention. If a skewed cylinder is centered on the
lower bearing block, the requirement that the axis of the
cylinder be aligned with the center of thrust of the spherically
seated block cannot be met. Suitable jigs have been used to
conveniently locate the specimen with respect to the bearing
blocks, but it is necessary that the blocks themselves be well
centered if they are to be the basis for measurements. Lower
blocks may not always be in proper position. The upper bearing
block assembly in some types of machines may sometimes be
out of position with respect to center of the crosshead,
generally because of improper positioning when the assembly
was last replaced in the machine. In these cases, reposition the
upper head prior to testing. The upper bearing block should be
rotated as it is brought to bear on the specimen to obtain
uniform seating.
10.4 Test Method C 39 specifies a rate of loading of 20 to 50
psi/s. For a 6 in. diameter cylinder the increase in load in a 30
s interval should be 17 000 to 42 000 lbf. The specified rate of
loading must be observed, but the rate cannot be increased in
an attempt to maintain the rate when the specimen begins to

NOTE 1Cones are usually better defined. The upper cap on this cylinder is too thick.
FIG. 2 Typical Conical Fracture Expected in the Compressive-Strength Test

Manual of Aggregate and Concrete Testing

accommodate the lower block. Concrete specimens should be
set in place, not pushed across the platen, and the surface of the
platen should not be used to grind or rub cylinders. If the
machine is a universal type and is also used to test specimens
in tension, the platen should be properly protected from
damage during the tension operation. Under no circumstances
should the testing machine be used as a press, as in forcing
shafts out of assemblies. Such misuse has been known to
necessitate expensive refinishing of the faces of the large
spherical block assembly. To prevent unauthorized use of the
testing machine for this purpose it may be advisable to keep a
lock on the switch box.
10.6.5 Drainage is recommended for all machine pits to
guard against flooding and consequent damage to motors,
bearings, screws, pumps, weighing systems, etc. This is very
important in the case of the larger machines. If dust is to be
blown out of machines and motors, an electrically driven
portable hand blower or a commercial size vacuum cleaner
with rubber or plastic nozzle should be used in order to avoid
the occasional moisture and scale from ordinary compressed
air lines.
10.6.6 The hydraulic testing machines vary in design and
operation. The instructions of the manufacturer should be
followed strictly to avoid damage to the machine and to secure
the best operation. The motor of the hydraulic pump should not
be stopped before releasing the load on the weighing system.
Control and release valves should be used properly so as to
avoid shocks to the weighing system. Oil in the pump reservoir
should be maintained at the proper level. If loads cannot be
obtained or maintained satisfactorily, check the reservoir,
pressure relief valves, and also the voltage on the line to the
loading pump. The crosshead should not be jammed nor should
the ram be used at its lowest point of travel.
10.6.6.1 The load indicating gage should be tapped lightly
when setting the hand at zero load. Maximum hands should be
checked for satisfactory free movement. Be sure that dials,
particularly the smallest of a number of ranges, are not being
overloaded. If the machine is equipped with more than one
dial, occasionally note the nature of the agreement of different
dials at the same load. Remove the load gradually, and have
gage control valves set so as to avoid excessive backlash in the
dial mechanism when a specimen breaks.
10.6.6.2 Capsule clearances, if a feature of the machine,
should be frequently checked to determine whether the correct
amount of oil is in the weighing system. Capsule clearances are
measured by inserting a feeler gage into the multiple openings
below the ram. The average of these readings should be
compared to the clearance stamped on the capsule. When the
average of capsule clearance varies from the assigned clearance by more than 0.003 in. adjustments to the capsule should
be made. Add oil when capsule clearances are greater than the
maximum allowed. When oil is added, precautions should be
taken to avoid the introduction of air into the system.
10.6.6.3 The specified air pressure should be maintained for
the null type weighing systems. Compressed air used in such
systems should be filtered and dehydrated to remove oil, rust,
dirt, and water. This filter should be checked periodically.
10.6.6.4 Use proper wrenches on oil valves on hydraulic

NOTE 1Correction of testing procedures resulted in increase of

compressive strength of about 40 % in similar concrete.
FIG. 3 Atypical Failure of a Concrete Cylinder Due to Incorrect
Testing Procedures

machine should be relocated if not within immediate reach of

the operator.
10.6.2 Each operator should be adequately instructed in the
operation of his machine. Instructions for the use and maintenance of the machine should be available to the operator; too
often such papers have been found filed with the purchase
papers.
10.6.3 The moving head of a machine should not be allowed
to come in contact with the upper frame or the lower platen. If
contact must be made, as in changing heavy bearing blocks or
imposing a load for some adjusting purposes, an intervening
wooden block should be in position between the metal faces.
Should the cross-head become accidentally jammed against the
lower block or face of the weighing table, it would be well to
try to remove the load by hand operation of the gears instead
of using the motor. Under no circumstances should a testing
machine be left unattended while running, even for a short
time. Damage to the machine may result.
10.6.4 The surface of the platen or table of the machine
should be carefully maintained. The use of a supplemental
lower bearing block will be helpful. In cases where a supplemental bottom bearing block is used and the platen is large, a
piece of plywood has been used to protect the platen surface.
The plywood is cut to the shape of the platen with a cut-out to
10

Manual of Aggregate and Concrete Testing

0.001 in. feeler stock. A block should be refinished when the
planeness requirement is not met. Fig. 4 shows the planeness of
upper and lower bearing blocks being checked with a 6 in. (152
mm) machinists parallel and a feeler stock of the required
thickness. Scribed concentric circles on the bearing face of the
upper block are required when the diameter of the block
exceeds the diameter of the specimen by 12 in. Concentric rings
on the upper spherically seated bearing blocks are necessary to
secure the specified end-loading conditions. Lower bearing
blocks are important in providing the necessary loading conditions, protecting the lower platen of the machine against wear
and concentration of high loads, and facilitating the placing of
the test specimens. Concentric rings for the lower block are
optional.
10.7.1 The upper spherically seated block should comply
with all the requirements of the applicable test method. The
center of the sphere must coincide with the center of the
bearing face. Ease of movement is important in securing the
proper seating of the block when subjecting the test specimen
to load. To maintain this ease of movement, the spherical
portion and the socket should be cleaned and oiled periodically.
Do not use pressure type grease. The spherical portion and the
socket should be held in close contact with each other.
10.7.2 Avoid heavy concentration of load, such as encountered with proving rings, without appropriate intervening
special bearing blocks or plates. Avoid use of cast iron bearing
blocks, particularly with concentrated loads, even though the
block has a hardened center insert.
10.7.3 When verifying the compression machine with proving rings, the combination of the spherically seated bearing
block, the small diameter of the proving ring at the contact
surfaces, the rounded boss at the top of the proving ring, and a
poorly centered proving ring may result in eccentric loading of
the ring. When this occurs, the machine is no longer applying

weighing systems to avoid defacing or damaging the special

valve assemblies. If trapped air in a hydraulic line is bled from
the weighing system, tighten the plug in the Bourdon tube
before releasing the load. If oil is being lost rapidly from the
weighing system, check for loose joints on lines and loose
packings on valves. Use the oil recommended by the manufacturer for replacement.
10.6.6.5 Portable cylinder testers of the hydraulic type are
frequently used in the field and in field offices. There are a
number of makes, and their details vary. Regardless of design,
machines should conform to all requirements of Test Method
C 39. Any testing machine used for testing concrete cylinders
must be power operated and continuous loading within certain
rates of loading. In addition, the section in Test Method C 39
entitled Load Indications should be reviewed thoroughly to
ensure the dials of the machine are of proper design. The
machine must be calibrated annually or after each time the
machine is moved, and an appropriate certificate posted or
readily available for inspection (see Section 41 on Load
Verification of Testing Machines).
10.6.6.6 The latest type of indication for compression machines is the liquid crystal display (LCD) or light emitting
diode (LED) read-out. Generally speaking, they employ a
hydraulic ram to exert pressure on the test specimen. This
hydraulic pressure is converted to an electrical signal by means
of a transducer. Some machines have multiple ranges on the
same read-out. Some difficulty with the single read-out may be
encountered in the area of increment of load change where a
smaller transducer stops and one with a larger capacity takes
over.
10.7 It is important that proper bearing blocks be used and
be kept in good condition. The faces of the upper and lower
bearing blocks should be checked for planeness and hardness.
The check on planeness can be made with a straightedge and

FIG. 4 Checking Planeness of Upper and Lower Bearing Blocks for a Testing Machine Using a Machinists Parallel and a Feeler Gage of
the Required Thickness

11

Manual of Aggregate and Concrete Testing

11.3 Test Method C 42 requires that the temperature of the
water in which the specimens are stored shall be 73.4 6 3.0F
(23 6 1.7C).

pressure directly to the top and bottom of the ring but rather to
a corner of the top and the opposite corner of the bottom.
Caution: The condition described above can cause inaccurate
verification results and is extremely dangerous. In one case, the
ring was thrown from the machine resulting in serious injury to
the operator. During verification, remove the spherical bearing
block and replace it with a solid bearing block, or if a
replacement block is not available lock or shim the spherical
block into a position parallel to the lower block or platen. The
use of load cells to verify compression machines varies
appreciably from the procedures used with the proving rings,
but the same precautions and care should be followed to ensure
safe and accurate verification results.
10.7.4 Provide a suitable ratio for length of overhang and
thickness of any extra bearing plates used between the bearing
blocks proper and large test specimens. Check for loose
hardened inserts in bearing blocks.
10.8 Keep any centering pinholes clean; debris from test
specimens sometimes becomes packed so tightly in these holes
that it interferes with the proper seating of the lower block.

12. SURFACE MOISTURE IN FINE AGGREGATE

(See Test Method C 70)2
In Test Method C 70 the weight and volume of a sample of
damp sand are determined. With an accurate knowledge of the
saturated surface dry specific gravity of the sand, the free
moisture content can then be computed. If the saturated surface
dry specific gravity of the sand does not change and the same
weight of sample is always used, the rather involved formulas
can be simplified, or graphs prepared for their simple, rapid
solution.
12.1 The calcium carbide gas pressure method, although not
an ASTM test method, is frequently used in the laboratory. In
this method, a small sample of damp sand is placed in a closed
container with calcium carbide. The free water reacts with the
calcium carbide, producing acetylene gas and, therefore, a gas
pressure. The pressure gage is calibrated in percentage of free
moisture in the sand. Because of the small quantity of sand
used, sampling technique is particularly critical.
12.2 Electrical and nuclear moisture meters are widely used
in the field, but they are not well adapted to laboratory work.
12.3 In concrete technology, the total moisture content is the
sum of the amounts of water absorbed on the interior of the
particles and the free water on the surface of the particles. Hot
plate and oven drying methods dry samples to constant weight
and therefore measure total moisture content. Displacement
and calcium carbide gas pressure methods measure free or
surface moisture. Electrical and nuclear methods do not measure moisture per se. Their indication will depend upon the
method used to calibrate the meter.
12.3.1 The method used to compute moisture content is
important and will determine the calculation procedures used
to adjust batch weights.

11. OBTAINING AND TESTING DRILLED CORES

AND SAWED BEAMS OF CONCRETE
(See Test Method C 42)2
Test Method C 42 applies to securing test specimens from
hardened concrete. When samples are taken from hardened
concrete, the safety or adequacy of the structure is often under
question. Under these conditions the locations from which
samples are to be taken must be selected with care in order to
obtain the desired information. The selection of sampling
locations may be aided by applying non-destructive test
methods such as Test Method C 803, Penetration Resistance of
Hardened Concrete2 or C 805, Rebound Number of Hardened
Concrete2 which, when used by qualified personnel, can be
helpful in assessing the uniformity of concrete in situ, or to
delineate zones or regions (areas) of poor quality or deteriorated concrete in structures. The selection of sampling locations must not be left to personnel who are unfamiliar with the
structural requirements. Specifications for pavements usually
specify the number and location of drilled cores. Test Method
C 42 covers quite well the details of securing the samples, but
the following comments should be considered.
11.1 Large strains in the core can occur during drilling if the
vertical shaft wobbles. This condition is usually caused by
worn or loose drill bearings, or by lack of rigidity of the frame
of the core drill. Cores obtained under such conditions often
will not meet the requirements for dimensions specified in the
test method.
11.2 It is particularly important that the ends of the cores be
properly prepared for testing. The ends of cores that are not
drilled perpendicular to the surface of a slab should be sawed
to produce square ends in order to avoid the use of thick
wedge-shaped caps. The bottom end of cores should be
prepared in strict accordance with the requirements of the test
method, wherein are prescribed the tolerances in projections in
end surfaces, variations in diameter, and departures from
perpendicularity between the end surfaces and the axis of the
core. Core ends that do not come within the tolerances should
be finished by sawing or tooling until they conform.

13. FLEXURAL STRENGTH OF CONCRETE (USING

SIMPLE BEAM WITH THIRDPOINT LOADING)
(See Test Method C 78)2
The dimensional tolerances for beam molds are less exacting
than those for cylinder molds. Tolerances of 6 18in. (3.2 mm)
are permitted for cross-sectional dimensions, but since the
beams are measured to 0.1 in. (3 mm) at the section of failure,
a variation of more than 18in. is not considered to be objectionable. It is desirable that the inside vertical and bottom
surfaces of the mold be smooth and plane so that contacts
between the bearing surfaces of the beam molded therein and
the metal bearing blocks will require little or no correction to
meet the requirements of Test Method C 78 for testing of
beams.
13.1 The curing of concrete beams and their moisture
content at the time of flexure strength tests are much more
important than in comparative strength tests of concrete
cylinders. Beams that are to be cured in accordance with the
requirements of the section on curing in Practice C 31 should
never be cured with liquid membrane-forming compounds
instead of wet burlap, and should never be allowed to lose
moisture before testing. All beams and cylinders tested in
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Manual of Aggregate and Concrete Testing

Washing with plain water shall be used unless otherwise
specified by the specification with which the test results are to
be compared, or when directed by the agency for which the
work is being performed. A wetting agent will weaken the bond
holding clay particles to larger aggregate particles, and is
necessary to cut the oily film which occurs on aggregate
particles which have been through a dryer for use in bituminous mixtures and for aggregates extracted from bituminous
mixtures. For other aggregates, using a wetting agent will
frequently reduce the number of washings required to remove
the fine material and may increase the amount of material
detected. With many aggregates, using a wetting agent or plain
water will cause very little difference in the result. As with all
test procedures, the sampling procedure, sample size, and
accuracy of weighing are important to obtaining proper results.
15.2 The 75-m (No. 200) sieve used for this test should be
reserved for this test only and not used for dry sieving.

accordance with Practice C 31 should have free moisture on

their surfaces up to the time the specimens are placed in the
testing machine.
13.2 Check the flexural testing apparatus for conformance
with dimensional requirements and operating characteristics.
13.3 There are several types of portable devices for flexural
testing of beams in the field. In one type, the ultimate load is
measured by a proving ring; in another, by a pair of calibrated
beams; and in a third, a hydraulic machine, by a Bourdon tube.
If removable, these load-indicating devices should be calibrated in a precision testing machine; if not removable, the
whole machine should be calibrated with load indicators in
place.
13.4 Test Method C 78 does not specify the moisture
condition for beams at the time of test. Practices C 31 and
C 192 describe the curing conditions for beams made in the
field and those made in the laboratory, respectively. Both
practices require that beams be tested after storage in moist air
or in limewater. Since the amount and location of the water in
a beam at the time of testing in flexure affects the strength, no
moist-cured beam should be permitted to lose water at any
time, and there must be free moisture on all surfaces at the time
of testing. Concrete beams sawed from pavements or structures
are required by Test Method C 42 to be completely submerged
in water at room temperature for at least 40 h immediately prior
to the flexure test. Loss of moisture from any surface should be
prevented by covering with wet burlap or wet blankets during
the time between removal from water storage and testing. It is
required that the specimens be tested in a moist condition,
unless the agency for whom the testing is being done specifies
otherwise.

16. SPECIFIC GRAVITY AND ABSORPTION OF

COARSE AGGREGATE (See Test Method C 127)2
The test method is not considered applicable to highly
porous lightweight aggregates because of difficulties involved
in properly drying the very irregular, rough surfaces of these
particles. Surface drying of normal weight aggregates having
rough, vesicular surfaces is also difficult and must be carefully
done if consistent results are to be obtained.
16.1 The balance should be suited to weighing the amount
of material required. The container for holding the immersed
sample should be immersed to a depth sufficient to cover the
container at all times. The wire bails supporting the container
should be of the smallest practical size to minimize the effects
of a variable immersed length of wire bail. Entrapped air
should be freed from the sample prior to determining the
weight of the immersed sample by shaking the container while
immersed.
16.2 Because of the difficulty of surface drying small
aggregate particles within the coarse aggregate test sample, the
material smaller than the 4.75-mm (No. 4) sieve is generally
discarded. Test Method C 127 provides for separating material
at the 2.36-mm (No. 8) sieve for very fine coarse aggregate.
16.3 When the results of the test are to be used for
proportioning concrete mixtures with aggregates used in a
moist condition, drying to a constant weight at the start of the
test may be eliminated. The oven-dry weight is not needed if
bulk specific gravity (SSD) will provide sufficient information.
The oven-dry weight will be needed to determine the absorption of aggregate. Using aggregate without drying prior to
soaking may be preferable when testing certain aggregates of
relatively high absorption, since preliminary oven drying prior
to test may remove moisture that cannot be regained in 24 h of
soaking.

14. COMPRESSIVE STRENGTH OF CONCRETE

USING PORTIONS OF BEAMS BROKEN IN
FLEXURE (See Test Method C 116)2
This test method was known formerly as the 8Modified Cube
Test. The compressive strengths obtained by its use are not
necessarily the same as those from tests of 6 by 12 in. (152 by
305-mm) cylinders. It is not intended that the cross-sectional
dimensions and the height of the specimen be necessarily
equal. If capping of beam portions is required, capping
procedures should be in accordance with applicable provisions
of Practice C 617 for Capping Cylindrical Concrete Specimens.2
15. MATERIALS FINER THAN 75-m (NO. 200)
SIEVE IN MINERAL AGGREGATES BY
WASHING (See Test Method C 117)2
When accurate determination of the total amount passing the
75-m (No. 200) sieve is desired as stated in Method C 136, for
Sieve Analysis of Fine and Coarse Aggregate2, both washing
and subsequent dry sieving on the 75-m (No. 200) sieve may
be required. It is essential to refer to the applicable aggregate
specifications to determine if both washing and dry sieving are
required to establish compliance with the required specifications.
15.1 Certain agencies require the use of a wetting agent
(household detergent) in wash water, although the historical
procedure used by ASTM has been without a wetting agent.

17. SPECIFIC GRAVITY AND ABSORPTION OF FINE

AGGREGATE (See Test Method C 128)2
In performing the determinations described in this test
method, probably the most important step is that of bringing
the sample to the saturated surface dry condition. The drying
procedure specified does not involve the use of heat other than
a gentle current of warm air, since the application of heat may
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Manual of Aggregate and Concrete Testing

suspect the condition of the sieves in use.
18.2 Sieves suspected of wear and damage should be
checked in comparison with good sieves. Periodically, sieves in
daily use, particularly those with smaller mesh, should be
examined for holes and breaks around the edges. Observation
of the particles on each sieve for uniformity of size can help
detect defective sieves. Noncorrosive flux, such as rosin core,
should be used in making repairs to cloth or refastening to the
frames. Whenever heating fine mesh sieves for drying the
temperature must be less than the melting point of solder,
approximately 375F (191C).
18.3 Jolting sieve cloths by impact to dislodge aggregate
particles caught in the openings can result in damage to the
wire mesh or the frame. Sieve frames may be tapped sharply on
a hard, durable table top to accomplish removal of such
wedged particles. Avoid striking sieves on another object, such
as the edge of metal trash cans, to protect them from cuts and
indentations. Damaged frames make it unlikely that the sieves
will nest properly. Sieves of finer mesh size require delicate
handling and striking on a firm pad to prevent damage to the
sensitive wire cloth.
18.4 The importance of sample preparation cannot be overemphasized. Loss of dust and fine particles must be avoided in
quartering, splitting, and otherwise handling samples for sieve
analysis. When sand is quartered it should contain sufficient
moisture to avoid the free-flowing condition characteristics of
dry sands. Excessive moisture content will make the recovery
of fines difficult and should also be avoided. To avoid loss of
fines, coarse aggregate should possess moisture content
slightly above the saturated surface dry condition for quartering or splitting. The sample should be dried to constant weight
using a convection oven for the sieve analysis test. For control
testing where rapid results are desirable, samples may be dried
in a microwave oven or hotplate, or it may be possible to use
samples of coarse aggregate in a damp condition. The provisions relating to the size of the sample required for coarse
aggregates of different maximum sizes should be carefully
observed. Such provisions in ASTM Specifications C 330, for
Lightweight Aggregates for Structural Concrete;2 C 331, for
Lightweight Aggregates for Concrete Masonry Units;2 and
C 332, for Lightweight Aggregates for Insulating Concrete,2
are discussed in 18.9. A sample that is smaller than specified
may be nonrepresentative. The maximum amount retained on
any sieve is limited to 0.62 g/cm2(.009 lbs/in.2) of sieving
surface (200 g for the usual 8 in. (203-mm) diameter sieve) for
fine aggregate as stated in Method C 136. This requirement is
intended to prevent overloading the individual sieve, and in
many cases will determine the maximum amount of material to
be sieved at one time. When the sample size required for the
aggregate exceeds the allowable amount of material to be
sieved at one time, then additional intermediate size sieves can
be inserted between the critical sieve and the next larger sieve.
Alternately the sample can be reduced to several smaller
subsamples through the use of quartering or splitting and the
results from these subsample portions can then be combined
after sieving. Weighing out an exact predetermined weight is
not permitted.
18.5 The need for using the hand sieving method to test the

remove moisture from within the particle. The intent is to

remove water from between the particles and from the surfaces
of the particles. Care must be exercised to prevent the loss of
fines when free water is drained from the sample in the initial
drying procedure. In addition, the sample should be stirred or
raked rather frequently during the drying to avoid undue drying
of particles at the edge of the pile. The cone procedure
employed in this test method accurately defines the saturatedsurface-dry condition for the vast majority of sands; however,
for a few angular sands and sands containing small quantities
of certain highly plastic clays, the sample will not slump until
after the average surface-dry condition has been passed. In
these instances the technician may have to exercise some
judgment in determining the end point by observing the typical
color change that takes place as the sample reaches the
saturated-surface-dry condition. Another procedure involves
placing a pat of sand on a dull or dark surface for 1 min; if the
surface appears damp after removal of the sand it is not yet
SSD and additional drying is required.
17.1 Additional precautions should be taken to ensure that
the material used for the mold is sufficiently rigid to prevent
deformation with continued use. A minimum thickness of
0.032 in. (0.8 mm) is required.
17.2 When filling the volumetric flask, the operator must be
sure that all air bubbles which may be trapped between the
sand grains are eliminated by inverting and agitating the flask.
Air remaining with the sample will result in erroneous specific
gravity values. The final temperature of the flask, water and
sand is important and must not change.
17.3 During removal of the aggregate from the pycnometer,
care should be exercised to avoid the loss of fine material, since
after drying, this weight will be compared to the original
weight to determine the absorption.
18. SIEVE ANALYSIS OF FINE AND COARSE
AGGREGATES (See Test Method C 136)2
Careful maintenance of sieves will make them last longer
and preserve the efficiency. The fine aggregate sieves, usually
8 in. (203 mm) in diameter, should be brushed clean to reduce
blinding of the mesh openings to a practical minimum. It is
unnecessary to remove all particles lodged in the sieve after
each use. For sieves 300-m (No. 50) and coarser, use a stiff
bristle brush (soft brass bristles and stencil brushes are satisfactory) to the underside of the sieve, but avoiding a harsh
raking action. For sieves 150-m (No. 100) and finer, use a soft
bristle brush to the underside after each test, taking care not to
damage the wire cloth by too much pressure or by scraping.
18.1 The laboratory should have two complete sets of fine
aggregate sieves that are reserved for more important routine
work. When duplicate tests are made, one test should be made
in each set. A third set of fine aggregate sieves should be
reserved for referee and reference tests. This set can be used for
tests made in the Aggregate Reference Sample Program of the
AMRL and to check the operating sets of sieves or any new
sieves before they are put in service. Older or suspect sieves
should be used for rough work, scalping and other nonsensitive
work. The sieves in routine work should be checked by sieving
a prepared sample alternately in the reference set. This should
be done about once a year or whenever there is reason to
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Manual of Aggregate and Concrete Testing

should be made following the special provisions of Specifications C 330, C 331, and C 332, for lightweight aggregates. The
specifications require that the weight of the fine aggregate sieve
sample shall be in accordance with the tables given. The coarse
aggregate sieve sample shall be 2830 cm3(0.1 ft.3) or more of
the material used for the unit weight test. To minimize
degradation, do not mechanically sieve lightweight aggregates
for more than 5 min. Hand sieving may be preferable for these
materials.

thoroughness of sieving by mechanical devices is particularly

important in the case of very fine or angular materials or when
an 8-in. (203-mm) diameter sieve retains more than about 150
g of material. The material on each sieve should be observed to
see that it consists of discrete or separate particles and not
agglomerations of particles. Agglomerations may occur with
dirty aggregate.
18.6 Only sieves of the U.S. Standard Series and conforming to ASTM Specification E 11 are to be used with this test
procedure. Specification E 11, Wire-Cloth Sieves for Testing
Purposes,2 contains sieve numbers, dimensions of openings
and wires, and tolerances in those dimensions for the U.S.
Standard Series sieves. Other sieve series should not be
confused with the U.S. Standard Series. Other series sieves
having the same number may not have the same opening as the
Standard Series and would give different results. Old and worn
sieves that do not have the specified openings should not be
used. Care should be taken to avoid confusing sieve numbers
and number of meshes per inch. Note that Specification E 11
specifies wire diameter. Since the weave prevents the wires
from lying in precisely the same plane, the wire diameter used
affects the size of the separated particles. For this reason the
use of larger than standard wires in order to increase screen life
will produce nonstandard test results. In addition, larger than
standard wire diameters will reduce the percentage of open
screen area and may increase required sieving time.
18.7 The oven dry weight of the sample before the test and
of each fraction of the separated material should be determined
and recorded, thus securing a check on the work. It is advisable
to retain each separate fraction until the original sample weight
can be compared with the sum of the weights of the individual
fractions.
18.8 The computation of the fineness modulus (FM) of an
aggregate is described in the calculations section of Method
C 136. The FM of an aggregate, determined in accordance with
Method C 136, is the empirical number obtained by adding the
total percentages retained on each of a specified series of
sieves, and dividing the sum by 100. The percentage retained
on a given sieve is cumulative in the sense that any material
retained on a sieve with a larger opening would also be retained
on that given sieve and, therefore, regarded as retained
material. The U.S. Standard sieve sizes used for the fineness
modulus calculation are 150 m (No. 100), 300 m (No. 50),
600 m (No. 30), 1.18 mm (No. 16), 2.36 mm (No. 8), 4.75
mm (No. 4), and sizes 9.5 mm (38in.), 19.0 mm (34 in.), 37.5
mm (112 in.), and larger, increasing in sieve openings in the
ratio of 2 to 1. Use values for all sieves in this series, but no
other sieves. Intermediate sieves such as the 12.5 mm (12 in.)
or 25.0 mm (1 in.) which are not in the fineness modulus series
will frequently be employed when the aggregate has a narrow
range of sizes or to determine compliance with some specifications, but are not used in calculating the FM. In general, a
small value for fineness modulus indicates a fine material,
while a large value indicates a coarse material. However, the
same FM may be obtained from a number of different
gradations. Fineness moduli of concrete sands will range from
about 2.30 for fine sands to 3.10 for coarse sands.
18.9 When testing lightweight aggregates, the sieve analysis

19. UNIT WEIGHT, YIELD, AND AIR CONTENT

(GRAVIMETRIC) OF CONCRETE
(See Test Method C 138)2
Data obtained in the determination of the weight per cubic
foot of the freshly mixed concrete by ASTM Test Method
C 138 is used to compute the yield or volume of a batch of
concrete, cement content, and air content (gravimetric). Test
Method C 138 gives detailed instructions for calculating these
parameters from the batch weights of materials used and from
results of the unit weight test. Since the air content is computed
from the difference between the theoretical and actual unit
weights of the concrete, small errors in the unit weight test or
in the theoretical unit weight caused by errors in the specific
gravity of the materials can result in relatively large errors in
the air content as computed in this test method.
19.1 The test method provides for a range of container sizes
from 0.2 to 3.5 ft3(6 to 99 dm3) for concrete having a range of
maximum nominal aggregate sizes of 1 in. (25 mm) to 6 in.
(152 mm). The larger size containers when filled with concrete
are too large to be lifted by hand. Mechanical means, such as
hoists and trolleys are necessary to move them onto scales and
to empty them. It is, however, advisable to use the largest
convenient measure to improve accuracy of test.
19.2 When calibrating the measure with water and a glass
plate, it is necessary that the open upper end of the measure be
plane. By inverting the measure on a glass plate that has been
coated with a light coat of machinists blue, it is easy to detect
any high spots that require work to provide the planeness
required.
19.3 In the final filling of the measure, if it is necessary to
add or remove concrete, it should be done by adding or
removing concrete, not mortar, so that the concrete proportions
remain the same. The optimum amount of concrete is such that
after the rodding and tapping operation no concrete will have
to be added or removed. This ideal situation is rarely achieved
so the usual practice is to have a very slight excess to be
removed by a strike off-plate. A flat plate of glass, acrylic or
metal is required for striking off and finishing the surface of the
concrete. The plates should be at least 14 in. (6 mm) thick for
steel and 12 in. (12 mm) for acrylic or glass. The edges of the
glass plates should be ground. Erroneously, a tamping rod,
trowel, wood float or straightedge is sometimes used instead of
the specified plate to strike off the concrete. The tendency when
using these instead of the plate is to leave the concrete high
resulting in a higher indicated unit weight which affects the
computations which depend upon the unit weight.
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Manual of Aggregate and Concrete Testing

concrete, the surface of the last layer of rodded concrete should
be only slightly above the top of the mold before striking off
the surface of the concrete with the tamping rod as specified in
the method. If the mold is obviously underfilled, pause after 10
or 15 strokes and add an additional representative sample of
concrete.
20.3 The time element must not be overlooked when making the slump test since concrete may lose slump rapidly with
time. The time requirements of the test should be adhered to
closely. Screed the top of the mold and remove any concrete
that has collected around the outside of the base of the mold.
The mold must then be removed immediately in a vertical
direction at a rate of 12 in. (300 mm) in 5 6 2 s. Completion
of the entire test must be accomplished within an elapsed time
of 212 min. from the start of molding the slump. Although
some technicians may rotate the cone before lifting to free the
surface of the concrete from the mold, such practice is not
permissible and should not be allowed. The mold should be
removed carefully and uniformly, in a vertical direction. Slump
measurements should be made immediately. An inverted slump
cone provides improved support for the rod in measuring the
slump.

20. SLUMP OF HYDRAULIC CEMENT CONCRETE

(See Test Method C 143)2
Test Method C 143 describes the slump mold and Fig. 1 in
this test method shows a slump mold having a riveted vertical
strip and riveted foot pieces and handles. A spun metal mold
with welded handles and footpieces is preferable. When riveted
molds are used, the interior surface of the rivets and the joint
should be smoothed. The interior surface of the mold should be
smoothed and be free of dents, paint, oil, hardened concrete,
cement paste, and hardened mortar. The periphery of the 8 in.
(203 mm) base should be plane. If not, the slump cone should
be placed on a plane glass or steel plate, and filed or ground to
make uniform contact upon the plate, retaining perpendicularity thereto. Slump cones may become out-of-round for various
reasons during shipment, transportation, or use and thus may
be outside allowable specification tolerances. When this occurs, they can sometimes be carefully bent to proper shape
within tolerances. The interior of the cone should be wetted just
prior to the test. This test method may not be applicable for
concrete with a slump less than 12in. (13 mm) and for concrete
with slump higher than 9 in. (230 mm). Due to the natural
angle of repose of the coarse aggregate in a sample of flowing
concrete, this test method may not be applicable for slumps
higher than about 712 in. (190 mm).
20.1 The use of a flat, moist, nonabsorbent (rigid) base
under the mold is mentioned, but no specific materials or
dimensions are stated. A metal plate is preferable, but a metal
sheet (16 to 20 gage (1.5 to 0.9 mm)) or a nonabsorbent coating
on a wooden base can be used satisfactorily. One man
operation is facilitated if devices which clamp the foot pieces
firmly to the base plate are used. The devices must be capable
of releasing without moving the mold. A concrete floor is
satisfactory provided it has a steel trowel finish, is kept damp,
and is squeegeed surface dry immediately prior to making the
slump test. For laboratory use, a heavy cast or steel plate with
machined top surface will be very satisfactory and can be
quickly cleaned between tests. A wooden base is not satisfactory, since its surface rapidly becomes rough and uneven. The
slump cone should have sufficient contact with the base to
prevent the loss of water, paste, or mortar from the concrete in
the mold. When the test is made in the field, a small level will
aid in leveling the base plate, which should be free from
movement and vibration during a test.
20.2 The mold is filled in three layers, each layer approximately one third the volume, not the height, of the mold. Some
like to paint two stripes around the outside of the mold, one 258
in. (67 mm) from the bottom, the second 618 in. (155 mm) from
the bottom as an aid in determining the approximate depths for
the equal volume points. In rodding the middle and top layers
of concrete the rod should penetrate only slightly into the layer
below. Excessive penetration of the rod into the lower layers
must be avoided. The required heaping of the concrete above
the mold rim before rodding the final layer can be facilitated if
an extension is used at the top of the cone. Such extension can
be made from a discarded cone by cutting off the upper 6 in.
(150 mm), attaching lugs around the 4 in. (102 mm) diameter,
and inverting the extension for use. By using such an extension, and by carefully estimating the required amount of

21. LENGTH CHANGE OF HARDENED

HYDRAULIC-CEMENT MORTAR AND
CONCRETE (See Test Method C 157)2
Length change as determined by this test method is the
increase or decrease in a linear dimension of the test specimen.
The test method covers numerous details of the required
apparatus and procedure. Attention is directed to the required
control of temperature, relative humidity, and rate of evaporation.
21.1 The molds required are those specified in Practice
C 490, Apparatus for Use in Measurement of Length Change of
Hardened Cement Paste, Mortar, and Concrete.2 That practice
requires a thin coating of mineral oil on the interior surfaces of
the mold. Do not use lard, animal, or vegetable oils since these
may soften the surfaces of specimens. Molds should be
pre-oiled before the gage studs are mounted, to prevent the
deposit of oil on the gage stud through contact with oily
fingers, oily rag, or lubricating brush.
21.2 Micrometer dials generally used on a comparator as
described in Practice C 490 frequently have a contact end
(anvil) that screws into the stem of the dial. This insert should
not be permitted to become loose. The proper use of a
micrometer comparator requires that a check reading be made
on a standard reference bar before and after making readings
on specimens, more frequently if a large number of measurements are to be taken at a given time. The reference bar is
described in Practice C 490. The length of the reference bar
should be known, so that a replacement bar of the same length
can be obtained should it be damaged or lost. The procurement
of a second reference bar, tied in by comparative measurements
with the currently used bar might be considered. The hardened,
polished ends of the reference bar should be kept clean, but
caution is urged not to decrease the overall length by improper
cleaning methods. For example, the measurements of an
important long-term study were seriously affected by the
operators practice of rubbing the reference bar ends on a piece
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Manual of Aggregate and Concrete Testing

wet-sieved if the maximum aggregate size is larger than is
suitable for the size of the test equipment to be used or the test
specimen to be made. Most test procedures require that the
minimum dimension of the specimen or the mold shall be at
least three times the maximum size aggregate used in the test
or the specimen. The specific requirements are given in the
various applicable test procedures.
22.3.2 When there is a need to wet sieve concrete, this must
be anticipated ahead of time, and wet-sieving equipment that
will satisfactorily accomplish the wet-sieving operation as
rapidly as possible with a minimum of effort shall be provided.
Attempting to use an 8 in. (200 mm) diameter sieve by hand
method is not satisfactory.
22.3.3 Wet sieving concrete is best accomplished with
equipment that shakes or moves back and forth rather than
using high frequency vibration. Fig. 5 shows hand-operated
wet-sieving equipment suitable for occasional or lighter-type
wet-sieving work. This consists of an 18 by 26 in. (457 by 660
mm) Gilson sieve tray supported by a homemade wooden
frame. The sieve tray is moved forward and backward by hand
as rapidly as possible. The concrete which passes through the
sieve falls on a clean, moist, non-absorbent surface or pan, is
remixed for testing.
22.3.4 Fig. 6 shows wet-sieving equipment powered by an
electric motor suitable for larger jobs and for mass concrete.
The interchangeable sieve mounted on the movable frame
which is tilted slightly is moved forward and backward by the
driving mechanism. Concrete to be wet-sieved is shoveled onto
the sieve. Concrete that passes the sieve falls into the pan
underneath and is used for further testing after it is recombined
with a shovel. Aggregate that does not pass the sieve rolls to
the lower end of the sieve and into a pan or wheelbarrow to be
discarded. Wet-sieving of concrete should be done rapidly, and
the concrete should be protected from the sun and the wind.
The sieves should not be overloaded.
22.4 When wet-sieved concrete is used for the air content
test, the air content measured is the wet-sieved fraction, not the
total concrete. The aggregate larger than the designated size,
which is removed and coated with a small amount of mortar, is
assumed to contain no (or little) air. Concrete specifications
may specify air content for the full mix or for a fraction of the
concrete wet-sieved to a designated size. If the test is made on
the sample wet-sieved to a given size, the air content of the full
mix may be calculated if the concrete-mix proportions are
known or determined. The air content of the full mix is
obtained by multiplying the air content of the wet-sieved
fraction by the ratio of the volume of the full mix. (This may
be calculated from the known or determined mix for 1 yd3 or
1 m3 of concrete.) For example, 3 in. nominal maximum size
aggregate concrete is being produced. The air content of 112
in. wet-sieved fraction of the concrete as determined with an
airmeter is 4.9 %. From the mix calculations for 1 yd3(27.0 ft3)
of this concrete, the +112 in. fraction has an absolute or solid
volume of 4.62 ft3. The volume of the 112 in. fraction of the
concrete is then 27.0 4.62 5 22.38 ft3. The air content of the
full mix is 4.9 3 22.38/27.00 5 4.1 %.
22.4.1 Unit weight tests to be used for concrete-mix computations are best made on the full mix, although unit weight

of cloth or canvas that probably contained cement dust. These

frequent rubbings over a long period of time were found to
have caused significant wear of the reference bar. When
reading the dial micrometer, a gentle tapping with a pencil on
the dial case is recommended. The dial stem should be clean
and should move freely, but should not be lubricated.
21.2.1 Practice C 490 describes in detail the apparatus for
use in Test Method C 157, and all precautions and recommendations therein should be observed.
22. SAMPLING FRESHLY MIXED CONCRETE
(See Practice C 172)2
When samples are taken in the field, they should come from
predetermined batches in accordance with the sampling plan.
The practice of testing only batches of low or high slump will
fail to accurately describe concrete quality and uniformity.
Practice C 172 is applicable to obtaining samples of fresh
concrete from stationary, paving, and truck mixers and from
agitating and nonagitating equipment used to transport centrally mixed concrete. Sampling should normally be performed
as the concrete is discharged from this equipment at the project
site to the conveying vehicle used to transport the concrete to
the forms; however, specifications may require other points of
sampling such as at the discharge of a concrete pump. Samples
from concrete that has been compacted or manipulated after its
discharge from a mixer or agitator or conveyance are not
suitable for making acceptance tests for consistency, air content, or potential strength.
22.1 Time limitations are imposed on taking different portions of the composite samples, on preparing the composite
samples for slump and air content tests, and for molding
specimens for strength tests. The time limitations should be
carefully observed to ensure that results of tests are consistently representative of the concrete. Elapsed time between
compositing samples and performing tests or molding test
specimens should be the minimum possible. Compositing of
samples and remixing should be performed at the place where
tests are to be made or where specimens are to be molded. Tests
and molding of specimens should be performed as close to the
point of sampling as possible.
22.2 The practice of sampling concrete from the discharge
stream from a mixer or truck, or from a pile, by means of a
scoop or shovel, and then filling a test container (slump cone,
airmeter bowl, cylinder, or beam mold) with several such
samples without the required remixing should not be permitted.
The filling of a 6 by 12 in. (150 by 300 mm) cylinder mold by
placing it in the stream of discharging concrete is prohibited.
22.3 Practice C 172 provides for wet-sieving concrete
where the concrete contains aggregate larger than can be
accommodated by the test equipment or larger than is suitable
for the size of the test specimens to be made. For example, Test
Method C 143 for the slump of concrete states that the test is
applicable for concretes having aggregates up to 112 in. (37.5
mm) in size. If the concrete contains aggregate larger than this
size, for example, 3 in. (75 mm) maximum size, the aggregate
larger than 112in. (37.5 mm) is removed by wet sieving, and
the slump test is made on the minus 112in. (37.5 mm) fraction
of the concrete.
22.3.1 Various other tests require that the concrete be
17

Manual of Aggregate and Concrete Testing

FIG. 5 Equipment for Wet Sieving Concrete by Hand

tests of a wet-sieved fraction of concrete can be corrected to the

full mix when the mix details are known.
22.5 The test sample of concrete should have a volume of at
least 25 % greater than that needed to make all required
specimens. The sample size requirement also applies to the
amount of material left after wet sieving when large aggregate
has been removed.
23. AIR CONTENT OF FRESHLY MIXED
CONCRETE BY THE VOLUMETRIC METHOD
(See Test Method C 173)2
This test method is applicable to concretes containing any
type of aggregate. It is the only procedure considered satisfactory for determining air contents of concretes made with
lightweight aggregates, air-cooled slag, and highly porous or
vesicular natural aggregates. The test method presents the
details of the necessary apparatus and of its use. In using bowls
of the minimum capacity permitted, 0.075 ft3(0.002 m3), very
careful attention must be given to ensure that a representative
sample of the concrete is obtained and tested. It is considered
desirable to at least occasionally determine the coarse aggregate content of the sample tested and compare it with the
theoretical coarse aggregate content of the mix as a means of
checking possible sampling errors.
23.1 The rocking and rolling procedure in the test method
needs further amplification. To increase the accuracy of the test
and shorten the necessary rolling time it is important that all of
the concrete in the base is dislodged during the first shaking
and rolling operations. Tip the device upside down to get the
concrete out of the base and then slosh it from side to side to
allow the water movement to further break up the concrete.
Invert the measure again to make sure that all the concrete is
out of the base. You should be able to hear the aggregate rolling
around in the meter. Do not keep the measure upside down

FIG. 6 Mechanical Equipment for Wet Sieving Concrete

more than 5 s or so at a time once the aggregate is free or it may

18

Manual of Aggregate and Concrete Testing

concerning the materials used in preparing laboratory concrete
should be recorded. Experience has shown that such data may
be valuable long afterward when details cannot be readily
supplied from memory. A few extra minutes on records will be
well spent.
24.3 Record the actual weight used in the mix. The description of the cement should be complete, including kind, type,
manufacture, brand, source of shipment, and nature of container. If the cement is other than portland, the specific gravity
should be determined and recorded. Applicable laboratory
sample numbers may be helpful. The weight per bag should be
recorded if bagged cement is being used. However, if trial
batches are being mixed for use with bulk cement use, it is
better to obtain a representative sample from the bulk cement
supply to be used rather than to obtain commercial bagged
cement from the same source. Prior to a series of tests, the dry
cement should be uniformly blended. The cement stock should
be stored in tightly closed, moisture-proof containers, preferably metal, throughout the tests. A steel drum with an easily
opened lock rim with a gasket is one of the preferred types and
is easily emptied and cleaned.
24.4 The description of any admixture used in the laboratory concrete should be sufficiently complete to indicate the
nature of the material, manufacturers name, brand, lot, and
any related laboratory numbers. Specification C 260, AirEntraining Admixtures for Concrete,2 and Test Method C 233,
for Air-Entraining Admixtures for Concrete,2 respectively,
cover the requirements for and methods of test for airentraining admixtures. Specification C 494, Chemical Admixtures for Concrete,2 covers the requirements for other chemical
admixtures such as water reducers, retarders, accelerators, etc.
Specification C 618, Fly Ash and Raw or Calcined Natural
Pozzolans for Use as a Mineral Admixture in Portland Cement
Concrete,2 covers the requirements for pozzolanic admixtures.
If solutions of admixtures are prepared in the laboratory,
records should show the actual quantities of admixture and
water used. When using admixtures, attention should be given
to the instructions and precautions furnished by the manufacturer of the admixture with particular attention to dosage rate
and time of addition. Solutions should be stored properly.
Nonmetallic containers are preferred for storing solutions.
Solutions should be checked occasionally, particularly at the
start of tests in which they are to be used, and should be
replaced by fresh solutions whenever it is found advisable
during a test program.
24.5 It is important to record the actual weight of materials
used, as well as the proportions of a mixture. Appropriate
attention must be given to any pertinent differences between
units of measurement in different localities, such as the British
Imperial gallon and the Canadian metric weight of a bag of
portland cement. Attention should be given to the weightvolume relations, and to the size and content weights of
shipping packages applicable to any special cements. The units
in which water-cementitious material ratios are expressed must
be clearly defined (by weight, by gallons per U.S. bag, etc.).
The quantity of any liquid other than the mixing water should
be recorded. The mixing water should be measured with

become lodged in the neck of the meter. If this happens slosh

it from side to side to get the aggregate back down. After the
measure is inverted and the concrete freed from the base the
inclined measure should be rolled vigorously for about 1 min
and returned to the upright position. If the concrete is airentrained, foam often obscures the water level and the top
should be opened and 2 or 3 measures of 70 % isopropyl
alcohol poured in. With air entrained concrete it saves time if
the alcohol is added to bring the water-alcohol up to the zero
mark in the initial filling operation. The level is read, if
possible, the top closed and the measure rolled vigorously for
another 1 min period. At this point the level should be clearly
visible and no further additions of alcohol necessary. The 1 min
periods of rolling should be continued until the level changes
less than 0.1 percentage points between successive readings. If
too much alcohol is added, a syringe can be used to remove one
or more cupfuls. When the apparatus is disassembled the
contents of the base should be examined to be sure that no
concrete stuck in the base.
24. MAKING AND CURING CONCRETE TEST
SPECIMENS IN THE LABORATORY
(See Practice C 192)2
Practice C 192 has no section relating specifically to the
sampling of either hand-mixed or machine-mixed concrete.
Concrete batches are required to contain at least 10 % more
concrete than is required to mold specimens and it is necessary
that each scoopful, trowelful, or shovelful of concrete taken
from the batch to fill the specimen molds be representative of
the batch. In order to maintain uniformity of concrete mixed by
machine, the concrete must be deposited in a clean, damp pan
and re-mixed by shovel or trowel. Concrete that tends to
segregate readily (slumps larger than 3 in. (76 mm) or concrete
containing nearly spherical coarse aggregate) should be remixed after the removal of each one or two scoopfuls or
shovelfuls. Trowels should not be used for sampling the
concrete because mortar or rounded aggregate will flow off the
sides. Scoops or shovels should be used to sample the concrete,
not in horizontal layers, but throughout the depth of the batch
with the edge of the scoop or shovel, sliding along the bottom
of the pan. Cutting edges of the scoops and shovels should be
straight, not curved. In order to ensure symmetrical distribution
of the concrete and to minimize segregation of coarse aggregate within the mold, the scoop or shovel should be moved
around the top edge of the mold as the concrete is discharged.
24.1 Many of the comments and precautions in other ASTM
methods are also applicable to Practice C 192, and reference
should be made to these methods as mentioned in this section.
24.2 Practice C 192 requires that all materials shall be
weighed on scales meeting the requirements for sensitivity and
tolerances prescribed by the National Institute of Standards and
Technology Handbook 44.17 Where scales are graduated in
decimals of pounds, or where the metric system is used, the
equivalent percentage sensitivity reciprocal and tolerances
shall apply. The user is cautioned against making small
weighings on large capacity scales. There is some discussion of
the use and care of weighing apparatus in Section 5 of this
manual. All materials should be at room temperature, in the
range of 68 to 86F (20 to 30C). All pertinent information
19

Manual of Aggregate and Concrete Testing

or set controlling admixtures or both, are often added to the
damp sand to reduce possible adverse effects when they are
added closely together. The time and method of adding an
admixture can have important effects on properties of concrete
and must be charged into the mixer in the same time sequence
from batch to batch. Delaying the introduction of a retarding
admixture for as little as 30 to 60 s after the start of mixing has
been shown to have important effects on the time of set, air
content, and water requirement for a given consistency. The
specified time of mixing should be sufficient to assure that the
admixture is uniformly blended throughout the batch. The
drum or pan of the mixer should be cleaned thoroughly after
mixing concrete containing a chemical admixture, particularly
if concretes with and without chemical admixtures or containing a succession of different chemical admixtures are being
prepared. The mixer should be rebuttered prior to mixing of a
different concrete.
24.8 It is inadvisable to use either exceptionally small
batches or to overload the mixer. A very small batch, for
example, one tenth of the mixers rated capacity, will not be
mixed in the same manner as a standard size batch, and the
percentage mortar retained in the mixer will be excessive. An
overload of materials is rarely mixed properly, may be accompanied by spillage, and may put too much load on the driving
unit. The batch should be of sufficient volume to leave about
10 % when specimen fabrication has been completed. When
batches are hand mixed, the operators hands should be
protected by rubber gloves.
24.9 Practice C 192 requires that materials be at a uniform
temperature, in the range of 68 to 86F (20 to 30C).
Comparative concrete mixtures should have about the same as
mixed temperatures. The relative humidity is not specified,
but variations therein during a working day, or from day to day,
can cause variations in the slump of the concrete for a fixed
water content, or in the mixing water required for a given
consistency. It is recommended that the relative humidity be
recorded regularly. Dehumidification of a laboratory is not
easy, but an excessively low humidity may easily be raised to
30 to 50 % by water atomizer sprays. Control of the temperature of the mixing water will assist in maintaining concrete
temperatures near the optimum of 73F (23C).
24.10 The precautions against over-filling the top layer of
the mold before vibration should be observed. In addition, it is
preferable to vibrate all specimens of equal slump and proportions in a test group for the same length of time and in an
identical manner. Over-vibration should be avoided. Carefully
follow the requirements for use of rodding or vibration, or
both, based on slump of the concrete. After the molding
operation has been completed, precautions should be taken to
avoid disturbance of the specimens until sufficient strength has
been obtained to prevent damage.
24.11 Practice C 192 requires that after 24 6 8 h in the
molds at 73.4 6 3F (23 6 1.7C) the concrete specimens be
demolded and stored in either moist air or limewater. Most
laboratories use moist air curing. It is preferable that specimens
in a moist room be stored in racks instead of being stacked in
close contact on the floor. There should be free air space around
each specimen, and free water should be maintained on all

sufficient accuracy to warrant expressing the watercementitious material ratio to two decimal places. Proper
allowance should be made for free and absorbed water in the
aggregate. The quantity of mixing water should be recorded in
terms of the units actually used in the measurement, even
though different units may be used in the final report. Vessels
for storage of water should be clean. Volumetric measures
should be checked for accuracy and their capacity should be
marked thereon. The tare weights of vessels used for weighing
water should be checked occasionally. The manner of measuring the water should be appropriate to the refinement required
in the final calculations.
24.6 The mixing action of small tilting drum laboratory
mixers should be critically observed and deficiencies corrected.
Mixers of this type sometimes run too fast to properly mix
concrete of the type used in laboratory work. Sometimes
mixing action can be improved by reducing the speed or
changing the angle of inclination or tilt of the drum, or both. In
some instances, capacities have been grossly overrated by the
suppliers. These statements are not intended to condemn small
tilting drum mixers for laboratory work, but to suggest that
adjustments may be needed to improve mixing action.
24.6.1 Belt, chain, or gear drives on mixers should be
adequately guarded to prevent injury. Personnel should wear
safety glasses, goggles, or face shields to protect the eyes from
concrete splatters during mixing. Practice C 192 describes the
procedure for hand mixing of concrete. Hand mixing is not to
be used for air entrained concrete. The requirement for a damp
metal pan should not be so loosely interpreted as to result in the
use of a pan containing enough excess water to affect the slump
of the concrete. For either the revolving drum or the open pan
type of mixer, the mixing cycle is clearly presented in the
section on Machine Mixing in Practice C 192. The equipment,
procedure and time of mixing can greatly affect the compressive strength and amount of entrained air, and no variations
from the required cycle should be permitted. The mixture
should be buttered prior to each substantial change in the
mixture proportions.
24.7 Admixtures that are in powdered form and are not
soluble in water should be added to and pre-mixed with the
cement prior to use in the revolving drum mixer, and be mixed
with the sand and cement in the pan mixer. Care must be taken
in adding the powdered admixtures that are used in very small
amounts (often from 0.01 to 0.2 % by weight of cement)
because it is difficult to distribute them evenly and blend them
uniformly with the cement when preparing a concrete mixture.
Chemical admixtures that are soluble in water should be
prepared as a water solution unless instructions specifically
dictate otherwise. Such solutions and chemical admixtures that
are marketed as liquids should generally be introduced into the
mixer with the mixing water. The water present in the solution
should be included in the calculation of the water content of the
concrete. Solutions that are not compatible, such as solutions of
calcium chloride and certain air entraining agents or set
retarders, should not be intermixed prior to their introduction to
the mixer and should be added to the batch of concrete in
accordance with the manufacturers recommendations. Air
entraining admixtures, when used with either water-reducing
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Manual of Aggregate and Concrete Testing

is not required. It is necessary only that the frequency output of
the oscillator at any setting be stable during the duration of the
test.
25.2.1 A 3 by 4 by 17inch (76 by 104 by 430mm)
aluminum prismatic bar has been found suitable for system
verification. Such a bar may be used to check system operation
at about 2000, 2500, 3200, and 5900 cps (Hz). These correspond to two transverse resonant frequencies, the torsional
resonant frequency, and the longitudinal resonant frequency.
The resonant frequencies of the aluminum bar are determined
using the same procedure as for a concrete specimen. A
reference bar of this type can be used at any time and can be
shipped from place to place to check and synchronize several
pieces of equipment. Smaller size aluminum or other metal
prisms can also be used, however the resonant frequencies will
have a higher values than stated above.
25.2.2 The sonic equipment should be allowed to warm up
for 2 min prior to use to stabilize the electronic circuits.
25.2.3 The driver unit can be conveniently mounted on a
stand so that it can be readily placed against the test specimen.
Some driver units are made from an audio speaker that has
been modified by attaching a steel tip to the speaker diaphragm. In contacting the concrete with the tip of the driver,
care should be taken not to break the tip loose from the
diaphragm. The tip should not be struck sharply or subjected to
great pressure. The driver unit should be pushed against the
specimen with just enough force to prevent a chattering sound
when the specimen is being vibrated. Avoid excessive force.
The pickup unit can be held against the concrete by spring
loading or by a rubber band, or by the weight of the pickup unit
alone if sufficient to provide good contact. The pickup should
not be allowed to become wet, since water may damage it. A
small amount of grease can be added to the tip of the stylus to
aid in coupling the transducer to the concrete.
25.2.4 When moving the pickup and test specimen, the gain
of the indicator circuit should be reduced to avoid damage to
the meter.
25.2.5 The driving amplitude should be maintained as low
as is feasible for good response at resonance to avoid distortion. Maintaining the driving amplitude as low as possible also
saves wear and tear on the equipment and spares the ears of
other laboratory employees. Between tests of individual specimens the driver amplitude should be reduced so as to be
inaudible.
25.2.6 The sonic equipment should be kept in a dry place.
25.2.7 Drift can be determined by periodically checking
with the aluminum bar, an electronic counter, or by other
means. If drift is detected, the instrument should be checked by
a knowledgeable electronics technician or returned to the
manufacturer for repair.
25.2.8 In measuring the fundamental resonant frequency,
the operator should have a general idea of the approximate
value to be measured. Otherwise, it is possible to make a gross
error in the measured value of the resonant frequency. This
error occurs when the specimen is driven at a frequency that is
a fraction of the fundamental resonant frequency. For example,
if the fundamental resonant frequency is 3000 Hz and the
specimen is driven at a frequency of 1500 Hz, the specimen

surfaces of the specimen.

24.12 When storing strength test specimens in limewater,
the water should be saturated with lime before immersing the
first cylinders. There have been cases where specimens were
stored in fresh water with the idea that the lime leached from
the earlier stored cylinders would later bring about a satisfactory saturation condition for the later specimens. Such practice
defeats the purpose of the use of lime-saturated water, at least
in the case of the first specimens stored in the water. Limewater
can irritate the skin and can cause rashes on the hands and
arms. Some technicians will need to wear gloves and therefore,
deep containers should be avoided or a satisfactory mechanical
means provided to retrieve specimens. Naturally, water depth
must be sufficient to completely cover specimens at all times.
24.13 Moist storage rooms shall meet the requirements of
Specification C 511, Moist Cabinets, Moist Rooms and Water
Storage Tanks Used in the Testing of Hydraulic Cements and
Concretes.2 In a good moist room the fog spray will be thick
enough to hamper visibility at 10 to 15 ft.
25. FUNDAMENTAL TRANSVERSE,
LONGITUDINAL, AND TORSIONAL
FREQUENCIES OF CONCRETE SPECIMENS18
(See Test Method C 215)2
Two alternative procedures are permitted in determining the
fundamental resonant frequency. These procedures are: (1) the
forced resonance method or (2) the impact resonance procedure. The same procedure must be used for all specimens in a
given group.
25.1 The forced resonance method uses an electromechanical driving unit to vibrate a specimen. The driver unit is
operated by a variablefrequency oscillator. A lightweight
pickup unit attached to the specimen is used to measure the
amplitude of vibration as the driving frequency is varied. The
amplitude of vibration is displayed on an electronic indicator.
The value of the frequency causing maximum amplitude is the
resonant frequency of the specimen.
25.1.1 The impact resonance method uses a small impactor
(hammer) and a lightweight accelerometer to measure the
vibration of the specimen. The output of the accelerometer is
recorded by a computerbased system which determines the
resonant frequency of the specimen by analyzing the recorded
data.
25.2 Forced Resonance MethodThe accuracy of forced
resonance method depends on the accuracy with which frequency can be determined. The actual oscillator frequency
should agree closely with the indicated frequency, within the
specified 6 2 % or else a calibration curve should be prepared.
The oscillator can be calibrated over its complete range by use
of an electronic counter or by synchronization with the
standard time signals broadcast daily over station WWV by the
National Institute of Standards and Technology. If a calibrated
electronic counter is included in the oscillator circuit, it may be
used for frequency determination, and the oscillator calibration
18
For additional explanation see Whitehurst, E.A., Evaluations of Concrete
Properties From Sonic Tests ACI Monograph No 2., and Malhotra, V.M., Testing
Hardened Concrete Nondestructive Methods ACI Monograph No. 9., American
Concrete Institute, Farmington Hills, Michigan.

21

Manual of Aggregate and Concrete Testing

will vibrate at its fundamental resonant frequency and the
amplitude indicator will indicate a peak value. Thus the user
could report the resonant frequency as 1500 Hz. High amplitude vibration would also occur if the specimen were driven at
1000 Hz, that is 13 of the fundamental frequency. To avoid this
problem, the instrument should be equipped with an oscilloscope that displays the oscillator output versus the receiver
output. When the specimen is being driven at the fundamental
resonant frequency, the oscilloscope shows an elliptical pattern. If the specimen is driven at 12 its fundamental resonant
frequency, the oscilloscope shows a pattern resembling the
infinity sign, (`).
25.2.9 Usually torsional frequencies are determined only
when it is desired to determine Poissons ratio or the modulus
of rigidity. In order to calculate Poissons ratio, it is necessary
to determine the torsional frequency and either the transverse
or longitudinal frequency. Some laboratories routinely determine all three resonant frequencies when testing specimens. In
determining E from the longitudinal frequency, it is not
necessary to know Poissons ratio provided L/d is not less than
2. The fundamental longitudinal frequency is normally considerably higher than the fundamental transverse frequency. For
the previously mentioned aluminum bar, the fundamental
longitudinal frequency is about 5950 cps (Hz) and the fundamental transverse frequency in the direction of the smaller
dimension is about 2000 cps (Hz). It is a matter of choice
whether to use longitudinal or transverse frequencies, since
Youngs modulus can be calculated from either. The amplitude
of vibration in the longitudinal direction is much smaller than
in the transverse direction, and more operator skill is required
to determine the longitudinal resonant frequency. The choice
may also be influenced by the use of the data. The longitudinal
frequency reflects the average condition of the specimen,
whereas surface disintegration produces a disproportionately
high reduction in transverse frequency. Test Method C 666
specifies transverse frequency because it is important to detect
surface deterioration as well as general deterioration.
25.2.10 Temperature change within the normal laboratory
range should not affect results appreciably. Moisture content
probably has a slight effect on results but this is probably not
significant unless the moisture content is changed appreciably
(completely dry to saturated, for example). Poissons ratio is
reported to increase with degree of saturation.
25.2.11 Specimens containing freezable water will show
higher fundamental frequencies if tested when frozen. However, to eliminate completely effects of temperature and
changes in moisture content, beams on which several successive readings are to be taken should be kept at the same
temperature (above freezing) and moisture content, if possible.
25.3 Impact Resonance MethodIn the impact resonance
method, the specimen is struck at the appropriate position with
a small hammer. The impact causes the specimen to vibrate in
its natural modes. An accelerometer mounted in the proper
position is used to monitor the vibration of the specimen. The
output of the accelerometer is analyzed to determine the
vibrational frequencies. This technique is analogous to ringing
a bell by striking it with a hammer.
25.3.1 There are two common methods for determining the

resonant frequency from impact testing. One method is based

on counting the number of zero crossings of the accelerometer
signal. This is accomplished by electronic circuitry, and the
instrument displays the digital value of the resonant frequency.
The other technique uses a digital signal processing method
that determines the predominant frequencies contained in the
accelerometer signal. These frequencies include the fundamental resonant frequency plus the frequencies of higher vibrational modes. The output from the signal processing is a graph
of amplitude versus frequency, known as the amplitude spectrum. Resonant frequencies appear as peaks in the amplitude
spectrum. The fundamental resonant frequency is the peak with
the highest amplitude and lowest frequency. In this second
method, the frequency resolution is the inverse of the duration
of the sampling period. A longer sampling period results in
higher frequency resolution. For example, if the sampling
frequency is 20 kHz (sampling interval of 0.00005 s) and 1024
points are recorded, the resolution is 19.5 Hz (1/0.0512 s). If
the sampling frequency were lowered to 10 kHz, the frequency
resolution would be 9.8 kHz. The user must make sure that the
sampling frequency is at least twice the resonant frequency to
be measured. For example, if the sampling frequency is 20
kHz, the maximum frequency that can be measured is 10 kHz.
25.3.2 The nature of the impact is critical in the success of
the impact resonance method. If the duration of the impact is
too long, it may not be possible to excite the fundamental
resonant frequency of the specimen. Test Method C 215
specifies a hammer that has been found to be suitable for the
typical specimens used in Test Method C 666. For smaller
specimens, it may be necessary to use hammers of smaller
mass. The force of the hammer impact does not have an
appreciable effect on the resonant frequency. However, the user
should use a similar impact force from specimen to specimen.
Some practice may be required to learn the proper technique,
which should be a sharp, quick impact. It is best to hold the
handle of the hammer loosely between thumb and forefinger
when striking the specimen.
25.3.3 By using the impact resonance method, it is possible
to determine the torsional resonant frequency of a cylindrical
specimen. To excite the torsional mode, it is necessary to strike
the specimen with a tangential blow as shown in Fig. 4 of Test
Method C 215. Practice will be required to develop the proper
technique. The user should know the approximate value of the
torsional resonant frequency as a check that the torsional mode
has in fact been excited by the impact.
25.4 The paper by Gerald Pickett, Equations for Computing Elastic Constants from Flexural and Torsional Resonant
Frequencies of Vibration of Prisms and Cylinders, Proceedings, ASTM, ASTEA, 1945, Vol. 45, p. 846, is a most useful
reference when making calculations based on results obtained
from sonic tests. By use of the charts and equations set forth in
this paper, constants for flexural and torsional vibration of
prisms and cylinders can be computed.
26. AIR CONTENT OF FRESHLY MIXED
CONCRETE BY THE PRESSURE METHOD
(See Test Method C 231)2
The test method describes apparatus of two basic operational
types employing the principle of Boyles law. The test method
22

Manual of Aggregate and Concrete Testing

27. BLEEDING OF CONCRETE
(See Test Methods C 232)2

is considered applicable to concretes and mortars made with

relatively dense aggregates. It is not applicable to concretes
made with lightweight aggregates, air-cooled blast furnace
slag, or aggregates of high porosity where the aggregate
correction factor exceeds about 0.5 %.
26.1 The internal surface of the assembly cover should be
kept clean and free from oil or grease; the surface should be
wet, to prevent the adherence of air bubbles that might be
difficult to dislodge after assembly.
26.2 Leaky air valves, and dry, spongy or worn-out leathers
in the hand pumps may cause difficulty in maintaining the
desired air pressure. The air valve near the top of the cover
assembly should be kept clean and free from oil. It is advisable
to have on hand an extra pump and extra cores for the air valve.
The meter should be checked before being taken to the field
after a period of nonuse. It is necessary to calibrate the Type A
meter whenever the elevation at which it will be used changes
by more than 600 ft (183 mm). The Type B meter is unaffected
by elevation.
26.3 The graduated precision-bore glass tube and the attached glass water gage (Type A) should be frequently cleaned
internally, using a soft hair brush or a swab of waste or cloth.
Even with frequent cleaning, it is sometimes necessary to use
a dilute (1 + 4) solution of hydrochloric acid to remove the film
that adheres to the inner surface of the glass on drying.
26.4 Some water pressure meters (Type B) have a flat gasket
instead of a tubular or conical gasket. When not properly
cemented to the bottom of the conical assembly, the flat gasket
will permit the escape of water. A spare gasket should be
available.
26.5 The Type B airmeter is sometimes used for the
determination of the air content of a fraction of the concrete
wet-screened or hand-picked to a maximum size appropriate
for the size of the meter being used, with a correction being
made for the aggregate removed, which is assumed to contain
no air. If wet-sieving is used, the effect of this operation in
reducing the air in the concrete must be considered. For
additional information see Section 22.4 on Sampling Freshly
Mixed Concrete.
26.6 Base the selection of the method of consolidation on
the slump unless the method is stated in the specification under
which the work is performed. Rod concretes with a slump
greater than 3 in. (75 mm). Rod or vibrate concretes with a
slump of 1 to 3 in. (25 to 75 mm). Consolidate by vibration
concretes with a slump of less than 1 in. (25 mm). Failure to
properly rod or to close voids left by the tamping rod will
indicate incorrect higher air contents.
26.7 Vibration must be carefully done when used to consolidate mass concrete, or smaller aggregate concrete in the
smaller airmeters, permitted in Test Method C 231. Vibration is
easier for the operator and the tendency is to overvibrate
resulting in loss of air and increased density. Vibration should
cease when all the coarse aggregate is submerged, and the
surface takes on a smooth glistening appearance.
26.8 The calibration procedures described in the text should
be followed carefully and methodically. Some meter manufacturers supply calibration instructions which are based on
procedures different from those given in the test method.

The methods of determining the relative amount of bleeding

either without disturbance or with specified intermittent vibrations are described in the procedure. Certain precautions
should be taken when making the bleeding test according to
this test method. For concrete made in the laboratory, the
aggregates and concrete should be prepared as prescribed in
Practice C 192. The interior surface of the container must be
smooth and free from corrosion, coatings and lubricants. It is
important that the concrete be properly placed in the container
as specified in Test Method C 232, and kept within the
temperature limits of 65 to 75F (18 to 24C) when so placed
and be free of vibration or unnecessary disturbance. Any
variation from the prescribed method may affect the bleeding
rate. Test Method C 232 does not specify the ambient relative
humidity, but does require that the filled container be covered
with a suitable lid. The lid should fit the top of the container so
that evaporation is reduced to a minimum and should be kept
in place throughout the test except when drawing off water.
28. FLEXURAL STRENGTH OF CONCRETE (USING
SIMPLE BEAM WITH CENTERPOINT
LOADING) (See Test Method C 293)2
The comments on Test Method C 78 also apply generally to
Test Method C 293. This method requires that the specimen be
kept wet until the moment it is placed in the testing machine.
The last twenty hours of curing prior to testing the beams must
be immersed in water saturated with calcium hydroxide (highcalcium hydrated lime).
28.1 For testing, the beam should be placed on its side with
respect to the mold. If any protrusions on the edges of the beam
are left from the molding process, carefully remove these by
use of a masons rubbing stone or Carborundum. Grinding or
rubbing should be minimized in as much as grinding may
change the physical characteristics of the beam.
28.2 The timing of the planeness determination is critical if
the beam needs to be capped. Capping materials may require
anywhere from two hours to six days to cure. The last 20 hours
of curing prior to testing the beam must be immersed in water.
Therefore, gypsum caps are not recommended because they
soften or deteriorate in water if stored for more than a very
brief time period. Although permitted by the standard, due to
curing time consideration, the use of neat cement is not
recommended here.
28.3 Verify the planeness of the beam surface by placing the
beam in the testing apparatus and bringing the load-applying
block into contact with the surface of the specimen. Place a
slight load on beam and sight along each block looking for
gaps between the specimen and block. If a gap of more than 1
in. in width is found check the gap using feeler gages of 0.004
and 0.015 in. If the 0.004 in. feeler gage can be placed in the
gap for a length of 1 in. or more but not a 0.015 in. feeler gage,
shim the beam with leather shims. If the 0.015 in. feeler gage
can be placed in the gap for a length of 1 in. or more the beam
must be capped or ground. If capping or grinding is required,
mark the location on the beam where it is contacted by the
blocks while it is still positioned in the testing machine. This
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Manual of Aggregate and Concrete Testing

regularly. A suitable container or box should be used to prevent
scarring of the surface of the ball or deformation of the stirrup
during transportation or storage of the apparatus. When making
the test, care should be taken that a sufficient depth of concrete
is used, 8 in. (200 mm) minimum or three times the maximum
aggregate size, and that the surface of the concrete has been
properly smoothed and leveled without excessive working of
the surface. This can be quickly done with a wood float or
screed. The ball should be lowered gently and slowly into the
concrete until it supports its own weight. A minimum of three
readings are taken and averaged. The minimum horizontal
distance from the center line of each penetration of the smooth
and level concrete surface shall not be less than 12 in. (300
mm).
29.2 A flat pinch clamp attached to the graduated rod at the
top of the horizontal stirrup after the ball has settled in the
concrete will permit the reading of the depth of penetration
after the apparatus has been removed from the concrete. This
use of the clamp avoids the necessity of assuming an awkward
position in order to read the graduations while the apparatus is
resting on the concrete.

will help to locate the area requiring surface preparation on the

beam.
28.4 Both Test Methods C 78 and C 293 refer to Practice
C 617 for capping or grinding if bearing surfaces of the beam
vary from planeness by more than 0.015 in. (0.38 mm).
Practice C 617 does not address capping of beams; however,
one of the materials specified in the practice, sulfur mortar, has
been found to work well for the application.
28.5 A plane and level surface which exceeds the dimension
of the beam is required as a capping plate. The plate should be
sufficiently rigid to prevent distortion under the weight of the
beam. Minimum thickness for various plate materials are listed
under the Capping Equipment Section of Practice C 617.
28.6 The beam should be capped in the following manner:
As a safety consideration and to facilitate handling, two
individuals may be required to handle the beam. Place the
beam on the capping surface and transfer the bearing locations
previously marked to the capping plate. Remove the beam and
place a band of capping material on the plate at each bearing
location. Sufficient material should be used to provide a
finished beam surface of at least one inch wide across the entire
width of the beam. Carefully lower the beam into position and
press down to spread the capping material under the beam to a
thickness of not more than 14 in. Position the beam so that the
thickness of the capping material appears to be level. If
capping is required on both sides, after hardening, repeat the
process for the other side. During the curing of the capping
material, make sure that the beam is kept moist.
28.7 After testing, measurements of width and depth of
specimen at the point of fracture are required to be made to at
least 0.05 in. (1 mm). The depth measurement is particularly
important since the calculated strength varies inversely as the
square of the depth. If fracture occurs at a capped section,
include the cap thickness in the measurement.

30. TIME OF SETTING OF CONCRETE MIXTURES

BY PENETRATION RESISTANCE
(See Test Method C 403)2
Test Method C 403 specifies apparatus and procedures for
making the test in necessary detail. As added precautions in
making the test, specimens should be stored on a level base
free from vibration, and a specimen should not be tilted until
the surface has stiffened sufficiently to avoid displacement of
the mortar.
30.1 The test method currently requires that not less than six
penetration resistance determinations be made in each rate of
hardening test and that the time intervals between penetration
resistance determinations be such as to give a satisfactory rate
of hardening curve as indicated by equally spaced points.
Points on the rate of hardening curves should be carefully
plotted and the times of setting determined as detailed in the
test method.

29. BALL PENETRATION IN FRESHLY MIXED

HYDRAULIC CEMENT CONCRETE
(See Test Method C 360)2
The ball test in accordance with Test Method C 360 is
valuable in the field but will probably have less use in a
laboratory. The ball test has some advantages over the slump
test since the test can be made in the forms or a concrete bucket
or buggy and it is unnecessary to mold and compact a specimen
for the test. The test can be made on concrete in a concrete
bucket, wheelbarrow, concrete buggy, or in the forms if there is
sufficient depth and width. Care should be taken that the test is
not made on concrete that has segregated. The test can be made
rapidly, and the cleaning of the apparatus requires only a little
time. If the ball test is used to supplement or replace the slump
test, it is advisable to prepare a calibration curve of penetration
values plotted against slump values in the slump range of the
concrete under test. Usually the ball penetration will be half to
nine tenths of the slump, depending on the workability of the
concrete.
29.1 Although the apparatus and its use appear simple, the
outlining of certain precautions is prompted by observed
misuses. The surface of the ball should not be rusty nor have a
coating of oil when in use. The zero mark and the specified
weight of 30 6 0.1 lb (13.6086 0.045 kg) should be checked

31. MOLDS FOR FORMING CONCRETE TEST

CYLINDERS VERTICALLY
(See Specification C 470)2
This specification requires that all types of molds be watertight. The sealant used should be proved suitable prior to use by
testing sealed molds for leakage when filled with water for 2 h.
Materials such as stiff grease, plastic compounds, caulking
compound, rosin-paraffin, and micro-crystalline wax may be
suitable. The vertical seams in split cylinder molds usually
require sealing. Cardboard molds should be checked for
absorption, volume change under wetting, height, and circular
cross section. If heavily coated cardboard molds are stored at
temperatures above 90F (32C) the paraffin may melt and
collect in the bottom of the mold. This paraffin often adheres to
the hardened cylinder and must be removed before the cylinder
is capped.
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33.4 Moist storage room doors should be provided with
safety latches so that the doors may be opened from within.
There should be no gas outlets in the room. Electric switches
should be on the outside of the room and should be provided
with indicating lights. Lights inside the room should be of the
type suitable for the moist conditions, and electric feeds should
be by suitable cable in conduit.
33.5 The use of recording thermometers is required. If wet
and dry bulb instruments are used, they should be of the
ventilated type, with air drawn over the bulbs to avoid the
effect of motor heat on the bulbs. Wicks should be kept in good
condition, and constant level water bottles are to be preferred
to running water for the wick trough supply. The recording
instrument should not be in the moist air. Recording instruments should be checked frequently.
33.6 If test specimens are to be cured in water, a saturated
lime solution should be used and other specified storage
conditions, such as temperature, should be maintained. Highcalcium hydrated lime should be used to saturate the solution;
crushed limestone is not acceptable. Heat may be provided by
thermostatically controlled soil heating cable, water bed heaters or other immersion heaters. Insulation applied to the
outside of the tank may be helpful in both cold and warm
weather. Recording thermometers are required for the storage
water if the tanks are independent of the moist room and
located in a room not conditioned to 23 6 2C (73 6 3F). If
storage tanks are in work rooms, lids should be provided to
help in maintaining temperature to lessen the cooling effect of
evaporation, and to prevent local high humidity spots in the
work room. Use separate tanks or containers for specimens
made using accelerators or other soluble special materials.
33.7 Record the position of moist cured specimens or follow
a system to facilitate locating them readily at the time they are
to be tested.
33.8 Material that will support the growth of slimes in a
moist room should not be used therein. Burlap, paper, and
some types of wood can aid or support the growth of molds,
slimes, and algae. The growth of slime on specimens may be
encouraged by certain vegetable and animal oils if these are
used to oil specimen molds. Although it is doubtful if such
forms of lower life affect the strength or durability of concrete,
they do cause a hazard in the handling of the specimens and in
walking over the slime-coated floor. The room should be
cleaned regularly. The operation of the room should be checked
daily.
33.9 Racks should not be made of aluminum as the alkaline
condition causes corrosion. Steel racks, hot-dipped galvanized
after fabrication, have also been satisfactory. Racks made from
reinforced concrete planks and concrete blocks are most
satisfactory. Wood racks made of redwood liberally treated
with a wood preservative after cutting and drilling and assembled with galvanized bolts and nails have performed very
satisfactorily for more than 25 years.
33.10 It has been found that after constructing a well
insulated room within an air conditioned building, cooling was
not required. A small amount of heat required at times was
supplied by thermostatically controlled heat cables on racks
within the room. Moisture was supplied to the room by two air

32. SPLITTING TENSILE STRENGTH OF

CYLINDRICAL CONCRETE SPECIMENS
(See Test Method C 496)2
The details of testing are adequately covered in the test
method. When cardboard molds are used, the concrete cylinder
should be rotated to select the two diametral elements for
loading that are nearest to being in a plane. Although the
plywood strips compensate for small irregularities in the line
bearings, specimens should be made in molds that comply with
the requirements of Practice C 31.
32.1 The centering of the horizontal cylinder lengthwise
under the spherical bearing block requires unusual care if the
diameter of the bearing block or the length of the bearing bar
or plate is not the same as the length of the cylinder. If the
vertical axial plane of the cylinder does not pass through the
center of the spherical bearing block, the block will tilt, and the
load cannot be applied. The use of an aligning jig, as illustrated
in Test Method C 496, is recommended.
33. MOIST CABINETS, MOIST ROOMS, AND WATER
STORAGE TANKS USED IN THE TESTING OF
HYDRAULIC CEMENTS AND CONCRETES (See
Specification C 511)2
The maintenance of specified moist curing conditions is
important, particularly with specimens to be tested for flexural
strength. For example, some moist-cured flexural test specimens were maintained continuously wet except for the 24 h
prior to test, when some of the specimens were stored in the air
of the laboratory. Reductions in flexural strength were as much
as 20 % or more as the result of the 24 h dry storage just prior
to the 28 day test.
33.1 Attention is particularly directed to the paper by C. A.
Carpenter, Suggestions on the Planning of Fog Rooms for
Curing Concrete Test Specimens, ASTM BULLETIN, ASTM,
October 1955, p. 33.
33.2 Specified curing conditions should be carefully maintained. Effects of variation in temperature on certain properties
may be great, and numerous papers provide evidence of the
need for good temperature control. In most cases, thermostatically controlled heating or cooling equipment, or both is
required. Cooling coils in a moist room should not operate at so
low a temperature that they tend to coat with frost or seriously
interfere with the maintenance of the required moist conditions. The air in the storage room should be circulated.
Sensitive bulbs of thermostatic controls should be exposed to
the air that is to be controlled, or in the water if tanks are
involved.
33.3 Necessary humidification may be obtained by the use
of suitable spray nozzles, air-water jets or fog sprays. Test
methods now require that the test specimens have free water on
their surfaces at all times in the case of moist storage. Not too
much differential should exist between the temperature of the
storage air and the spray water. An abundance of water does
not always mean high relative humidity, and therefore surface
wet conditions should be maintained. There should be ample
space around individual specimens to permit free circulation of
air. It is suggested that test specimens be stored on duck boards
or the like or in racks instead of on the concrete floor.
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proper apparatus. Grinding should be done by the wet lapping
process. Dry grinding should not be used because it may cause
heat damage to the ends of the cylinder.
35.3 Sulfur mortar is a composition of sulfur and granular
materials. This mixture is heated to a temperature of about
265F (130C) until the sulfur is molten. The sulfur mortar is
ladled into the bottom of a vertical capping device. The
cylinder is immediately placed squarely against the guide bars
and slowly lowered into the molten mortar. If a horizontal
device is used the cylinder is placed in the device and the
material is then poured into the device through openings at the
top. After the sulfur mortar hardens, the cylinder is removed,
care being taken not to damage the capping plate or the mortar
cap.
35.3.1 The sulfur mortar must have a compressive strength
of at least 5000 psi (34.5 MPa) at 2 h when tested as a 2 in. (50
mm) cube. The procedure for testing the strength of the mortar
is detailed in Practice C 617. Sulfur mortar gains strength with
age. For some materials, a 2 h strength of 5000 psi (34.5 MPa)
may increase to 9000 psi (62.1 MPa) at 24 h. Strengths are
considerably lower at an age of less than 2 h. The required
waiting period of at least 2 h between capping and testing of
cylinders capped with sulfur mortar should be strictly enforced
unless a sacrifice of apparent strength is allowable as expedient
in job control of detensioning of prestressed concrete.
35.3.2 Sulfur mortar, either laboratory prepared or commercial type, can sometimes produce rubbery caps that deform or
flow under load. This is caused by a plasticizer in the
commercial material, by contamination of either type with oil,
grease, water, paraffin, or by overheating. The capping material
should flow freely at the recommended temperature. If the
material thickens from overheating, it must be cooled and
stirred until thin. In most instances, cooling will restore the
mixture to a satisfactory condition if it is stirred during cooling.
If it is greatly overheated, it should be replaced. If water
contaminates the mortar, foaming may occur. In this case, the
pot should be recharged with new mortar. Sulfur mortars
having an exceptionally high sulfur content will produce caps
that warp or crack on cooling.
35.3.3 The ends of cylinders should not be oiled before
capping, as is sometimes done to facilitate the removal and
reuse of caps from tested cylinders. Using reclaimed sulfur
mortar is not recommended unless the material is frequently
checked for strength and deformation under load. The practice
limits the number of uses of the material to five times.
35.3.4 Reusable steel cylinder molds use mineral oil as a
release agent between the steel and the concrete, and cardboard
cylinder molds use a coating of wax between the cardboard and
concrete to prevent moisture loss and absorption. A residue of
these materials may be found on the cylinders. A concrete
cylinder with a coating of mineral oil or paraffin on the bottom
should not be capped until the wax or oil has been removed.
Prior to capping, the ends of the cylinders must also be free of
moisture. Clean the surface with a wire brush and rag. Failure
to treat cylinder ends properly may result in air voids or steam
pockets between the cap and the cylinder end. This will cause
the cap to yield before the cylinder fails during testing. If
tapping with a piece of metal (for example, coin, key or light

operated fog nozzles. (Only one fog nozzle was neededone

is a spare when one may clog.) Air was supplied by a small air
compressor. The air pressure was regulated to about 10 to 15
psi. It was found that much better fog and moisture condition
was maintained in the room if the water temperature entering
the fog nozzles was a little above the room temperature. This
was accomplished by putting a small tank containing a
thermostatically controlled immersion heater of low wattage in
the supply line. The water level in the tank was controlled by
a float valve. (An old toilet tank can be modified to serve this
purpose.) It was necessary to flush and clean the tank periodically.
34. TOTAL EVAPORABLE MOISTURE CONTENT OF
AGGREGATE BY DRYING (See Test Method C 566)2
Test Method C 566 requires the use of a ventilated oven for
more precise determinations and when aggregates would be
affected by excessive temperatures. The method permits other
suitable heat sources such as a hotplate, heat lamp, or microwave oven. As recognized in the test method, the procedure
will generally measure the moisture content in the test sample
more reliably than the sample can be made to represent the
aggregate supply. When the moisture content of a coarse
aggregate exceeds 3 or 4 % or a fine aggregate exceeds 7 to
9 %, the free water on the aggregate will drain or collect in the
bottom layers and truly representative samples will be difficult
to obtain.
34.1 All moisture contents are expressed as percentages of
oven-dry weight of aggregates. Total moisture content by Test
Method C 566, less the absorption by Test Method C 127,
Specific Gravity and Absorption of Coarse Aggregate,2 or Test
Method C 128, Specific Gravity and Absorption of Fine
Aggregate,2 provides the percentage of surface moisture in the
sample.
34.2 With certain aggregates of relatively high absorption,
the method used to determine moisture content and absorption
can affect the computed amount of surface moisture (see Test
Method C 128 on Specific Gravity and Absorption of Fine
Aggregate).
35. CAPPING CYLINDRICAL CONCRETE
SPECIMENS (See Practice C 617)2
Practices C 6172 and C 12312 deal with the treatment of ends
of cylinders when testing for compressive strength. The information in this section refers to Practice C 617.2 For information on the unbonded cap system, Practice C 1231,2 refer to
section 40 of this manual.
35.1 Prior to testing, the ends of the cylinders must be
checked for planeness and perpendicularity. If either end
departs from planeness by more than 0.002 in. (0.05 mm), or
either end departs from perpendicularity by more than 0.5 (116
in. in 6 in.), the end(s) of the cylinder must be ground or
capped. Three types of caps for cylinders are discussed in the
practice: sulfur mortar, gypsum plaster and neat cement paste.
Sulfur mortar and gypsum plaster are used on hardened
cylinders and cores. The neat cement paste is used on the top
surface of the freshly molded cylinders.
35.2 An alternative to capping is wet grinding. The drawbacks of grinding are cost and lack of skilled operators and
26

Manual of Aggregate and Concrete Testing

hammer) on a sulfur mortar cap produces a hollow sound, an
unsound cap is indicated. The unsound cap should be removed
and the cylinder end cleaned and recapped.
35.3.5 Sulfur mortar caps should be as thin as practical; 18
in. is ideal. In no instance shall any part of the cap be more than
516 in. thick. A vertical capping device generally produces
thinner caps than a horizontal apparatus. Cylinder ends that are
sloped, very uneven, or highly convex should be rubbed down
with a carborundum rubbing stone, or should be squared by
cutting with an abrasive or diamond saw before capping. This
is particularly important if sulfur mortar or high-strength
gypsum plaster is used. Poor finishing or handling are the
major causes of unsatisfactory cylinder ends. Such conditions
should be reported to those responsible for making the cylinders so the work can be corrected and done properly in the
future. Thicker caps may also be caused by the sulfur mortar
hardening somewhat before the cylinder is lowered into the
molten mixture. This can be corrected by starting with a warm
capping plate, using the capping material to preheat the plate,
or by working faster, that is, placing the cylinder into the
molten sulfur mortar before it begins to harden. Caution:
Technicians must be aware, however, of the hazards of
dropping the cylinder into the molten sulfur mortar and thereby
causing a splash of the material.
35.3.6 When cylinders are capped with sulfur mortar, the
ends of the cylinders must be free of all surface moisture to
avoid steam pockets under the cap. During drying of the
cylinder ends and in the process of capping, considerable
moisture may be lost from the sides of the cylinder. This can be
prevented by wrapping in wet burlap until time of test.
Cylinders should never be allowed to dry for long periods
before capping nor during the 2 h or more waiting period after
capping. This can be prevented by storing the cylinder in moist
air, underwater, or by wrapping in wet burlap, until the time of
test.
35.3.7 The plates of the capping apparatus should be oiled
or greased lightly before use, but the ends of the test specimens
should not be oiled before applying the sulfur mortar caps.
Penetration oils should not be used to oil capping plates. Plates
should neither be too hot or too cold. Cold plates will produce
thick caps and should be warmed by pouring one or two ladles
of material onto the plate, allowing it to harden, and then
removing before the first cylinder is capped. If plates are too
hot, caps will harden slowly causing an unnecessary delay. The
use of additional plates will reduce excessive heat build up.
35.3.8 Capping devices should be occasionally checked to
determine whether the plates meet the planeness requirements
in Practice C 617. Fig. 1 shows the planeness of caps being
checked with a 6 in. (152 mm) machinists parallel and a 0.002
in. (0.05 mm) feeler gage. The planeness of capping plates
should be checked periodically using the same apparatus.
Quarterly reviews are recommended or whenever indentations
are observed. Such checking does not eliminate the necessity
of checking planeness of capped specimens since the caps may
warp when cooled.
35.3.9 The practice, in describing the capping device, refers
to a recess in the capping plate which holds the molten sulfur
mortar. On most new capping devices, the recess has been

replaced with a metal ring which is affixed to the top surface of

the plate. Whether a recess or ring is used the depth or height
of this device should not exceed 12 in. (12.7 mm). This
requirement assists in limiting the thickness of the sulfur
mortar cap that can be produced in the capping device.
Limiting the thickness of the caps helps to prevent cylinders or
cores with excessively sloped, uneven or convex ends from
being capped without the ends being ground or sawed.
35.3.10 A suitable container and source of heat must be
provided for melting the sulfur mortar and maintaining the
preferred temperature of about 265F (130C). The melting pot
should be of suitable design, electrically heated with automatic
controls, and provided with thermal safety melting links. Due
to the corrosive action of the sulfur, electrical contacts should
be protected from sulfur fumes. A heavy gage steel lip around
the container may aid in protecting the pot when hardened
sulfur mortar is chipped from around the edges. A metal ladle
of sufficient capacity to fill the capping plate in one pour should
be provided. The use of a small air-driven stirring device in the
molten material will help to maintain the uniformity of the
material. A large, perforated sheet metal strainer or spoon is
helpful in removing small lumps of solid material.
35.3.11 Operators who handle hot sulfur mortar should wear
leather-faced cotton or suitable work gloves, face shield or
safety glasses, and long sleeves. Due to the toxic nature of the
sulfur fumes, the melting pot should be under a hood with
forced ventilation to the outside air. Warning: Severe burns
have resulted from explosion of sulfur mortar being overheated
when the material in the bottom of the pot melted and boiled
before the surface had melted, causing a build-up of pressure.
In these cases, the explosion might have been prevented if the
metal ladle had been left in the pot. The ladle conducts heat up
from the bottom of the pot and thereby melting a relief channel
to the surface of the mortar and preventing built-up pressure.
Heating elements located on the sidewalls of the pot have been
found to eliminate this problem.
35.3.12 The flash point of sulfur is approximately 440F
(227C) and the mixture can ignite due to overheating. To
prevent fires caused by failure of electrical contacts, melting
pots specifically designed for continuous use with sulfur are
recommended. A tight cover for the melting pot or wet burlap
bags should be located in the capping area. Either can be used
to cover the pot in case of fire. A dry chemical fire extinguisher
should also be available for emergencies. Caution: Sulfur
burns with a low, blue flame and may be difficult to detect.
Hazards such as flammable materials or explosive gases should
not be present in the capping area. Practice C 386,19 is a useful
reference for safety considerations.
35.4 Another capping material permitted by Practice C 617
is gypsum plaster. This plaster can be used for capping concrete
specimens expected to have a compressive strength below
5000 psi (34.5 MPa), provided the plaster has a compressive
strength of 5000 psi (34.5 MPa) or greater when tested as 2 in.
(50 mm) cubes. Reference is made to Method C 47220 for
details on filling the cube mold and timing in striking off the
top surface of the plaster in the mold.
19
20

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Manual of Aggregate and Concrete Testing

injury. The cap should be checked for planeness before testing.
Such capping is feasible only when rigid, watertight molds are
used, and the concrete specimen has no bleeding water on its
top surface.

35.4.1 Certain problems and precautions are connected with

the use of high-strength gypsum plasters for capping. The
mixing water used should be between 26 to 30 %. The amount
of water used in testing the plaster for strength should be
carefully measured and recorded, along with the air and water
temperature, and the time interval between mixing and testing.
The same proportion of gypsum plaster to water should be
maintained in mixing for capping as was established in
compressive strength testing. The temperatures of air and
mixing water during the capping should be substantially the
same as when strength tests were made. Free water on the
surface of the concrete softens the gypsum cap, and should be
removed before applying the cap. After the cylinder has been
capped, it should be wrapped immediately in several layers of
moist burlap, but the capped end or ends should not be covered.
It takes about 20 min for gypsum plaster caps to harden, but
specimens must not be tested in less time than the interval
established during strength testing.
35.4.2 Gypsum plaster caps should be as thin as practical,
and a vertical capping jig is advisable to obtain thin and
parallel caps at right angles to the axis of the cylinder. Capping
plates, whether metal or glass, should meet the planeness
requirements of Practice C 617. Plate glass, 14 in. (6.4 mm)
thick, 7 by 7 in. (180 by 180 mm) can be obtained with a
planeness of 0.002 in. (0.05 mm) in any 7 in. dimension.
35.5 Neat cement paste caps made of portland cement are
applicable to freshly molded specimens. This method requires
moist curing of the concrete specimens and constant moisture
conditions must be maintained during the setting of the paste
and the curing of the hardened caps. Lack of moisture, and
absorption of moisture from the paste by the drying concrete
can result in caps that are cracked, nonplane, or of poor
strength. The paste caps must be aged sufficiently so that they
will exceed the strength of the concrete cylinder being tested.
Caps should never be made with a mixture of plaster of paris
and portland cement. This mixture can have a strength considerably lower than either of its constituents.
35.5.1 When using neat cement paste in capping a cylinder
in the mold, allow the cylinder to cure after molding for 2 to 4
h before capping. A stiff cement paste that has been mixed 2 to
4 h prior to use will reduce the tendency of the cap to shrink.
In capping the cylinder, exercise care when working the glass
plate on the cement paste to avoid breakage and possible

36. RESISTANCE OF CONCRETE TO RAPID

FREEZING AND THAWING
(See Test Method C 666)2
There are two procedures for Test Method C 666 for
performing laboratory freezing and thawing tests: Procedure A,
Rapid Freezing and Thawing in Water; and Procedure B, Rapid
Freezing in Air and Thawing in Water. Test Method C 671,
Critical Dilation of Concrete Specimens Subjected to Freezing,2 is another reference standard.
36.1 These test methods describe the equipment and procedure in considerable detail and are intended for use in
determining the effects of variations in the properties of
concrete on the resistance of the concrete to the freezing and
thawing procedures specified in the test methods. They are not
intended to provide a quantitative measure of the length of
service that may be expected from a specific type of concrete.
36.2 The freezing and thawing of water in concrete is one of
the major causes of concrete deterioration. The intensity of
natural freezing and thawing ranges from slight to very great,
with no two cycles identical even at the same location.
Freezing and thawing tests in the laboratory cannot duplicate
natural exposure in all respects, but can evaluate relative
durabilities under standardized exposure conditions. This is the
main function of laboratory freezing and thawing tests, that is,
the determination of the relative durabilities of concretes or
concrete materials.
36.3 The Highway Research Board Committee on Durability of ConcretePhysical Aspects, conducted an extensive
cooperative evaluation of four freezing and thawing methods.
These results were published in Special Report 47, H.R.B.,
1959. Among the numerous lessons learned was the importance of preparatory matters such as condition of the aggregates, air content, curing, and a variety of details prior to the
start of actual testing. These are discussed concisely in Appendix F, Suggested Operating Procedures, of the H.R.B. report.
Because of the value of these suggestions they are reproduced
in their entirety below.

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Manual of Aggregate and Concrete Testing

APPENDIX F
SUGGESTED OPERATING PROCEDURES
room (relative humidity not less than 95 %) at 73 6 3F
covered with at least four layers of wet burlap.21
(b) After 24 6 4 h, strip the specimens from the molds,
mark them for identification on both ends and on the sides of
the specimens while they dry, and immerse them immediately
in a saturated limewater solution at 73 6 3F. This operation
shall be handled in such a way that the time between removal
from the molds and immersion in the limewater is held to an
absolute minimum and no surface drying of the specimens
occurs.
For concrete containing a retarder, or insufficient cement to
attain adequate strength, or if strength development is slow for
any other reason, additional time in the molds up to 44 h may
be desirable.
(c) Remove specimens from the limewater at the same age
(14 days unless otherwise specified) and, after necessary
measurements of weight and fundamental frequencies, place
them in the thawing environment of the test exposure, taking
care to minimize drying during handling.
A drying period, after the initial minimum storage of 14 days
in limewater, may sometimes be used as a specified variation of
the test procedure. Drying should be under constant conditions
of temperature and relative humidity. Normally, resaturation of
the dried specimens in limewater prior to the beginning of the
freezing cycle will also be a part of the variation from the
standard procedure.
7. Every effort should be made to assure that all specimens
to be compared receive the same exposure to freezing and
thawing. Ability to accomplish this may depend not only on the
characteristics of the apparatus but also on the arrangement and
location of the specimens. Turning specimens end for end and
changing location in the apparatus each time specimens are
returned after measurement will help to minimize the effects of
unavoidable differences in environment.
8. Supplementary tests and the keeping of detailed records
will often be helpful in accounting for poor reproducibility of
test results. Changes in weight of specimens during curing may
reveal differences in saturation of presumably identical specimens. Measurements of density may provide a check on
uniformity of air content. Obviously, records of such things as
equipment breakdown and deviations from prescribed methods
may be vital in interpreting test data. Such records are readily
made at the time, but are often impossible to reconstruct after
the tests are completed.
36.4. A constant check should be made to ensure that the
time-temperature cycles specified are being maintained. Note
that the maintenance of a capacity load of specimens in the
equipment at all times will materially aid in meeting these
requirements. If specimen containers are used, it is essential
that dimensions of both specimens and containers be highly
uniform to secure a liquid zone of constant thickness, otherwise the rates of temperature change and, hence, the severity of

This research has produced no evidence that any of the

ASTM freezing-and-thawing test methods in its present form is
both sufficiently quantitative and reproducible to provide
absolute limits for the routine acceptance or rejection, on a
general basis, of concrete or concrete materials. The methods
do, however, provide useful procedures for comparing the
relative durability of different concretes within a given laboratory. In that connection, the Committee recommends attention to the following cautions:
1. Concretes to be compared should be mixed at as nearly
the same time as feasible, placed into and removed from curing
at the same time, and exposed to freezing and thawing
concurrently.
2. Each class of concrete should be represented by at least
three batches, preferably mixed on different days. It is desirable
to have three or more test specimens from each batch as a
check on within-batch uniformity. As indicated under item 1,
all classes of concrete to be compared should be mixed on each
mixing day.
3. Air content of the concrete should be known as accurately
as possible, and, if the object is to evaluate relative durability
of a given concrete, the air content of the freezing-and-thawing
specimens should duplicate as closely as possible that of the
given concrete. If aggregate is the variable under study, the air
content should be sufficiently high to provide positive frost
protection for the cement paste. For all concretes to be
compared, the air content should be the same within 60.5
percentage point. Each specimen should be weighed in air and
under water to provide an indication of uniformity. Whenever
possible the air content and air-void characteristics should be
determined by microscopic examination of the hardened concrete specimens, and preferably on specimens which have
actually been frozen and thawed.
4. Unless aggregate saturation is a controlled variable, the
aggregates for all classes of concrete should be soaked in water
for seven days after they have been dried to essentially constant
weight in air. The aggregates must not be allowed to dry out
before incorporation in concrete. Necessary adjustments must
be made in the quantity of mixing water to compensate for the
free moisture retained by the aggregates. In the case of certain
natural aggregates and many lightweight aggregates, a seven
day soaking period may not be desirable. Shorter periods of
soaking or no soaking may be called for in these special cases
as being more representative of actual conditions of use.
5. Unless mixing condition or treatment of the fresh concrete is a variable, extreme care should be exercised to assure
that the procedures for mixing and handling the concrete and
fabricating specimens are as nearly identical as possible for all
classes of concrete which are to be compared.
6. Unless treatment of test specimens is a controlled variable, all specimens should be identically protected and cured
between the time of molding and exposure to freezing and
thawing. One acceptable sequence of operations is as follows:
(a) Immediately after molding, place the specimens in a fog

21

29

This recommendation differs from the procedure outlined in Practice C 192.

Manual of Aggregate and Concrete Testing

satisfy this requirement shall be verified by pretesting.
37.2.3 In procedure B, the boiling-water method, the specimens are stored for the first 23 h at an ambient temperature of
70 6 10F (21 6 6C). To minimize day to day variability in
test results, the ambient temperature conditions should be
maintained as close as practicable to a constant value throughout the testing program.
37.2.4 In procedure C, the Autogenous Method, elevated
temperature is provided by containing the heat evolved by
cement hydration. The temperature history of a particular
specimen depends on the total heat evolution, the insulating
efficiency of the container, and ambient temperature history for
the container. In interpreting test results account must be made
of the actual temperature histories experienced by the specimens. Thus it may be desirable to monitor not only the
minimum and maximum temperature but also the complete
temperature history of representative specimens.
37.2.4.1 When accelerated curing tests are used for estimating an equivalent 28-day strength under conventional standard
curing conditions, a correlation relationship must be developed
by performing conventional and accelerated curing tests of
concrete mixtures made with the same materials. In developing
this data, mixtures with different water-cement ratios must be
prepared so that a wide range of strength levels can be
obtained. The correlation data should be subjected to rigorous
statistical analysis so that meaningful confidence limits can be
placed on the predicted 28-day strengths. The user is directed
to the following publications for guidance on proper statistical
treatment of data from accelerated curing tests: ASTM STP 169
B (Significance of Tests and Properties of Concrete and
Concrete-Making Materials); ACI 214.1R-81 (Use of Accelerated Strength Testing); and ACI SP-56 (Accelerated Strength
Testing). It must be emphasized that the correlation relationship is only applicable for the same materials and testing
conditions used in its development.
37.3 The variability of properly conducted accelerated
strength tests have been found to be similar to strength tests
under conventional curing conditions. Hence, accelerated
strength test results can be used directly to monitor the
variability of concrete production and to signal the need for
process adjustments. Correlation relationships or prediction
equations are not required for such applications.

exposure may not be the same for all specimens. Note that after
each measuring period the specimens should be turned endfor-end when returned to test. In addition, the specimens
should be returned to random positions in the apparatus.
Particular attention should be given to the various procedures
outlined for handling the specimens in the event of an
interruption in the operation of the apparatus.
36.5. The above discussion is based upon experience with
normal-weight concretes. It is believed that the freezing and
thawing methods are applicable as well to concretes made with
lighweight aggregates.
MAKING, ACCELERATED CURING, AND TESTING
CONCRETE COMPRESSION TEST SPECIMENS
(See Test Method C 684)2
37. There are two primary purposes for using accelerated or
early-age strength testing. The first is to obtain reliable
information at the earliest possible age about the potential
strength of a concrete mixture. The other is to provide
information on the variability of the concrete production
process so that appropriate corrective actions can be taken as
promptly as is possible.
37.1 Rather than wait until an age of 28 days to perform a
standard compression test, as is commonly done, strength tests
may be performed at ages as early as 24 h depending on which
procedure is used. These early age tests are made after
specimens are subjected to either standard or elevated temperature curing.
37.2 In this test method, elevated curing temperatures are
provided so as to accelerate the cement hydration reactions.
Depending on the procedure that is used, compression tests are
performed at ages ranging from 24 to 48 h. At these early test
ages, the strength of concrete is highly dependent on the actual
temperature history, and proper control of curing temperatures
is essential in order to reduce day-to-day variability in test
results. Thus, it is essential to keep accurate records of the
curing temperatures of the specimens.
37.2.1 The concrete specimens are exposed to elevated
temperatures and stored either under water or in sealed
containers. The cylinder molds must retain their original
shapes during curing to minimize the possibility of induced
early-age damage to the concrete resulting from dimensional
changes of the molds because of high temperature and moisture. Cardboard molds and single-use plastic molds are not
permitted for making specimens.
37.2.2 In procedure A, the warm water method, the specimens are stored in a water bath whose temperature must be
maintained at 95 6 5F (35 6 3C). To minimize variability of
test results the design of the curing tank must assure uniform
water temperature. This may be achieved by using mechanical
stirrers, circulating pumps, or natural convection currents. To
achieve uniform temperature through convection currents, the
heating elements must be uniformly distributed over the
bottom of the tank. Before using a curing tank, the water
temperature at various locations should be measured to assure
that the required degree of uniformity is achieved. In addition,
the heaters should be of sufficient capacity to re-establish the
required temperature within 15 min after immersion of the
colder specimens. The ability of the curing tank system to

REDUCING SAMPLES OF AGGREGATE TO

TESTING SIZE
(See Practice C 702)2
38. The concrete laboratory will frequently find it necessary
to reduce a sample of aggregate to a smaller volume. Such
reduction in sample volume must be done very carefully if the
resulting smaller sample is to represent the larger lot accurately. Fine aggregate should be moistened before reduction to
minimize segregation and loss of dust, except when using an
enclosed sample splitter. Practice C 702 describes procedures
for reducing field samples of aggregate to the appropriate size
for testing which minimize variations in characteristics between the test samples so selected.
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Manual of Aggregate and Concrete Testing

the compression over the entire surface area of the cylinder by
acting as a hydraulic fluid. The hardness of the pad affects the
amount of force required to have the pad act as a fluid. Softer
pads having a Shore A hardness of around 50 durometers are
useful for concretes having a compressive strength greater than
2000 psi, while harder pad caps, having a Shore A durometer
hardness of around 70 durometers may yield reduced strengths
in concrete having strength levels below 4000 psi.
40.1.1 The number of cylinders than can be tested using the
same pads varies with the strength levels of the concrete
cylinders being tested and the hardness of the pads. Pads with
high durometer hardness generally last longer than softer pads
when testing cylinders at higher strength levels. Pads over time
will show edge distress, in the form of tears and cracks from
overstressing the material. This occurs because the pad is
forced to flow in the space between the cylinder side and the
retaining ring. When the edge distress becomes significant,
showing cracks and tears exceeding 38-in. in length, regardless
of depth, the pads should be replaced. The openings in the pad
will collect fines from the concrete rubble, which will affect the
flow characteristics of the pad and reduce the concrete strength
results. With lower strength concrete, up to 3500 psi, the pad
cap can be used a higher number of times before distress in the
edge of the pad is observed. When testing higher strength
concrete, the number of uses will be reduced. To determine the
useful expectancy of a particular set of pads, qualification
testing must be conducted.
40.2 Practice C 12312 requires that the pad cap system must
be qualified prior to use. Variation in the following parameters
are possible:
(1) pad material,
(2) pad dimensions,
(3) pad hardness,
(4) retaining ring design, and
(5) retaining ring material.
Variations in any of the parameters listed above require that
the pad cap system be requalified. However, variations of a
particular parameter need to be qualified only once. Pad cap
systems are qualified by testing companion cylinders; one
ground or capped in accordance with Practice C 6172 and the
other tested using pad caps. Companion cylinders are cylinders
made from the same batch, at the same time, by the same
technician. A minimum of ten sets of companion cylinders
shall be tested at the minimum strength level and ten sets at the
maximum strength level at which the pad caps will be used.
These test results must be within a range of 1000 psi for each
strength level. Qualification tests must be performed twice
during the pad life, once during initial use and again at 100
uses. Additional companion cylinders may be needed to qualify
the system for a given strength level. All test results of
companion cylinders for a desired strength level should be
included in the calculation for qualification. Pad cap systems
are considered to be qualified if the results of the comparison
tests indicate that pad caps did not reduce the strength of the
concrete by more than two percent when compared with the
cylinders which have been ground or capped in accordance
with Practice C 617.2 If the laboratory wishes to use the pad
beyond 100 uses, then it must be checked again at 200 uses.

MEASURING EARLY-AGE COMPRESSIVE

STRENGTH
AND PROJECTING LATER-AGE STRENGTH
(See Test Method C 918)2
39. This test method uses the maturity concept and the
strength versus maturity relationship proposed by Plowman
(Magazine of Concrete Research, V.8, N.22, March 1956). Test
specimens are cured following Practices C 31 or C 192, and a
record is maintained of the temperature immediately adjacent
to the specimens. At an early age of about 24 h, the specimens
are tested in compression. The value of maturity is calculated
from the test age and the temperature record. Since most
specimens will be tested prior to an age of about 48 h,
protection precautions in Practice C 31 concerning transportation and handling of early-age specimens should be followed.
39.1 The early-age strength and maturity values may be
used to estimate the later age, such as 28-day, compressive
strength or may be compared to concrete mixture design data
at similar maturity. Later-age strengths are estimated by using
a previously established prediction equation that was developed for the specific concrete being tested. The prediction
equation is obtained by measuring the maturity and compressive strength of specimens at ages from 24 h to 28 days,
plotting the test results on a semi-log scale, and deriving the
best fitting equation for the data.
USE OF UNBONDED CAPS IN DETERMINATION OF
COMPRESSIVE STRENGTH OF HARDENED
CONCRETE CYLINDERS
(See Practice C 1231)2
40. An alternative to the sulfur, gypsum or cement capping
methods of Practice C 6172 is the unbonded method described
in Practice C 1231.2 The practice describes the use of elastomeric pads and metal retaining rings, commonly known as pad
caps, in testing hardened concrete cylinders. The practice may
be used when anticipated strength levels are between 1500 and
7000 psi. Cylinder ends with depressions greater than 0.20 in.
(5 mm) must be sawed or ground prior to using padcaps. If the
ends of the cylinders meet the requirements of Test Method C
392 for planeness, they may be tested with no caps. Although
pad caps may be used on one end of the cylinder in combination with methods mentioned in Practice C 6172 on the other
end, normally the pad caps are used on both ends of the
cylinder. For testing, the pads are placed in the retaining rings
and then mounted on the ends of the cylinder. The cylinder and
caps are then centered in the compression machine using the
upper spherical block and upper retaining ring. After rotating
the upper spherically seated bearing block as contact is made,
the machine is loaded to 10 % of the anticipated total load and
the cylinder is checked for perpendicularity. When the cylinders are properly positioned, the test is completed in accordance with the procedure described in Test Method C 39.2
40.1 The pads can be made from various types of elastomers, including neoprene, natural rubber, or polyurethane
having a Shore A durometer hardness of approximately 50 to
70 durometers. Typically, pad manufacturers will supply information on the durometer hardness; if not, the hardness can be
determined at a rubber supplier. The pad distributes the force of
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Manual of Aggregate and Concrete Testing

a more explosive break with more rubble than is seen with
sulfur caps. Pad capped cylinders occasionally will develop
early cracking associated with the lateral flow of the cap, but
will continue to carry increasing load and therefore should be
tested to complete failure.
40.6 Because of the explosive nature of breaks associated
with pad caps, the testing machine needs to be fitted with some
form of protective cage. The sudden release of energy stored in
the pads has been reported to have caused damage to some
compression testing machines.

The cylinders used in the qualification tests must be within a

range of 2000 psi for each strength level.
40.3 The design of the retaining ring is important in the pad
cap system. Erroneous strength results are often produced
when cylinders are not properly centered in the testing machine. Since the cylinder is centered in the testing machine by
centering the retaining ring on the upper bearing block, a
means for centering the retaining ring should be considered. In
some cases, metal straps may be used to attach the ring to the
block as shown in Fig. 1 of Practice C 12312 or the outer
surface of the retaining ring could be made circular to assist in
alignment. Centering the cylinder is easy when the diameter of
the retaining ring is the same diameter as that of the bearing
block. The practice requires that the diameter of the pad shall
not be more than 116 in. (2 mm) smaller than the inside
diameter of the retaining ring. Experience has shown that the
inside diameter of the pad should be as close as possible to the
inside diameter of the retaining ring. The smaller the gap
between the ring and the pad, the less the pad will deform or
spread laterally. Reducing the amount of lateral deformation or
spread will reduce the amount of cracks along the edge of the
pad and increase pad life. The practice requires that the base of
the ring which contacts the bearing blocks of the compression
machine must be plane to 0.002 in. (0.05 mm).
40.4 In addition to being properly centered in the testing
machine, the cylinder must be tested in the vertical position.
The pad is made of soft material and the only method to ensure
that the cylinder is perpendicular to the platen of the compression machine is to check the perpendicularity of the cylinder
under load.
40.4.1 Center the pad caps on the cylinder and place the
cylinder on the lower platen of the testing machine. As the
upper spherically seated block is brought to bear on the pad
cap, make sure to carefully center the upper pad on the block
and rotate the blocks movable portion gently by hand so that
uniformed seating is obtained.
40.4.2 Begin applying load to the cylinder. Before the load
has reached 10 % of the anticipated cylinder strength, stop
increasing the load. While holding the load constant, check to
see that the cylinder is vertical within a tolerance of 18 in. in 12
in. (3.2 mm in 300 mm) and that the ends of the cylinder are
centered in the retainer rings. If the cylinder alignment does not
meet these requirements, release the load, remove the cylinder,
and check to make sure that the cylinder meets the 18 in. in 12
in. (3.2 mm in 300 mm) criteria. If it does not, the cylinder
cannot be tested until the cylinder ends have been corrected by
sawing or grinding. If the cylinder does meet the requirements,
repeat the above procedure, rechecking the centering and
alignment of the cylinder. If the cylinder is not perpendicular to
the platen of the machine, the ultimate strength may be
reduced.
40.5 When using pad caps the examination of the concrete
rubble following testing does not allow for a good interpretation of the type of break. The breaks of the cylinders will rarely
be the conical fractures typical of the sulfur mortar caps, and
therefore, the sketches shown in Fig. 2 of Test Method C 39,2
are not descriptive. One reason for this difference is that the
energy stored in the pad is released to the concrete resulting in

SAMPLING AGGREGATES
(See Practice D 75)2
41. Practice D 75 is of importance to laboratory personnel
even though sampling sources of concrete aggregate is not
within the scope of this manual. In many instances aggregate
samples for trial batches and preliminary laboratory tests will
be obtained several months before the job is started or even
before the aggregates that will be used on the job are produced.
Under these conditions samples must be taken with particular
care. Past production records should be examined to determine
if the samples taken are likely to represent material to be
produced in the future. When construction is started, the
material furnished to the project must be tested to determine if
it is of similar quality to that used in earlier tests. When
aggregate samples are for preparation of trial batches the
moisture condition of the material should be noted in order that
the aggregate can be incorporated in laboratory batches in a
moisture condition representative of the aggregate to be used in
the job concrete. This is particularly important for highly
porous aggregates such as structural lightweight concrete
aggregates.
41.1 Particular attention is directed to the need for observing the requirements for minimum sample sizes in different
methods. The test methods to be performed should be examined carefully to determine the number and size of test portions
required. The size of sample obtained from the field should be
at least twice as large as the total amount required for the tests
to be conducted to provide for any waste, reruns of tests, or
additional tests if required.
FORCE VERIFICATION OF TESTING MACHINES
(See Practices E 4)2
42. By reference to Practices E 4, Test Method C 39 requires verification yearly for machines in constant use, every 2
or 3 years for machines used intermittently, whenever repairs
are made, and whenever there is reason to doubt the accuracy.
Small portable testing machines and machines operating under
unfavorable conditions may require more frequent verification.
Verification tests at very small loads can be made on many
machines by applying dead load.
42.1 Calibrated equipment, such as proving rings, require
very careful handling, and its use is not recommended unless
the operator has become familiar through experience with the
methods and precautions involved. Literature of the National
Institute of Standards and Technology and ASTM covers many
details of requirements for and use of verification equipment.
Definitions and information about verification of machines are
given in Practices E 4.
32