Introduction

CHAPTER I

1.1

Basic Concepts

The basic concepts of mechanics are space, time, and mass or force,
which are more or less understood intuitively by most beginning students.
To be useful for quantitative analysis, however, these notions must be
viewed as mathematical concepts related to each other by fundamental laws.
Such a formulation was introduced by Sir Isaac Newton (1642-1727) in his
three laws of motion which have become the foundation for the classical or
Newtonian mechanics.
Newtons laws were formulated for a single particle. Our notion of a
particle is that of a material body of infinitely small dimensions. In
mechanics we can expand this notion to include any material body whose
dimensions are small in comparison with distances or lengths involved in
defining its position or motion. Thus planets can be considered to be
particles when their position in the solar system is under consideration.
In defining the position of a particle in space, a frame of reference is
necessary. For this purpose, three mutually perpendicular lines intersecting
at a common point called the origin are adequate. The position of the
particle can then be defined in terms of distances along these lines.
To describe the motion of a particle, the concept of time is required. By
noting the position of the particle as a function of time, its motiondescribed by its displacement, velocity, and acceleration-is completely
defined.
Force is known to us intuitively as a push or pull. It represents the
action of one body on another, exerted by contact or through a distance as
I

INTRODUCTION TO SPACE DYNAMICS

in the case of gravitational or magnetic force. To describe a force, it is

necessary to know its magnitude, its direction, and its point of application.
Mass is a property possessed by all material bodies. It is a property
which describes the effort necessary in giving the body a change in motion.
Its precise definition is embodied in Newtons second law, which may be
stated as follows. A particle acted upon by a force F will move with an
acceleration a proportional to and in the direction of the force; the ratio
F/a being constant for any particle. Thus for a given particle we can write,
F2- - F3
-F -l -- =

- constant
a1 a2
a3
where F and a are in consistent set of units. The ratio F/a which is found
to be a constant for any given particle, is a property of the particle, which
is designated as mass. We can therefore write Newtons second law as,
F = ma
Newtons first law is a special case of the second law when F = 0. It
states that if no force acts on the particle, it will remain at rest or continue
to move in a straight line with constant velocity. The equilibrium concept
in statics is based on the first law, and the converse of the above statement
requires that the resultant of all the forces acting on a particle in equilibrium
must be zero.
The extension of Newtons laws to a group of particles necessarily
involves the action between particles. Actual bodies can be viewed as a
group of particles, and to deduce the behavior of such bodies, Newton
introduced his third law which states that, For every action, there is an
equal and opposite reaction. Thus if particle 1 exerts a force f12on particle
2, particle 2 must exert a force f,, on particle 1, where fil = -f12.
From his interest in astronomy, Newton formulated the law of gravitation between two particles. The law states that any two particles attract
one another with a force of magnitude,

where m, and m2 are the masses of the particles, r is the distance between
them, and G is the universal constant of gravitation. Application of this
law to a particle on the earths surface gives us an understanding of the
relationship existing between mass and weight. Letting M and m be the
mass of the earth and that of another body at the earths surface, a distance
equal to the radius r = R from the center, the attraction of the earth on the
body, which is called weight, is given by the above equation,
GM
W=mR2

INTRODUCTION

If this force is not opposed by a support of some kind, the body will fall
toward the center of the earth with an acceleration g. Thus from Newtons
second law, we can write,
W=mg
and by comparison with the previous equation, we arrive at the result,

We find then that the acceleration of gravity g will vary inversely with R2.
Since m is a property of the body which is fixed, its weight will then vary
with g or R, and so we find a given body weighing somewhat different
amounts at different places on the earths surface. At the earths surface,
g is very nearly 32.2 ft/sec2.
So far we have avoided one very important question regarding the frame
of reference used in the measurement of the motion. Newton assumed that
there was a frame of reference whose absolute motion was zero. He
considered such an inertial frame fixed relative to the stars to be one of
absolute zero motion, and his laws of motion to be valid when referred to
such a reference. Controversies regarding the existence of such a reference
frame of absolute zero motion led to the formulation of the theories of
relativity for which Newtonian mechanics is a special case.
In arriving at the concept of weight, it was necessary to measure g
relative to the surface of the earth which is not at rest. Thus the acceleration of the earths surface due to its rotation must be accounted for in a
more exact analysis. For many problems this error is insignificant, in
which case the earths surface will be found to be an adequate refereme.
There are other problems, however, such as navigation for space flight,
where the earths surface cannot be considered stationary. In general,
problems in space dynamics are involved with rotating and accelerating
coordinates, and the subject of relative motion and transformation of
coordinates plays an important role.
1.2 Scalar and Vector Quantities

In our discussion so far we have encountered two types of physical

quantities. The first type can be adequately expressed by a single number
denoting so many units; i.e., temperature, density, mass, time, and energy.
Such quantities are known as scalar quantities.
The second type cannot be fully represented by a number only, and
further information is required. For instance, a displacement in space

INTRODUCTION TO SPACE DYNAMICS

requires in addition to its numerical value a statement as to its starting

point and its direction. Such additional information is necessary to
describe completely many physical quantities such as force, velocity, and
acceleration. Physical quantities possessing magnitude and direction and
satisfying certain necessary requirements are called vector quantities.
Vectors are further subdivided into free and bound vectors. Free vectors
are those which can be shifted about as long as their magnitude and direction are not altered. Vectors in rigid body mechanics are in general free

Fig. 1.2-1.

Right-handed coordinate system.

vectors. Bound vectors are those which cannot be moved without altering
the results sought. For instance, in determining the stress distribution in a
deformable solid, the applied force cannot be moved without altering the
results.
Vector quantity will be denoted by a bold face roman letter, whereas a
scalar quantity will be indicated by a light-face italic letter. Frequently we
are not concerned with the direction of the vector quantity, in which case
the italic letter will be used to indicate its magnitude. This situation may
occur when all the vectors are collinear or when we are concerned with
components of a vector along specified directions. To distinguish vector
quantities at the blackboard or in hand-written material, an overhead bar
o r arrow can be used.
Graphically, a vector is represented by a straight line with a n arrow
referenced to some coordinate system. When rectangular axes 5, Y, z are
used, the right-handed coordinate system of Fig. 1.2-1 will be adopted.
A left-handed coordinate system would have the Oz axis in the opposite
sense, or the x and y axes interchanged.

INTRODUCTION

1.3 Properties of a Vector

Addition

Not every quantity possessing magnitude and direction can be treated

as a vector. To qualify as a vector, such quantities must obey the law of
composition which states that the sum of two vectors is represented by the
diagonal of a parallelogram formed by the two vectors as sides. Subtraction can be viewed as an addition of the vector directed in the opposite
sense. Moreover, vector addition must be commutative (independent of
the order of summation).
As an example of a directed quantity that will not obey the law of composition, we can mention the finite angular rotation of a rigid body. It has
magnitude equal to the angle of rotation, which can be directed along the
axis of rotation. However, two such rotations along different axes are not
commutative and will not add up to the diagonal of a parallelogram, as we
can readily demonstrate by rotating a book 90" about the x and y axes and
repeating the procedure in the reverse order about y and x.
Aside from being commutative, vector addition is associative (may be
grouped in any order), and these two properties enable the parallelogram
law to be successively applied to any pair of vectors for the addition of
several vectors.
Resolution

Resolution of a vector is the reverse of composition. Since different

components could have the same resultant, a vector can be resolved in an
infinite number of different ways. Resolution of a vector into rectangular
components often leads to a simpler formulation.
Unit vector

A vector r multiplied by a scalar n is equal to nr. Its direction is unchanged and its magnitude is n times the original magnitude. The unit
vector 1, or i, j, k, is constantly used to define the orientation of a vector
quantity. A vector r, expressed in terms of its rectangular components,
becomes
r = r,i
r,j
r,k

+ +
= r(i cos a + j cos /I+ k cos y )

=rl

INTRODUCTION TO SPACE DYNAMICS

The unit vector in the direction r is thus identified as

r
1 = - = (i cos a
r

Fig. 1.3-1.

+ j cos B + k cos y )

Component of r along 1 by dot product.

Scalar dot product

The dot product of two vectors a and b with angle

scalar quantity defined by the equation,

4 between them is a

a b = ab cos $
The result is not dependent on the order of multiplication and, hence, the
dot product is commutative.
a.b=b-a
The equation suggests a convenient procedure for determining the
component of a vector r along any chosen direction 1, the result being,

r 1 = r cos

as shown in Fig. 1.3-1.

Vector cross product

The cross product of two vectors a and b is a vector defined by the

equation,
a X b = (ab sin 4)l
where 1 is a unit vector in a direction perpendicular to both a and b. From
Fig. 1.3-2 it is seen that the magnitude is equal to the product of the length
of one of the two vectors and the projection of the other on a line perpendicular to the first vector, which is equal to the area of the parallelogram formed with a and b as sides.

INTRODUCTION

To establish the direction of the cross-product vector, the three-finger

rule of the right hand, as illustrated in Fig. 1.3-2, is helpful. The first
vector a is represented by the thumb; the second vector b (or its component
b sin 4 perpendicular to a) by the index finger; and the product vector
perpendicular to the previous two by the third finger. We note here that
the cross product is noncommutative, and the following rule holds:
a % b = -bX a

Fig. 1.3-2.

Cross product of two vectors is normal to the plane of the two vectors.

Products in rectangular components

When resolved into rectangular components, the dot and cross products
become,

The result of the cross product can be conveniently expressed by the

following determinant.
i i j j kk
= a,a, a,a, a,a,
aaXX bb=
b,bx b,b, bzbz

INTRODUCTION TO SPACE DYNAMICS

Multiple products

Certain multiple products of vectors are occasionally encountered and

we list two of the most common ones in the following:
a . ( b X c ) = b . ( c X a ) = c . ( a % b)

This product can be interpreted geometrically as being equal to the volume

of a parallelopiped of sides (I, b, and c.
The second multiple product is,

a X (b X c) = (a c)b - (a b)c

1.4 Moment of a Vector

Consider a vector F and any point 0 in space. If we draw a vector r
from 0 to any point on F or on the line of action of F, as shown in Fig. 1.4-1,
and form the cross product with r as the first vector, then the result will be a

Fig. 1.4-1.

Moment vector M normal to plane of r and F is r X F.

moment M about an axis through 0 in a direction perpendicular to the

plane containing r and F, the direction of which is indicated by the unit
vector 1.
M = r X F = (Fr sin +)1
The moment M will be independent of where r terminates on F or on its
line of action, as can easily be shown.

1.5 Angular Velocity Vectors

It was pointed out previously that finite angles of rotation, although
representable by a vector, are not commutative and, hence, will not obey

INTRODUCTION

the rules of vector addition. Infinitesimal rotations however can be shown

to be commutative and to possess all the properties of a vector. To show
this, consider the displacement of a point p due to two infinitesimal rotations w,dt and w 2 d t about any two axes, where w1 and w 2 are their
respective rotational speeds. Let the direction of each of the axes of rotation be indicated by unit vectors 1, and l,, as shown in Fig. 1.5-1, and we

Fig. 1.5-1.

Angular velocity represented by vector.

will perform the rotations in the order 1 and 2, then repeat in the reverse
order to examine the final result.
Because of the infinitesimal rotation (w,dt)l,, the end of the displacement
vector r defining the position p will be displaced by an amount,
(w, dt)l, % r
(1.5-1)
and the new position is defined by the vector,
rl = r

+ (w,d t ) l , % r

Next allow the second infinitesimal rotation

final position of p is defined by the vector r,.

r2 = rl
=r

(1.5-2)
dt)12,in which case the

(02

+ (w2dt)12% rl

+ (wldt)ll % r + (w2dt)12% r + (w2dt)l, % (w,dt)l, % r

(1.5-3)

Neglecting the second-order term (w2w1 dt dt), we arrive at the result,

r2 = r

+ (culll + w212)dt % r

(1.54)

If we repeat the operation in the reverse order, we will find the equation
for r2 to be identical to the previous case, indicating that infinitesimal
rotations are commutative. In effect, we have represented an angular

10

INTRODUCTION TO SPACE DYNAMICS

velocity by a vector o = w l according to the right-hand screw convention,

as shown in Fig. 1.5-2. The fingers in this case indicate the rotation sense,
and the positive direction of the vector w is represented by the thumb.
Since angular velocities obey all the rules of vectors, they can be compounded by the parallelogram rule to a single resultant vector. Thus the

Fig. 1.5-2.

Right-hand rule for angular velocity.

two infinitesimal rotations of Fig. 1.5-1 can also be reduced to a single

rotation which is evident by rewriting the equation for r2 as,
r2 = r
1.6

+ (ol+ w2) % r d t

(1.5-5)

Derivative of a Vector

In differentiating a vector, the usual rules of the limiting process apply.

dr
(r
Ar) - r
Ar
- = lim
= lim(1.6-1)
dt At-0
At
At-o At
If the vector r is referenced to a fixed coordinate system, the Ar is the
vector change relative to the coordinates which is also the total change,
and Eq. 1.6-1 is the total derivative of r.
If the vector r is referenced to a rotating coordinate system such as the
one shown in Fig. 1.6-1, the vector r remaining stationary relative to the
rotating axes will undergo a change
A& sin 4
along the tangent to the dotted circle, and its rate of change is established
by the limit,

r sin 4

(wr sin +)1

At-0

where 1 is a unit vector along the tangent.

Since this expression is equal to the cross product of o and r, we

II

INTRODUCTION

conclude that due to rotation o of the coordinate system the vector r

undergoes a rate of change of
oxr
(1.6-2)
This term occurs in addition to the vector change relative to the coordinate
system, so that the total derivative relative to inertial axes is

+ o X r

(1.6-3)*

coord.

Fig. 1 . 6 1 .

Differentiation of a vector r referenced to rotating coordinates.

Equation 1.6-3 applies to any vector quantity and is of fundamental

importance to dynamics where body-fixed axes are often used.
We mention finally that the derivatives of the dot and cross products are
treated as in products of scalar quantities, except that the order of the cross
product must be maintained. These rules are illustrated by the following
equations.
d
db da
- (a b) = a - - b
dt
dt
dt

d
db
- ( a X b) = a X dt
dt

da
+X b
dt

(1.6-5)

* A convenient notation to distinguish between differentiation in the inertial and

rotating coordinates is to use brackets, or parenthesis around the latter, i.e.,

This notation will be used in this book.

12

INTRODUCTION TO SPACE DYNAMICS

PROBLEMS

1. Determine the unit vector along r = 3i - 2j 2k.

2. Determine the angles a, 8, and y between r of Prob. 1 and the x,v, and z axes.
3. Determine the dot product of the vectors rl = 4i 3j k; r2 = -2i
2j 3k.
4. Determine the angle between rl and r2 of Prob. 3.
5. Determine the cross product r, x r, of Prob. 3. Show by means of dot
products between the cross product vector and rl and r2that the cross product
is perpendicular to each of vectors r, and r2.
6. Show by vector means that any inscribed angle in a semicircle is a right angle.
7. What is the geometric interpretation of (a
b),.
8. If a and b are absolute values of vectors a and b, express the scalar quantity
a2b2by using only the dot and cross products of a and b.
9. Write the equation of a plane, a distance c from a given point 0, in terms of
the radius vector r from 0 to any point in the plane, and the unit vector 1
normal to the plane.
10. Determine the various angles between the spatial diagonals of a unit cube of
sides i, j, and k.
11. Find the area of a triangle specified by the two vectors rl = 3i 4j; r2 =
-5i
7j 2k.
12. Show that the moment r x F about 0 is independent of how r is drawn from
0 as long as it terminates along the line of action of F. (Hinr: Consider two
r, both terminating along F.)
vectors r, and r2 = rl
13. Determine the derivative of the dot product of the vectors rl = 2ti - 3t2j;
r, = -4i
2rj, and compare with the derivative determined from Eq. 1 . 6 4 .
14. Repeat Prob. 13 for the cross product, using Eq. 1 . 6 5 .
15. A vector r = 3ri - 4j
k is referenced to a coordinate system which is
rotating at a speed w = 2rk. Determine its derivative.
16. Prove the equations given on p. 8 for the multiple products.
17. Complete the derivation for Eq. 1.5-3 when the order of rotation is 2 and 1.
Under what conditions are the two equations equal?
18. Determine the relative magnitudes of the terms of Eq. 1.5-3 when r = 4i
3j; w1 = 2; w2 = - 1 ; 1, = i and 1, = j.
19. In Prob. 18, determine the value of dt necessary to reduce the term (w2 dt)12 x
(wl dr)l, x r to 1 % of the magnitude of the smallest vector component.

- +

+ +