Unit I

ENVIRONMENT, ECOSYSTEMS AND BIODIVERSITY

Environment:
Definition: The natural environment, encompasses all living and non-living things occurring naturally on Earth or some
region thereof. The concept of the natural environment can be distinguished by components:
Complete ecological units that function as natural systems without massive human intervention, including all
vegetation, microorganisms, soil, rocks, atmosphere and natural phenomena that occur within their boundaries.
Universal natural resources and physical phenomena that lack clear-cut boundaries, such as air, water, and climate,
as well as energy, radiation, electric charge, and magnetism, not originating from human activity.
Scope of Environment: The environment consists of four segments as under:
1. Atmosphere: The atmosphere implies the protective blanket of gases, surrounding the earth:
(a)It sustains life on the earth.
(b)It saves it from the hostile environment of outer space.
(c)It absorbs most of the cosmic rays from outer space and a major portion of the electromagnetic radiation from the sun.
(d)It transmits only here ultraviolet, visible, near infrared radiation (300 to 2500 nm) and radio waves. (0.14 to 40 m)
while filtering out tissue-damaging ultra-violate waves below about 300 nm.
The atmosphere is composed of nitrogen and oxygen, besides, argon, carbon dioxide and trace gases.
2. Hydrosphere: The Hydrosphere comprises all types of water resources oceans, seas, lakes, rivers, streams, reservoir, polar
icecaps, glaciers, and ground water.
(i)Nature 97% of the earths water supply is in the oceans,
(ii)About 2% of the water resources is locked in the polar icecaps and glaciers.
(iii)Only about 1% is available as fresh surface water-rivers, lakes streams, and ground water fit to be used for human
consumption and other uses.
3. Lithosphere: Lithosphere is the outer mantle of the solid earth. It consists of minerals occurring in the earths crusts and the
soil e.g. minerals, organic matter, air and water.
4.
Biosphere: Biosphere indicates the realm of living organisms and their
interactions with environment, viz atmosphere, hydrosphere and lithosphere.
Importance:
At present a great number of environment issues, have grown in size and complexity day by day, threatening the survival of
mankind on earth. We study about these issues besides and effective suggestions in the Environment Studies. Environment
studies have become significant for the following reasons:
1. Environment Issues Being of International Importance
It has been well recognized that environment issues like global warming and ozone depletion, acid rain, marine pollution and
biodiversity are not merely national issues but are global issues and hence must be tackled with international efforts and
cooperation.
2. Problems Cropped in the Wake of Development
Development, in its wake gave birth to Urbanization, Industrial Growth, Transportation Systems, Agriculture and Housing
etc. However, it has become phased out in the developed world. The North, to cleanse their own environment has, fact fully,
managed to move dirty factories of South. When the West developed, it did so perhaps in ignorance of the environmental
impact of its activities. Evidently such a path is neither practicable nor desirable, even if developing world follows that.
3. Explosively Increase in Pollution
World census reflects that one in every seven persons in this planted lives in India. Evidently with 16 per cent of the world's
population and only 2.4 per cent of its land area, there is a heavy pressure on the natural resources including land.
Agricultural experts have recognized soils health problems like deficiency of micronutrients and organic matter, soil salinity
and damage of soil structure.
4. Need for an Alternative Solution
It is essential, especially for developing countries to find alternative paths to an alternative goal. We need a goal as under:
(1)A goal, which ultimately is the true goal of development an environmentally sound and sustainable development
(2)A goal common to all citizens of our earth
(3)A goal distant from the developing world in the manner it is from the over-consuming wasteful societies of the
developed world.
5. Need to Save Humanity from Extinction
It is incumbent upon us to save the humanity from extinction consequent to our activities constricting the environment and
depleting the biosphere, in the name of development.
6. Need for Wise Planning of Development
Our survival and sustenance depend, resources withdraw, and processing and use of the product have all to be synchronized
with the ecological cycles. In any plan of development our actions should be planned ecologically for the sustenance of the
environment and development.
Need For Public Awareness:
It is essential to make the public aware of the formidable consequences of the Environmental Degradation, if not retorted and
reformative measures undertaken would result in the extinction of life. We are facing various environmental challenges. It is
essential to get the country acquainted with these challenges so that their acts may be eco-friendly. Some of these challenges
are as under:
1. Growing Population
A population of over thousands of millions is growing at 2.11 per cent every year. Over 17 million people are added each
year. It puts considerable pressure on its natural resources and reduces the gains of development. Hence, the greatest
challenge before us is to limit the population growth. Although population control does automatically lead to development,
yet the development leads to a decrease in population growth rates. For this development of the women is essential.
2. Poverty
India has often been described a rich land with poor people. The poverty and environmental degradation have a nexus
between them. The vast majority of our people are directly dependent on the nature resources of the country for their basic
needs of food, fuel shelter and fodder. About 40% of our people are still below the poverty line. Environment degradation has
adversely affected the poor who depend upon the resources of their immediate surroundings. Thus, the challenge of poverty
and the challenge environment degradation are two facets of the same challenge. The population growth is essentially a
function of poverty. Because, to the very poor, every child is an earner and helper and global concerns have little relevance
for him.

3. Agricultural Growth
The people must be acquainted with the methods to sustain and increase agricultural growth with damaging the environment.
High yielding varities have caused soil salinity and damage to physical structure of soil.
4. Need to Ground water
It is essential of rationalizing the use of groundwater. Factors like community wastes, industrial effluents and chemical
fertilizers and pesticides have polluted our surface water and affected quality of the groundwater. It is essential to restore the
water quality of our rivers and other water bodies as lakes are an important challenge. It so finding our suitable strategies for
consecration of water, provision of safe drinking water and keeping water bodies clean which are difficult challenges is
essential.
5. Development and Forests
Forests serve catchments for the rivers. With increasing demand of water, plan to harness the mighty river through large
irrigation projects were made. Certainly, these would submerge forests; displace local people, damage flora and fauna. As
such, the dams on the river Narmada, Bhagirathi and elsewhere have become areas of political and scientific debate.
Forests in India have been shrinking for several centuries owing to pressures of agriculture and other uses. Vast areas, that
were once green, stand today as wastelands. These areas are to be brought back under vegetative cover. The tribal
communities inhabiting forests, respects the trees, birds and animal, which gives them sustenance. We must recognize the
role of these people in restoring and conserving forests. The modern knowledge and skills of the forest department should be
integrated with the traditional knowledge and experience of the local communities. The strategies for the joint management
of forests should be evolved in a well planned way.
6. Degradation of Land
At present out of the total 329mha of land, only 266mha possess any potential for production. Of this, 143mha is agricultural
land nearly and 85mha suffer from varying degrees of soil degradation. Of the remaining 123mha, 40 are completely
unproductive. The remaining 83mha is classified as forest land, of which over half is denuded to various degrees. Nearly 406
million head of livestock have to be supported on 13mha, or less than 4 per cent of the land classified as pasture land, most of
which is overgrazed. Thus, out of 226mha, about 175mha or 66 per cent is degraded to varying degrees. Water and wind
erosion causes further degradation of almost 150mha This degradation is to be avoided.
7. Reorientation of Institutions
The people should be roused to orient institutions, attitudes and infrastructures, to suit conditions and needs today. The
change has to be brought in keeping in view Indias traditions for resources use managements and education etc. Change
should be brought in education, in attitudes, in administrative procedures and in institutions. Because it affects way people
view technology resources and development.
8. Reduction of Genetic Diversity
Proper measures to conserve genetic diversity need to be taken. At present most wild genetic stocks have been disappearing
from nature. Wilding including the Asiatic Lion are facing problem of loss of genetic diversity. The protected areas network
like sanctuaries, national parks, biosphere reserves are isolating populations. So, they are decreasing changes of one group
breeding with another. Remedial steps are to be taken to check decreasing genetic diversity.
9. Evil Consequences of Urbanization
Nearly 27 per cent Indians live in urban areas. Urbanization and industrialization has given birth to a great number of
environmental problems that need urgent attention. Over 30 percent of urban Indians live in slums. Out of Indias 3,245
towns and cities, only 21 have partial or full sewerage and treatment facilities. Hence, coping with rapid urbanization is a
major challenge.
10. Air and water Population
Majority of our industrial plants are using outdated and population technologies and makeshift facilities devoid of any
provision of treating their wastes. A great number of cities and industrial areas have been identified as the worst in terms of
air and water pollution. Acts are enforced in the country, but their implement is not so easy. The reason is their
implementation needs great resources, technical expertise, political and social will.
Again the people are to be made aware of these rules. Their support is indispensable to implement these rules.
Ecosystem:
An ecosystem is a natural unit consisting of all plants, animals and micro-organisms (biotic factors) in an area functioning
together with all of the non-living physical (abiotic) factors of the environment.
The ecosystem concept is the idea that living organisms are continually engaged in a highly interrelated set of relationships
with every other element constituting the environment in which they exist. Eugene Odum, one of the founders of the science
of ecology, stated: "Any unit that includes all of the organisms (ie: the "community") in a given area interacting with the
physical environment so that a flow of energy leads to clearly defined trophic structure, biotic diversity, and material cycles
(i.e.: exchange of materials between living and nonliving parts) within the system is an ecosystem.
Components of an Ecosystem
We can clarify the parts of an ecosystem by listing them under the headings "abiotic" and "biotic".
Processes of Ecosystems:
This figure with the plants, zebra, lion, and so forth illustrates the two main ideas about how ecosystems function:
ecosystems have energy flows and ecosystems cycle materials. These two processes are linked, but they are not quite the
same (see Figure).

ABIOTIC COMPONENTS
BIOTIC COMPONENTS
Sunlight
Primary producers
Temperature
Herbivores
Precipitation
Carnivores
Water or moisture
Omnivores
Soil or water chemistry (e.g., P,
Detritivores
NH4+)
etc.
etc.
All of these vary over space/time

Energy flows and material cycles.

Energy enters the biological system as light energy, or photons, is transformed into chemical energy in organic molecules by
cellular processes including photosynthesis and respiration, and ultimately is converted to heat energy. This energy is
dissipated, meaning it is lost to the system as heat; once it is lost it cannot be recycled. Without the continued input of solar
energy, biological systems would quickly shut down. Thus the earth is an open system with respect to energy.
Elements such as carbon, nitrogen, or phosphorus enter living organisms in a variety of ways. Plants obtain elements from the
surrounding atmosphere, water, or soils. Animals may also obtain elements directly from the physical environment, but
usually they obtain these mainly as a consequence of consuming other organisms. These materials are transformed
biochemically within the bodies of organisms, but sooner or later, due to excretion or decomposition, they are returned to an
inorganic state. Often bacteria complete this process, through the process called decomposition or mineralization.
During decomposition these materials are not destroyed or lost, so the earth is a closed system with respect to elements (with
the exception of a meteorite entering the system now and then). The elements are cycled endlessly between their biotic and
abiotic states within ecosystems. Those elements whose supply tends to limit biological activity are called nutrients.
Structure of an Ecosystem:
By Architecture or Structure of an Ecosystem, we mean

The composition of biological community including species, numbers, biomass, life history and distribution in
space, etc.

The quantity and distribution of non living materials like nutrients, water etc.

The conditions of existence such as temperature, light etc.

An ecosystem possesses both living components and biotic factors and nonliving or abiotic factors.
The nonliving factors, called abiotic factors, are physical and chemical characteristics of the environment. They include solar
energy (amount of sun light), oxygen, CO2, water, temperature, humidity, ph, and availability of nitrogen.
The living components of the environment are called Biotic Factors. They include all the Living Things that affect an
organism. Biotic Components are often categorized as Producers, Consumers, and Decomposer.
Function of an Ecosystem:
The function of an ecosystem is a broad, vast and often confused topic. The function of an ecosystem can be best
studied by understanding the history of ecological studies. The function of an ecosystem can be studied under the three heads.
1. Trophic Level Interaction
2. Ecological Succession
3. Biogeochemistry
Trophic Level Interaction deals with how the members of an ecosystem are connected based on nutritional needs. Ecological
Succession deals with the changes in features/members of an ecosystem over a period of time. Biogeochemistry is focussed
upon the cycling of essential materials in an ecosystem.
As we would be discussing about ecological succession and bio geo chemistry in the future chapters, we shall
confine to Trophic level interaction alone in this chapter. For examination purposes, the student may also stop with
explaining the constituents of trophic level interaction.
Trophic Level Interaction was developed by zoologist Charles Elton. It deals with who eats who and is eaten by whom in an
ecosystem. The study of trophic level interaction in an ecosystem gives us an idea about the energy flow through the
ecosystem.
The trophic level interaction involves three concepts namely
1.
Food
Chain
2.
Food
Web
3.
Ecological Pyramids
Ecological succession, a fundamental concept in ecology, refers to more or less predictable and orderly changes in the
composition or structure of an ecological community. Succession may be initiated either by formation of new, unoccupied
habitat (e.g., a lava flow or a severe landslide) or by some form of disturbance (e.g. fire, severe wind throw, logging) of an

existing community. Succession that begins in areas where no soil is initially present is called primary succession, whereas
succession that begins in areas where soil is already present is called secondary succession.
If the development begins on an area that has not been previously occupied by a community, such as a newly exposed rock or
sand surface, a lava flow, glacial tills, or a newly formed lake, the process is known as primary succession.
If the community development is proceeding in an area from which a community was removed it is called secondary
succession. Secondary succession arises on sites where the vegetation cover has been disturbed by humans or animals (an
abandoned crop field or cut-over forest, or natural forces such as water, wind storms, and floods.) Secondary succession is
usually more rapid as the colonizing area is rich in leftover soil, organic matter and seeds of the previous vegetation. In case
of primary succession everything has to develop a new community.
Biogeochemistry is the scientific discipline that involves the study of the chemical, physical, geological, and biological
processes and reactions that govern the composition of the natural environment (including the biosphere, the hydrosphere, the
pedosphere, the atmosphere, and the lithosphere). In particular, biogeochemistry is the study of the cycles of chemical
elements, such as carbon and nitrogen, and their interactions with and incorporation into living things transported through
earth scale biological systems in space through time. The field focuses on chemical cycles which are either driven by or have
an impact on biological activity. Particular emphasis is placed on the study of carbon, nitrogen, sulfur, and phosphorus
cycles.
Producers, Consumers and Decomposers:

Producers (autotrophs) are typically plants or algae. Plants and algae do not usually eat other organisms, but pull
nutrients from the soil or the ocean and manufacture their own food using photosynthesis. For this reason, they are
called primary producers. In this way, it is energy from the sun that usually powers the base of the food chain. [1] An
exception occurs in deep-sea hydrothermal ecosystems, where there is no sunlight. Here primary producers
manufacture food through a process called chemosynthesis.[2]
Consumers (heterotrophs) cannot manufacture their own food, and need to consume other organisms. They are
usually animals. Animal that eat primary producers, such as plants, are called herbivores. Animals which eat other
animals are called carnivores, and animals which eat both plant and other animals are called omnivores.
Decomposers (detritivores) break down dead plant and animal material and wastes and release it again as energy and
nutrients into the ecosystem for recycling. Decomposers, such as bacteria and fungi (mushrooms), feed on waste and
dead matter, converting it into inorganic chemicals that can be recycled as mineral nutrients for plants to use again.
Energy Flow:
In ecology, energy flow (calorific flow) refers to the flow of energy through a food chain.
In an ecosystem, ecologists seek to quantify the relative importance of different component species and feeding relationships.
A general energy flow scenario follows:
Solar energy is fixed by the photoautotrophs, the so called primary producers, like green plants. They absorb most
of the stored energy in the plant through digestion, and transform it into the form of energy they need, adenosine
triphosphate, through respiration. A part of the energy received by the herbivore is converted to bodily heat (an
effect of respiration), which is radiated away and lost from the system. Energy loss also occurs in the expulsion of
egesta, which contains undigested energy compounds.
Secondary Consumers then consume the primary consumers. Energy that had been used by the primary consumers
for growth and storage is thus absorbed into the secondary consumers through the process of digestion. As with
primary consumers, secondary consumers convert this energy into a more suitable form (ATP) during respiration.
Again some energy is lost from the system, since energy which the primary consumers had used for respiration
cannot be utilized by the secondary consumers.
Tertiary consumers then consume the secondary consumers, and most of the energy is passed along, while some is
again lost in the ways described above and below.
A final link in the food chain is decomposers which break down the organic matter of the tertiary consumers (or
whichever consumer is at the top of the chain) and release nutrients into the soil. Saprotrophic bacteria and fungi are
decomposers, and play a pivotal role in the nitrogen and carbon cycles.

Ecological Pyramids:
The main characteristic of each type of Ecosystem in trophic structure, i.e. the interaction of food chain and the size
metabolism relationship between the linearly arranged various biotic components of an ecosystem. We can show the trophic
structure and function at successive trophic levels, as under:Producers Herbivores Carnivores

It may be known by means of ecological pyramids. In this pyramid the first or producer level constitutes the base of the
pyramid. The successive levels, the three make the apex.
Ecological pyramids are of three general types as under:
(i) Pyramid of numbers: It shows the number of individual organisms at each level,
(ii) Pyramid of energy: It shows the rate of energy flow and/or productivity at successive trophic levels.
(iii) Pyramid of energy: It shows the rate of energy flow and/or productivity at successive trophic levels.
The first two pyramids, that is the pyramid of numbers and biomass may be upright or inverted. It depends upon the nature of
the food chain in the particular ecosystem; however, the pyramids of energy are always upright.
A brief description of these pyramids is as under:
1. Pyramids of numbers
The pyramids of numbers show the relationship between producers, herbivores and carnivores at successive trophic levels in
terms or their numbers.
(i) In grassland, the producers, which are mainly grasses, are always maximum in number.
(ii) This number shows a decrease towards apex, the reason is obvious, number than the grasses.
(iii) The secondary consumers, snakes and lizards are less in number than the rabbits and mice.
(iv) In the top (tertiary) consumers hawks or other birds, are least in number.
In this way the pyramid becomes upright. In a pond ecosystem, also the pyramid is upright as under:
(i) The producers, which are mainly the phyto-planktons as algae, bacteria etc. are max. in number;
(ii) The herbivores, which are smaller fish; rotifers etc are less in number than the producers;
(iii) The secondary consumers (carnivores), such as small fish which eat up each other, water beetles etc. are less in number
than the herbivores;
(iv) Finally, the top (tertiary) consumers, the bigger fish are least in number.
However, the case is not so in a forest eco-system. There the pyramid of numbers is somewhat different in shape:
(i) Producer, here the producers, are mainly large-sized trees, they are less in number, and form the base of the pyramid.
(ii) The herbivores, which are the fruit-eating birds, elephants, deer etc. are more in number than the producers.
(iii) Thereafter there is a gradual decrease in the number of successive carnivores.
In this way the pyramid is made again upright. However, in a parasites food chain the pyramids are inverted. This is for the
reason that a single plant may support the growth of many herbivores. In its turn, each herbivore may provide nutrition to
several parasites, which support many hyperparasites. Consequently from the producer towards consumers, there is a reverse
position. In other words the number of organisms gradually shows an increase, making the pyramid inverted in shape.
2. Pyramids of biomass
The pyramids of biomass are comparatively more fundamentalism; as the reason is they instead of geometric factor; show the
quantitative relationships of the standing crops. The pyramids of biomass in different types of ecosystem may be compared as
under:
In grassland and forest there is generally a gradual decrease in biomass of organisms at successive levels from the producers
to the top carnivores. In this way, the pyramids are upright. However, in a pond the producers are small organisms, their
biomass is least, and this value gradually shows an increase towards the apex of the pyramid and the pyramids are made
inverted in shape.
3. Pyramid of energy
The energy pyramid gives the best picture of overall nature of the ecosystem. Here, number and weight of organisms at any
level depends on the rate at which food is being produced. If we compare the pyramid of energy with the pyramids of
numbers and biomass, which are pictures of the standing situations (organisms present at any moment), the pyramid of
energy is a picture of the rates of passage of food mass through the food chain. It is always upright in shape.
Forest Ecosystem: Types, Characteristic Features, Structure and Function:
A forest is more than just the trees. A single forest is a complete, functioning ecosystem that supports innumerable plant and
animal species as well as earth, water, and air subsystems. The subsystems provide the essence of life of the forest and are in
themselves a byproduct of forest systems, all of which are reciprocal and interdependent.
A forest ecosystem is a complex of living and non-living elements which interrelate. An ecosystem can be small (like
your backyard) or large (like the planet earth). It depends on the range of individual species or group of species being
discussed (e.g.: a salmon stock or a forest type), geology (e.g.: a mountain range or watershed), and other issues.
Types
a) Temperature Forest Ecosystem
The temperature forest ecosystem is very important on Earth. Temperate forests are in regions where the climate changes a
lot from summer to winter. Tropical rain forests are in regions where the climate stays constant all year long. Temperate
forests are almost always made of two types of trees, deciduous and evergreen.
Deciduous trees are trees tht lose their leaves in the winter. Evergreens are trees that keep them all year long, like pine trees.
Forests can either be one or the other, or a combination of both. A fourth kind of forest is a temperate rain forest. These are
found in California, Oregon and Washington in the United States. These forests are made of redwoods and sequoias, the
tallest trees in the world. The amount of rainfall in an area determines if a forest is present. If there is enough rain to support
trees, then a forest will usually develop. Otherwise, the region will become grasslands.
b) The Tropical Rain Forest Ecosystem
Tropical rain forests are one of the most important areas on Earth. These special ecosystems are homes to thousands of
species animals and plants. Contrary to popular belief, rain forests are not only densely packed plants, but are also full of tall
trees that form a ceiling from the Sun above. This ceiling keeps small plants from growing. Areas where sunlight can reach
the surface are full of interesting plants.
Structure of Forest Ecosystems
Different organisms exist within the forest layers. These organisms interact with each other and their surrounds. Each
organism has a role or niche in sustaining the ecosystem. Some provide food for other organisms, other provide shelter or
control populations trough predation.
Producers
All the living organism intakes energy in order to survive. In a forest ecosystem, threes and other plants get their
energy from sunlight. Plants produce their own food, in the form of carbohydrates. Plants are, therefore, called the primary
producers, since they produce the basic foodstuffs for other organisms within food chains and food webs. Photosynthesis is
the chemical reaction that allows plants to produce their own food.

Consumers
Animals cannot produce their own food. They must consume food sources for the energy they need to survive. All
animals, including mammals, insects, and birds are called consumers. Consumers rely on plants and other animals as a food
source. Details of these animals in a forest ecosystem have been given earlier. Primary consumes only eat plants and are
referred to as herbivores. Second consumers are referred to as carnivores and feed on herbivores. Tertiary consumers are
carnivores that feed on other carnivores. Omnivores eat both plant and animal matter.
Decomposers
Leaves, needless, and old branches fall to the forest floor as trees grow. Eventuality all plants and animals die. These
materials are decomposed by worms, microbes, fungi, ants, and other bugs.
Decomposers break these items down into their smallest primary elements to be used again. Decomposers are important and
they sustain the nutrient cycle of ecosystems.
Humans are part of Forest ecosystem: Humans are consumers. We get food and materials from forests. Because of this, we
are a part of the forest ecosystem. Human consumption alters forest ecosystems. Human intervention may be necessary to
sustain forest communities under the increased pressure of human use.
Grassland Ecosystem: Types and Characteristic Features
Over one quarter of the Earths surface is covered by grasslands. Grasslands are found on every continent except
Antarctica, and they make up most of Africa and Asia. There are several types of grassland. They are distinguished by
different names like plains, prairies, savannas and pampas.
Grasslands develop where there isnt enough rain for forests but too much rain for deserts. Grasslands are filled with
grass. There are many types of grass, though. Fields of wheat are considered grasslands, even though they are often cultivated
by people. Grass is special because it grows underneath the ground. During cold periods the grass can stay dormant until it
warms up.
The annual rainfall ranges between 25 to 75 cm and is usually seasonal; while temperatures are moderate. Summer
drought and winter blizzards can be severe, with periodic fire devastation in these biomes. The dominant plant species are
short and tall grasses and other flowering plants, many of which are perennials with extensively developed roots. The soils of
these grasslands often have a deep organic layer.
Structure and Function
The different components of a grassland ecosystem are:
(A) Abiotic Component
These are the nutrients present in the soil and other components present in the air. The basic elements are supplied by carbon
dioxide, water, nitrogen, sulphates etc. All these are present in atmosphere and soil of that location.
(B) Biotic components
In grasslands the producers are mainly grasses, herbs and shrubs. All these contribute to production of biomass. Common
species of grass are sp. Cynodon etc. As regards the consumers the basic three types are Primary, Secondary and Tertiary.
Primary consumers feed directly on grass. All the grazing animals as well as the termites and insects come under this
category. The secondary consumers feed on these primary consumers and include snakes, lizards etc. The tertiary consumers
feed on secondary consumers. Examples are eagles and vultures. Fungi, bacteria etc are the decomposers. These micro
organisms consume the dead bodies and bring the nutrients back to the soil.
Desert Ecosystem: Types, Characteristic Features, Structure and Function:
Types and Characteristic Feature
One can find at least one desert on every continent except Europe and Antarctica. Each desert is different in some
way, but they all have one thing in common. In order for an area of land to be considered a desert, it must receive less than 10
inches of water a year.
How come deserts get such little water? Clouds are scarce in these regions and we all know that without clouds, there cant
be rain, snow or any other precipitation. But clouds also serve another purpose they block out some of the Sun. The desert
gets mighty hot during the day because the Sun beats down on the sand. At night, the deserts gets very cold, because there
arent clouds around to keep the heat from escaping to the atmosphere.
There are plenty of differences between the deserts of the world. Some deserts are made of very fine, red sand; others consist
of sand mixed with pebbles and rocks. The desert sand started out as rock, but years of weathering by wind and water has
created dunes in the deserts. These sands are mostly minerals, and sometimes oil can be found hidden deep within the rocks.
Structure and Function
The different components of a desert ecosystem are
(A) Abiotic Component
The abiotic component includes the nutrients present in the soil and the aerial environment. The characteristic feature of
the abiotic component is lack of organic matter in the soil and scarcity of water.
(B) Biotic Component
The various biotic components representing three functional groups are :
(a) Producer organisms
The producers are mainly shrubs or bushes, some grasses and a few trees.
The most famous desert plant is the cactus. There are many species of cacti. The saguaro cactus is the tall, pole shaped
cactus. The saguaro can grow up to 40 feet tall. It can hold several tons of water inside its soft tissue. Like all cacti, the
saguaro has a thick, waxy layer that protects it from the Sun. Other succulents include the desert rose and the living rock.
This strange plant looks like a spiny rock. Its disguise protects it from predators. The welwitschia is a weird looking plant. It
has two long leaves and a big root. This plant is actually a type of tree and it can live for thousands of years. There are many
other kinds of desert plants. Some of them have thorns, others have beautiful flowers and deadly poisons. Even in the worst
conditions, these plants continue to thrive.
(b) Consumers
These include animals such as insects and reptiles. Besides them, some rodents, birds and some mammalian vertebrates
are also found.
Desert Insects and Arachnids
There are plenty of insects in the desert. One of the most common and destructive pests is the locust. A locust is a special
type of grasshopper. They travel from place to place, eating all the vegetation they find. Locusts can destroy many crops in a
single day.
Not all desert insects are bad, though. The yucca moth is very important to the yucca plant, because it carries pollen from the
flower to the stigma. The darkling beetle has a hard, white, wing case that reflects the Suns energy. This allows the bug to
look for food during the day.

There are also several species of ants in the desert. The harvester ants gather seeds and store them for use during the dry
season. And the honey pot ants have a very weird habit. Some members of the colony eat large amounts of sugar, so much
that their abdomens get too large for them to move. The rest of the colony feeds off this sugar.
There are also arachnids in the desert. Spiders are the most notable arachnids, but scorpions also belong in this group. Some
species of scorpions have poison in their sharp tails. They sting heir predators and their prey with the piercing tip.
Desert Reptiles
Reptiles are some of the most interesting creatures of the desert. Reptiles can withstand the extreme temperatures because
they can control their body temperatures very easily. You can put most of the desert reptiles into one of two categories;
snakes and lizards.
Many species of rattlesnakes can be found in the desert. Rattlesnakes have a noisy rattle they use to warn enemies to stay
away. If the predator isnt careful, the rattlesnake will strike, injecting venom with its sharp fangs. Other desert snakes
include the cobra, king snake and the hognose.
Lizards make up the second category of desert reptiles. They are probably the most bizarre looking animals in the desert.
While some change colors and have sharp scales for defense, others change their appearance to look more threatening. One
such creature is the frilled lizard. When enemies are near, the lizard opens its mouth, unveiling a wide frill. This makes the
lizard look bigger and scarier. The shingleback has a tail with the same shape as its head. When a predator bites at the tail, the
shingleback turns around and bites back. There are only two venomous lizards in the world, and one of them is the gila
monster. It has a very painful bite.
Desert Mammals
Many desert mammals are burrowers. They dig holes in the ground and stay there during the hot days. They return to the
surface at night to feed. Hamsters, rats and their relatives are all burrowers. Not only do the burrows keep the animals cool,
they are also a great place to store food. Of course, not all animals live in holes in the ground. The kangaroo and spicy
anteater both live in the Australian desert region. Spiny anteaters are unusual mammals because they lay eggs. The desert is
also full of wild horses, foxes and jackals, which are part of the canine family. And we cant forget the cats. Lions are found
all over the deserts of southern Africa. They get their water from the blood of their prey.
Camels The Cars of the Desert
Camels could be included in the mammal section. Camels are the cars of the desert. Without them, people would have great
difficulty crossing the hot terrain. There are two types of camels: Bactrian and dromedary. The main difference between the
two is the number of humps. Dromedaries have one hump and bactrian have two. Both kinds are used by people, but only
bactrians are found in the wild. Camels are great transportation because they use very little water. Camels can withstand very
high temperatures without sweating. They also store fat in their humps for food. If a Bactrian camel travels a long distance
without eating, its hump will actually get smaller.
(c) Decomposers
Due to poor vegetation the amount of dead organic matter is very less. As a result the decomposers are very few. The
common decomposers are some bacteria and fungi, most of which are thermophillic.
Aquatic Ecosystem: Types, Characteristic Features, Structure and Function:
Lakes
A lake is a body of water completely surrounded by land. Lakes can either be salty or fresh water. Most lakes are in places
where glaciers used to exist. When a glacier moves forward, it carves away a deep valley and when the ice melts it forms a
lake in the valley. Other lakes are formed in craters or when a river changes its course. Lakes are short-lived surface features
because the water can sink into the ground or evaporate into the sky. In order for a like to remain, it must be constantly fed by
a river or rainfall.
Rivers and Streams
Rivers are very important to Earth because they are major forces that shape the landscape. Also, they provide transportation
and water for drinking washing and farming. Rivers can flow on land or underground in deserts and seas. Rivers may come
from mountain springs, melting glaciers or lakes. A rivers contribution to the cycle is that it collects water from the ground
and returns it to the ocean. The water w drink is about 3 billion years old because it has been recycled over and over since the
first rainfall. A delta is where a river meets the sea. Usually the river flows more slowly at the delta than at its start because it
deposits sediment. Sediment can be anything from mud, sand and every rock fragments. A special environment is created
when the fresh water from the river mixes with the salty ocean water. This environment is called estuary. The longest river is
the Nile River in Africa, and the Amazon River in South America carries the most water. The muddiest river is the Yellow
River in China.
Estuaries
An estuary is a unique environment where fresh water and salt water come together. Estuaries are found on the coast where a
river or bay or other sources of fresh water has access to the open sea. A good example of an estuary is a salt marsh that can
be found close to the coast. Another example is when a river feeds directly into the ocean. The largest estuary in the United
States is the Chesapeake bay estuary on the east coast of the U.S.
Estuaries are affected by the tides. So, there can be changes of salinity, temperature and other physical properties in an
estuarial system which means the organisms there must be very tolerant to change. Even with that consideration, estuaries are
among the most fertile places in the world. All kinds of plants and animals live there. When looking at estuaries, scientists
quickly realized that these areas were extremely nutrient-rich because of sediment deposit of rivers, creeks or streams feeding
into the salt water environment. Unfortunately, estuaries havent always been seen as valuable. In the past, they were seen as
worthless and were used as dumps, or places for new land development (by filling in the marshy area). However, now the
systems are being set up to establish, manage and maintain estuary reserves, and to provide for their long-term stewardship.
Pond Ecosystem
The definition of a pond is any body of water over 1m square that is inundated, wet for more than 8 months of the year.
That definition tells us quite a lot about a ponds ecosystem. The first is obvious, it doesnt have to be large to be useful, in
fact even a bird bath will be visited by the water boatman if he is in need of a place to rest and eat. If a pond does dry out it
isnt a disaster, both plants and animals have adapted to this eventuality. The pond is the most valuable as far as wildlife is
concerned, if the pond is reasonably shallow (no more than 90 cm) and very well planted it will support a vast array of
animals and plants. Some potential inhabitants and visitors are frogs, Newts, Toads, Foxes, Hedgehogs, Badgers birds, Bats,
Grass snakes, Slow worms, Water Voles, Birds of all sizes, Great diving beetles, Water boatman, Dragon fly Larvae and
adults, Damsel flys, Daphnia, Cyclops, Spiders, Water scorpion (not dangerous), zoo plankton, Wirlygig beetle, Pond skaters,
Lace wings. The potential list of insects and other small things is huge.
Introduction to Biodiversity:
Biodiversity is the vast array of all the species of plants, animals, insects and the microorganisms inhabiting the earth either
in the aquatic or the terrestrial habitats. The human civilization depends directly or indirectly upon this biodiversity for their

very basic needs of survivalfood, fodder, fuel, fertilizer, timber, liquor, rubber, leather, medicines and several raw materials.
This diversitys the condition for the long-term sustainability of the environment, continuity of life on earth and the
maintenance of its integrity. Although our understanding of the earths organismsits biological resources- is still imperfect,
there is no doubt that the abundance and diversity of living organisms provide many benefits and make our world a beautiful
and interesting place to live. Biodiversity is generally described in terms of its 3 fundamental and hierarchically related levels
of biological organisms. These are,
Genetic diversity
It includes the genetic variations within species, both among geographically separated populations and among individuals
within single population.
Species diversity
It includes full range of species from micro organisms to giants and mammoth varieties of plants and animals, e.g. single
celled viruses and bacteria etc. and multi-cellular plants, animals and fungi.
Ecosystems diversity
It studies variation in the biological communities in which species Jive, exist and interact.
Bio-geographic Classification of India:
India has been classified into ten bio geographic zones by the Wildlife Institute of India under the Governments Biogeographic Project Table.

The Value of Biodiversity:

Ecosystems and species provide an enormous range of goods and other services -immediate as well as long term, material as
well as spiritual and psychological - which are vital to our well being. The values of the earths biological resources can
broadly be classified intoDirect Values
Consumptive and productive uses
Food Resources: Grains, vegetables, fruits, nuts, condiments, tea-coffee, tobacco, liquor, oil from plant resources; and
meat, fish, egg, milk (and milk products), honey, etc. from animal resources.
Other Resources: Medicine, fuel, timber, household accessories, fodder, fiber, fertilizer, wool, leather, paint, resin,
wax, thatch. Ornamental plants, rubber, creams, silk, feathers, decorative items, etc.
Indirect Values
Non-consumptive uses and options for the future
1. Carbon fixing through photosynthesis, which provides the support system for species.
2. Pollination, gene flow, etc.
3. Maintaining water cycles, recharging ground water, protecting watersheds.
4. Buffering from climatic extreme conditions such as flood and drought;
5. Soil production and protection from erosion;
6. Maintaining essential nutrient cycles, e.g. carbon, nitrogen, and oxygen and others.
7. Absorbing and decomposing pollutants, organic wastes, pesticides, air and water pollutants;
8. Regulating climate at both macro and micro levels;
9. Preserving aesthetic, social, scientific, educational, ethical and historical values of natural environments.
(i) Consumptive Use: Man is mostly dependent on plant and animal resources for his dietary requirements. A major share of
our food comes from domesticated crops and animals. Still we derive major of food from wild species. A large section of
human population is dependent on food, which we gather from seas and oceans that is harvested from free roaming wild
organisms. Seafood is rich in minerals and vitamins and contains up to 60 percent of the protein. Unfortunately, deforestation,
hunting and clearing of forests, grazing and expansion of agricultural lands removes potentially valuable food species and the
wild ancestors of our domestic crops.
(ii) Productive Use: Trade and commerce industry is very largely dependent on forests.
Besides, timber, firewood, paper pulp, and other wood products, we get many valuable commercial products from forests.
Herbs of medicinal value, Rattan cane, sisal, rubber, pectins, resins, gums, tannins, vegetable oils, waxes, and essential oils
are among the products gathered in the wild form forest areas. Like Himalayan forests serve as a storehouse of medicinal
herbs, which are presently being used to cure many diseases. Many wild species e.g. milkweeds, etc. are also being
investigated as a source of rubber, alkaloids, and other valuable organic chemicals.
(iii) Medicine: Many medicinal and aromatic plants are being exploited in the wild to tap their potential for different ailment
cure in the field of drug extraction e.g. Hippophae rhamnoides, Ephedra Kerardiana. Dactylorrahiza hatageria etc. Besides,
they are being cultured in plantations and protected in wild to encourage in-situ and ex-situ conservation viz. Valley of
flowers, Rohtang in Kullu, Lahu & Spiti Valley. Animal products are also sources of drugs, analgesics pharmaceuticals,
antibiotics, heart regulators, anticancer and ant parasite drugs, blood pressure regulators, anticoagulants, enzymes, and
hormones.
(iv) Ecological Benefits: Man cannot have control over nature in the wild. It can only put pressure on resources and pollute
environment. Then what makes environment act as a self-replenishing system with respect to resource generation and selfcleanliness. To answer this comes into picture the role of biological communities.
The processes of soil formation, waste disposal, air and water purification, nutrient cycling, solar energy absorption, and
management of biogeochemical and are all beyond the scope of mans control. Non-domestic plants, animals, and microbes
do this favor to mankind by maintaining ecological processes at no cost. These also serve as a library of gene pool. Wild
species of plants and animals exercise control over disease-carrying organisms and in suppressing pests. Food chain explains

how nature keep a control over population of organisms wherein organisms of small size and larger in number are consumed
by organisms large in size and smaller in number to next higher tropic level. Hence, preservation of natural areas and
conservation of wild species should be encouraged and practiced to restore the biological wealth.
(v) Aesthetic Use: Wild species of plants and animals have always appealed mans psyche. Human society has evolved from
his early habitat in the forests, which abounds in flora and fauna. Till date his instinct to observe nature in the wild calls him
from socially and culturally an evolved society, as tourist from far and wide places. Thousands of tourists visit national park,
sanctuaries and forests throughout the country and especially in mountainous areas. A glance of temperate grasslands perhaps
the most beautiful landscape pleases and comforts man. All domestic plants have evolved from wild ancestors and food
gathering is no longer a necessity for man but still thousands enjoy hunting, fishing and other adventurous outdoor activities
that involve wild species. Such environment and playful exercise gives man an opportunity to renew his pioneer skills, and be
at mental ease after leading a hectic day in todays life. Man enjoys his surrounding by decorating it with images of wild
animals and plants.
(vi) Cultural Benefits: A particular species or community of organisms may have emotional value for a group of people who
feel that their identity is inextricably linked to the natural components of the environment that shaped their culture. This may
be expressed as a religious value, or it may be a psychological need for access to wildlife. In either case, we often place a
high value on the preservation of certain wild species.
(vii) Option Values: This refers to the use of various species for the benefit of mankind, sometime in future. The hunt for
various species under the scope of bio-technology is already underway for finding solutions to various environmental
problems. The environmental issues being addressed to be: pollution as a major problem, ways to fight various disease viz.,
cancer, diabetes etc., AIDS and others.
Biodiversity at Global, National and Local levels:
1. Global Initiatives for Biodiversity Assessment
The initiative for biodiversity assessment was taken long back in 1991 with the UNEP Biodiversity Country Studies Project
(consisting of bilateral and Global Environmental Facility funded studies in developing countries) implemented in
cooperation with donor countries and UNDP. The preparation of it dates back to 1987. Nineteen studies have been completed
and several more are in the process of completion. The approach from gene to ecosystem was initiated as a Research Agenda
for Biodiversity, IUBS/SCOPE/ UNESCO, Paris (Sol brig, 1991). The agreed text of the Convention on Biological Diversity
was adopted by 101 governments in Nairobi in May 1992, signed by 159 governments and the European Union at the United
Nations Conference on Environment and Development (UNCED) held at Rio de Janeiro in June 1992. At present 174
governments is party to this convention. Apart from this Global Biodiversity Strategy (1992), Global biodiversity; Status of
the Earths Living Resources (1992), Caring for the Earth; A Strategy for Sustainable Living (1991), Global Marine
Biological Diversity: A Strategy for Building Conservation into Decision Making (1993), Norway/UNEP Expert Conference
on Biodiversity (1993) and From Genes to Ecosystems: A Research Agenda for Biodiversity (1991) are the milestones on the
international biodiversity initiatives. Many more nations are engaged in developing their own National Biodiversity
Strategies. Global Biodiversity Assessment (UNEP, 1995) estimates the total number of animal and plant species to be
between 13 and 14 million. It further records that so far only 1.75 million species have been described and studied.
Ecosystem diversity has not been even reasonably explored as yet. Hence, there seems to be wide gap of knowledge at
global, regional and local levels. Till recent past biodiversity conservation was thought to be limited to saving genes, species
and habitats but the implementation revolutionary policies and more awareness has led to the emergence of a framework
based upon saving biodiversity, studying and most importantly using it sustainable. Reforms in the field of forestry,
agriculture, technology, international trade agreement and watershed management is required. Biodiversity is directly or
indirectly related to masses (researchers, government agencies, non-government agencies and private sectors) at all levels of
development. Since we depend upon biodiversity our various activities can be linked to its usage and conservation.
Therefore, trade, economics, population, land tenure, intellectual property rights and resource consumption & waste are all
related to biodiversity conservation. Hence, its sustainable use can be promoted through information, ethics, knowledge and
awareness.
2. Levels of Action
Need for biodiversity conservation is realized by all nations of the world because their lies common interest of masses. Most
of the resources do not belong to an individual, a nation or a continent. They are simply global. Each and every member on
the earth has equal right over it. To limit the loss of biodiversity globally 4 major steps have been realized important at
national, regional and local levels.
(i) Global Environment Facility (GEF)
World Bank, United Nations Development Programme (UNDP), United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP)
established the GEF in 1900 on a three-year pilot basis. The GEF is expected to commit $ 400 million for the biodiversity
conservation issue.
(ii) International Biodiversity Strategy Programme (IBSP)
World Resources Institute (WRI), World Conservation Union (WCU), UNEP together with more than 40 Governmental and
non-Governmental organizations have prepared the framework to drastically reduce the loss of biodiversity. This would serve
mankind on a more sustainable basis.
(iii) Convention on Biological Diversity (COBD)
Under the aegis of UNEP, more than 100 nations gathered during Earth Summit at
Brazil. This was accomplished to work out a legal framework for governing international financial support for biodiversity
conservation,
(iv) Agenda 21
It is developed through a series of inter-Governmental preparatory meetings with input from a variety of non-Governmental
processes including the Biodiversity Strategy Programme. AGENDA 21 provides a plan of action on a number of issues
including biodiversity.
India as a Mega-Diversity Nation:
Lying at the junction of Agro-tropical, Euro-Asian and the Indo-Malayan biogeography realms, India is a country of vast
biodiversity in the world and quite a significant one all over the globe. In fact, it is among the twelve Mega diversity
countries in the world. India is also a Vavilov centre of high crop genetic diversityso named after the Russian agro
botanist N.I. Vavilov who identified about eight such centers around the world in the 1950s. India, a mega-biodiversity
country, while following the path of development, has been sensitive to the needs of conservation. Indias strategies for
conservation and sustainable utilization of biodiversity in the past aimed at providing special status and protection to
biodiversity rich areas by declaring them as national parks. Wildlife sanctuaries, biosphere reserves, ecologically fragile and
sensitive areas has helped in reducing pressure from reserve forests by alternative measures of fuel wood and fodder need
satisfaction by a forestation of degraded areas and wastelands, creation of ex-suit conservation facilities such as gene banks

and eco-development. The challenges before India are not only to sustain the efforts of the past but also further add to these
efforts by involving people in the mission.
Hotspots of Biodiversity:
Areas with rich biodiversity and exhibiting high levels of endemism, which are under immediate threat of species extinction
and habitat destruction, are recognized on priority basis worldwide for conservation practices and are known as hot spots. 12
hot spots identified world over represent 14% of worlds plant species in only 0.2% of its total land surface. Twelve mega
diversity nations (Mexico, Columbia, Brazil, Peru, Ecuador, Madagascar, Indonesia, Malaysia, India, China and Australia),
contain 60-70 % of the worlds biodiversity. Out of the total hot spots worldwide two lies in India. These are represented by
North-eastern Himalayas (Khasi jaintia hills and the lower Himalayan slopes embracing areas of Arunachal Pradesh, Assam,
Meghalaya, Nagaland and Tripura) and Western Ghats region in the south. These fall under heavy rainfall zones. The rain
forests of the Western Ghats and the eastern Himalayas consist of very dense and lofty trees with a multitude of species
occurring in the same area. Hundreds of species of trees can be identified in a hectare of land besides mosses, ferns,
epiphytes, orchids, lianas and vines, herbs shrubs and fungi that make up this region the most diverse habitat. Giant trees
stretch up towards the sun. Buttress roots, anchored within the soil, support the smooth straight trunks, which rise 30 mts. or
more before branching out. The spreading crowns effectively block out most of the light from the light from the ground
beneath.
1. North-east Himalayas
From the dense evergreen and semi-evergreen vegetation of the foothills in the Eastern Himalaya, the character of vegetation
changes at altitudes of 1525 m to 1830 m. Qaks, magnolias, laurels and birches covered with moss and ferns replace the sal,
silk-cotton trees and giant bamboos of the foothills. At about 2745 m to 3660 m one enters the coniferous forest of pine, fir
yew and junipers. There is undergrowth of scrubby Rhododendrons and dwarfs bamboos. Due to high humidity and much
higher rainfall, lichens, mosses, orchids and other epiphytes cover the tree trunks. The animal life in the temperate region is
different from the western Himalaya and is characterized by the presence of Indo Chinese fauna. The red panda, hog badgers,
ferret badgers, crestless porcupines are typical species of this area. Three kinds of goat antelopes also occur in the eastern
Himalaya and are relatives of the European chamois. Goral is a smaller goat antelope found throughout the tract on rugged
grassy slopes and on rocky grounds near the conifers forests.
2. Western Ghats
The Western Ghats and the central belt lying to the west of it, is a region of very high rainfall and is characterized by
evergreen vegetation, its flora and fauna, being a kin to the evergreen rain forest of north-eastern India. Among the macaques
the lion tailed (Macaca silenus) is one of the worlds most endangered primates, surviving in the evergreen forests of the
Western Ghats of south India; its total population is estimated to be about 800 only.
In the langur group, the nilgiri Iangur (Presbvtis johni) is a multi habitat species occurring in addition to the shoals, in the
temperate evergreen forests above 1700 m altitude in the Western Ghats. A number of climbing animals have evolved gliding
mechanisms and are particularly characteristic of these forests. Among these are the flying squirrels. The other characteristic
species of the Western Ghats are the Nilgiri mongoose, the strip necked mongoose, the malabar civet and the spiny mouse.
The flora and fauna of these evergreen regions have not been fully explored. Being a store house of a large variety of plants
and animals, these forests represent one of the richest gene pool resources of flora and fauna in the country. Though a large
number of such forests have not been destroyed for various plantation crops like rubber, cocoa, coffee etc., whatever virgin
forests remain have to be specially protected as in the Silent Valley of Kerala or the rich orchid belt of the north-eastern
Himalayas in Arunachal Pradesh and Sikkim.
Threats to Biodiversity:
The biggest reason for the current increase in extinctions is habitat loss. Destruction of tropical forests, coral reefs, estuaries,
Marshes and other biologically rich ecosystems threaten to eliminate thousands or even millions of species in a humancaused mass extinction that could rival those of geologic history. By destroying habitat, we eliminate not only prominent
species but also many obscure ones of which we may not even be aware. Over harvesting of food species is probably the
most obvious way in which humans directly destroy biological resources. There are many, historic examples of human
disturbances of natural systems. Once-fertile areas have become deserts because of unsound forestry, grazing and agricultural
practices. Technology nm makes it possible for us to destroy vast areas even faster than in the past. Undoubtedly the greatest
current losses in terms of biological diversity and unique species occur when tropical moist forests are disrupted.
1. Main Causes of Threat to Species
It is well known now that several plant species have become extinct due to certain natural phenomena, such as land
upheavals, volcanic eruptions, glaciations and protracted periods of rain or drought, spreading of desert lands, forest fires and
eutrophication in the geological past. While such natural processes in the past had no doubt led to the extinction of flora, the
resulting new environmental conditions had also resulted in the evolution and speciation of new flora and migration of floral
elements. But, in recent times man with his anthropogenic associates and other factors or practices such as fire or slash and
burn for shifting cultivation (also called as jhum or podu cultivation in India), grazing by cattle and by several other
mechanical means, has suddenly accelerated disastrous condition in natural ecosystems. Besides, commercial exploitation of
entire plants, roots, rhizomes, tubers bulbs seeds and fruits has been the prime cause of depletion of more important wild
economic plants throughout the world for lucrative financial gains, in the trade which flourishes both by legal and illegal
means Rauvolfia, serpentina, Coptis teeta, Dioscorea sp. and Podophylum hexandrum serve as good examples.
(i) Habitat Destruction
Deforestation has been one of the major causes for the depletion of wildlife. With the increase in human population and the
growing need for resources, forests were cleared or for agricultural operations, for human habitation and for grazing their
livestock. Technological advance and human progress had a direct bearing on the exploitation of natural resources. Forest
trees were cut to yield timber for building houses, for making furniture and for collecting wood as fuel. Industries made a
heavy demand on forest resources such as wood for paper- making, exploitation of gums and resins, mining of forestland for
mineral ores, building materials, etc. Habitat destruction thus has an adverse impact on wildlife as it leads to the loss of an
environment, which provides them food and breeding grounds or nesting sites to facilitate rearing of their young ones. Wild
animals are left with no alternative but to adapt, migrate or perish. Widespread habitat loss all over the country has
diminished the population of many species, making them rare-and endangered. In our race for progress and prosperity, we
have disturbed the delicate balance of Nature.
(ii) Hunting and Poaching
Uncontrolled hunting of wildlife for pleasure, food, furs. Skins, horns, tusks, etc. pose a serious threat to the survival of
wildlife. In India, the Cheetah was hunted to extinction. The illegal trade in animal skins has been responsible for the
destruction of a large of tigers, leopards, deer, fishing cat, crocodiles and snakes, as well as birds with beautiful plumage.
Elephants were hunted for ivory. The rhinoceros was killed for its horns because of the superstitious belief that it contained
aphrodisiac properties. There are laws in the country to prevent such illegal trade, but unscrupulous elements, traders and

exporters often violate these. Added to this is the practice of trade in exotic mammals, birds and reptiles and use of wild
animals in biomedical research.
(iii) Pollution
Pollution of air, water and soil due to various industrial activities not only affect our health, but the health and well being of
animal population also. Industrial effluents one reaching water bodies adversely affect aquatic life. Pesticides like DDT and
Dieldrin are very harmful. These have a major effect particularly sea birds and their eggs. Oil pollution is another serious
problem affecting the seas through leakage from cargo ships or accidents. Besides, there are other numerous factors that
affect wildlife population, which are mostly anthropogenic. Introduction of exotic species, unhealthy agricultural practices,
diseases introduced by domesticated animals, silting of rivers, floods and droughts are a few to name some. These all have
somehow contributed to the process of endangering animal species.
Man and Wildlife Conflict:
Man by virtue of his nature is destructive and self-centred despite the fact that he is known as social animal. Until he realizes
the need of time no rules and regulations may help. The exploitation of forests and wildlife or rare species for commercial
purposes should be stopped. A good tiger skin is worth more than five thousand rupees. The tusks of an elephant and the skin
of big cats also fetch a good prize. The horns of rhinoceros carry a highly fancy prize. This high market value has lead to
unlimited slaughter of these animals.
Endangered and Endemic Species of India:
The Forest administration in India is more than 100 years old. Efforts to identify plant species as a part of wildlife and to
recognize the importance for providing special protection to endangered plant species have so far been negligible. The
extinction of certain attractive animals stimulated efforts to protect fauna, but no special heed was given to flora. The word
Wildlife had till recently been considered synonymous with animal life and consequently, conservations and naturalists
have their attention only to conservation of animal species. It was only in the year 1968 at an International Conference
(UNESCO 1968) that the problem of conservation of flora and fauna was appreciated and several recommendations were
made urging the International Biological Programme (IBP), .the International Union for Conservation of Nature and Natural
resources (IUCN) and various international and national organizations to initiate studies in to the problems involved,
particularly the problem of protecting and preserving wild fauna and flora in their natural habitat/ecosystems establishing
nature reserves. Later at the 10th General Meeting of the IUCN, the Survival Service Commission reviewed the status of
endangered species of plants and their habitats. According to the recent promulgations of the United States Endangered
Species Act (1973), UK Wild Creatures and Wild Plants Act (I975) and the development of international conventions on
conservations (Wetlands Convention) and the setting up of Biological Records Centre of the Nature Conservancy, UK, and
threatened plants, orchids, cycads tree, created a wide awakening of the need for the conservations, preservation and
protection of floras of the world. According to the Volume 5 of Red Data Book on angiosperms started by the Survival
Service Commission of the IUCN in the year 1970 (Melville, 1970), it is estimated that out of the total of three lakes (0.3
million) species of plants in the world, over 20,000 were in the category of either endangered or vulnerable and threatened
with extinction by the year 2000 A.D. The following categories of rare species have been recognized by the IUCN, mainly
based on (i) present distribution, (ii) decline in number of time, (iii) abundance and quality of natural habitats, and (iv)
biology and potential value of the species.
Endangered (E)
Species in danger of extinction and whose survival is unlikely if the casual factors continue operating, included are species
whose numbers have been reduced to a critical level or whose habitats have been so drastically reduced that they are deemed
to be in immediate danger of extinction.
Vulnerable (V)
Species believed likely to move into the endangered category in the near future if the casual factors continue operating.
Included are species, of which most or all the populations are decreasing because of over-exploitation, extensive destruction
of habitat or other environmental, disturbance species with populations that have been seriously depleted and whose ultimate
security is not yet assured; and species with populations that are still abundant but are under threat from serious adverse
factors throughout their range.
Rare (R)
Species with small world populations that are not at present endangered or vulnerable, but are at risk. These species are
usually localized within restricted geographical areas or habitats or thinly scattered over a more extensive range.
Threatened (T)
Threatened is used in the conservation context for species which are in one of the categories, Endangered, Vulnerable and
Rare. Some species are marked as threatened where it is known that they are Endangered, Vulnerable or Rare, but there is
known that they are Endangered, Vulnerable or Rare, but there is not enough information to say which of these three
categories is appropriate.
Out of Danger (O)
Species formerly included in one of the above categories, but which are now considered relatively secure because effective
conservation measures have been taken or the previous threat to their survival has been removed.
Indeterminate (I)
Species that are suspected of belonging to one of the first three categories, but for which insufficient information is currently
available
1. Endemic Species of India
India has a very rich element of endemics in its flora. According to Chatterjee (1940), Indian subcontinent has about 61.5
percent to endemic flora with about 7,000 endemic and 134 endemic genera. Of these the Himalayas and the Khasi Hills
account for about 3,000 and Deccan peninsula for about 2,000 endemic species. These figures speak eloquently of the great
need for protecting the endemics. This can be done effectively by carefully analyzing the floristic composition of the various
phytogeographical units of Indian flora and by selecting suitable natural forests in these units and preserving them as
Biosphere Reserves, Sapria himalayana, Uvaria Inroad, Alcimandra cathcartii Magnolia gustavii, M pealiana, Pachylarnax
pleiocarpa, Nepenthes khasiana, Dicentra royler several species of Primula and Rhododendron and the Ladys
Slipperorchids. P.aphiopodilum insigne, P.hirsutissimum, P.faireenum, P.spicerianum and P.venusturm, are some of the
noteworthy endemics of the Himalayas and Khasi Hills. Antiaris taxicaria, Campanual cytinoides, Pedicularis perroter
and the some species of the Podostemaceae are endemic to Western ghats/the Nilgiri Hills in South India.

2. Endangered Flora and Fauna of India

Some plants and animals have already become extinct and there are many facing danger of extinction.
The basic reasons of extinction of wildlife are as follows:
(1) Destruction of their natural habitats due to expanding agriculture, urbanization and industrialization.
(2) Overgrazing by domestic animals that convert the area into deserts.
(3) Poaching for meat, skin, fur, ivory, rhino horns etc.
(4) Export of some species.
The Botanical Survey of India (BSI) could so far complete survey of plant resources in only about 3/5th of the country. As
per the targets set, BSI should have complete survey of the remaining 2/5th of the country by 1998. It is planned to publish
National Flora of the country in 24 volumes by 2000 A.D.
The Zoological Survey of India (ZSI) could so far survey only about 1/3 of the country, and is planned to complete the survey
of the 75% of the remaining 2/3rd area of the country by 2000 A.D. Sixty-two volumes of Fauna of India are to be brought
out by 2000. Data regarding all endangered plant and animal species of the country are also not complete. It was set that data
regarding all endangered plant species will be inventoried by 1992, for which BSI had been restructured, has reported to
publish Vol. I of Red Data Book of Indian plants covering 235 species. Red Data Book of Indian Plants Vol. II containing
about 200 rare and endangered species is completed and printed (D.O. En. Annual Report, 1988-89). The status survey of
endangered animal species is being done and is claimed to be completed and Red Data Book compiled by 1995. According to
the Red Data Book of IUCN (International Union for Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources), more than 1000
creatures are threatened with extinction, some very soon, some within a decade or so. Among these facing most immediate
danger are, all species of rhinoceros particularly the Indian variety the Royal Bengal, and Siberian Tigers, the Mexican
grizzly bear, the red wolf, the mountain gorilla; the Arabian oryx and the Asiatic lion.
Conservation of Biodiversity:
The hope for conservation of natural biodiversity however rests on preservation of selected ecosystems and representative
areas of different vegetation types in the country as well as on saving some of the extinction-prone species. The number of
endangered species of plants and animals is on the rise, which has prompted government and non-governmental
organizations to take certain steps in this direction. Forestry and wildlife were primarily under the control of state
governments but later on looking to the gravity of the situation a separate Ministry of Environment and Forests was
established.
The aims and objectives of wildlife management in India includes the following
(i) Protection of natural habitats
(ii) Maintenance of a viable number of species
(iii) Establishment of biosphere reserves
(iv) Protection through legislation
Some of the non-government organizations working in this direction are
(i) Bombay Natural History Society
(ii) Wildlife Preservation Society of India, Dehradun.
(iii) World Wide Fund for Nature India (WWF)
Laws Governing Biodiversity Conservation in India
(i) The Madras Wild Elephant Preservation Act, 1873.
(ii) All India Elephant Preservation Act, 1879.
(iii) The Indian Fisheries Act, 1897.
(iv) Wild Birds and Wild Animals Protection Act, 1912.
(v) The Indian Forest Act, 1927.
(vi) Bengal Rhinoceros Act, 1932.
(vii) Haily National Park Act.. 1936.
(viii) Bombay Wild, Animals and Wild Birds Protection Act, 1951.
(ix) Assam Rhinoceros Protection Act, 1954.
(x) The Cruelty against Animals Act, 1960.
(xi) The Wildlife (Protection) Act, 1972.
(xii) The Forest (Conservation) Act, 1980.
(xiii) Wildlife (Protection) Amendment Act; 1991.
(xiv) Conservation of Forests and National Ecosystems Act, 1994.
In-Situ and Ex-Situ Conservation of Biodiversity:
The goal of biodiversity conservation can be attained in a number of ways. The concept of gene banks regulates all these
methods.
In-situ conservation
It can be defined as the conservation of plants and animals in their native ecosystem (natural habitats) or even manmade
ecosystem, where they naturally occur. This type of conservation is applicable to wild flora and fauna as conservation is
achieved through protection of populations in their natural ecosystems. The concept of protected areas falls under this
category e.g. National Parks, Sanctuaries and Biosphere reserves, etc.
Ex-situ conservation
It can he defined as the conservation of plants and animals away from their natural habitats, which includes collection of
samples of genetic diversity and their treatment in the laboratory, where they are cultured. The concept of gene banks has
primarily become the talk for ex-situ conservation as it is important for conservation of agricultural crops and forestry based
afforestation programmes. Genetic resource centers fall under this category and include botanical gardens, zoos etc.

Unit II
ENVIRONMENTAL POLLUTION
Introduction
Pollution may be defined as an undesirable change in the physical, chemical or biological characteristics of air, water and
land that may be harmful to human life and other animals, living conditions, industrial processes and cultural assets. Pollution
can be natural or man- made. The agents that pollute are called pollutants.
Pollutants
Pollutants are by-products of mans action. The important pollutants are summarized below:
Deposited matterSoot, smoke, tar or dust and domestic wastes.
GasesCO, nitrogen oxides, sulphur oxides, halogens (chlorine, bromine and iodine).
MetalsLead, zinc, iron and chromium.
Industrial pollutantsBenzene, ether, acetic acid etc., and cyanide compounds.
Agriculture pollutantsPesticides, herbicides, fungicides and fertilizers.
Photochemical pollutantsOzone, oxides of nitrogen, aldehydes, ethylene, photochemical smog and proxy acetyl nitrate.
Radiation pollutantsRadioactive substances and radioactive fall-outs of the nuclear test.
Classification of Pollutants
On the basis of natural disposal, pollutants are of two types:
(i) Non-degradable pollutants
These are the pollutants, which degrade at a very slow pace by the natural biological processes. These are inorganic
compounds such as salts (chlorides), metallic oxides waste producing materials and materials like, aluminium cans, mercuric
salts and even DDT. These continue to accumulate in the environment.
(ii) Biodegradable pollutants
These include domestic sewage that easily decomposes under natural processes and can be rapidly decomposed by natural/
artificial methods. These cause serious problems when accumulated in large amounts as the pace of deposition exceeds the
pace of decomposition of disposal. On the basis of the form in which they persist after their release into the environment,
pollutants can be categorized under two types:
(i) Primary pollutants: These include those substances, which are emitted directly from some identifiable sources.
(a) Sulphur compounds: SO2, SO3, H2S produced by the oxidation of fuel.
(b) Carbon compounds: Oxides of carbon (CO+CO2) and hydrocarbons.
(c) Nitrogen compounds: NO2 and NH3.
(d) Halogen compounds: Hydrogen fluoride (HF) and hydrochloric acid (HCl).
(e) Particles of different size and substances: These are found suspended in air.
The fine particles below the diameter of 100u are more abundant and include particles of metals, carbon, tar, pollen, fungi,
bacteria, silicates and others.
(ii) Secondary pollutants. The secondary pollutants are produced by the combination of primary emitted pollutants. in the
atmosphere. In bright sunlight, a photochemical reaction occurs between nitrogen oxides; oxygen and waste hydrocarbons
from gasoline that forms peroxyacetyle nitrate (PAN) and ozone (O 3), Both of them are toxic components of smog and cause
smarting eyes and lung damage.
(iii) Smog. The fog deposited with smoke and chemical fumes forms a dark and thick covering, the smog. Smog is very
common in almost all the industrial areas as the smog is trapped for many days by the stagnant air. It is harmful both for
animals and plants.
Air Pollution:
The WHO defines air pollution as the presence of materials in the air in such concentration which are harmful to man and his
environment. A number of ingredients find their way in the air and these are mostly gases, which rapidly spread over wide
areas.
Sources of Air Pollution
Various sources of air pollution are fossil fuels, industries, agricultural activities, wars, natural causes arid emissions from
vehicles.
(i) Burning Fossil Fuels
Burning of wood, charcoal and other fossil fuels cause air pollution by the release of carbon dioxide (CO 2), carbon, sulphur
dioxide etc. Petroleum consists mainly of HC, S and N2.
(ii) Emissions from Automobiles
Vehicles are mainly responsible for more than 80% of total air pollution. The major pollutants released from automobiles,
locomotives, aircraft etc., include CO, unburnt hydrocarbons and NOx.
(iii) Industries
Paper and pulpfactories, petroleum refineries, fertilizer plants, and steel industries, thermal power plants are the main sources
of air pollution. They add various harmful gases like CO, SO 3, NO, HC etc., to the atmosphere. Textile factories release
cotton dust into the air. Cities experiencing this type of pollution are Kanpur, Surat and Ahmedabad. The pesticide and
insecticide industries are posing serious threat to the environment. Food processing industries and tanneries emit offensive
odors. Release of poisonous gases from accidents also poses serious threats. e.g. Bhopal Gas Tragedy in which methyl
isocynate (MIC) gas leakage killed several people. In Tokyo, about 34 tones of carbon particles mixed with other suspended
particles settle per square kilometer every day.
(iv) Agricultural Activities
Spraying of insecticides and weedicides also cause air pollution. These, when inhaled create severe problems to both animals
and man.
(v) Wars
Various forms of explosives used in war pollute the air by releasing poisonous gases. This greatly disturbs the ecology of the
area. Nuclear explosions pollute air by radioactive rays. The effects of nuclear explosions on Hiroshima and Nagasaki are
well-known examples.
(vi) Natural Causes
Gas emissions from active volcanoes, marsh gas, spores of fungi and pollens
Common Air Pollutants
Air pollutants are of two main types~gaseous and particulate, Oxides of C, N 2 and S are gaseous pollutants. Particulate
pollutants may be solid or liquid particles, larger particles settle down quickly viz., sand and water droplets whereas small

dust particles remain suspended in air for a long time. These are added into the atmosphere by the processes of blasting,
drilling, crushing, grinding and mixing.
(i) Carbon Dioxide
CO2 content of air has increased by 20% during the last century. CO 2 causes nausea and headache. Its increase in the air may
cause green house effect, rise in the atmospheric temperature. This may melt the polar ice resulting in rise in level of oceans
and flooding of coastal regions.
(ii) Carbon Monoxide
Its a very poisonous gas, produced by incomplete combustion of fuel, if inhaled, combines with hemoglobin, reducing its
oxygen-carrying capacity. This leads to laziness, reduced vision and death.
(iii) Oxides of Nitrogen
These include NO and NO2, which are released by automobiles and chemical industries as waste gases and also by burning
of materials. These are harmful and lower the oxygen carrying capacity of blood.
(iv) Oxides of Sulphur
SO2 and SO3 are produced by burning of coal and petroleum and are harmful to buildings, clothing, plants and animals. High
concentration of SO2 causes chlorosis (yellowing of leaves), plasmolysis, damage to mucous membrane and metabolic
inhibition. SO2 and SO3 react with water to form Sulphuric and sulphurous acids. These may precipitate as rain or snow
producing acid rain or acid precipitation.
(v) Photochemical Oxidants
They are formed by the photochemical reactions between primary pollutants, viz. oxides of nitrogen and hydrocarbons.
Nitrogen oxides in the presence of sunlight react with unburnt hydrocarbons to form peroxy acetyl nitrate (PAN), Ozone,
aldehydes and some other complex organic compounds in the air.
(vi) Hydrocarbons
These are unburnt discharges from incomplete combustion of fuel in automobiles. These form PAN with nitrogen oxides,
which is highly toxic.
(vii) Particulate Matter
Industries and automobiles release fine solid and liquid particles into the air. Fly ash and soot from burning of coal, metal
dust containing lead, chromium, nickel, cadmium, zinc and mercury from metallurgical processes; cotton dust from textile
mills; and pesticides sprayed on crops are examples of particulate pollutants in the air. These are injurious to respiratory tract.
(viii) Aerosols
Aerosols are chemicals released in the air in vapour form. These include fluorocarbon (carbon compound having fluorine)
present in emissions from the Jet aeroplanes. Aerosols deplete the ozone layer. Thinning of ozone layer results in more
harmful ultraviolet rays reaching the earth, which are harmful to skin, and can lead to skin cancer also.
(ix) Radioactive Substances
These are released by nuclear explosions and explosives. These are extremely harmful for health.
(x) Fluorides
Rocks, soils and. minerals containing fluorides release an extremely toxic gas called hydrogen fluoride on heating. This gas is
highly injurious to livestock and cattle.
Pollution in India
India supports a large network of factories and industries. These factories are generally localized in eight or ten large
industrial centres. These are also a great source of air as well water pollution. To be on a safer side delocalisation of
industries is the need of the time. This would lead to an even distribution of pollutants and faster degeneration of pollutants.
The major pollutants coming out from these industries are (i) Industrial Pollutants. The common air pollutants from industries are SO 2, CO, CO2, H2S and hydrocarbons together with
dust, smoke and grit. These are produced by the burning of coal and petroleum and by the combustion of lignite at thermal
power stations. The chemical industries release HCl, chlorine, nitrogen oxide and oxides of copper, zinc, lead and arsenic.
The fertilizer factories at Gorakhpur and Ahmedabad; the steel industries at Bhilai, Rourkela, Jamshedpur and Durgapur
pollute the air with above-said gases.
(ii) Automobile Exhausts. Automobiles run by petrol and diesel produce CO, nitrogen oxides and hydrocarbons. Hundreds
and thousands tons of hydrocarbons and CO are emitted into air daily. Metropolitan cities, harbor, lakhs and crores of
automobiles. Every gallon of petrol consumed by automobiles produces 3 pounds of carbon monoxide and 15 pounds. of
nitrogen oxide.
(iii) Ionizing Radiations from Radioactive Substances. Ionizing radiations include alpha, beta particles and the gamma rays
etc. These are produced by atomic explosions and testing of atomic weapons.
Effects of Air Pollution
Effect on Plants
(i) SO2 causes chlorosis and also results in the death of cells and tissues.
(ii) Fluorides and PAN damage leafy vegetables such as lettuce and spinach.
(iii) Oxides of nitrogen and fluorides reduce crop yield.
(iv) Smog bleaches and blaze foliage of important leafy plants.
(v) Hydrocarbons cause premature yellowing, fall of leave and flower buds, discoloration and curling of sepals, petals.
(vi) Smoke and dust cover the leaf surface and reduce photosynthetic capacity of plants.
(vii) Ozone damages cereals, fruits, and cotton crop.
Effect on Man
The effect of pollutants on animals and man are as follows(i) Ozone causes dryness of mucous membranes, changes eye vision, causes headache, pulmonary congestion and oedema.
(ii) Ozone has been reported to produce chromosomal aberrations.
(iii)SO2 causes drying of mouth, scratchy throat, smarting eyes and disorders of respiratory tract.
(iv) SO3, CO and NO2 diffuse into blood stream and reduce oxygen transport. CO damages cardiovascular system.
Hydrocarbons and other pollutants act, as carcinogens and lead to different cancers.
(v) Cotton dust leads to respiratory disorders e.g. bronchitis and asthma.
(vi) Smoking of tobacco causes cancerous growth in lungs.
Change in Climate
CO2 content of air is increasing due to deforestation and combustion of fuel. This increase is affecting the composition and
balance of gases in the atmosphere. Increase in CO 2 concentration may increase the atmospheric temperature, producing
green house effect. A rise of global temperature by more than 2-3 degrees may melt glaciers and polar ice. This would lead to
a rise in ocean level and consequent flooding and submergence of coastal areas. Rainfall pattern may also change, affecting
agricultural output in various regions of the world. Aerosols deplete the ozone layer in the stratosphere. Thinning of ozone

layer would permit more of the harmful ultraviolet rays to reach the earth. This may cause, sunburn, blindness and
inactivation of proteins, RNA, DNA and plant pigments.
Aesthetic Loss
Dust and smoke spoils the beauty of nature, especially the mountain environments, which serve as a great attraction for
tourists. Foul odours emitted by industries, automobiles, dirty drains and garbage heaps in cities are a great nuisance.
Control of Air Pollution
(i) Some gases, which are more soluble in a particular liquid than air, for example, ammonia in water, can be separated by
dissolving in it
(ii) Particles larger than 50 mm are separated in gravity settling tanks. Using cyclone collectors or electrostatic precipitators
separates fine particles.
(iii) The height of chimneys should be increased to the highest possible level to reduce pollution at the ground level.
(iv) SO2 pollution can be controlled by extracting sulphur from the fuel before use.
(v) Pollution control laws should be enforced strictly.
(vi) Trees should be planted on the roadside, riverbanks, parks and open places as they keep the environment fresh.
(vii) Population growth, which is the main cause of pollution, should be checked
(viii) Nuclear explosions should be restricted.
Water Pollution:
Water is extremely essential for life, this common fact is known to all. It is required to meet our basic needs in day to day life
viz., cooking, drinking, bathing, disposal of sewage, irrigation, generating electricity in power plants, cooling and
manufacturing different products in industries and the disposal of industrial wastes. During all these processes the
undesirable substances are added to the water resources to a great extent. This alters the basic chemistry of water in rivers and
streams.
Sources of Water Pollution
(i) Domestic sewage
This includes households wastes like food wastes, synthetic detergents used for washing clothes and cleaning bathrooms and
latrines and water based paints.
(ii) Industrial effluents
The industrial wastes are discharged in the adjoining rivers and streams through flush lines of factories. The textiles, sugar
and fertilizers factories, oil refineries, drugs manufacture, rubber, and rayon fibers, the paper industries and the chemical
factories all produce Chemical pollution.
(iii) Agricultural source
Increased use of fertilizers has become essential for high yielding crop plants. Excess of nitrates used as fertilizers seep into
ground water is carried into lakes and pond. On entering the drinking water supply system these create several health
problems.
(iv) Pesticides
These include insecticides, fungicides, nematicides, rodenticides, herbicides and soil fumigants. These contain chlorinated
hydrocarbons, organophosphates, metallic salts, carbonates, acetic acid derivatives etc. many pesticides are non-degradable.
They pass through the food chains and accumulate in fatty tissues thus causing several health hazards.
(v) Thermal pollution
Power plants and nuclear power stations are the main sources of thermal pollution of water where water is used for cooling
and becomes hot. The hot water on entering the main water body raises its temperature, which kills fishes and other aquatic
animals and increases the rate of respiration in aquatic plants.
(vi) Pathogenic organisms
Sewage and domestic waste from houses introduces pathogenic organisms viz., protozoa, worms-eggs and bacteria into
water. This contaminated water if consumed causes jaundice, typhoid, dysentery, cholera, tuberculosis etc.
(vii) Mineral oils
Oil from oil spills and washings of automobiles finds way into river water through sewers.
(viii) Underground water pollution
Underground water particularly in cities and industrial areas is no more pure and safe.
The sources of underground water pollution are sewage, seepage, pits, industrial effluents, septic tanks, fertilizers and
pesticides, garbage etc.
(ix) Marine water pollution
River and stream network sources of water ultimately end up ocean and seas. Thus, these acts as the sink of all natural and
man-made water based pollutants. The main sources of oceanic pollution are discharges of oil, greases, petroleum products,
detergents, sewage and garbage including radioactive wastes.
Effect of Water Pollutants
The main effects of water pollutants are:
1. Compounds of mercury, arsenic and lead are poisonous and chemically harmful as they even affect water treatment plants
e.g. organic sulphur compounds interfere with nitrification.
2. Mercury when dissolved in water is absorbed by aquatic plants and enters the food chain. Lead impairs metabolism and
brings about congenital deformities, anaemia etc.
3. Cadmium damages kidneys and liver.
4. Inorganic nitrates and phosphates promote growth of oxygen-consuming algae, which result in the death of fishes and
other aquatic animals.
5. Presence of dyes and compounds in the discharged water changes the colour of water.
6. Soap, detergents and, alkalis result in foam formation.
7. Industrial effluents containing iron, free chlorine, phenol, manganese, oils, hydrocarbons, ammonia, algae and
microorganisms impair the taste and odours of water.
8. The nitrates and phosphates dissolved in water accelerate the growth of microorganisms, which consume much of the
dissolved oxygen depriving fish and other aquatic life (Eutrophication).
9. Biomagnifications is the increase of toxic materials at each tropic level of a food chain. For example, DDT after reaching
a water system is absorbed by the microorganisms on which smaller fishes feed. From them, DDT reaches the carnivorous
animals. Since bigger fishes consume more food, large amounts of DDT accumulates in their body.

Control of Water Pollution

(i) Separate ponds and tanks to be used for cattle and animals.
(ii) Use of pesticides, insecticides and fertilizers should be done judiciously. Rapid biodegradable substitutes for pesticides
should be employed.
(iii) In towns where sewage facilities are not available, septic tanks should be made in the houses.
(iv) Rivers and lakes should not be used for bathing or washing as it contaminates water.
(v) Domestic sewage and industrial wastes should be treated before discharging them into drains.
Treatment of waste Water
Domestic sewage and industrial wastes should be properly treated before these are drained in the mainstream water.
Treatment involves the following two steps:
(i) Sewage treatment
It involves following steps:
Primary treatment: It involves physical processing of sedimentation, flotation and filtration where sewage water is passed
through screens to remove larger particles and then through grinding mechanism to reduce the larger particles to smaller size.
The sewage is finally passed through settling tanks to remove suspended impurities.
Secondary treatment: Sewage obtained after primary treatment is sent to aeration tank where it is mixed with air and sludge
laden with bacteria and algae. The algae provide oxygen to the bacteria and decompose organic matter into simple
compounds. Chlorination is finally done to remove bacteria.
Tertiary treatment: In the third and last step water is passed through ion exchangers to remove dissolved salts.
(ii) Treatment of industrial effluents
Treatment of industrial effluents involves neutralization of acids and bases, removal of toxic compounds, coagulation of
colloidal impurities, precipitation of metallic compounds and reducing the temperature of effluents to decrease thermal
pollution.
Soil Pollution:
Like water and air, soil is also equally important for living organisms. It supports plants on which all other living organisms
depend. The process of soil formation is so slow that the soil may be regarded as a non-renewable source. Therefore, the
study and control of soil pollution is important. Any substance that reduces soil productivity is called soil pollutant.
Sources of Soil Pollution
There are several materials, which adversely affect physical, chemical and biological properties of the soil and thus reduce its
productivity. These are
1. Chemicals present in industrial waste.
2. Pesticides and insecticides that are sprayed on crops. .
3. Fertilizers and manures that are added to the soil to increase the crop yield.
Effect of Soil Pollutants
Chemicals and pesticides affect the structure and fertility of soil by killing the soil microorganisms. Pesticides are absorbed
by the plants and then transferred to other organism. Hence, they affected food chains and food webs. Excretory products of
livestock and human beings used as manure pollute the soil besides giving high yield. The faulty sanitation and unhygienic
practices of the people add to the soil pollution. Pathogens present in the wastes and excreta contaminate the soil and
vegetable crops causing diseases in man and domesticated animals.
Types of Soil Pollution
It is of the following types(i) Positive soil pollution
Reduction in the productivity of soil due to the addition of undesirable substances like pesticides, herbicides, fertilisers, etc.
is called positive pollution. These pollutants have cumulative effect and kill the soil organisms.
(ii) Negative soil pollution
It is caused by the removal of useful components from soil by erosion, deforestation and improper methods of agriculture.
Salination of Soil
Increase in the concentration of soluble salts is called salination. This adversely affects the quality and productivity of soil. It
takes place in two ways: accumulation of salts dissolved in irrigation water on the soil surface due to intensive farming and
poor drainage, and deposition of salts as white crust during summer months drawn by capillary action from the lower surface
to the top surface.
Control of Soil Pollution
Various measure to control soil pollution are1. Transfer stations for bulk shifting of refuse should be constructed in cities and big towns.
2. Pneumatic pipes should be laid for collecting and disposing wastes.
3. Materials like paper, glass and plastics can be recycled.
4. Metals should be recovered from scrap and disposed materials.
5. Use of chemical fertilizers should be reduced by the use of bio fertilizers and manures.
6. Use of pesticides can be reduced by adopting biological control of pests.
7. Use of cattle dung and agricultural wastes in biogas plants should be encouraged.
8. Deforestation can check soil erosion to a great extent.
Land Degradation
Besides pollution, land and soil face several other problems. Removal of topsoil is called soil erosion. Soil erosion factors are
water, wind, ocean, waves and glaciers, felling of trees, overgrazing by cattle, over-cropping etc. Erosion occurs both in wet
and dry regions. It leads to floods.
Soil Erosion in India
Soil erosion is a worldwide phenomenon, but it is especially high in Central Africa, China, India, Nepal, Australia, Spain,
USA and USSR. India loses about 40,000 hectares of land every year as an effect of wind and water erosion. Damage to the
topsoil is 18.5% of the total worlds loss. This is due to overgrazing by livestock. The population of livestock in India is the
highest in the world. Overgrazing damages the topsoil, which reduces soil fertility.
(i) Deforestation of overgrazing

Over-grazing is the main cause of soil erosion in India. Roots of grasses act as binding material and keep the soil intact,
which upon grazing are destroyed.
(ii) Desertification
Loss of soil productivity by erosion of top soil results in the formation of deserts. Deserts are spreading in all continents.
Desertification takes place by shifting of sand dunes by wind and .over-grazing. That desert in India is spreading at the rate of
12,000 hectares of land every year.
(iii) Shifting cultivation
Tribal communities follow the practice of cutting down trees and setting them on fire and then raising the crops on the
resulting ash. This is called Jhuming in northeastern India. It is harmful if the Jhuming cycles are longer than ten years but
short cycles destroy forests and cause soil erosion. e.g. Asia and Africa. .
(iv) Developmental activities
Large areas of fertile and productive croplands, woodlands and grasslands are lost to various developmental activities such as
rapid urbanization, building of airports, industries, railways, roads, mining and construction of dams.
Control of Land Degradation
Following ways can control Land degradation
1. Restoration of forests and grass cover can help in prevention of soil erosion and floods.
2. By replacing shifting cultivation with crop rotation, mixed cropping or plantation cropping. Providing adequate drainage to
irrigated and flood-prone lands can prevent salinity.
3. Desertification can be controlled by spread of appropriate plant species and by raising trees as wind breaks.
Noise Pollution:
Noise can be defined as unwanted/unpleasant sound. So noise pollution is unwanted sound dumped into the atmosphere
without regard to the adverse effects it may have. In our country urbanization and industrialization have become twin
problems. Cities and towns have sprouted up where industries are concentrated. Lack of town planning had led to residential,
commercial and industrial areas being mixed up. Houses, schools and hospitals are situated near industries. All the boons of
industrialization and civilization such as motors, horns, heavy and light machinery, work and movement, blaring radios,
supersonic aero planes have become disturbing and irritant. Our ears can hear ordinary conversation between 30-60 decibels.
Modern conversation has a noise value of 60 decibels. Decibel values greater than 80 decibels, causes noise pollution. Noise
becomes troublesome above 140 decibels.
Effect of Noise Pollution
1. Constant noise affects a man physically and mentally. Physical effects include blood vessels to contract, skin to become
pale, muscles to constrict and rise in blood pressure leading to tension and nervousness.
2. High intensity sound emitted by industrial plants, bottling machines, supersonic aircrafts, when continued for long periods
of time not only disturbs but also permanently damages hearing.
3. Offices, industries and crowded places where constant noise prevails can produce temper tantrums, headaches, fatigue and
nausea. .
4. Loud and sudden noise affects the brain. Intermittent noise leads higher incidence of psychiatric illness and also a danger
to health of pregnant mothers and small infants.
5. Noise has harmful effects on nonliving materials too, e.g. cracks develop under the stress of explosive sound.
Control of Noise Pollution
Following methods can control noise pollution:
1. Limited use of loudspeakers and amplifiers.
2. Excursing control over noise producing vehicles.
3. Industrial workers should be provided with ear plugs.
4. De-localisation of noisy industries far away from dwelling units.
5. Within a radius of 10 miles of airport, no buildings or factories should be allowed.
6. Plants and trees should be planted all around the hospitals, libraries and schools and colleges.
7. Personal protection against noise can be taken by using, cotton plugs in the ear.
Radiation:
The radiations from the atomic blasts cause several health hazards. The radiations carry high energy and remove electrons
from atoms and attach them to other atoms producing positive and negative ion pairs. Hence, they are known as ionizing
radiations. The ionization property of these radiations proves to be highly injurious to the protoplasm. The ionizing radiations
of ecological concern are classified as follows:
Corpuscular Radiations
These consist of streams of atomic or subatomic particles, which transfer their energy to the matter they strike.
(i) Alpha particles
These particles are large and travel few centimeters in the air. These cause large amount of local ionization.
(ii) Beta particles
These are small particles characterized by having high velocities. They can travel a few meters in space. These are capable of
entering into the tissues for few centimeters.
Since alpha and beta particles have low penetration power they can produce harmful effects only when absorbed, ingested or
deposited in or near living tissues.
(iii) Electromagnetic radiations
Electromagnetic radiations include waves of shorter wavelengths. These are capable of traveling long distances and can
readily penetrate the living tissue. These include gamma rays. These can penetrate and produce effect even without being
taken inside.
Other Types of Radiations
Besides radioactive radiations, some other radiations are also present in the atmosphere.
(i) Neutrons
These are large uncharged particles, which do not cause radiation by themselves, but they produce radioactivity in nonradioactive materials through which they pass.
(ii) X-rays

These are electromagnetic waves very similar to gamma rays, but originate from the outer electron shell of radioactive
substances, which are not dispersed in nature.
(iii) Cosmic rays
These are radiations from the outer space, which contain alpha and beta particles together with gamma rays.
Sources of Radiations
The radiations are produced from the radioactive elements, which are known as Radio nuclides or radioactive isotopes, e.g.,
Uranium. Radium, Thorium and Carbon-14. These contribute to background radiation. But isotopes of certain metabolically
important elements like Carbon-14, Cobalt-60, Calcium 45, Iodine-131, Phosphorus-32, etc. are not ecologically harmful but
are used as tracers. The third category of radionuclides comprises of fission products of uranium and certain other elements.
These are cesium, strontium, and plutonium etc.
Biological Effects of Radiation
The effects of radiation have revealed that acute doses are found to be deleterious and may kill the organisms, whereas the
increase in radiation in biological environment leads to different kinds of mutations. The effects of Cobalt-60 or Cesium-137
gamma radiations have now been studied on communities and on ecosystems at different places. The research concludes that
Irradiations eliminate varieties in species. The sensitivity of cells, tissues and organisms to radiation varies. The cells with
larger chromosomes are more sensitive. Herbaceous communities and early stages of succession, are resistant than the mature
forest.
Nuclear Fall Outs or Radioactive Fall Outs
The atomic blasts not only produce the local ionizing radiations at that time but the radioisotopes produced as a result of
explosion enter the atmosphere and continue to fallout gradually over broad geographic areas for a very long time. These are
known as nuclear fallout or radioactive fallout. These are dangerous for life as they also produce ionizing radiations.
Biological Effects of Fall outs
The fallout of radio nuclides combines with various metals and dust and from colloidal suspension combines with organic
compounds to form complexes. The smaller particles of radio nuclides adhere tightly to the leaves of plants and produce
radiation damage to leaf tissue besides entering the tissues also. Through grazing animals these enter the food chain directly
at the primary consumers level. Radio nuclides, which combine with organic substances, enter the food chain through
producer tropic level. Therefore, the radio nuclides fall out manages to enter the body of all living organisms. Radioactive
Strontium-90 poses a health hazard in human beings and other higher vertebrates. It continues to deposit in the bones and
causes bone cancer and leukemia. Radioactive Cesium-137 is known to cause irreversible genetic changes in different
organisms. The fallout radiations do cause changes in the genetic constitution of organisms, resulting in gene mutations and
chromosomal aberrations. Their considerable, doses may kill, cripple and alter the animals and plants in the areas.
Control of Radiation Pollution
Following measures can help in controlling the radioactive pollution:
(i) Workers in nuclear plants should be provided with nuclear gadgets and safety measures against accidents.
(ii) Leakage of radioactive elements from nuclear reactors, laboratories, transport, careless handling and use of radioactive
fuels should be checked.
(iii) Level of radiation pollution should be monitored regularly in risk areas.
(iv) Disposal of radioactive wastes deserves special attention.
Marine Pollution:
All river drainages end up in the seas. On the way to sea, rivers carry large amounts of sewage, garbage, and agricultural
discharge, biocides, including heavy metals. Besides this discharge of oils and petroleum products and dumping of radio
nuclides waste into sea also cause marine pollution. Huge quantity of plastic is being added to sea and oceans. Over 50
million lb plastic packing material is being dumped in sea of commercial fleets. Many marine birds ingest plastic that causes
gastro-intestinal disorders. The chemical principle in PCBs causes more damage as thinning of eggshell and tissue damage of
egg. Radionuclide waste in sea includes Sr-90, Cs-137, Pu-239, and Pu-240. The pollutants in sea may become dispersed by
turbulence and ocean currents and finally becomes a part of food chain. Bioaccumulation in food chain may result into loss of
species diversity. The pollution in Baltic Sea along the coast of Finland, took place largely from sewage and effluents from
wood industries. This pollution effect brought changes in species diversity in the bottom fauna. In less polluted water there
was rich species diversity, which tended to decrease with increasing pollution load. In heavily polluted areas, macroscopic
benthic animals were absent, but chirognomy larvae occurred at the bottom. In marine water the most serious pollutant is oil.
Spill of oil or petroleum products due to accidents/ deliberate discharge of oil polluted waste brings about pollution. About
285 million gallons of oil are spilled each year into ocean, mostly from transport tankers. Oil pollution causes damage to
marine fauna and flora including algae, fish, birds, and invertebrates. About 50,000 to 2,50,000 birds are killed every year by
oil. The oil is soaked in feathers, displacing the air and thus interferes with buoyancy and maintenance of body temperature.
Hydrocarbons and benzpyrene accumulate in food chain and consumption of fish by man may cause cancer. Detergents used
to clean up the spill are also harmful to marine life.
Thermal Pollution:
The increase in water temperature by industrial units such as steel and iron factories, electric powerhouses and atomic power
plants may be called as thermal pollution. Some of the industries generate their own power supply where water is used to
cool the generators. This hot water is released into the main stream, causing a warming trend of surface waters. If the
drainage is poorly flushed, a permanent increase in the temperature may result. Many organisms are killed instantly by the
hot water resulting into a high mortality. It may bring other disturbance in the ecosystem. The eggs of fish may hatch early or
fail to hatch at all. It may change the diurnal and seasonal behaviour and metabolic responses of organisms It may lead to
unplanned migration of aquatic animals. Macrophysics population may also be changed. As temperature is an important
limiting factor, serious changes may be brought about even by a slight increase in temperature in a population. Heat stress (51 one above the normal growing temperature of organism) induces expression of specific gene families called heat shock
genes, which lead to the synthesis of a new set of proteins called heat shock proteins. Heat shock proteins have been found in
every organism from unicellular prokaryotes to multicultural organisms including Homo sapiens. Heat Shock Proteins
synthesis lead to acquired thermo tolerance, i.e. the ability of an organism to withstand a normally lethal temperature.
Thermo tolerant genotypes show adaptations at various levels of organization besides showing qualitative and quantitative
differences in heat shock proteins as compared to the thermo sensitive genotypes.

Solid Waste Management:

Environmental problems also include solid waste disposal. At all levels of development human beings produce domestic
wastes. These comprises of kitchen wastes, ashes from fires, broken utensils and worn-out clothing. The industrial revolution
leads to the concentration of people in urban areas with very high population density. This resulted in addition of new sources
of wastes from shops, institutions and factories. In developed countries services for the regular removal of domestic and trade
wastes have been in operation for last many years. Many changes have taken place in our society. The character of the wastes
has altered with rising living standards, changes in retail distribution methods and fuel technology. Grave environmental
concerns have come up with rise in construction of new buildings, supermarkets, and industrial wastes of many kinds. In the
industrialized countries, therefore, basic health and environmental problems have been solved in the storage and collection of
solid wastes, although major problems remain in regard to resource recovery and disposal. The technology of wastes
handling is now highly developed. The substantial sectors of industry are engaged in the production of equipment with regard
to removal of wastes. Many institutions give technical training and support. However developing nations like India is facing
the problems of urbanization with high population densities. The developing countries are aware of the importance of
avoiding the environmental pollution. The quality of urban environment is a matter of growing concern and the importance of
solid wastes management is increasingly being recognized.
Sources and Characteristics
Solid wastes generally refer to describe non-liquid waste materials arising from domestic, trade, commercial, industrial,
agriculture and mining activities and from the public services. Disposal of sludges (liquid waste) of some kind fall within the
scope of solid waste management. These arise primarily from industrial sources and from sewage treatment plants. Solid
wastes comprise countless different materials; dust, food wastes, packaging in the form of paper, metals, plastics or glass,
discarded clothing and furnishing, garden wastes and hazardous and radioactive wastes. The method and capacity of storage,
the correct type of collection vehicle, the optimum size of crew and the frequency of collection depend mainly on volume and
density. Just as solid wastes comprise a vast number of materials, they arise from a multitude of separate sources as well as
many kilometers of streets upon which solid wastes accumulate.
Thus, the four main aspects of solid wastes management are:
(i)
storage at or near the point of generation,
(ii)
collection,
(iii)
street cleansing,
(iv) disposal
The main constituents of solid wastes are similar throughout the world, but the proportions vary widely. As personal income
rises, paper increases, kitchen wastes decline, metals and glass increase, total weight generated rises and the density of the
wastes declines. Clearly, the amount of work involved in refuse collection depends upon the weight and volume of wastes
generated and the number of collection points from which the wastes have to be removed.
Health and environmental implications
Improper handling of solid wastes results in increased potential risks to health and to the environment both. Direct health
risks concern mainly the workers in this field, who need to be protected, as far as possible, from skin contact with wastes. For
the general public, the main risks to health are indirect and arise from the breeding of disease vectors, primarily flies and rats.
More serious, however, and often unrecognized, is the transfer of pollution to water, which occurs when the leach ate from a
refuse dump enters surface water or wastes, either in the open air, or in plants that lack effective treatment facilities for the
gaseous effluents. Traffic accidents can result from wastes accumulated and dispersed on to streets and roads. They have
caused death and injury to people in the surrounding areas.
There also persists the specific danger of the concentration of heavy metals in the food chain. These metals can be taken up
by the plants growing on land on which sludge has been deposited; creating risks to the animals which graze and the humans
who consume these animals.
Economic implications
Labour and transport absorb the major part of the operating cost of solid wastes management services. The level of
mechanization that should be adopted for solid wastes management systems relates directly to the cost of labour, as compared
to that of plant and energy. There is not much variation, worldwide, in energy or mechanical plant costs, but there is wide
variation in the range of labour costs. Thus, there are no universally applicable solid wastes management systems. Every
country must evolve indigenous technology based on the quantity and character of the wastes, the level of national wealth,
wage rates, equipment, manufacturing capacity, energy costs etc. It is necessary to deploy a complete set of technical skills,
which derive from several professional disciplines. These include civil and mechanical engineering, chemical engineering,
transport organization, land use planning and economics.
Refuse Collection
A refuse collection service requires vehicles and labour. For their efficient development, three components are basic:
(1) Travel to and from the work area,
(2) The collection process, and
(3) The delivery process.
The use of large, widely spaced communal storage sites is usually a failure because the demand placed on the householder
goes beyond his willingness to cooperate. Communal storage points should, therefore, is at frequent intervals, Madras and
Bangalore provide fixed concrete containers. They are fairly successful because they place reasonable and acceptable duty on
the residents, thus very little domestic waste is thrown in the street. In another system of block collection, a collection vehicle
travels a regular route at prescribed intervals, usually every two days or every three days, and it stops at every street
intersection, where a bell is rung. At this signal the residents of all the streets leading from that intersection bring their wastes
containers to the vehicle and hand them to the crew to be emptied. A crew of one or two men is adequate in number, as they
do not need to leave the vehicle.
Sanitary Landfill Disposal
Land disposal (burying of wastes) is the only approved method of disposal, which is performed at a single site. Incineration,
composting, and salvage are either a form of refuse handling or processing. They are not complete methods of disposal, and
they require disposal of residue. Sanitary landfill can be defined as the use of solid wastes for land-reclamation, a typical
example being the restoration, by filling to the original level of manmade surface dereliction such as a disused surface,
mineral excavation. Solid wastes may also be used to improve natural features by raising the level of low-lying land to enable
it to be used or cultivation or industrial development. Thus, sanitary land filling has two essential features, which differentiate
it from crude dumping:

(i) Only sites that will be improved not degraded, by a change of level are selected.
(ii) Simple engineering techniques are used to control the manner in which the wastes are deposited, so that dangers to public
health and the environment are avoided. Unfortunately most of the worlds wastes are disposed off by uncontrolled dumping
which blights the land for any future use and causes serious risks of water pollution and vector breeding. Very few cities
operate sanitary land filling to standards, which totally control health and environmental dangers; most of those that do are in
the industrialized countries.
Control of Hazards
(i) Control over pathogens is dependent upon a rigorous policy of covering the wastes soon after deposit. This serves both to
isolate the wastes and to retain the heat, which is quickly generated during aerobic decomposition.
(ii) The main source of insects will be the eggs of flies. Which have been deposited in the wastes before they arrive at the
site. Most of these will be buried deep in the wastes and will succumb to the temperature increase.
(iii) Fire at a sanitary landfill can arise from innumerable causes, hot ashes in a vehicle delivering wastes: a cigarette thrown
by a worker; the suns ray though a fragment of glass on the surface. With some kinds of wastes the consequence of fire may
be very serious and underground fires have been known that ultimately caused the collapse of the surface into voids caused
by the fire.
(iv) The pollution of static water, ditches, river or the sea occurs when a sanitary landfill adjoins a body of water. The normal
source of the leach ate causing this pollution is rain falling on the surface.
Incineration
Open burning, barrel burning, and other related uncontrolled forms of burning have a long history of use. Many liquid wastes
and pathological wastes are best disposed of by incineration. Originally, solid waste incineration was practiced to reduce the
quantity of refuse or disposal. After it was proven that heat could destroy most pathogens, incinerators were used in hospitals
for destruction of pathological wastes. With few exceptions, incinerators are not good neighbors, and the environmental
nuisances of dust. Noise and air pollution have provoked communities to an anti-incinerator philosophy. To overcome this
negative community feeling is going to require that incineration prove its worth and that imagination be used in the design of
future units. Incineration of solid wastes yields the highest percent of volume reduction except for Pyrolysis. Unlike a
sanitary landfill, incineration of solid wastes can be performed on the premises of apartments, supermarkets, departments
stores, and similar establishments.
Composting
Composting involves the biological stabilization of solid matter either under aerobic or anaerobic conditions. The end
product of composing is an organic material, which could have beneficial value as a soil conditioner or plant mulch. In
addition to producing a modified solid waste material, which can be useful in land reclamation, composting does yield a
volume reduction of solid waste by about 40-60% of the compost able fraction pyrolysis. Pyrolysis is a thermal process
where oxidation of the organic fraction is not allowed to occur. Instead, the organic matter is evolved from the refuse with
heat, leaving an ash consisting mostly of carbon and any inorganic matter, e.g. metal and glass are not removed before
Pyrolysis. Some of the gases, which have been volatized, are condensed while the remainder is burned to supply the heat
(energy) needed to pyrolyze the material. Since oxidation is prevented, the Pyrolysis process must be performed in an
atmosphere of argon, helium or nitrogen.
Role of an Individual in Prevention of Pollution:
We very often see people blaming public and government sectors to control pollution through controlling market mechanisms
and government blaming people to avoid and check pollution. Many ecologists and environmental scientists believe in that
pollution problems can be overcome by using market mechanisms to reduce pollution rather than rigid rules and regulations.
However, on the other hand man should identify and gear up his own potential to curb down pollution. Man could achieve
this by identifying his own role at individual level in prevention of pollution. This is possible through environmental
awareness, education and enlightenment.
Ways and means by which pollution problems can be greatly reduced at individual level are:
1. Masses at personal level should determine to consume optimum level of resources, which would lead a comfortable life.
Because excessive resource consumption is in someway related to pollution problems and hazards (natural and anthropogenic
both).
2. Waste disposal at personal level should be optimally reduced as waste destruction by any means causes pollution.
3. Maintenance of vehicles should remain proper as to avoid introduction of harmful gases and other pollutants in to the
atmosphere.
4. Generators and other household gadgets that add to pollution of environment should be kept well maintained.
5. Use of chemical fertilizers should be limited as to avoid water pollution e.g. DDT
6. Timely disposal of waste to prevent decomposition of household refuge as to check foul odours and spread of disease by
insects, flies and other pathogenic bacteria.
7. Industrialists should check for proper disposal of treated water from factory units as to avoid thermal pollution of water
bodies. They should also deploy a water treatment plant to prevent the flow of hazardous material.
8. Service centres of vehicles should minimize the disposal of organic solvents into the main drains.
9. Music lovers should listen and operate their music systems at optimum levels as to avoid noise pollution.
Disaster Management:
Loss of life and property due to natural disasters like tropical cyclones, floods, droughts, tornadoes, earthquakes, volcanic
eruptions etc, is very large. Fortunately warning facilities are available today and by mitigation measures, loss of lives and
properties can be minimized. National Meteorological Services of the world to provide warnings to the public for some of the
weather related natural disasters. It is not possible to forecast a long period ahead precisely when and where a dangerous
natural phenomenon will take place. While natural disasters cannot be prevented, taking proper long-term and short-term
disaster mitigation measures can minimize the loss of life and property.
Some common disasters known to occur in our country are as under:
Floods:
Floods are defined as a relatively high flow of water discharged from river and stream network, which sets the riverbank
margins to overflow and lead to the inundation of low land areas surrounding the riverbed. It is essentially a physical
phenomenon. Floods arise from abnormally heavy rains, dam failures, snow melts, river blockages. Flood disasters rank
second only to droughts in the total number of people affected worldwide.

Types of Floods
Floods can be classified into three categories as under:
(i) River floods
Rivers get charged due to heavy rains over large catchments areas or by snow melting or sometimes both especially in the
mountainous tracts. The floods take place in river systems with tributaries that may drain into large geographic areas and
encompass many independent river basins. Amount of flooding depends on soil moisture, vegetation cover, snow depth and
catchment basin size.
(ii) Coastal floods
Coastal flooding is associated with tropical cyclones/ harsh winds arising at the ocean surface. Coastal floods are often
aggravated by wind induced storm surges along the coastline. Sea and ocean water floods the inland coasts affecting
kilometers of tracts. Ocean tides, storm surges or tsunamis play a definite role. Prolonged and indefinite rains in the rainy
season marked from June-September results in extreme flood in coastal river basins.
(iii) Flash floods
These floods occur within six hours of the beginning of rainfall and; are characterized with rising clouds, thunderstorms and
tropical cyclones. This result from runoff from a torrential downpour, particularly if the catchments slope is unable to absorb
and hold a significant part of water. Other causes of flash floods include dam failure, sudden break up of glaciers etc. These
offer potential threats in the areas where the terrain is steep, surface runoff is high, water flows through canyons and where
severe rainstorms are likely.
General Characteristics of Floods
1. Manmade structures and forest vegetation exhibits different levels of tolerance towards flood effects.
2. Intensity of damage is governed by the time interval of standing floodwaters.
3. High velocity of running water may uproot or weaken foundations of buildings.
4. Rate of rise and discharge of a river is important as a basis for flood control.
5. Frequency of occurrence estimated over a length of period would determine the kind of activities the flood plain should be
put to.
6. Agricultural economy suffers a huge loss, characterized by the floods during the rainy season
Effects of Floods
1. Rising water, erosion and the force damages the residential and commercial building. They are dangerous for villages lying
in the coastal areas as it sweeps away everything, which comes into its path. In mountainous areas it is the chief cause of
landslides.
2. Fisherman, local people, cattle, animals and vegetation suffer a great loss of life and property. Most of the deaths are
reported to be from drowning.
3. Fresh water supplies by all sources are nearly destroyed and contaminated hence the areas falling under its impact bear a
great risk of suffering from water borne diseases.
4. The destruction of food and fodder crops result in acute food shortage.
5. Floods also make soil infertile, as the topsoil is lost due to erosional activity.
6. Floods are also known to preserve wetlands and recharge ground water.
Flood Control
1. Depth and width of the riverbed could be increased as its capacity to carry larger loads increases manifold and thus reduce
the area of the flood plain.
2. A network of canals can be established from the river systems, which generally leads to floods. This would also benefit the
agricultural economy/ section. Care must be taken in the design and construction because of the possible environmental
impact and necessary safety features.
3. Reservoirs should be made for storing floodwater and releasing them at manageable rates. This would require careful
engineering. Dams, and reservoirs would further lead to generation of resources.
4. Newly constructed residential as well commercial buildings should have foundations, which are strong enough to respond
to flood conditions.
5. Rivers and streambeds should be stabilized with stone, masonry or vegetation at the banks. This should strictly be followed
where rivers pass through cities, specially near bridges.
Post Disaster Requirements
The initial response to flooding authorities/community should include:
Search and Rescue operations
Water provision
Medical assistance
Disaster epidemiological surveillance assessment
Food and temporary shelter
The secondary response should include:
Reconstruction of houses, equipment and tools, supply
Creation of employment, of animals, and assist with
Assistance to farmers, recovery of small business
Distribution of farm and fisheries
Earthquakes and Seismology:
An earthquake is a major demonstration of the power of the tectonic forces caused by endogenetic thermal conditions of the
interior of the earth. An earthquake is a motion of the ground surface, ranging from a faint tremor to a wild motion capable of
shaking buildings apart and causing gaping fissures to open in the ground. The Richter scale devised by Charles F. Richter in
1935 measures the magnitude or intensity of energy released by an earthquake. Good Friday Earthquake of March 27, 1964
in Alaska (USA) measuring 8.4 to 8.6 on Richter scale is among the greatest earthquakes of the world ever recorded. The
science that studies the behaviour and patterns of seismic waves is called seismology. The place of origin of an earthquake is
called focus, which is always hidden inside the earth, but its depth varies from place to place. The place of the origin of an
earthquake is called focus which is always hidden inside the earth. The deepest earthquake may have its focus at a depth of
even 700 km below the ground surface. Major Himalayan earthquakes, such as the Bihar-Nepal earth quake of August 2,
1988, have their focus around 20-30 km deep. The place on the ground surface, which is perpendicular to the buried focus
or hypocenter, recording the seismic waves for the first time is called epicenter. The waves generated by an earthquake

are called seismic waves which are recorded by an instrument called seismograph. The lines joining the places of equal
intensity of seismic waves on the maps are called is isoseismal lines.
Causes of Earthquakes
Earthquakes are caused mainly due to disequilibria in any part of the crust of the earth. A number of causes have been
assigned to cause disequilibria in the earths crust such as volcanic eruptions, faulting and folding, gaseous expansion and
contraction inside the earth, hydrostatic pressure of man-made water bodies like reservoirs and lakes, and plate movements.
(1) Vulcan City
Volcanic activity is considered to be one of the major causes of earthquakes. Vulcan city and seismic events are so intimately
related to each other that they become cause and effect for each other. Earthquakes follow each volcanic eruption and many
of the severe earthquakes cause volcanic eruptions. The explosive violent gases during the process of Vulcan city try to
escape upward and hence they push the crystal surface from below with great force and thus is caused severe earth tremors of
high magnitude.
(2) Faulting and Elastic Rebound Theory
The horizontal and vertical movements caused by end genetic forces result in the formation of faults and folds which in turn
cause isocratic disequilibria in the crystal rocks which ultimately causes earthquakes of varying magnitudes depending on the
nature and magnitude of dislocation of rock blocks caused by faulting and folding. The 1950 earthquake of Assam was
believed to have been caused due to disequilibria in crystal rocks;
(3) Hydrostatic Pressure and Anthropogenic Causes
Certain human activities such as pumping of ground water and oil, deep underground mining, blasting of rocks by dynamites
for constructional purposes, nuclear explosion, storage of huge volume of water in big reservoirs etc. also cause earth tremors
of serious consequences. The introduction of additional load, through the construction of large dams and impounding of
enormous volume of water in big reservoirs behind the dams, cause disequilibria of adjusted rocks, below the reservoirs.
(4) Plate Tectonic Theory
The earth is composed of solid and moving plates having either continental crust or oceanic crust or even both continental
oceanic crusts. The earths crust consists of 6 major plates (Eurasian plate, American plate, African plate, Indian plate, Pacific
plate and Antarctic plate) and 20 minor plates. These plates are constantly moving in relation to each other due to thermal
convective currents originating deep within the earth. All sorts of disequilibria are caused due to different types of plate
motions and consequently earthquakes of varying magnitudes are caused.
Classification of Earthquakes
Each earthquake differs from the other and thus it becomes difficult to classify all the earthquakes into certain categories.
(1) Classification on the Basis of Causative Factors
(A) Natural Earthquakes are those, which are caused by natural processes i.e. due to end genetic forces.
These are further divided into four subcategories.
(i) Volcanic Earthquakes are caused due to volcanic eruptions of explosive and fissure types and are confined to volcanic
areas. Severe earthquake caused by violent explosions of Etna volcano in 1968.
(ii) Tectonic Earthquakes are caused due to dislocation of rock blocks during faulting activity. Such earthquake is very
severe and disastrous i.e. 1906 earthquake of California (USA).
(iii) Isostatic Earthquakes are triggered due to sudden disturbance in the Isostatic balance at regional scale due to
imbalance in the geological processes.
(iv) Plutonic Earthquakes are in fact, deep focus earthquakes, which occur at greater depths.
(B) Anthropogenic Earthquakes are caused by human activities such as pumping of water and mineral oil from
underground aquifers. and oil reserves respectively, deep underground mining, blasting of rocks by dynamites for
constructional purposes e.g. Koyna earthquake of Maharashtra of 1967 due to Koyna reservoir etc.
(2) Classification on the basis of Focus
On the basis of the depths of their foci these have been divided into 3 types.
(i) Moderate Earthquake: Foci are located at the depths between 0-50 km.
(ii) Intermediate Earthquake: Foci at the depths between 50-250 km
(iv)
Deep Focus Earthquake: Foci at the depths between 250-700 km
(3) Classification on the basis of Human casualties
(i) Moderately Hazardous Earthquakes: If deaths of human range below 50,000 due to seismic tremors e.g. Tabas
earthquake of Iran 1978 A.D. (death toll 25,000).
(ii) Highly Hazardous Earthquakes: If deaths of human range between 51,000-1,00,000 due to seismic tremors e.g. in
1935, Quetta, Baluchistan, (death toll 60,000).
(iii) Most Hazardous Earthquakes: If deaths of human casualties are above 1,00,000 mark e.g., in 1976 Tang-Shan, China
(death toll 7,50,000).
]World Distribution of Earthquakes
Earthquakes are, in fact associated with the weaker and are statically distributed areas of the world. Most of the world
earthquakes occur in the zones of young folded mountains, the zones of faulting and fracturing, the junction of continental
and oceanic margins, the zones of active volcanoes and along the different plate boundaries. The world map of the
distribution of earthquakes prepared by seismologists show the occurrence of earthquakes along the following belts.
(i)
Circum-Pacific Belt: surrounding the Pacific Ocean.
(ii)
Mid-Continental Belt: representing epicenters located along the Alpine-Himalayan Chains of Eurasia and northern
Africa and epicenters of East African Fault zones.
(iii)
Mid Atlantic Belt: representing the earthquakes located along the mid-Atlantic Ridge-and its offshoots.
Effects of Earthquake hazards
Earthquakes and their hazards are determined on the basis of the magnitude of seismic intensity as determined by Richter
scale but are decided in the basis of quantum of damages done by a specific earthquake to human lives and property.
(i) Landslides
Weaker landmasses and tectonically sensitive land margins cause landslides and debris falls, which damage settlements and
transport systems on the lower slope segments.
(ii) Damage to Life and property
Structures such as buildings, roads, rails, factories, dams, bridges suffer a huge damage thus causing a heavy loss of human
life and property both. The vibrations of earthquakes last longer and the amplitudes of seismic waves are greater artificially in
filled and leveled depressions, swamp deposits etc. than in the structures of consolidated materials and bedrocks. Two major
earthquakes of Bihar-Nepal border in 1934 and 1988 explain the impact of earthquake disasters on human structures and

human lives. The damage caused by the Bihar earthquake of 15 January 1934, measuring 8.4 on Richter scale, includes
10,700 human deaths, landslides and slumping in an area of 250 km length and 60 km width, ruptures and faults in the
ground surface etc.
(iii) Damages to Government Infrastructure
Cities and towns are worst affected due to large concentration of human population, commercial complexes and residential
areas. Due to collapse of large buildings there is greater loss of life and property. Due to collapse of buildings ground water
pipes are bent and damaged thus water supply is disrupted, electric and telephone poles are uprooted and there is total
disruption of power and communication. Other side effects are collapsed sewer system causing epidemics, roadblocks etc.
(iv) Fire Hazard
Earthquakes strongly shake the buildings and thus strong oscillations cause severe fires in houses, mines and factories
because of overturning of cooking gas cylinders, contact of live electric wires, churning of blast furnaces, displacement of
other electric and fire-related appliances.
(v) Landmass Deformation
Severe earth tremors and resultant, vibrations caused by severe earthquakes result in the deformation of ground surface
because of crusts and troughs in the ground surface and faulting activity
(vi) Flash Floods
Strong seismic events result in the damages of dams and cause severe flash floods. Severe floods are also caused because of
blocking of water flow of rivers due to rock blocks and debris produced by severe tremors on the hill slopes facing the river
valleys.
(vii) Tsunamis
The seismic waves, caused by the earthquakes traveling through seawater, generate high sea waves and cause great loss of
life and property. Since the pacific Ocean is girdled by the earthquakes and volcanoes tsunamis are more common in the
pacific with a minimum frequency of 2 tsunamis per year.
Cyclones:
Cyclones are the centers of low pressure surrounded by closed isobars having increasing pressure outward and closed air
circulation from outside towards the central low pressure in such a way that air blows inward in anticlockwise on northern
hemisphere and clockwise in southern hemisphere. They range in shape from circular, elliptical to V shape. From locational
viewpoint cyclones are classified into two principal types e.g. i) extra-tropical cyclones/ temperate cyclones ii) tropical
cyclones.
(I) Temperate Cyclones
Temperate cyclones are atmospheric disturbances having low pressure in the centers produced in the middle latitudes
characterized by converging and rising air, cloudiness and precipitation. They are formed in the regions extending
between 350- 65" latitudes in both hemispheres due to convergence of two contrasting air masses e.g. After their
formation temperate cyclones move in easterly direction under the influence of westerly winds and control the weather
conditions in the middle latitudes.
(i) Shape, Size and Speed
Temperate cyclones are of different shapes e.g. circular, semi-circular, elliptical, elongated or V, but all of them are
characterized by low pressure in their centres and closed isobars. The pressure difference between the centre and
periphery is about 10-35 mb. It means that pressure increases from the centre towards outer margin. Average large
diameter of an ideal cyclone is about t 900 km while short diameter measures t 000 km. The temperate cyclones move
eastward under the influence of westerly winds with average velocity of 32 km per hour in summer and 48 km per hour
in winters.
(ii) Wind Systems
Since there is low pressure in the centre of temperate cyclone and air pressure increases outward and hence winds blow
from the periphery towards the centre but these winds do not reach the centre straight rather they cut the isobars at the
angle of 20 to 400 due to friction and Coriolis force and thus wind direction becomes anticlockwise in the northern
hemisphere and clockwise in the southern hemisphere. Since temperate cyclones are formed due to convergence of two
contrasting air masses and hence it is natural that there are variations in the nature and direction of winds in different
parts of the cyclones.
(iii) Temperature
Different temperatures are noted in different parts of temperate cyclones because of their origin due to convergence of
two thermally contrasting air masses. The southern part of cyclone records higher temperature because of the dominance
of warm air while the north-eastern, northern and north-western parts record low temperature because of the dominance
of cold polar air mass. The western part records lowest temperature.
(iv) Source Regions and Tracks of Movement
The areas frequented by temperate cyclones mostly lie in the middle and high latitudes extending between 350-650
latitudes in both the hemispheres. These cyclones move, on an average, in easterly direction. (1) Cyclones after
originating in the north Pacific off the north-east and eastern coasts of Asia move in easterly and north-easterly direction
towards the Gulf of Alaska and ultimately merge with Aleutian Lows from where they follow southerly direction and
reach as far south as southern California. The cyclones moving inland dissipate and are occluded at the windward
western slopes of the Rocky Mountains.
(v) Origin of Temperate Cyclones
Though the formation and development of temperate cyclones is a quick process but it passes through a series of
successive stages. The period of a cyclone from its inception (cyclogenesis) to its termination (proteolysis or occlusion)
is called the life cycle of cyclone; which is completed through six successive stages.
(a) The first stage involves the convergence of two air masses of contrasting physical properties and directions. Initially,
the air mass (warm and cold) move parallel to each other and a stationary front is formed. This is called initial stage.
(b) The second stage is also called as incipient stage, during which the warm and cold air masses penetrate into the
territories of each other and thus a wave-like front is formed.
(c) Third stage: This is the mature stage when the cyclone is fully developed and isobars become almost circular.
(d) Fourth stage: Warm sector is narrowed in extent due to the advancement of cold front than warm front, as cold front
comes nearer to warm front.
(e) Fifth stage: Starts with the occlusion of cyclone when the advancing cold front finally overtakes the warm front and
an occluded front is formed.
(f) Sixth stage: Warm sector completely disappears, occluded front is eliminated and ultimately cyclone dies out.
(II) Tropical Cyclones
(i) General Characteristics

Cyclones developed in the regions lying between the tropics of Capricorn and Cancer
are called Tropical Cyclones which are not regular and uniform like extra tropical or temperate cyclones. There are
numerous forms of these cyclones, which vary considerably in shape, size, velocity and weather conditions. The weather
conditions of low latitudes mainly rainfall regimes are largely controlled by Tropical Cyclones.
(a) Size of tropical cyclones varies considerably. On an average their diameters range between 80 km and 300 km.
(b) Weak cyclones move at the speed of about 32 km per hour while hurricanes attain the velocity of 180 km per hour or
more.
(c) Tropical cyclones become more vigorous over the oceans but become weak and feeble while moving over land areas.
This is why these cyclones affect only the coastal areas e.g. Tamil Nadu, Orissa and West Bengal coasts of India.
(d) The centre of the cyclone is characterized by extremely low pressure.
(e) Tropical cyclones are not characterized by temperature variations in their different parts because they do not have
different fronts.
(f) There are no different rainfall cells hence each part of the cyclones yields rainfall.
(g) Tropical cyclones are not always mobile. Normally, they move from east to west under the influence of trade winds
(h) Tropical cyclones are confined to a particular period of the year (summer season).
(ii) Types of Tropical Cyclones
Generally they are divided into 4 major types:
(a) Tropical disturbances or easterly waves
(b) Tropical depressions
(c) Tropical storms
(d) Hurricanes or typhoons
(iii) Origin of Tropical Cyclones
On an average, tropical cyclones are formed due to development of low pressure of thermal origin. They develop
when the following requirements are fulfilled:
(a) There should be continuous supply of abundant warm and moist air. Tropical cyclones originate over warm oceans
having surface temperature of 27C.
(b) Higher value of Coriolis force is required for the origin of these cyclones.
(c) They are associated with inter-tropical convergence (lTC), which extends from 50 -300N latitudes during summer
season.
(d) There should be anti-cyclonic circulation at the height of 9000 to 15000 m above the surface disturbance.
(iv) Distribution of Tropical Cyclones
There are 6 major regions of the tropical cyclones e.g.
(1) West Indies, Gulf of Mexico, and Caribbean Sea.
(2) Western North Pacific Ocean including Philippines, Islands, China Sea, and Japanese Islands.
(3) Arabian Sea and Bay of Bengal.
(4) Eastern Pacific coastal region off Mexico and Central America.
(5) South Indian Ocean of Madagascar (Malagasi), and
(6) Western South Pacific Ocean, in the region of Samoa and Fiji Island and the east and north coasts of Australia.
(v) Environmental Impact of Tropical Cyclones
Tropical cyclones are very severe disastrous natural hazards which inflict heavy loss to human lives and property in
terms of destruction of buildings, transport systems, water and power supply systems, disruption of communication
system, destruction of standing agricultural crops, domestic and wild animals, natural vegetation, private and public
institutions etc. Through damages caused by high velocity winds, floods and storm surges.
Landslides:
Among physiographic units, the two northern units of the Greater Himalayas (7500-8500m), and the Inner Himalayas (TransHimalayan zone), an intervening system of high plateau and valleys lying between the two great mountain ranges, are
considered along with middle mountains, the traditional centres of population. The upper northern section of these middle
mountains remains largely under upper montane forest (2900-4000 m), below which is the belt of intensive agriculture.
Lithology is highly varied, including sedimentary, metamorphism, and granites. However, there are extensive areas of
phyllites and schists; these are deeply weathered and the prevailing steep slopes render them highly susceptible to erosion
and slope failure (mostly through landslides). Presently, according to gross yet reliable estimate, the landslides occupy about
1% of land surface in only five central districts of Himachal Pradesh. One of the main causes of landslides is road
construction.

UNIT III
Natural Resources
Introduction
A natural resource may be defined as any material given to us by nature which can be transformed in a way that it becomes
more valuable and useful. For an example wood is used for making furniture. Yarn obtained from cotton is used for weaving
cloth. Likewise, various machine, tools and household goods are made of metals. Now furniture, clothes, machine, tools are
more valuable than their raw form i.e. wood, cotton and metal, respectively. It is impossible to obtain valuable items from
any resources. Thus, water, minerals, forests, wildlife as well as human beings are resources. Any material may be called, as a
resource provided and appropriate technology is available to transform that into more valuable goods.
Renewable and Non-renewable Resources:
On the basis of continuity, the resources are classified as under:
(1) Renewable Resources
(2) Non-renewable Resources.
1. Renewable Resources
Resources, which can be renewed along with their exploitation, are always available for use. Hence they are called renewable
resources. For instance, forests are renewable. If trees are felled for wood, original forest covers may be maintained through
planning new trees i.e. a forestation. Likewise, solar energy and wind energy are examples of renewable resources.
2. Non-renewable Resources
The formation of some resources like iron ore, coal, mineral oil etc. has taken several thousand years. Once they are used in
unlimited way, they cannot be easily replaced. Thus, their exploitation at large scale will result in their fast depletion. Some
such resources are called non-renewable resources or exhaustible.
3. Cyclic Resources
For resources there is no final use as they can be used continuously. For example, water used in industry and domestic ways
can be cleaned and used again for similar or other purpose. Such resources are given the name of Cyclic Resources.
Forest Resources:
Importance of Forest Resources
The importance of forest resources can be explained as under:
1. Ecological Balance: Forests and wildlife are essential to maintain ecological balance of an area.
2. Renewable Natural Resources: Forests are important renewable natural resources.
3. Eco-system: Trees dominate forest ecosystem; their species content varieties in different parts of the world.
4. Economic Development: Forest contributes to the economic development of the country because they provide goods and
services to the people and industry.
5. Environment Quality: The forest enhances the quality of environment by influencing the life supporting system.
6. Safeguard against Pollution: Forest check air pollution and soil erosion. Thus, they exercise safety and against pollution.
7. Soil Conservation: Forest save the hill-slopes from landslides.
8. Wind Erosion: In deserts, trees reduce wind erosion by checking wind velocity.
9. Check the Extension Balance: The forest checks strong gales and keeps the soil in tact beneath the roots of trees and thus
checks extension of desert.
10. Maintains Ecological Balance: The forest check pollution of air through increasing oxygen content of the air.
11. Attract Rainfall: By causing condensation of water vapour in clouds, forests attract rains.
12. Control Floods: The floods are controlled because forests dry up rainwater like sponge.
13. Linked with Cultural and Civilization: Forests are linked with our cultural and civilization.
14. Supply of Raw Material: Forest supply wood, which is used as under:
(i) Fuel,
(ii) Raw material for various industries as pulp, paper, newsprint, board;
(iii) Timber for furniture items;
(iv) To be used in packing articles like fruits, tea etc.
(v) For preparing matches, sport goods etc.
15. Minor forest products: Some examples of minor forest products are canes, gums, resins, dyes, flocks, medicines, tannins,
lac, fibres, katha etc. For tribal people are provided with food like tuber, roots, leaves, fruits, meat from birds and other
animals etc.
16. Employment opportunities: About eight crore people are employed in wood based industries like paper and match and
small and cottage industries, besides, those who are employed in the forest department in various states.
17. Revenue Receipts: The forest provides Rs. 400 crores per year as revenue to the government.
18. Fodder for Cattle: Forest provides fodder to cattle.
19. Foreign Exchange Earners: Forest produces a great number of articles like essential oils, resins and dyes, which find
market in foreign countries. Nearly Rs.50 crores are earned in foreign exchange through selling lac, turpentine oil and sandal
wood oil to abroad. Thus, the forests are nations wealth. They are useful to us directly and indirectly.
Use and Over exploitation on Forests Reasons:
Population is increasing tremendously in our country. It has already crossed thousands of millions. Meeting its everincreasing demand has resulted in over consumption of forests.
1. Fuel wood, Timber and Pulpwood
The data show that (FAO, 1981) consumption of wood in developing countries is exactly the reverse of the developed ones.
In the former, wood is used 82% for firewood and 18% respectively, In India, firewood demand is mostly in rural areas
because the alternative source of energy, are yet to reach there. The National Commission on Agriculture (NCA) had
indicated a substantial rise in demand for wood by 200 A.D. for firewood and industry as is evident from the table given
below:

2. Wood for Packing Purposes

Wood is needed, on a large scale, for our fruit industry, tea etc. It is estimated that for wooden crates nearly 0.5 Mm3 of wood
is need (U.P. 01, J & K, 0.25 M, H.P. 0.15 Mm3).
3. Paper Board and Newsprint
With the rapidly increasing population growth our per capita consumption of paper is increasing from 2 kg to 4.5 kg per year.
Bamboos and hardwood are the chief sources (70%) of raw materials for paper and board. Growing demand for 2.45 Mt will
enhance dependence on bamboo and hardwood. It is evident from the data that the pulpwood had gone to nearly 6 percent of
the wood requirement by 2000. More than half of the pulpwood comes from bamboo as is shown in following table.

There is a substantial in newspaper industry. As per data per capita requirement have gone up to 1. 1kg by 2000, thus, the
newsprint capacity was raised to 1.289 Mt. Following are the estimated requirements for raw materials for newsprint.

It is evident that shortfall of newsprint would grow rapidly as well as continuously by passage of time.
Deforestation:
Meaning of Deforestation
Deforestation is the process of felling trees indiscriminately resulting in nude or seminude surface of the hill covered by thick
forests.
Causes of Deforestation
Main causes responsible for deforestation are as under:
(a) Felling of trees to meet the ever increasing demand of the cities.
(b) Grazing by the local cattle, goats, sheep etc. They not only destroy the vegetation but also pull out the roots of plants.
After denudation of our Himalayas, the process of deforestation started in the Shivalik range. Shivalik sal forests were overexploited for industry use, i.e. railway sleepers etc. Consequently, the foothills of the Shivaliks are in semi desert conditions.
(c) Meeting out the growing hunger for land. It has hit the ecology of the country badly very soon India is likely to have more
of wasteland than productive land. Large scale deforestation has badly affected the weather facing almost each year more of
bleak than the normal weather.
(d) The increase in shifting (jhum) cultivation in North east and Orissa has also laid large in forest tracts bare. As the jhum
cycle is shortened to six years only (in some districts, even 2-3 years only), too short period does not provide enough time for
natural repair of damaged ecosystem.
(e) A major cause of deforestation has been the construction of hill roads. About a decade back, they were about 30, 000 km
long. Most of these roads are in state and most fragile belt of Himalayas. Road construction damaged the protective
vegetation cover both above and below roads. It blocked natural and pollution streams.
Evil Consequences of Deforestation
With deforestation ecological balance maintain by nature breaks away. Floods or drought are the terrible consequences. The
trees, increase rainfall of an area, as well as conserve the water which falls on the ground rain. Consequent to deforestation,
the plant reduces evaporation allowing water to remain in solid for a long time. In our country unabated deforestation over
grazing and the growing hunger for land has hit the ecology of India badly. If it goes on, we may soon have more of
wasteland than productive land. Large-scale deforestation has badly affected the weather. Evil consequences of deforestation
can be summed up as under:
1. Adverse Effect on Productivity
It is noticed that the devasting effects of deforestation in India include soil, water and wind erosions, estimated to cost over
16,400 crores every year. Deforestation affects productivity of our croplands in two ways as under:
(i) The deforestation increases the soil erosion increase manifold. The soil so washed leads to an accentuated cycle of floods
and drought.
(ii) Deforestation creates to use cow dung and crop wastes as fuel mainly for cooking.
As a result no part of the plant goes back to loss in soil fertility.
2. Land/Erosion and Landslides
Deforestation has been causing tremendous land erosion and landslides. Data reflect that about 6,000 million ton of topsoil is
lost annually due to water erosion in the absence of trees. The loss worked out from the topsoil erosion in 1973 was Rs. 700
crore. The figures for the years 1976, 1977 and 1978 are Rs. 889 crore, Rs. 1,200 crore and Rs. 1,091 crore respectively.
3. Low Per Capita Forestland
As far as per capita forestland is concerned, India today is the poorest in the world. The per capita forestland in India is 0.10
hectare compared to the world average of 1 hectare.
Timber Extraction:
It is estimated that India is losing 15 million hectares of forests cover year. If this trend continuous unchecked, it could take
only a period 9 of 20 years hence to reach to zero forest value in our country. During a period of 25 years (1951-1976) India
has lost 4.1 million hectares of forests area. Trees have been felled in large number of fuel, fodder, valley projects, Industrial
uses, road construction etc. India consumes nearly, 170 million tones of firewood annually, and 10-15 million hectares of
forests cover is being stripped every year to meet fuel requirements. The rise in fuel wood consumption can be noticed from
the comparative study of the fuel consumption in earlier years. It was 86.3 million ton in 1953.
It reached about 135 million ton in 1980. During a period of 20 years (1951 to 1971) forests have been cut for various
purposes as under:

(1) For Agriculture (24-32 lack hectares)

(2) River valley projects (4.01 lakh hectares)
(3) Industrial uses (1.24 lakh hectares)
(4) Road construction (0.55 lakh hectares)
(5) Miscellaneous uses (3.88 lakh hectares)
In this way, a total of 3.4 million hectares of forests were lost during this period. The disastrous of the heavy deforestation are
visible. Nearly 1 percent of the land surface of India is turning barren every year due to deforestation. In the Himalayan
range, the rainfall has declined from 3 to 4 percent.
Mining:
It is often remarked that in our country most mining work has been unscientific. Consequently no heed is paid to environment
protection. The consequences have been disastrous. For example:
(1) They have developed large tracts that lost productivity.
(2) There have been water and air pollution, despoliation of land and deforestation, noise and ground vibration problems etc.
As such, to ameliorate the situation, the mined areas are to be reclaimed for agriculture, forestry, fisheries and recreation.
During last 20-30 years, a number of mining operations have been started in the country. These operations affected forest and
cultivated land areas. Such operations have been taken mainly in U.P., Bihar, M.P., Orissa and Andhra Pradesh.
The results are as under:
(1) The use of land scale for townships, communication, excavation and transport affected the socioeconomic and ecology of
these areas.
(2) Ecological problems developed in coal mine areas in Ranchi, Hazaribagh (Bihar), Bina Project (U.P.) and Singular
complex at Gorbi (U.P.) and Jayant (M.P.).
Dams:
We can classify the environment side effects of river valley and hydel projects into three categories as under:
(i) Impacts within and around the area covered by the dam and reservoir.
(ii) Downstream effects caused by alternation in hydraulic regime, and
(iii) Regional effects in terms of overall aspects including resources use and socioeconomic aspects.
The impacts caused by construction of dams and reservoir in including the following effects and consequences:
(1) The various change in the microclimate.
(2) The loss of vegetal cover.
(3) Soil erosion.
(4) Variation in water table.
(5) Enhanced seismic activities due to pressure of water.
It should be kept in mind that the nature and magnitude of the impacts vary with the project locations and the conditions
therein. It can be elucidate with the help of illustration:
(1) In hilly tracts, blasting operations for road construction can cause considerable damage to the environment through the
following activities:
(a) Loosening of hill sides and resultant landslides,
(b) Sedimentation of reservoirs
(c) Drying up of spring and flash floods.
(2) The creation of new settlements for the workmen and rehabilitation of project out sees in the watershed areas may result
in the aggravation of the seriousness of advance impacts. In our country a number of big, medium and minor dams are
undertaken, mainly for three purposes- irrigation, power generation and water supply. The countrys first Prime Minister,
Jawaharlal Nehru, hailed these dams as the Temples of Modern India. They have increased agricultural production, power
generation and reduced dependence in imports. However, on the contrary to the advantages enumerated above, some experts
opine that the social, environmental and even economic cost of these dams, far outweighs their benefits. They hold that the
most important social consequences of big dams has been the displacement of millions of tribal from their homeland and
their eventual influx into urban areas, almost as refugees. This is the reason why the scientists, environmentalists, journalists,
social activists, lawyers and bureaucrats have now raised their voice against big dams.
Results of opposition
Mounting opposition from scientists and environmentalists has completed the Govt. to review a number of proposed dams in
the light of their impact on local tribals, flora and fauna as under:
(i) First was the scrapping of the silent valley project in Kerala.
(ii) Second example is Koel and Karo project in Bihar. This was also given up due to opposition from local people. They held
that it would have displaced several thousands of Santhal tribals in the area.
Four Major Projects
The four major projects which have generated much controversy are as under:
(i) Sardar Sarovar Project, Gujrat
(ii) Narmada Sagar Project, M.P
(iii) Bodhghat Project, M.P
(iv) Tehri Dam Project in U.P
Although the above projects have been given environment clearance, struggle is still on the force of the Govt. to drop these
projects. A brief description of these projects and their possible effects are as under:
1. Sardar Sarovar (SS) Project
This project is near Navagam in Bharuch district of Gujrat. It is one of the costliest projects affecting villages in 3 states
M.P., Maharashtra and Gujrat. If it is carried out, its effects would be as under:
(i) About 245 villages will be submerged, of which about 193 in M.P. alone.
(ii) Over 75,000 (nearly 50,000 in M.P. alone) people will be evicted.
(iii) Additional displacements is likely to be caused during social and environment rehabilitation work undertaken to repair
the dislocation and damages caused by the project.
It is evident that compensatory afforestation and setting of wildlife sanctuary will displace or affect other villagers in the area.
The relevancy is evident from the fact that it has been officially admitted that nearly 43,000 ha of land will be needed for
rehabilitation of SS oustees.
2. Narmada Valley Project (NVP)
It claims to be the worlds largest river valley project. It has attracted the greatest attention. The 30 big dams and over 3,000
medium and minor dams are envisaged at cost of Rs. 25,000 crore. Its effects are anticipated as under:
(i) It would displace over one million people, mostly tribals.

(ii) It would submerge 56,000 ha fertile agriculture land.

(iii) Total forest areas nearly 60,000 ha. will be destroyed.
(iv) Nearly 25 species of birds will be deprived of their habitats.
3. Bodhghat Project
This project is on Indravati river in M.P. The project is in heavily forested Bihar district. Its effects are anticipated as under:
(i) The project will destroy teak and sal forests.
(ii) It will spell doom for the last surviving wild buffaloes.
The criticisms of the project forced the Govt. and the World Bank to reconsider it.
4. Tehri Dam
This Dam is proposed on the Bhagirathi river in U.P. at the foothills of Himalayas. It is Soviet-financed and challenged in the
Supreme Court. Its effects are envisaged as under:
(i) This Dam will displace over 85,000 people.
(ii) It will totally immerse the Tehri town and completely or partly submerge nearly 100 villages.
(iii) The site of the Dam is prone to intense seismic activity.
(iv) The 3,200 million ton of water that the Dam would impound, could cause a major earth tempor.
(v) In the event of a disaster, the entire religious townships of Deoprayag, Hardwar and Rishikesh would be devastated.
(vi) Thousand of hectares of rich, agriculture land will be drowned.
Water resources: use and over-utilization of surface and ground water:
Water claims to be an important resource. An important use of water in our country is for irrigation. Besides, water is also
required in large amounts for industrial and domestic consumption.
Significant of Water
The significant of water needs no elucidation. It is as under:
(1) It is revealed by the history of human civilization that water supply and civilization are most synonymous.
(2) Several cities and civilizations have disappeared due to water shortages originating from climatic changes.
(3) Millions of people all over the world, particularly in the developing countries, are losing their lives every year from
water-borne disease.
(4) An understanding of water chemistry is the basis of knowledge of the multidimensional aspects of aquatic environment
chemistry, which involve the sources, composition, reactions, and transport of the water.
(5) About 97% of the earths water supply is in the ocean, which is unfit of the remaining 3%, 2% is locked in the polar icecaps and only 1% is available as fresh water in rivers, lakes, streams, reservoirs and ground water which is suitable for
human consumption. Unlike land, which remains available as it is, the availability of water varies from place
to place and time to time. Our country is a monsoon land. The bulk of rainfall is confined
to a brief period of 3-4 months that is from July to October. As such, large part of the
country lacks surface water supply for a greater part of the year.
Over-utilization of Water
It transpires from our water budget that, in case average annual rainfall of entire country and its total area are taken, the total
water resources are of the order of 167 million hectare meters. In fact, only 66 million-hectare meters of water can be utilised
by us for irrigation. As there are some financial and technological constraints we plant to use it fully only by 2010 A.D. By
1951 only 9.7 million ha metre water was used for irrigation. By 1973, it was as much as 18.4 million ha metres.
It is observed that Agriculture sector is the major user of water. The water used for irrigation which was two decades back
nearly 40% has gone up to 73% by 2000 A.D. Irrigation use is very inefficient. Hence, 25-30% efficiency and method of
irrigation are to be changed drastically. From the data on water use shown in the table given as under, it becomes evident that
irrigation including for livestock and including power use is 79.6% and 13.7% water respectively. Thereafter, come domestic
(3.5%) and industrial (3.3%) uses. In case the land area is taken up as a unit, the position could be different. By 1984-85 the
land under irrigation almost tripled to 67.5 million ha.

After a period of five years i.e. by 1990 another 13 million ha were to be brought under irrigation, thus, the total figure was
80 million ha. This may be adjudged against the total potential of 133 million ha by 2010 A.D. Here it may be kept in mind
that it is the gross sown area and not net sown area. The former i.e. net sown area at present, more than 3% of the net sown
area is under irrigation.
It is estimated by World Health Organization (WHO) that water thirsty countries are across the oceans. Nordic water supply
(Norwegian company) has been transporting fresh water i.e. clean drinking water in giant floating bags across the oceans.
These floating bags are made long. Each contains 35,000 tonnes of water. The floating water bags are made of a polyester
plant to build new bags of the size of supertanker, 300 metres long and a capacity of 1,00,000 tons water. In this way the
Nordic company is engaged in the business of towing fresh water from Turkey to Greek island. Its future plans include
transporting water from Iran to Saudi Arabia and along Caribbean and Red Sea.
Flood Management:
Floods are annual features in one part of the Country or the other causing damage to the crops and property, destruction of
communication and at times heavy loss of human-life and livestock.
National Flood Control Programme
After heavy floods in 1954, the Government of India announced a National Flood Management Programme. The programme
was divided into these phases immediate, short term and long-term:
(i) The immediate phase was adopted for intensive collection of data and execution of emerge flood protection measures.
(ii) The short-term measures for flood protection include construction of Spurs and embankments of select sites.

(iii) The construction of storages, reservoirs on rivers/tributaries and additional embankments were the main long-term
measure adopted. Out of the total geographical area of 329 million ha of the country, area prone to floods and area which can
be provided reasonable degree of protection as assesses by R.B.A. are 40 million ha. and 32 million ha. respectively.
Even after the implementation of short and long-term measures, providing a certain degree of protection against floods to the
flood prone areas, the flood loss continued to show increasing trend. More realistic and relational approach for flood
management under the existing resources contains would be to strive for a reasonable degree of protection against floods by
structural measures and supplement it by resorting to non-structural measures.
Measures and Achievements
(1) Since the launching of the National Flood Control Programme, an expenditure of about Rs. 2710 crore have been incurred
on the Flood Control Sector till the end of the Seventh Plan. In the Seventh Plan, an Approval Outlay of Rs. 947.39 crore has
a share of Rs. 797.43 crore by States and Union Territories and Rs. 149.93 crore by the Centre.
(2) Since 1954 nearly 15,467 km of new embankments, 30,199 km of drainage channels, 765 town-protection works and
raising the level of about 4,705 villages have been completed up to March, 1989. These achievements have been executed at
an expenditure of Rs. 2493.56 crore and have benefitted 13.64 million ha. In addition, Anti-sea Erosion Measures to protect
coast-line especially in Kerala were taken up. Out of the 320 km of vulnerable coast-line 311 km have been protected up to
March, 1990.
(3) Up to 42 km existing sea walls have been strengthened. Rs. three point five crore have been allocated as Central Loan
Assistance to Kerala during 1990-91. In Karnataka, 73.3 km of the coast-line, out of 280 km is vulnerable to sea erosion and
12.89 km of coast-line been protected up to March 1990.
(4) A number of reservoir projects had been completed which have helped in mitigating flood-peak in the down-stream
reaches. Notable among these are Hirakud Dam on the Sutlej, Pong Dam on the Beas and Ukai Dam on the Tapti. All these
works have afforded a reasonable degree of protection.
(5) The Country on the whole experienced good and well-distributed rains. Rainfall was normal and well-distributed in 32
out of 35 Metrological Sub-divisions of the Country and 84 per cent of the Districts recorded excess of normal rainfall. The
rain was deficient in Andaman and Nicobar Island, Lakshadweep and Kerala meteorological sub-divisions. Heavy rains/flash
floods in Andhra Pradesh, Rajasthan, Orissa and Kerala characterized the over-all flood situation. Assam, Bihar, Uttar
Pradesh, Madhya Pradesh and West Bengal also experienced moderate to high intensity floods. It is reported that an area of
4.9 million ha, have been affected by floods during 1990 monsoon season and a population of 16.2 million were affected and
crops worth Rs. 28.1 crore in an area of about 2.8 million reported to have been damaged. In all, nearly 882 human-lives and
damages to the crops, houses and public utilities were reported to be the tune of Rs. 41.25 crore.
Drought Prone Areas Programme
The Drought-Prone Areas Programme was initiated as an Integrated Area Development Programme in 1973. The programme
was conceived as a long-term measure for restoration of ecological balance and optimum utilization of land, water, livestock
and human resources to mitigate the effects of The drought in and The drought prone areas. The programme has three
basic objectives:
(i) To conserve, develop and harness land and other natural resources including rainfall with a view to improving and
restoring ecological balance,
(ii) To minimize adverse effects of drought on crops and livestock production through integrated development of land, water
resources, and adoption of appropriate technology,
(iii) To ultimately achieve drought proofing of the project area through integrating and dovetailing activities under this
programme with State Sectoral Plans and Special Programmes. The programme is under implementation in 615 blocks of 91
districts in thirteen states. Present coverage of the programme is based on the recommendations of the Task Force on DPAP
and DDP (1982) as modified by the Inter Departmental Group (1984). Total area covered under the programme is about 5.54
lakh sq. km and the total population in the areas covered by the programme is about 775 lakh. The funds for the programme
are shared by the Central Government and the states concerned on a 50:50 basis. An Outlay of Rs. 237 crore was provided for
the programme in the Central Plan for the Seventh Plan Period.
Conflicts over Water:
Inter-State Water Disputes
The water wealth of India is enormous. The National Water Policy of 1987 recognizes River Basin as a unit for the purpose
of harnessing the water potential.
Reasons for Differences
Major River Basin of the Country are all almost Inter-state. With so many rivers flowing through more than one state, it is a
natural phenomenon that differences would arise sometime or other amongst concerned states with regard to use and
distribution of control of water of such rivers. This is especially so in view of the rapid pace of water resources development
to meet the increasing demand for irrigation, Hydel-Power Generation, domestic and industrial water supply etc.
Effort to Resolve Disputes
Efforts are made, as far as possible, to resolve all disputes by negotiations amongst states concerned or with the assistance of
the Centre. Adjudication through Tribunal is resorted to when warranted. Several of Inter-State Water Dispute have been
resolved in the recent past.
1. Some of these are agreements regarding construction of Thein Dam (Ravi), Barakar, Ajoy, Mayurakshi, Mahanada,
Subernrekha and Kanhar Rivers, some common rivers between Madhya Pradesh and Orissa and some between Maharastra
and Madhya Pradesh.
2. Sharing of river waters of the Krishna, the Godavari and Narmada by concerned Basin States has been settled through
respective Tribunals set-up by the Government under the Inter-State Water Dispute Act, 1956.
3. The Ravi and Beas Waters Tribunal, which was set-up on second April 1986, submitted its report to the Central
Government on 30 January 1987.
4. In August, 1987 a further reference was made to the Tribunal comprising a Suomoto Reference by the Central Government
and reference received from Punjab, Harayana and Rajasthan Governments seeking explanation/guidance on certain points
in the report.
5. Two major inter-state river disputes have not yet been resolved. They relate to utilization of the waters of the Kaveri and
the Yamuna.
6. The Kaveri Water Dispute had to be referred to a tribunal are still continuing. Keeping in view the response of the party
states concerned, it should be possible to find solution to the Yamuna Water Dispute without recourse to a tribunal.

Dams: Description, Benefits and Problems

A number of big, medium and minor dams have been envisaged under different river valley projects. These dams have been
undertaken for irrigation, power generation and water supply. These dams, hailed as the Temples of Modern India by the
countrys first Prime Minister, Jawaharlal Nehru, have increased agricultural production, power generation and reduced
dependence on imports. A brief description of the dams and benefit accruing form them is as under:
Environment Problems Created By Dams
We can study the environmental side effects of river valley and hydel-power projects in three categories as under:
(i) Effect within and around the area covered by the dam and reservoir.
(ii) Downstream effects consequent to the alternation in hydraulic regime,
(iii) Regional effects in terms of overall aspects including resources use and socioeconomic aspects.
The Evil Impacts
The impacts caused by construction of dams and reservoirs include the following:
(i) Changes in the microclimate,
(ii) Loss of vegetal cover,
(iii) Soil erosion,
(iv) Variation in water level,
(v) Enhanced seismic activities due to pressure of water.
(1) Effects of Blasting
In hilly tracts, blasting operations for road construction can cause considerable damage to the environment through the
following reactions:
(a) Loosening of hill sides and resultant landslides,
(b) Sedimentation of reservoirs,
(c) Drying up of spring and flash floods.
(2) The creation of new settlement for the workmen and rehabilitation of project oustees in the watershed areas may
aggravate the seriousness of advance impact.
Mineral resource: Use and Exploitation on the environmental, Effect of their extraction:
Significance
The economic development of a country depends, to a great extent. On the availability of minerals got as ores from the earth
by mining, Coal and iron are the basic minerals which man needs to develop iron and steel industry. Minerals like mica,
copper, lead and zinc are of vast economic importance. Thorium and uranium are atomic energy minerals.
Position of Minerals in India
India is rich endowed with minerals like coal, bauxite, barytes, iron, one mica, gypsum, chromite, dolomite and limestone
while it is deficient in minerals like asbestos, phosphates, lead, tungsten, tin platinum group of metals, gold and diamonds.
Minerals Resources
Principle minerals found in the country, along with their estimated reserves, are given below:
(1) Bauxite
Recoverable reserves of all grades of bauxite in the country are estimated at 283.3 crore tonnes. Important deposits occur in
Andhra Pradesh, Bihar, Goa, Gujrat, Jammu and Kashmir, Karnataka, Kerala, Madhya Pradesh.
(2) Barytes
The recoverable reserves of barytes are placed at 7.1 crore tonnes. Most of the reserves are located at Mangampet Taluka in
Cuddapah District, Andhra Pradesh. Other minor occurrences are reported from Rajasthan, Tamil Nadu, Himachal Pradesh,
Bihar, West Bengal, Maharashtra, Karnataka, Madhya Pradesh and Uttar Pradesh.
(3) Coal and Lignite
Coal is Indias largest mineral resource and presently India is fifth largest of coal in the world. Vast deposits of coal of
Gondwana formations occur in West Bengal, Orissa, Bihar, Madhya Pradesh, Andhra Pradesh and Maharashtra. It also occurs
in tertiary formations in Assam, Arunachal Pradesh, Meghalaya, Jammu and Kashmir and Nagaland. Total reserves of coal
are estimated at 17,046 crore tonnes comprosing 16,499 crore tonnes of non-coking coal and 547 crore tonnes of prime
cocking. As compare with Indias coal reserves lignite resources are relatively modest at 438.8 crore tonnes of which the bulk
of the reserves are located in and around Neyyeli in Tamil Nadu. Significant lignite resources are in Rajasthan, Gujrat and
Jammu and Kashmir.
(4) Chromite
Total recoverable reserves of Chromite, are estimated at 5.4. crore tonnes. Deposits of economic significance occur in Andhra
Pradesh, Bihar, Karnataka, Maharastra, Manipur, Orissa and Tamil Nadu. However, refractory grade reserves of chromite are
very meagre.
(5) Copper
Major and important copper ore producing areas are in Singhbhum District (Bihar), Balaghat District (Madhya Pradesh) and
Jhunjhunu and Alwar District (Rajasthan). In addition, small production of copper ore comes from Khammam District
(Andhra Pradesh), Chitradung and Hassan Districts (Karnataka), and Sikkim. Copper ore reserves in the Country are
estimated at 63.2 crore tonnes with a metal content of about 82.8 lakh tonnes.
(6) Diamond
Total reserves and resources in the country are placed at 10.8 carats. main diamond bearing area in India is Panna belt in
Madhaya Pradesh, Ramallakota and Bangampalle Chitradung rocks in Kurnool Districts and gravels of Krishan River Basin
in Andhra Pradesh. Presently, the only Diamond Pipe under exploitation is at Panna.
(7) Dolomite
Total recoverable reserves of dolomite of all grades are placed at 46.08 lakh tonnes. Principal producing states for dolomite
are Orissa, Madhya Pradesh, Gujrat, Bihar, Uttar Pradesh and West Bengal.
(8) Gold
There are three important gold fields in the country, namely, Kolar Field in Kolar District and Hutti Gold Field in Raichur
District (both in Karnataka) and Ramagiri Gold Field in Anantapur district (Andhra Pradesh). Total in-situ gold ore reserves
and resources are estimated at five crore tonnes with a total Gold content of 103.17 tonnes. However, Kolar Gold Field Mines
an Hutti account for bulk of Gold Ore Reserves, equivalent to about 57.6 tonnes in in-situ Gold.
(9) Fireclay
India has vast resources of fireclay with recoverable reserves of 70.3 tonnes. Fireclay occurs in India mainly, associated with
Coal Beds of Godwana and Tertialryt Basins. Major fireclay producing states are Bihar, Gujarat, Madhya Pradesh, Orissa,
Tamil Nadu, Rajasthan, West Bengal and Andhra Pradesh.

(10) Fluorspar
Fluorspar mainly occurs in Gujrat, Madhya Pradesh and Rajasthan with total recoverable reserves estimated at 18.8 lakh
tonnes.
(11) Gypsum
Total reserves and resources of gypsum in the country are estimated at 120 crore tonnes, of which recoverable reserves are
31.9 crore tonnes. Bulk of domestic production mineral gypsum comes from Rajasthan and Tamil Nadu, Jammu and
Kashmir, Himachal Pradesh and Uttar Pradesh. Gujrat also produces small quantities.
(12) Graphite
Recoverable reserves of graphite are estimated at 46.5 lakh tonnes of which 31 lakh tonnes occur in Kerala and Bihar and the
rest in Orissa, Rajasthan, Tamil Nadu and Andhra Pradesh.
(13) Limonite
Total reserves in limonite at 14.6 crore mainly in beach sands on Eastern and Western Coasts and Tamil Nadu are important.
(14) Iron Ore
India is favourable endowed with iron ore deposits recoverable reserves are estimated at 1197.7 crore tonnes of which 10,
267 tonnes are haematite and 171 crore tonnes magnitute Ore. Haematite mainly occurs in Bihar, Orissa, Madhya Pradesh,
Maharashtra, Goa, and Karnataka. Large reserves of magnetite ore occur along West Coast, primarily in Karnataka with
minor occurrences in Kerala, Tamil Nadu and Andhra Pradesh.
(15) Kaolin
India possesses vast resources of kaolin and ball clay with kaolin Resources being placed at 87.2 crore tonnes. Currently,
principal producing states for Kaolin are Bihar, Gujrat, Rajasthan and West Bengal, Kerala, Haryana, Orissa and Madhya
Pradesh also produce significant quantities. Ball Clay Kerala is chiefly produced in Rajasthan, Andhra Pradesh and Gujarat.
(16) Lead-Zinc
Lead-zinc ore occur in Rajasthan, Meghalaya, Gujrat, West Bengal, Uttar Pradesh, Andhra Pradesh, Tamil Nadu, Orissa and
Sikkim. However, 95 per cent of the known resources are localised in south-central Rajasthan and the adjoining part of
Gujrat. Total identified ore resources are placed at 38.3 crore tonnes equivalent to an in-situ mental content of 56 lakh tonnes
of lead and 1.83 crore tonnes of zinc.
(17) Limestone
Limestine occurs extensively in the country and is produced in almost all states. Major Producing states are Madhya Pradesh,
Tamil Nadu, Andhra Pradesh, Gujrat, Bihar, Orissa, Rajasthan and Karnataka. Total recoverable reserves of Limestone of all
grades are estimated Manganese Ore at 6935.4 crore tonnes.
(18) Manganese
Recoverable reserves of manganese ore are estimated at 15.4 crore tonnes. Rich deposits of Manganese Ore occur in Andhra
Pradesh, Goa, Gujrat, Karanataka, Madhya Pradesh, Bihar and Orissa. Major producers are Orissa, Karnataka, Madhya
Pradesh and Maharashtra.
(19) Mica
India is worlds leading producer of sheet mica and accounts for about 60 per cent of global mica trade. Economic deposits of
mica occur in three richest mica belts, accounts for almost 60 per cent of Indias output in terms of value. Though large mica
resources are existing, estimates have not far been made because of irregular nature of pegmatite as well as erratic nature of
mica mineralization in pegmatite.
(20) Nickel
Low grade nickel occurs in Cuttack, Keonjhar and Mayurbhani Districts of Orissa. Main occurrence is in Sukinda Belt to
Cuttack District. Minor occurrences are also reported from Bihar, Manipur, Nagaland, Maharasthra, Karnataka and
Rajasthan. Total nickel ore resources are estimated at 23.1 crore tonnes.
(21) Phosphate Minerals
Deposists of Phosphorites are located in Chhatarpur, Sagar and Jhabua Districts of Madhya Pradesh, Udaipur, Jaisalmer and
Banswara districts of Rajasthan and Dehradun and Tehri and Lalitpur District of Uttar Pradesh. Besides, apatite deposits of
commercial importance are reported to occur in Bihar, Andhra Pradesh, Rajasthan, West Bengal and Tamil Nadu. Total
recoverable reserves of Rock Phosphate are estimated at 11.5 crore tonnes and of apatite at 20 lakh tonnes.
(22) Tungsten
Recoverable reserves of tungsten ore are placed at 70 lakh tonnes with W 03 contents of 7,860 tonnes. Tungsten ore occurs in
Rajasthan, Maharashtra, Karnataka, West Bengal and Uttar Pradesh. The only producing mine in the country is at Degana in
Rajasthan.
(23) Magnesite
India is having large resources of magnesite, which is an important refractory mineral. Total recoverable reserves of
magnesite are estimated at 22.2 crore tonnes. Presently, chief sources of magnesite are in the District of Salem in Tamil Nadu
and Almora in Uttar Pradesh. Deposits of magnesite also occur in Chamili and Pithoragarh District of Uttar Pradesh, Mysore
and Hassan District of Karnataka and in Jammu and Kashmir and Kerala.
(24) Kyanite and Sillimanite
Kyanitye and sillimanite are other important refractory minerals. Principal sources of supply of kyanite are Singhbhum
deposit of Bihar and Bhandara deposit of Maharashtra. A small quantity is also produced form Karnataka and Rajasthan.
Total recoverable reverses of Sillimanite are placed at 54.3 lakh tonnes.
(25) Other Minerals
Other minerals occuring in significant quantities in India are as under:
(i) Bentonite (Gujrat, Rajasthan, Bihar, Jammu and Kashmir and Tamil Nadu),
(ii) Corundum (Maharashtra, Madhya Pradesh, Karnataka and Andhra Pradesh),
(iii) Calcite (Rajasthan, Madhya Pradesh, Andhra Pradesh and Gujrat),
(iv) Fullers Earth (Rajasthan, Madhya Pradesh, Andhra Pradesh),
(v) Felspar (Rajasthan, Andhra Pradesh, Tamil Nadu and Madhya Pradesh),
(vi) Garnet (Tamil Nadu, Rajasthan and Andhra Pradesh),
(vii) Steatite (Rajasthan, Uttar Pradesh, Andhra Pradesh, Tamil Nadu and Bihar),
(ix) Wollastonite (Rajasthan and Gujrat), Zicro (Beach Sands of Tamil Nadu Kerala and Orissa),
(x) Quartz and other Silica Minerals are wide-spread and occur in almost all states.
(xi) The country has vast resources of building, dimension and ornamental stones such as granite, marble and slate.
While Granite is chiefly mined in Tamil Nadu, Karnataka, Andhra Pradesh and Rajasthan, Marble is extensively mined in
Rajasthan, Uttar Pradesh and Gujrat. Principally Madhya Pradesh, Andhra Pradesh and Harayana produce slate.
Environment Problem Created by Extracting and Mining
The environment side effect of extracting and mining projects can be studied in three categories as under:
(i) Effect within and around the area covered by the dam and reservoir.

(ii) Underground effects caused by emptying of area.

(iii) Regional effects in terms of overall aspects inclusive of resources use and socioeconomic aspects.
(iv) It has also been participating in India Expeditions to Antarctica right from the very first expedition.
GSI with its headquarters at Calcutta functions six regions, three specialised wings and a training institute. Each year GSI
takes up about 1100 investigations in geological mapping, mineral assessment, geotechnical and environment studies, air
borne geo-physical surveys as well as geological and geophysical surveys in bordering seas. Output of these efforts is in the
form of scientific and technical reports, professional papers, maps and inventories and various types of publications such as
memoirs, records, bulletins, Indian minerals and Palentologica Indica.
Food Problem: Causes and Suggestions
At present not only India but the whole world is facing the food problem.
Main Causes of Food Problem: Main causes of food problem are as under:
1. Quantitative aspect of food problem
(a) Increasing Population: Though food production has increased all over the world as well as in India, yet due to over
growth of population our needs also have increased for greater than the production.
(b) Secondary, man off and on suffers from the draughts and floods. This is the reason why the prices of food grains are
shooting up. Per capita net availability of food grains went up to a level of 496 grams per day in 1989 as compared to that of
395 grams in early fitfties. In 1990, it has been provisionally estimated at 476 grams per day. In terms of gross fertilizers
consumption, Indra ranks fourth in the World after USA, USSR and China. The country has the largest in the World under
Pulse Crops. In the field of cotton, India is the first one to evolve a cotton hybrid. The country has made a major
breakthrough in Prawn Seed Production and Post Culture Technology. Compound growth rate in agriculture production
during the period 1949-50 to 1988-89 was 2.63 per cent per annum. Production of foodgrains increased significant from
549.2 lakh tonnes in 1949-50 to 1706.3 lakh tones in 1989-90. Cropping pattern is more diversified and cultivation of
commercial crops has received new impetus in line with domestic demands and export requirements. During Post Green
Revolution period i.e. 1967-68 to 1988-89, growth rate in agriculture production was assessed at around 2.64 per cent annum.
Production of food grains during this period was from 950.5 lakh tones to 1699.2 lakh tones. Cropping pattern has undergone
perceptible changes and non-traditional crops like summer moong, soya-bean, summer groundnut, sunflower etc., are
gradually gaining importance. In order to utilize scares resources optimally, a short duration third crop is also being raised in
some areas utilizing residual moisture available from post-kharif and post-rabi cultivation.
The index of agriculture production, which registered an increase of 21.0 per cent in 1988-89 over the previous year showed
further increase of 1.6 per cent in 1989-90 due to primary increase recorded in the production of cotton, jute and mesta,
sugarcane and other commercial crop. The index of food grains during 1989-90 however, registered a marginal increase of
0.4 per cent cover the previous years level of 182.5. It was anticipated that the food grains production during 1990-91 would
reach another record level, the third year in succession. Production of all lukseed crios except groundnut, cotton, surgarcane,
jute and mesta was also bright. Inspite of an increase in production is failed to cope with the rapid and formidable increasing
in population.
2. Qualitative aspects of food problem
If we view from nutritional view point, we find that foodgrains have the storages. If every person is given balanced diet,
nutritious food must have per day per person 3000 calories but in India it is about 200 calories while Canada has 3060,
America has 3090, U.K. has 3290 and Japan has 2280.
The qualitative aspects of the poors food are more pitiable. In this way, Indians do not even get appropriate nutritious
elements. An average Indian is able to take only carbohydrates, as he depends on ill-nutritious grains. From his meals
protective food like milk, fish egg, fruits and vegetables are absent.
The following reasons are responsible for unbalanced diet:
(i) Less production of protective food.
(ii) Low capacity for the purpose of nutritious articles.
(iii) Refraining from meat, fish and eggs due to religious causes.
(iv) Unawareness of balanced diet.
However, our government has become conscious of improving the nutritious status of the people. A number of nutritious
interventions have been made in recent years by different sectors of the Government, which have direct and indirect impact
on the nutritious status of the people. The nutritious programmes of the department of food are directed towards improving
the nutritious status of the people through a combination of measures such as,
(i) Nutritious education and training.
(ii) Development and production of nutritious foods.
(iii) Fortification and enrichment of food.
Nutritious education has become one of the important activities of the department for more than three decades. Thirty Four
Mobile Food and Nutrition Extension Units (MEUs) equipped with mobile van, audio- visual equipments and technical
trained personnel have been set up the Department of Food in different parts of the country to impart nutrition education in
rural, urban and tribal areas. These units organize live demonstrations supported by lecture-cum-discussions, films and slide
shows and exhibitions on various aspects of food, nutrition and health in collaboration with the state governments,
educational institutions and voluntary organizations. The Department of Food also has Thirty Three Food and Nutrition
Extensions (FNECs) in different Parts of Country for imparting education and training in home-scale preservation of fruits
and vegetables and nutrition mainly to the housewives and providing progressing facilities for fruits and vegetables for
domestic consumption.
Realizing the importance of integrated to nutrition, the Department of Food is implementing an Integrated Nutrition
Education Scheme Department with a view to equip the grass-root level works of the concerned sectors with simple
knowledge in food, nutrition and health so that these messages are conveyed to the community by all field functionaries
during the course of their respective duties. Intensive training is imparted to grass-root level workers and their supervisors
belonging to different sectors implementing nutrition, health and welfare progrmmes by MEUs and FNECs by organizing
Integrated Nutrition Education Camps at the block level and orientation training Nutrition Education Camps at the block
level orientation training courses at State Level Training Institutes or Home Science Colleges respectively. A Nation
Nutritious Week is celebrated in the Country from 1-7 September every year with a view to create nutritional awareness
among the people. This Department has taken up action programmes for the development and production of low-cost proceed
nutritious food for use in supplementary feeding, programme and meeting the requirements of vulnerable sections of the
population. These foods are Miltone (a nutritious milk beverage), Energy Foods, Ready-to-Eat Extruded Food and Weaning
Foods. It has also taken up schemes for fortification of milk with Vatamin A and Salt with Iron. The Milk Fortification
Scheme is in operation through 45 dairies in the Country covering 16 states and two union territories. The analysis of fruit
and vegetable products under the regulation of quality control of this product for domestic consumption as well as export has
also been entrusted to the department and is carried out at Four Laboratories at Delhi, Bombay, Calcutta and Madras.

3. Distribution aspect of Food Problem

Distribution of food grain is far from being satisfactory. It is essential that the available Food grains in the country should be
distributed to public at fair-price and appropriate time. But the policy adopted by the Government for food procurement, price
control ends in fiasco due to lack of initiative, hoarding and Black-marketing by traders is the next problem. It is worth
mentioning that our Government has taken up proper measures in this direction. The Public distribution System has become
one of the basic features in the Governments Policy. Its role as an anti-inflationary measure has also been recognized. The
system is designed to help both the producers and the consumers, as procurement is linked to purchase and support prices and
distribution is made at as more of less uniform prices throughout. The system has also helped to provide a nutritious diet at a
low-budget to the common man. Moreover, this system has acted as an effective establishing factor in Indias Social Life by
providing a steady supply of essential commodities at reasonable prices, based on the Public Distribution System continued
during the year, due to higher prices of essential commodities in the open market. Total allocations of Rice and Wheat
(including under PD, JRY Nutritional programme, etc.) during 1990-91 and 95.47 lakh tones respectively as against 85.26
and 93.09 lakh tones respectively in the previous year. With a view to control sugar prices and ensure its availability as
reasonability at reasonable rates to consumers, the Government took a number of measures including increase of Sugar (both
free sale Levy Sugar) from 9.32 lakh tones in August, 1990 to 10.07 lakh tones per month in September on October, 1990. In
view of increased demand and reduction in the production of Indigenous Edible Oils due to delayed rainfall in Gujarat, total
allocations of imported Edible Oils during 1990 were at the level of 6.52 lakh tones as against 3.91 lakh tones in the
corresponding period in 1989, showing an increase of 66.5 per cent. The lifting by state/Uts against the allocation during
1990 was 5.21 as against 3.27 during 1989.
The Public Distribution System continued to be a major component of our strategy for growth with social justice. The Centre,
states and union territories have a joint responsibility in making this system a success. The working of this system is
periodically reviewed in consolation with state government and corrective measures taken. At the Centre, an Advisory
Council functions to review its working from time to time. In the states/Uts Consumer Advisor Committee at District, Block
and Taluka Levels oversee the working of the Fair Price Shops. The network of Fair Price Shops has been expanding over the
years and in the last five years their number increased from 3.02 lakh (March, 1984) to 3.61 lakh (March, 1990). Special
emphasis is being laid in opening of Fair Price Shops in remote, far-flung and inaccessible areas, particularly covering tribal
population. With a view to ensuring that the essential commodities reach the farthest corners in hilly and inaccessible areas,
the Government continued to provide financial assistance to states/Uts enabling them to purchase mobile vans. Such
assistance was worth Rs. 144.50 lakh for purchase of 58 vans in 1990-91. Government procures and supplies six essential
commodities, viz., rice, Wheat Sugar, Imported Edible Oils, Kerosene and Soft Coke. States/Uts are free to include any other
commodity of mass consumption by arranging for its procurement on their own. Some states have arranged supplies of
Pulses, Vanaspati, Soaps, cycle types and tubes, torch cells etc. through Fair Price Shops.
4. Economic aspect of food problem
The price of foodgrains is soaring high while income has no proportionate increase. Hence poor people are unable to avail
two meals a day.
Change Agriculture and Overgrazing
(1) Jhum Cultivation
In North-East India (Meghalaya), non-mechanized farming system called Jhum cultivation has been practised since long.
They cut a clearing in a forest during the dry months, trees are felled, allowed to dry and then burnt. The fire kills weeds,
seeds and insects and provides the mineral rich ash. With the onset of rains, the farmer plants a crop. The grain is harvested
and the rest of the plant is burnt. When this system is practiced for 2 or 3 years, the soil fertility progressively decreases as
there is less of ash every year (as compared to the amount in the first year when the trees were burnt). When it is no longer
profitable to cultivate that part, the farmer moves on to another forest and repeats the same cycle.
(2) Overgrazing
Effects of over-grazing are well known on soil loss. Increasing number of livestock and migrating grazers have contributed to
degradation of forests and the consequent devastation. The most accessible forest areas are heavily grazed. For instance,
(a) There are nearly 1200 thousand sheep and goats in alpine areas of U.P.
(b) Besides nearly 25,000 migration graziers visit the area.
(c) There are also about 5 to 7,000 buffaloes owned by Gujaras.
It is estimated that in absence of suitable checks, growing forestry stock will decrease from 13.79m3/head in 1981 in 2001;
and reduction in annual availability of grass will be from 3.60t/cattle unit in 1981 to 0.90t/cattle unit in 2001. Existing forests
may thus not be able to meet out wood and fodder requirements of mankind and livestock respectively.
Effects
(1) The annual loss of soil nutrients in this way is of the order of 5.37 million tones of NPK valued at about Rs. 700 crores.
(2) Besides, the expenses of soil removal, which gets silted in irrigation tanks, reservoirs, sea and riverbeds, are also quite
high.
(3) Overgrazing is a major hazard afflicting pastures, forests and mountains.
(4) There are huge semi-arid zones in India used for grazing. But grazing destroys the little covers and enhances wind and
erosion.
Suggestions
(1) There must be development crops for arid regions. For example, there are some plants, which yield hydrocarbons
(substitute for oil), and grow well in arid conditions. These include jojaba, a plant that yields a sap like diesel oil and
milkweed.
(2) The Jidhpur Arid Zone Rea Institute is already experimenting with such varieties.
(3) In overgrazed areas there should be grown fodder trees like Ku-babul, which in irrigated condition gives enough green
fodder per acre to maintain six cows.
(4) Most villages should be asked to grow such plants instead of grass on panchayati pastures.
(5) Goats and sheep should be kept in enclosures and fed with tree fodder, through which many more calories will be
converted into meat and wool. These animals waste huge quantities of calories roaming on pastures. Ku-babul can supply the
high quality feed.
Modern Agriculture: Effects
With a view to feed rapidly increasing new mouths and to cope with the necessity of providing sufficient food to the people,
various techniques and methods have been applied in the field of agriculture.
(1) Agriculture Census
The Department of Agriculture and Cooperation has been conducting agriculture census in each of the plan period since
1970-71. Census in 1970-71 and 1980-81 were organized as part of the World Agricultural Census Programmes sponsored by
the Food and Agriculture Organisation of United Nations. They were conducted on a complete enumeration basis in most

States/Uts. The other two census with agriculture years 1976-77 and 1985-86 as reference period were conducted on a
census-cum sample basis to reduce burden tin collection and processing of primary as also to keep costs low.
The agriculture Census seeks to collect information on distribution of holding an area operated along with its related
characteristics such as tenancy and terms of leasing, land use and cropping pattern, irrigation and sources of irrigation etc by
different six classes. Data is utilized for formulation of Poverty Alleviation Programmes in general and uplifts of Small and
Marginal Farmers in particular. Skewness in distribution of land holdings and pattern of tenancy are also extremely useful for
the Department of Rural Development for certain programmes.
(2) Agricultural Research and Education
The Department of Agriculture Research and Education Raise More darker which was set up in 1973 in the Ministry of
Agriculture is responsible for coordinating research and educational activities in agriculture, animal Husbandry and fisheries.
Besides, it helps to bring about inter-departmental and inter-institutional with the National and International Agencies
engages in the same and allied fields. The Department provides Government support, service and linkage to Indian Council
of Agricultural Research (ICAR).
(3) Indian Council of Agriculture Research
The Indian Council of Agricultural Research (ICAR) is a registered society and is the apex body responsible for promoting,
conducting and co-ordinating research education and primary extension education in the fields of agriculture, animals
science, fisheries and the allied sectors in the country.
The Council is directly involved in undertaking research through its 46 Central Institutes including Four Nation Bureaus, 20
National Research Centres and Nine Project Directorates on Fundamental and Applied Aspects of Individual Crops,
commodities and disciplines which have direct relevance to Agriculture Animal Husbandry, Fisheries and Allied Sectors. In
addition the ICAR also operates 71 All India Coordinated Research Projects, which are multi-locational and multidisciplinary in nature on important commodities, and research has proved its efficacy and utility over the last successive plan
period as an effective instrument to tackle the diverse problems characteristic of India Agriculture. The educational
programmes at the National Level are by the large being conducted through 26, Agriculture Universities located in various
important states. Four of the ICARs Institutes viz Indian Agriculture Research Institute, New Delhi, Indian Karnal and
Central
Institute of Fishery Education, Bombay, also perform educational functional and offer Post Graduated, Bombay Programmes
in the capacity of well-recognised Deemed University and award degrees. The ICAR is also supporting the educational
programmes of the State Agriculture Universities by providing developmental grants to these universities. The ICAR is also
conducting first-line demonstration for the transfer of improved technology to the extension/state functionaries and the
village-level workers as well as to selected farmers. The council has been operating projects like National Demonstrations,
Operational Research Projects and Lab-to-Land Programmes at 301 Centres in the country including 45 centres for
upliftment of Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes. A network of 109 Krishi Vigyan Kendras has also been established for
imparting on-farm training in various aspect of agriculture, Animal Husbandry, Fisheries and allied areas for youth, farm men
and women and other categories of rural workers. These programmes also have a degree up-support in the form of Trainers
Training Centres for providing an up-to-date knowledge of farm-worthy advancement made in research. Attempted are being
made to make Agriculture more science-based and industry linked. Biotechnology, Genetic Engineering, Photosynthesis,
Tissue Culture, Bio-insecticides and Pheromones are the merging area of research to promote growth of agriculture
productivity. Accordingly, the ICAR has established. Three Nation Research Centres in Biotechnology in agriculture, animal
health and animal production at Three National Institutes. It involves Biological Nitrogen Fixation, Plant Cell and Tissue
Culture, Molecular Biology and Biochemistry of monoclonal antibodies and hybridomes for cheaper and more effective
Immunodiagnostic and Immuno prophylactic Agents and Multiple Ovulation, Embryo Transfer Technology, Genetic
Manipulation and Cryo-Preservation. The following priorities and thrust areas in respect of Agriculture Research and
Educational have been identified which are based on the present need to make agriculture knowledge intensive using also
frontier technologies to accelerate the Research and Development output in critical areas, developing appropriate rural
technologies for farm women, research in agricultural, economic and policy planning and creating genetic enhancement
centers and technology blending centures etc.:
(a) Conservation and planned exploitation of Germ-plasm Resources.
(b) Enhancing productivity through evolution of new high-yielding Hybrides/varities/
starins with tolerance to biotic and abiotic stresses.
(c) Development of Intergrated Pest Management Practices to optimize plant protection.
(d) Bredder Seed Production;
(e) Research on Export Oriented Commodities;
(f) Diversification of agriculture with emphasis on Agro-forestry, livestock and fishers;
(g) Development and refinement of Dry Farming Technology.
(h) Improving Nutrient Management System.
(i) Inventory of Natural Resources.
(j) Energy Management in Agriculture.
(k) Post-harvest Technology and Engineering with emphasis on on-farm storage.
(l) Forestering excellence in research and educational programmes.
(m) Tansfer of Technology an Improving Information and Communication Systems,
(n) Human Resources Development.
Fertilizer Problem:
Fertilizer is very essential for increasing productivity in agriculture. It has been estimated that about 70 per cent of growth in
agriculture can be attributed to increased fertilizers application. Increase in yearly consumption of fertilizers would thus be a
good indication of the countrys progress in agriculture. Total consumption of fertilizers went up from 69,000 tonnes of
nutrients in 1950-51 to estimated level of 115.68 lakh tones during 1989-90. During 1990-91, the consumption of fertilizers
was around 126 lakh tones.
Soil Tests
Soil-testing is an important tool to advise farmers on judicious, balanced and efficient use of fertilizers for economic returns.
There are 461 soil-testing laboratories with analysis capacity of 64.75-lakh-soil sample per annum. It is intended to expand
the soils, twenty-five sets of Atomic Absorption Spectro Photometers had been provided to the state governments under the
India-United Kingdom Bilateral Programme. Besides, the state government/ agriculture universities have installed a number
of such equipments.
Balanced and Integrated use of Fertilizers and Organic Manures
Appreciable progress has been made in crop production by the increased use of NPK Fertilizers. However, lately the
intensification of agriculture coupled with the use of his analysis chemical fertilizers has resulted in soil micronutrient
deficiencies in large areas. To ensure optimum benefit from NPK Fertilizers, it is necessary that they are applied on the

basis of soil-testing results and, where necessary, in combination with micronutrients farmers are being encouraged through
extension training to do this. Organic Manures are essential for maintaining proper soil health. The Country has a potential of
650 million of rural and 160 lakh tones of Urban Compost. Presently, the potential is not fully utilized.
Fertilizers Quality Control
Quality, price and trade in fertilizers are regulated so that farmers get good quality fertilizers at the right time and at
reasonable prices. The Government has issued the Fertilizers (Control) Order, 1985, under the Essential Commodities Act,
1955. This order sampling analysis and provision is for appointment of enforcement agencies for regulating the trade and
distribution of fertilizers. There are 43 fertilizers Quality Control and Training Institute at Faridabad with its One Central
Fertilizers Quality Control and Madras. Total analyzing capacity of these laboratories in the Country is 87,400 fertilizers
samples per annum. The institute organizes training programmes for state enforcement officers, state fertilizers analysts and
for foreigners developing countries. Besides, training courses for fertilizers dealers are also organized in collaboration with
the state governments and the fertilizers industry.
Development of Bio-Fertilizers
Decreasing non-renewable petroleum reserves all over the World and increasing cost of chemical fertilizers have necessitated
search, for alternative renewable sources to meet the increasing demand, for chemical fertilizers, Emphasis is being laid on
integrated nutrient supply through combined use of fertilizers, organic manures and bio-fertilizers. Scientists have proved that
bio-fertilizers are an effective, cheap and renewable supplement to chemical fertilizers. Rhizobium inoculants have been
found to be effective for pulses, Legume Fodder, Legume Oilseeds like Soyabean, Groundnut and Blue Green Algae (BGA)
for lowland Paddy. Considering the prospect of bio-fertilizers, the government is implementing the National Project on
Development and Use of Bio-fertilizers with a view to produce, distribute and promote bio-fertilizers used by organizing
training and demonstration programmes and also quality testing of bio-fertilizers. Under the scheme, one National Centre at
Ghaziabad in Uttar Pradesh and Six Regional Centres Bangalore (Karnataka), Bhubaneshwar (Orissa), Hissar (Haryana),
Imphal (Manipur), Jabalpur (M.P.) and Nagpur (Maharasthra) have been established. The anticipated production from these
Centres during 1990-91 is 85 tonnes of Rhizobium Inocculant. In addition to production, these Centres have Culture
Collection Bank with a good number of effective and promising starting. Quality-testing for biofertilizers have also been
taken up at these centers. During 1988-89, Sixty Blue Green Algae (BGA) Centres have produced 110 tonnes and during
1989-90, it was 200 tonnes. It is expected that during 1990-91 also the production will be maintained at the same level.
Fertilizers and Pollution
Some of the fertilizers have washed off the lands through irrigation, rainfall and drainage, into rivers and streams. There they
can seriously disturb the aquatic ecosystem. Depletion of dissolved oxygen caused by excessive algae growths can bring
disaste or death to fish and other aquatic biota. Excessive and indiscriminate application of inorganic fertilizers often leads to
accumulation of nitrates in water. When such waters are drunk by living beings, these nitrates are reduced to the toxic nitrites
by intestinal bacteria. Nitrites can cause a serious disease known as nethnohlobinemia. The disease can inflict serious damage
to respiratory and vascular systems and may even cause suffocation. The indiscriminate and excessive use of fertilizers can
have serious and adverse ecological consequences, especially in aquatic ecosystems and ground water resources. The worlds
ecosystems form a sort of continuous and interlinked network. As such, the materials lost by one ecosystem may spell a gain
for its neighbours. Hence fertilizers when applied in excess, leach from crop fields into water bodies, affecting the downstream aquatic life.
Beneficial Effects of Fertilizers
Known beneficial effects of fertilizers use in ecosystems include the following:
(1) Increase in food production,
(2) Improvement of soils in temperature areas,
(3) Checking of soil erosion
(4) Conservation of soil and water;
(5) Enhancement in water and efficiency of crops.
Adverse Effects of Fertilizers
Some adverse effects of fertilizers used are as under:
(1) Changes in mobility status of nutrients in soils.
(2) Deterioratory of water resources caused by eutrophication.
(3) Stimulation of weed growth in crop fields.
(4) Disturbance in the ionic balance and equilibrium in soils, often leading to high acidity, nutritional imbalance, shortages of
certain trace elements, and molybdenum or selenium toxicity.
(5) The Excessive applications of nitrogenous fertilizers to soils can lead to its accumulation to such a stage that the plants
begin to absorb excess amounts and even then some of the excess amounts present in the soil get leaked off through the soil
into groundwater or into streams and springs.
Pesticides: Environmental Problem
Use of Pesticides
Until 1940s the following chemicals were used to control pests:
(1) Elements fungicides (S, Cu, Hg, organomercury) against fungal diseases.
(2) Copper sulphate, sodium aresenite and ferrous sulphate against weeds.
(3) Nature insecticides e.g. pyrethrum and nicotine, against beetles and aphids.
(4) Tar oil, petroleum, etc., against and red spider mite eggs.
(5) Lead arsenate against caterpillars.
Even these chemicals were sparingly used. The applications to cereals used to be confined to seed treatment with
organomercury to kill-borne pathogens.
The organochlorine insecticides and herbicides became quite widespread in the mid and late 1950s and a large variety of
these dangerous compounds were being used in the 1960s in USA, UK, and other developed countries. The British Govt.
approved over 150 chemicals for use as pesticides/herbicides by 1970.
The Hazardous Methods of Pesticide Application
The main method of pesticide application on a large scale is the Aerial Drift Spray. It is a highly inefficient and wasteful,
capital-intensive technique. A close study shows its nature:
(1) More than 40 per cent of applied pesticide is normally out of the target area.
(2) 15 per cent is out of the target crops.
(3) 40 per cent near the target insect.

(4) 75 per cent is not in contact with it.

(5) It is estimated that the insect through contact, inhalation and ignition absorbs less than one of the total applied pesticide.
(6) Only about 0.3 per cent of the applied insecticides appear to be absorbed by aphids on bean contours and 0.02 per cent by
myriads on cocoa. The wasteful use is magnified by the practice followed by farmers who apply pesticide according to the
pre-set schedules prepared by manufacturers. Indeed the actual use of pesticides by many advanced country farmers may
safely be cut by 30 to 50 per cent with no adverse effect on crop production in case pesticides are applied only when
necessary and in relation to specific pests.
The following are some general properties of pesticides or their residues:
(1) They often strike the intended pests as well as several off.
(2) Many of them continue to persist and cannot be disposed off.
(3) They may cause unintended effects like resistance, faunal displacement and other population changes.
(4) They may be carried to places fare removed from the points of application or origin.
(5) Their concentration and magnification in biological systems may lead to certain unexpected or untoward result.
Problems Created By the Pesticides Application
Pesticides widely distributed by natural means but they tend to retain much of their biocidal activity for fairly long periods.
On account of the use of different kinds of poisonous agriculture chemicals the whole biosphere is being increasingly
poisoned and polluted. Many of these chemicals and pesticides are known to persist for long periods in the environment.
Their concentration builds up geometrically as they are transferred to different stages of the food web.
Harms caused by the use of pesticides are as under:
(1) Harm to Fish
Serious cases of fish mortality have occurred following the leaching of poisonous biocides from agricultural fields to nearby
rivers or streams after rainfall. Great concern was shown on a case of large-scale fish kill in the lower Mississippi river in
U.S.A. wherein five million fish died. Careful investigation indicated that the fish had died due to dumping of Endrinrich
agriculture wastes and runoff into a tributary of the Mississippi River the Memphis. The widespread use of DDT as an
insecticide has also aroused considerable concern in recent years. As a result, some countries have already legally banned its
use.
(2) Harm Caused by the Herbicides
Residues of various weedicides and insecticides often accumulate in agricultural soils rapidly. Insecticides are designed to
kill insects. As such they may not be toxic to plants. On the contrary to it, some herbicides differ from insecticides in killing
both desirable species as well as the intended target. They may adversely affect such soils microbes as nitroes fixing bluegreen algae and bacteria. This, in turn, may impair the growth and production of higher plants.
(3) Damage to the Extent of Complete Destruction of Vegetation
The impact of some chemical wastes as phenols, metals etc. applied to soil may go to the extent of complete destruction of
vegetation and also soil sterilization.
(4) Findings of the Researches
Extensive researches in the USA found widespread distribution of DDT residues through food grains in several lakes.
Residues were detected in shallow and deep-water mud samples, crustaceans, whitefish, duck ring-billed and herring gulls
and other fauna. Both DDT and Dieldrin are found passing from mother off spring through the placenta in mice and certain
other animals, possible including man.
(5) Adverse Consequence of Pesticides like DDT
Most pesticides tend to accentuate the problems of both production and pollution instead of containing them. The
consequence of pesticides is almost invariably adverse and harmful. In the Ninteenth century, the ladybird beetle was brought
from Australia to California to control a scale insect pest of oranges. It is reported that the beetle successfully kept the pest
under check for more than five decades until about 1946 when DDT began to be used in the citrus orchards. The beetle was
susceptible to DDT and hence its population declined. However, a subsequent withdrawal of DDT again restored the natural
balance of biological control within a few years. In fact, DDT is one of the most effective pesticides known. This is the
reason why it was banned in the USA in 1972. its remarked insecticidal properties were first discovered in 1939. it became a
ubiquitous contaminant of fish, penguins, birds and human being. Hence a popular public movement started in the USA that
asked the Government to protect the public from the general toxification of the environment by DDT and persistent poisons.
(6) Harm to Human Beings
Human beings are exposed to pesticides mainly through the intake of food and war but also by inhaling contaminated air.
Several pesticides are teratogenic, mutagenic, or carcinogenic.
(7) Harm to Bees
Bees vitally aid the pollination of several plants. Pesticides have adversely affected some honey bees and other useful insects
whose populations have declined. According to Pimental, annual agriculture losses due to poor pollination from pesticides
can be as high as US$ 4000 million in the USA.
(8) Damage to Crops
(i) Sometimes crops are damaged by pesticide applications, e.g. application of improper dosage under unfavourable
conditions.
(ii) Herbicides that drift from a treated crop to a nearby crop also cause serious environmental problems. Persistent
herbicides also can injure crops planted in rotation.
(9) Harm Caused to Fishery and Wildlife
Drifting or leaching pesticides drain into nearly water bodies causes fishery and wildlife losses. Wild birds and mammals
exposed to pesticides suffer by death from direct exposure to high doses and reduced survival growth and reproduction from
exposure to subtle dosages.
(10) Harmful Effect on Decomposers
Pesticides have harmful effects on insects, earthworms, invertebrates, protozoa, and microbes found in soils, especially the
decomposers. It is reported that human pesticide poisonings, reeducation in insects and mites, and honeybee poisonings
account for about 70 per cent of the calculated socio-environmental costs for pesticides in the USA.
(11) Development of Secondary Pests
The use of pesticides kills natural enemies and creates such problems as the development of secondary pests eg. Red spider
mites. Resurgence of primary pests can also occur. To illustrate, caterpillars of the small cabbage white butterfly in Brussels
sprouts reappeared after DDT has killed their natural enemies. Resistance to pesticides is a cause for serious concern. Other
hazards include those to the operator or worker who sprays pesticide, those to the consumer of the crop and those to wildlife.
(12) Elimination of Birds
Some species of Eagles and top carnivorous are known to be eliminated by DDT because contaminated adults failed to lay
viable eggs. Populations of peregrine falcons and some pelicans have disappeared from some areas from some areas where
excessive use of DDT interfered with the birds ability to transport calcium to growing eggs, leading to marked thinning of

the eggs shells. Such weak eggs fail to reach the hatching stage. It is discovered that in ringdoves, DDT greatly reduced the
activity of carbonic anhydrase. This enzyme is critical in providing calcium for eggshell growth. When the pesticide inhibits
this enzyme, eggshell grows thinner.
(13) Growth of New Pests
Artificial introduction of pesticides in the environment upsets natural biological controls. This is the reason why new pests
are created in this way because their natural predators, which previously checked their populations, are eliminated. In this
way mites have become a pest as a consequence of the emergence of the pesticide industry. Indiscriminate and excessive use
of DDT killed some insect predictors of these mites, enabling the mites to multiply to pest status.
(14) Effect on Algae
Some of the pesticides inhibit division in aquatic algae. They may decrease their rates of photosynthesis. In this way they
almost produce changes in the species composition and/ or diversity of algal communities. The algae-grazing animals are
more affected by the level of blooms.
(15) Flora And Fauna
Pesticides have adverse effects on the flora and fauna of soils. Effects on mycorrhizal fungi or decomposer bacteria in forests
would almost certainly alter plant community structure in forests. Some soil animals consume plant debris and contribute to
soil fertility. Use of insecticides changes the populations of some of these animals. It leads to reduction in soil fertility
especially in woodlands.
Land Degradation
Soil is no less than our mother as it is indispensable for our survival. It is formed over long periods of time. But man is
degrading it with his misdeeds. Many of our once-fertile soils have already been converted to agriculturally unfit alkaline or
saline land or marshlands. It is estimated that there is more than 25 million hectares of such barren lands throughout the
world. Our soil constitutes a biogeochemical shell around land and shallow waters. It is a product of the interactions of living
matter with rocks. It profoundly affects the growth of living organism (especially plants) however; in turn it is influenced by
the activities of the latter.
Reasons for Land Degradation
Various factors have led to Land Degradation. Some of them are as under:
1. Rapid increase in industrialization, urbanization and other activities or civilized man have exercised a tremendous impact
on the soils and on other components of the biosphere.
2. Unplanned destruction of forests and forest litter has brought about serious changes both in land and water.
3. The washing off of fine soil particles from deforested areas has caused great soil erosion.
4. Soil erosion has resulted in a great increase in run-off, pollution turbidity and mineralization in rivers and extensive silting
in water reservoirs,
Man Induced Land Slide:
Forests are important regulators of ecosystems. They exert significant effects on the water budget and the hydrological cycle.
In areas of heavy rainfall, the tree crowns and other forest plants intercept a large fraction of the rain. Some of the water
reaching the forest floor penetrates into the soil through the litter and the loose soil surface, and there is little surface run-off.
The seeped water reaches the streams and rivers only after some period of time. This time lag is and important device to
regulate the water discharge into rivers. It is in this way, that flooding is prevented or minimized. Thus, in dry periods also
the forest soil continues to feed the streams and rivers. Destruction of forest changes the above situation immediately. The
hydrological cycle is disrupted and the water level of the rivers cannot be properly regulated. This causes flooding during the
raining season. Simultaneously, in dry period, the rivers tend to dry up, affecting irrigation and power generation. In
deforested areas, erosion of soil occurs fairly briskly, especially on steep slopes. This removes the fertile top soil and also
loads the rivers with much suspended matter. Deforestation thus greatly increases the quantity of detritus in many tropical
rivers. Large-scale forest destruction often produces grave climatic consequences, especially desertification and aridity. These
result from reduction of evaporation as the tree canopies no longer intercept rain water, and also because rapid run-off of
precipitation occurs in the absence of the forest cover. Some erosion of soil results from the deforestation as seen in the
Himalayas. Erosion in the Himalayan ranges is caused both by natural climatic influences ranging from tropical to arctic, and
by man-made causes. Forest cover greatly reduces erosion of the fast increasing population pressure; the Himalayas are being
deprived gradually of their forests. Bare, unprotected soil cannot store large quantities of water. The soil are compacted by
heavy rain and then washed away. The results are as under:
(1) The rivers are flooded during rainy season,
(2) Springs dry up during the dry season in some localities,
(3) Rivers meander in the plains at the foothills,
(4) Large amounts of gravel and sedimentary material tend to accumulate.
In view of the nutrients depletion, modern agricultural practices seek to counter the above processes of soil destruction by
advocating increased use and application of chemical fertilizers, However, this practice is not a healthy one. It is an
ecologically dangerous practice. Instead there is necessity of preventive and remedial measures as under:
(1) Recourse to contour and strip farming,
(2) A network of forest plantations in clumps and rows,
(3) A regular sowing of grass in crop rotations,
(4) The preferential use of organic, rather than inorganic manures,
(5) The use of organic manure as it tends to preserve the quality of soil and also their humus content.
At present, soil scientists are trying to solve problem of safeguarding soils from exogenous chemical substances, mineral
fertilizers, pesticides, etc. heavy doses of the wrong kind of inorganic fertilizer have often resulted in creating excessive
acidity or alkalinity in the soil, besides the indiscriminate use of pesticides and fungicides has caused adverse effects on soils
in addition to their well-known effects on the activities of soil microbes, flora and fauna. Various kinds of air pollutants and
noxious gases also have a harmful effect on soils.
Soil Erosion: Meaning, Factors
The top layer of the soil is the vital component as it includes all the nutrients required by plants. Hence the top layer of soil is,
called to be the feeding zone of plants. This fertile top soil is most valuable natural resource. It usually lies at most places at a
depth of 15-20 cm. over the face of the land. Soil is not a dead inert matter of minerals. Instead healthy soil is indeed alive
and dynamic consisting of microorganisms as bacteria, fungi, algae, protozoa, worms and insects. The soil erosion is not a
new thing. It is a natural process and is as old as the earth itself, yet today soil erosion problems far exceed natural formation
of soil. It should be kept in mind that it takes approximately 500 to 1000 years for an inch of the top layer to build up. But in
several ways this fertile, topsoil is lost and wasted. This loss of top soil or disturbance of the soil structure is given the name
soil erosion. Some views on soil erosion are as under:

(1) Odum (1966) included soil erosion as a part of soil pollution,

(2) Rama Rao (1962) called soil erosion as creeping death of the soil.
Nature of the Problem
The problem of soil erosion is throughout the world. In U.S.A. over 77 million acres of land has become seriously eroded. It
is reported that after the rain begins the cream of soil is skimmed off with every spell of showers. The gravity of the problem
of soil erosion may become evident from the face that of all potentially arable land, only about 44 per cent is under
cultivation. The rest i.e. 56 per cent is unsuitable for farming due to inherent soil problems and man induced problems. Only
about 2.5 million sq. km. Arable land is irrigated at great cost and with many side effects. Massive irrigation is harmful to
fertility due to salinisation. Thus, in a short time, approximately 600 million hectares of potential farmland will be lost to soil
erosion, salinisation, and waterlogging. By that time the world population will reach 8 billion. Even if another 300 million
hectares of the land, which is at present, lying unused is brought under farming, the net result will be that the area of
farmland per person will dwindle from 0.31 to 0.15 hectares. It is observed that soil loss is maximum in region with high
population densities. Continuous cultivation of same crop also adds to soil loss. At present the rate of soil erosion is over
2500 million tones per year i.e. over half a ton of soil every man, woman and child on the planet. Certainly we cannot afford
such a loss. Soil erosion can be called one of the most difficult problems which the present day world is facing particularly in
country as ours. The Indian subcontinent is faced with severe silting problems in Bhakra, Rihand and other multipurpose
dams. It is estimated that the life of Bhakra dam is reduced by 250 years due to lack of proper attention towards silt
prevention at Govind Sagar Lake, the main reservoir of the dam. It is quite formidable to think that owing to alarming rate at
which silt is accumulating, it may not last for more than 150 years although it was designed originally to last for 400 years).
The Border Road organization while constructing roads along the Sutlej also failed to take adequate steps to prevent debris
and soil from entering the river. The Spiti River discharges a considerable amount of silt in the Sutlej. In the absence of any
vegetation in Spiti valley, soil erosion is inevitable and the rocks from nude mountains crumble under the flow of water. In
the eastern hills of Nepal about 38 per cent of the land area has fields on the topsoil whereof has been washed away depriving
it of its fertility. On making a comparative study of the sediment loads from major rivers of the world it is seen that yellow
River in China carried 1.6 billion tons of soil to ocean each year. At the same time, the Ganges carries nearly 1.5 billion tons
and Mississippi, the largest river of the USA carries only about 0.36 billion tons into the Gulf of Mexico. The startling point
is that both the Ganges and the Mississippi have almost same discharge
Kinds of Soil Erosion
There are various types of soil erosion. However, on the basis of the rate at which soil loss takes place, there are two main
types of soil erosion:
(1) Normal or geologic erosion
This type of soil erosion occurs under normal natural conditions by itself without any interference of man. It is a very slow
process, and equilibrium between loss and build up is lost, only when there is some major disturbance by a foreign agent.
(2) Accelerated soil erosion
This type of removal of soil is very rapid and never keeps pace with the soil formation. This is generally caused by an
interference of an agency like man and other animals.
Agents of Soil Erosion
The various agents that bring about soil erosion are as under:Water Erosion:
Water removes the soil by falling on as rain drops, a well as by its surface flow action,
It may be of three types:
(i) Sheet erosion
Here the removed soil is like a thin covering from large area. This sheet is more or less uniform.
(ii) Rill erosion
If sheet erosion occurs with full force, the run off water moves rapidly over the soil surface. It cuts well-defined fingershaped groove like structures, It appears as thin channels or streams. These are known as rill erosions.
(iii) Gully erosion
This results due to the convergence of several rills or thin channels formed during rill erosion towards the steep slope. When
they join together, they form wider channels of water, known as gullies. In case of further rains these gullies may become still
wider and deeper.
Some Effects Of Soil Erosion
Every year in India, water erosion alone takes away more than 6,000 tonnes of top soil, containing more than Rs. 1000 crores
worth of nuitrients. Its evil effects are as under:
1. This erosion causes the rapid siltation of tanks and reservoirs.
2. Silt is choking our estuaries and harbours.
3. Eroded soil is deposited on riverbeds, raising their levels and leading to devastating floods, which cause Rs. 2,000 crores
of damage each year.
4. The land area prone to floods has doubled from 20 million hectares in 1971 to 40 million ha. In 1980.
5. Denuded land cannot soak up water like wooded land, so and increasing amount of rainwater is thus running waste into the
sea, causing silting and flooding in the process.
As a result there is much less water stored in underground aquifers, which are vital to maintain river flower in the dry season
and provide water for tubewell irrigation.
Desertification: Meaning Concept Causes
Meaning of Desertification: Desertification can be defined as a process of degradations of the environment, that usually is a
product of climate and human activity and involves the spread of extension of desert-like conditions in a hitherto fertile area.
In this way Desertification process is leading to desert formation, It may be either due to a natural phenomenon linked to
climatic change or due to abusive land use. However, the improper land use practices besides soil erosion greatly lead to
climatic change. Removal of vegetal cover brings about marked changes in the local climate of the area. In this way
deforestation and overgrazing etc. bring about changes in rainfall, temperature, wind velocity etc. These lead to
desertification of the area. Desertification often starts as patchy destruction of productive land. In margins of the zones that
are not humid, increased dust particles in
atmosphere lead to desertification and drought. In case droughts continue to occur over a series of years, even the humid
zones are in danger of getting progressively drier. As the forest diminishes, there is steady rise in the atmospheric temperature
and the threat of desertification becomes imminent.

Causes of Desertification
(1) Man Made
Most of the vegetation in arid and semi-arid regions is threatened with man-made desertification, a result of excessive,
indiscriminate, and archaic land-use practices.
(2) Forest Grazing
Forest grazing is the most serious cause of desertification in arid and semi-arid areas.
(3) Shifting cultivation
Shifting cultivation is likewise important in the humid tropics and N.E. Himalayas.
(4) Increasing Population
Increasing population pressure has greatly accentuated the adverse impacts of the above causes.
Concept of Desertification
Desertification is usually defined as an irreversible change in a land resource. Losses are considered irreversible if recovery
would take more than a decade. There forms of desertification can be identified.
1. Loss of economic potential to produce goods and services of direct human-use value;
2. Loss of ecological functions necessary to maintain ecosystem processes;
3. Loss of biodiversity at the ecosystem, species, or genetic level.
According to Nelson (1988):
4. A permanent national land monitoring systems is needed to identify emerging and difficult-to-reverse forms of
degradation.
5. Research should focus on management technology and the present socio-economic systems.
6. Policy proposals must take into account complexity and local variability.
7. In the absence of any global or regional solutions to most savanna and arid land degradation problems, progress will
depend upon small pilot projects, community experimentation and within-country expertise.
8. It is clear from the failure and high cost of conventional projects that more progress is likely through attention to enabling
incentives that promote spontaneous response across the entire community. The main policy areas are land tenure, taxation
and marketing.
9. Many successful strategies will consist of a strong spatial dimension and involve
movement across national and ecological boundaries. Monitoring and assessment are vital for the development of an action
programme to stop the process of desertification. A unified mapping methodology is a prerequisite for this purpose.
Causes of Desertification
Main causes of desertification are as under:
(1) The population explosion in man and livestock. It has led to enhanced requirement of timber and fuelwood. Besides,
increasing number of livestock causes degradation of forests and the consequent devastation. It is observed that the most
accessible forest areas are heavily grazed. For instance, there are nearly 1200 thousand sheep and goats in Alpine areas of
U.P. Besides is there visit about 25,000 migratory graziers. In addition there are about 5-7,000 buffaloes owned by Gujarat. In
absence of suitable checks growing in forestry stock was expected to decrease from 13.79 m3/ head in 1981 to 2.60m3/ head
in 2001; It is estimated that reduction in annual availability of grass will be from 2.60 t/cattle unit in 1981 to 0.90t/cattle unit
in 2001.
(2) Shifting Agriculture
The increase in shifting (jhum) cultivation in North East and Orissa has also laid large forest tracts bare. There has been
shortening of jhum cycle to six years only (in some districts, even 2.3 years only), It provides not enough time for natural
repair of damaged ecosystem.
(3) Revenue Generation
Maximum has been extracted from the trees by Govt. and private owners. In the face of agriculturalisation, urbanization and
industrialization, preservation of forests could be given a very low priority. During 1951 to 1976 India lost about 4.2 million
hectors of forests for such activities.
(4) Road Construction
The construction of hill roads (about 30,000 km long) is a major cause of deforestation. Road construction caused
desertification in the following way:
(1) It affected the stability of hill slopes,
(2) It damaged the protective vegetation over both above and below roads,
(3) It resulted in debris covering forests vegetation, orchards and agriculture fields,
(4) It blocked natural drainage,
(5) It polluted streams;
(6) It delayed vehicular traffic,
(7) It caused damage to human life and property.
(5) Industries and Mining
These have a serious impact in forest areas. Large areas have been clear-felled and laid barren consequent to open cast
mining of iron ore, mica, coal, manganese, limestone etc.
Environmental impact of mining includes loss of production for the following reasons:
(1) The forests, agriculture turned into pastures,
(2) The loss of top soil,
(3) The surface water pollution,
(4) The lowering of ground water table,
(5) Ore transport hazards such as damage to vegetation, soil drainage, water quality and property, sediment production
and discharge, fire hazards and air pollution.
(6) Development Projects
There are hasty approaches to formulation of developmental projects particularly hydroelectric besides those on tourism, road
building and mining.
(7) Commercial Demand
In comparison of commercial demand supply fell short and led to decimation of forests, particularly the wood. Consequently
there has been unlimited exploitation of timber for commercial use.
(8) Over grazing
The goat is considered to be the most serious agent of forest grazing. The goat has been aptly called the razor of forests
(Maydell, 1980). In the topics and subtopics, the stock of goats is above 300 million. Destruction primarily affects the shrub
and tree vegetation where goats prevent regeneration and damage established plant. When the vegetation cover is destroyed,
it leads to soil erosion and irreversible destruction of ecosystem. Goats are particularly destructive to trees and shrubs

because they eat virtually all parts of forest plants including young shoots, twigs, fruits and bark. In the thickly vegetated
moist forests, goat grazing does not cause serious damage, but in the arid zones where vegetation is already sparse, the goats
become a serious menace. There occur different types of desertification in various continents and ecosystems.
Two main objectives for mapping desertification have been identified as under:
(1) To assist decision-makers to understand the various dimensions of desertification,
(2) To assist scientists to make the best choice in selecting strategies for desertification control, to reduce the impact of land
degradation. Mapping and landscape dynamics simulation in arid regions prone to desertification is also being undertaken.
Desert Development Programme:- The objectives of the programme include controlling the process of desertification,
mitigate the effects of drought in desert areas, restoration of ecological balance in affected areas and raising productivity of
land, water, livestock and human resources in these areas. The objectives are sought to be achieved through activities such as
afforestation with special emphasis on sand dune stabilization, shelterbelt plantation and grassland development, soil and
moisture conservation and water resources development. The programme covers 131 blocks of 21 districts in five states. It
also covers cold arid areas of Jammu and Kashmir and Himachal Pradesh. The area covered under this programme is about
3.62 lakh sq. km. and the population in the area covered is about 150 lakh. This programme is implemented with 100 per cent
Central Financial Assistance. In 1989-90, allocations were made at the rate of Rs. 24 lakhs per 1000 sq. km., the ceiling per
district hence will be Rs. 500 lakh. For cold desert areas, a lumpsum provision is made, the rate being Rs. 100 lakh per
district per year for Himachal Pradesh and Rs. 150 lakh per district per year for Jammu and Kashmir. Since its inception, Rs.
291.33 crore was spent under the programme. During the Seventh Plan Period, Rs. 194.04 crore has been spent under this
programme.
Individuals Role in Conservation Of Natural Resources:
Meaning of Conservation
Conservation broadly means sound land or water use planning. It is concerned with the maintenance of natural systems and
with their moderate, systematic, planned and regulated utilization and exploitation for the long-term benefit of mankind.
Conservation has been defined as As management of the benefit of all life including humankind of the biosphere so that it
may yield sustainable benefit to the present generation which maintaining its potential to meet the needs and aspirations of
the future generations.
Need for Conservation
As expanding human population resulted into expanding needs of man, man started utilizing natural resources at a much
larger scale with scientific progress and technological development. Continuous increase in population caused and increasing
demand for resources. It created a situation when the non-renewable resources are likely to come to an end after some time.
In fact, we would be using all those resources, which are, in real sense, the property future generation. As such, there must be
some sort of balance between the population growth and the utilization of natural resources. It is apparent to all of us that, the
non-availability of resources leads to their prices rise which has an adverse affect on the economics of countries. During
1980s the world experienced a state of imbalance between the growth rates of food production and economic development
suffered setbacks. In some areas, there is not enough water for agriculture and industry. On the country to it in other areas
there are problems of water logging due to over-irrigation. In some countries much of underground water is being utilized for
food grain production. It is resulting in lowering of water table in northern China. As a consequence of increasing tampering
of nature by man, natural reserves are greatly dwindling and are becoming the main sanctuaries for wild plants and animals.
It has been proposed that adequate examples of all-important and representative biospheres be protected and conserved. A
worldwide network of such protected ecosystems is extremely important for ecological research pertinent to national use and
conservation of the biosphere.
Individuals Role in Conservation of Natural Resources
An individual can play his role in the conservation of natural resources as under:
1. Soil Conservation
An individual can play a vital role in conservation of soil. Main principles of soil conservation are as under:
(1) To protect soil from impact of raindrops.
(2) To Slow down the water movement if it flowed along the slope.
(3) To slow down the water from moving down the slope in narrow path.
(4) To encourage more water to enter the soil.
(5) To increase the size of soil particle.
(6) To reduce the wind velocity near the ground by growing vegetation cover, ridging the land etc.,
(7) To grow the strips of stubble or the vegetation cover, which might catch and hold the moving particles of soil.
Keeping in view, the above principles an individual may adopt several methods to prevent the soil loss during erosion.
Methods of Conservation
Various methods of soil conservation may be broadly arranged into the following types:
(a) Biological Methods
Conservation achieved by the use of plan vegetation cover the following:
(i) Agronomic Practices: In areas with normal farming, where vegetation itself is used for soil protection.
(ii) Dry Farming: In areas with low and moderate rainfall, where normal farming is not possible.
(iii) Agrostological Methods: In areas which are suitable for successful growth of grasses used as soil binders to check
soil erosion.
(b) Mechanical Methods
Conservation achieved by supplementing the biological methods with a view to increase the time of concentration of water,
to reduce the velocity of water, or afford protection against damage due to run off:
(i) Basin Listing: To construct small basins along the contours.
(ii) Contour Terracing: To construct small basins along the slope to intercept and divert the runoff water.
(c) Other Methods
Conservation achieved by purely mechanical method including construction as under:(i) Gully Control: Formation or widening of gullies.
(ii) Stream Bank Protection: To grow vegetation alongside construction of drains stone pitching.etc
(iii) Afforestation: To check the velocity of wind by tree plantation (wind breads).
2. Less exploitation of Resources
We must bear in mind that resource exploitation and pollution are two faces of the same coin since exploitation of resources
in one place can become environmental degradation either in the same place or in a remote area. We are aware of the adverse
effects on the ocean harvest, which are often caused by mans activities on land. Thus, biocides and persistent inorganic

pesticides, which are used to increase crop yields on land, lead to decrease the yields of fish and other proteins from the
oceans. Increasing use of biocides for boosting carbohydrate yields on land is likely to lead to such high increase in their
concentration in the oceans as to significantly reduce its productivity.
3. Control over Population Increase
We should aim at striving for an optimum instead of maximum, sustainable population size on Earth, and to arrive at the
optimum figure after due consideration of the complex environmental problems. The optimum size permits long-term
persistence of the population in equilibrium with its environment. The optimum represents that stage when any further
addition of more members would result in deterioration of the quality of life of those already present.
4. To Make An Integrated and Holistic Approach in Tackling Environmental Problem
Environmental strategies and programmes must be based on a thorough analysis of technical and economic factors as well as
of social and political dimensions of the environmental problem. Such an approach includes an analysis of balance of
political forces besides issues of livelihood for disadvantaged groups.
5. Increase in the Plant Cover
The plant cover is essential for the maintenance of the soil in a balanced and healthy state. Over-exploitation of forests and
deforestation practices lead to soil erosion with the topsoil washing down the stream. It results in the ruin of soil fertility. We
are annually losing millions of tons of nitrogen, phosphorus and potassium through soil erosion. Nearly 5,000 million tons of
soil is being annually lost by water erosion, and the loss of valuable nutrients in this way often reaches colossal proportions.
It is estimated that thousands of acres of arable soil are also being rendered unfit for farming due to salinity and alkalinity
problems. Here it may be mentioned that the Green Revolution has further generated some newer problems of soil fertility
depletion, mineral nutrient imbalances, agricultural residues, etc. In some parts of Punjab for instance, paddy straw of the
high-yielding rice variety IR-8 is found responsible for the deterioration in health of cattle because of its abnormally high
content of certain mineral salts.
6. Proper Use of Water
Agricultural use of soil is linked with the use of water which is required for irrigation. Much progress has been achieved in
the large-scale storage of water in Dams and Reservoirs for agricultural use and for generation of hydroelectric power, but
economy in its use is paid no heed. We must remember that policies directed toward the maximum economic yield from a
fixed amount of water will result in maximum conservation and also that planning for the maximum use of water ought to be
correlated with planning for the optimum use of land resources.
7. Proper Irrigation for Soil Conservation
The land resources of India have been increasingly degraded. Excessive unplanned canal irrigation without proper drainage
and water management has resulted in seepage, water logging and salinity. Seven million hectares are already affected and
another ten million are threatened. About 150 million hectare area suffers from wind and water erosion. This results in the
loss of valuable topsoil. Rising water tables is also responsible for increasing salinization of farm lands. Soil erosion causes
premature silting up on many reservoirs and tanks.
8. Proper Use of Wood
Our country is gifted with a fairly considerable potentiality for increasing the supply of such renewable resources as forests
and forest products that could substitute for some of the scarce non-renewable resources. As such, it is advisable to substitute
wood and wood products for the non-renewable fuel and energy sources, as has been commonly practiced in villages since
times immemorial. Wood has certain advantages as fuel. As compared to coal, its sulphur content and ash content are very
low. The ash which is left, can be used as a fertilizer. Wood and vegetable fibres might also someday furnish us certain
primary organic chemicals. In our country and other tropical countries wood residues may profitably be converted into liquid
and gaseous fuels. This can relieve, to some extent the problem of scarcity of large-scale exploitable oil and coal resources,
which are non-renewable ones.
9. Substitution of Biomass for Petroleum Product
Biomass conversion has unique advantages over other commonly used energy technologies. Unlike petroleum or coal,
biomass resources are renewable. Conversion of municipal and industrial wastes into useful fuels will serve two purposes as
with it:
(i) The energy supplies are increased, and
(ii) The environment is cleaned up.
Biomass is amenable to genetic manipulations and is flexible through crop switching. It encompasses wood chips, sawdust,
maize stalks, other vegetable matter, municipal and organic wastes.
10. Fuel Alcohol from Biomass
Ethanol and methanol, produced from biomass and agricultural residues, etc. can be used as fuels or may be blended with
petrol, used in a spark type internal combustion engine.
11. Use of Solar Energy
Solar thermal systems are the best developed and simplest of the solar technologies. It is proved that Solar energy can be
gainfully conserved by suitable architectural designs that gainfully exploit the site and building materials to turn a building
into a solar collector. In Active solar thermal systems the basic unit is the solar collector- a panel commonly made of
aluminium, glass, plastic and copper. When fitted to a roof, these panels absorb direct sunlight and transfer heat to a fluid that
passes through the collector. The fluid flows through pipes into the building where it is used to heat water or warm the rooms.
The solar cell is a device that converts sunlight directly into electricity. Photovoltaics (solar cells) generate an electromotive
force in a material as a result of its absorbing ionizing radiation. Solar cells have already proved their usefullness in the space
exploration programme. Solar cells successfully developed at the Bhabha Atomic Research Centre in Trombay, Bombay,
have been tested in the satellite Bhaskara. They have successfully met part of the power requirement aboard.
Equitable Use of Resources for Sustainable To Life Style:
Introduction
Man has a great responsibility to render equitable use of resources capable of inducing significant alternations in the
environment either intentionally or inadvertently. He is capable of altering the basic functioning of the atmosphere,
hydrosphere, lithosphere and the whole biosphere. The most essential basic attribute of most environments is that they are
muti-dimensional systems of complex relationships in a continuing state of change. It is also generally recognized that the
loss of life caused by such calamities as floods, droughts, cyclones and earthquakes, is largely due to the quality of natural
environments as well as mankinds misdeeds. Cragg (1970) has highlighted the link between conservation and quality of
human environment. Cragg advocates a study of the biogeochemical cycles disturbed by man. He has pointed out many
hazards arising from the recent marked increases in the CO2 content of the atmosphere and similar decreases in oxygen level
of natural water bodies. He has warned against the present evil practices. If precautions were not observed in time, the earth
would not remain inhabitable.

Cragg has listed the following basic arguments for conservation:

(a) Maintenance and perpetuation of environmental quality
(b) Aesthetic considerations;
(c) Food production;
(d) Preservation of gene pools and germplasms;
(e) Ecological diversity.
Methods for Equitable Use of Resources
The following methods may be suggested:
1. Equitable Use of Soil
It is due to our misdeeds that many of our once-fertile soils have been converted to agriculturally unfit alkaline or saline lands
or marshlands. More than 25 million hectares of such barren lands are now estimated to be distributed throughout the world.
Soil constitutes a biogeochemical shell around land and shallow waters. Recent increases in the pace of industrialization,
urbanization and other activities of of civilized man have exerted a tremendous impact not only on the soils but also on other
components of the biosphere. Unplanned destruction of forests and forest litter has brought about serious changes both in
land and water. The washing-off of fine soil particles from deforested areas
has caused considerable soil erosion. There has also been a great increase in run-off, pollution, turbidity and mineralization in
rivers and extensive silting in water reservoirs. It is essential to take a recourse to contour and strip farming, a network of
forest plantations in clumps and rows, a regular sowing of grass in crop rotations, the preferential use of organic, rather than
inorganic, manures, etc. The use of organic manure is especially desirable since it tends to preserve the quality of soil and
also their humus content. Steps should be taken to safeguard soils from exogenous chemical substances, mineral fertilizers,
pesticides, etc. Heavy doses of the wrong kind of inorganic fertilizer have often resulted in creating excessive acidity or
alkalinity in the soil, and the indiscriminate use of
pesticides and fungicides has caused adverse effects on soil. Efforts should be made to restore the fertility of the fallow lands
by use of fertilizers and new technology. The forested land in India is below the scientific norm. Normally for self-contained
and proper ecobalance, at least, one-third or the total land area must be under forest and natural vegetation. In India it is as
low as 19.3%. We must increase our area under forests. A part of the land not in use is classified as wasteland. This includes
the arid, rocky and sandy deserts. Much of the land is being used in cities and towns as residential land. Cities and towns
must grow vertically rather than horizontally now. The land is also needed for industry, commerce, transport and recreation.
Since total land is a fixed asset, we must make efforts for integrated land use planning. Land is an important component of
the life support system. Mrs. Indira Gandhi in 1972 said, We can no longer afford to neglect our most important natural
resource. This is not simply an environmental problem but one which is basic to the future of our country. In a
predominantly agricultural country like ours, land comes first. For proper planning we need authentic figures agreed upon by
the concerned departments viz agriculture, forestry, revenue records etc. using modern method as remote sensing. It is
observed that good agricultural land is going to industrial estates and for urban development. Thus valuable cropland is lost
to agriculture forever. This is not in national interest. The best land use planning has been done by Japan, being hard pressed
for land. A strategy must be developed to cure past damage and to save the country from future damage to land. A strategy
must be developed to cure past damage and to save the country from future damage to land. This can be achieved by
following the methods mentioned as under:
(i) To prepare accurate land use data through remote sensing,
(ii) A time bound nation wide survey programme of micro-level land use planning giving short and long-term scenarios,
(iii) To prepare land use classes,
(iv) To review all existing legislations and to update them and
(v) Management plans for land amelioration are to be prepared. This would lead to a dynamic land-use policy.
2. Proper Management of Water Resources
Water is an integral part of land/soil productivity base. Its misuse can cause soil degradation and soil erosion. Water
management is necessary for crop yields and other activities. Primary channel flow originates in upper catchments and these
watersheds are very important for future.
3. Watershed Management
In India floods bring much havoc causing loss of life and property each year. Due to floods, the plains have become silted
with mud and sand, thus affecting the cultivable land areas. Extinction of civilisation in some coastal areas is mainly due to
such natural calamites as flood. Flood damage cost the country Rs. 21 crore in 1951, which increased to Rs. 1,130 crore in
1977. the worst suffering states are Assam, Bihar, Orissa, U.P. and West Bengal. Through modern technology and scientific
knowledge steps are to be taken. There is need of a proper understanding of the ecosystem so that changes could be forecast
well in time. Thus management of rainfall and resultant runoff, which is essential, can be best based on a natural unit called
watershed. A watershed is an area bounded by the divide line of water flow. Thus it may be drainage basin or stream. The
Himalayas are one of the most critical watersheds in the world. The cast hydroelectric power potential can be harnessed from
Himalayan watersheds if proper control measures are taken. They are inclusive of soil and land use survey, soil conservation
in catchments of River Valley Projects and flood prone rivers, afforestation or social forestry programmes, Drought Prone
Area Development Programmes and Desert Development and Control of Shifting Cultivation.
4. Afforestation
Top priority should be given to the forestry. Forests occupy central position in nature. They restore ecological balance of all
ecosystems (including desert), maintain biological diversity, act as catchments for soil and water conservation, prevent floods
and safeguard future of tribals. We should develop massive afforestation programmes of indigenous and exotic fast growing
species for production and protection forestry on suitable land including wasteland. A massive social forestry programme is
needed to meet demands of local people for fuel, fodder, timber etc. the two major goals for forestry are:
(i) Supply of goods and services to people and industry by a well thought out plan of production,
(ii) Long term ecological security through conservation of forests cover and its restoration.
The areas where our water regimes are located i.e. Himalayas and Western and Eastern ghats together with catchment areas;
National Parks; Sanctuaries, Sacred Groves; Biosphere Reserves and all ecologically fragile areas should be protected from
fuel-starved villagers and fodder-starved cattle. For this, public support must be generated in order to fulfil the real goal of
eco-development. Such awareness will be very helpful for supply of goods and services to meet the local villagers needs.
One very good example of public support is the Chipko Movement of Bishnoi Women in U.P. We, have only about 14%
forest cover, and thus need to plant nearly 70 million hectares of additional land. This can be done by:
(i) Intensive plantations,
(ii) Production/captive plantations.

These are explained as under:

(I) Intensive plantations: Intensive plantation is planting all the available land from villagers fields, to community land, to
road/rail sides every available space. Indigenous and/or exotic species can be used for plantations that remove pressure on
natural forests. Social/participative/agro-forestry programmes are included in this category.
(II) Production/Captive plantations: Plantations are to be done on fallow land not being used for agriculture; mostly on free
grazing lands. A part of such plantations may be used to generate fodder for cattle. Moreover short rotations of indigenous or
exotic species are to be preferred over long duration sal or teak.
The productivity in USA could be enhanced by:
(i) Proper manipulation of silvicultural and nutritional requirements that is use of fertilizers, irrigation, bacterial and
mycorrhizal inoculations,
(ii) Disease and pest management,
(iii) Weed control,
(iv) Advanced techniques in forest tree breeding for superior genetic strains,
(v) Judicious use of tissue culture methods.
Social forestry: This forestry, is for private land. There are two main objectives of social forestry:
(i) Use of public and common land to produce in a decentralized way firewood, fodder and small timber for the local poor
men and also to manage soil and water conservation,
(ii) To relieve pressure on conservation forests. This programme is in fact for poor.
Agroforestry: Agroforestry is a system of land use where woody perennials are deliberately used on the same land
management units as annual agricultural crops and/or animals, either sequentially or simultaneously, with the aim of
obtaining greater outputs on a sustained basis. Here land is used for agriculture, forestry and animal husbandry. Depending
upon the situation we may also have a mix of three basic elements i.e., agriculture, forestry and animal husbandry. There
should be massive afforestation arm/agroforestry programmes. Every village/town/city must be able to meet firewood, fodder
and small timber needs by growing trees and shrubs in the land available in a cooperative system.
5. Proper Management of Drinking Water
This Resource (water) is renewable. However, it is subject to abuse and misuse. Infact, most of our water problems, are not
those of quantity or even necessarily of quality, but are rather caused by our way of thinking and attitudes. If man learns to
live with man on a cooperative basis, the water problem, like many other ecological problems, could be solved. The
replenishable ground water resources in India are sufficient to provide assured irrigation to 40 million hectares. The present
level of development is estimated at 25 million hectares, i.e. about 40 per cent of the total irrigation potential created in the
country. Drinking water becomes more significant in a developing country because it serves as a source of micronutrients that
are so essential for good health. Deficiency or excess of the essential trace elements can cause disorders. Drinking water is an
important source of intake of trace elements.

Unit IV
SOCIAL ISSUES AND THE ENVIRONMENT
From unsustainable to sustainable development:
Introduction
The term sustainable was development and introduced by the World Commission on Environment and Development (The
Brundtland Commission), in its seminal report of 1987, Our Common Future. The concept has terrifically worked out in
creating public awareness for sustaining the planet with better management. The sustainable development has been defined as
meeting the need of the present generation without compromising the needs of future generation. The concept precisely
emphasizes upon using the earth resources judiciously and compensating for it in some sense e.g. if cut few trees to support
our lives, we should also implant some new ones at some site. This would result in. maintaining the earths fine balance
between resource consumption and resource generation. In understanding this concept we very often encounter two termssustainable and development. These are summarized below as: Sustainable. The literal meaning of sustainability is that can
be maintained or keep goal continuously. In ecological sense it refers to conservation of ecological balance by avoiding
depletion of natural resources. Hence, we can understand it as something, which has got to do with longevity (long life) of a
resource, commodity, species, ecosystem, earth etc.
Development
The literal meaning of development is the act or instance of growth/advancement. So the growth can be of many types viz.,
growth of education, growth of industry, growth of population, growth of forests and many other. But what type of growth
are we addressing to? Here we are addressing to one of the most sensitive issue of growing concern about improving the
well-being of human beings. This could be achieved only through compromising with some of our comforts and luxuries.
The generation of comforts and luxuries brings environment under great pressure. The Nations economic growth should not
stand upon the fragile foundation of earths resources. Mahatma Gandhi a great social scientist, rightly pointed out that, The
earth provides enough to satisfy everyones need, but not everyones greed. In the context of economical and technical
development the world always had been better today than yesteryears and will always be better tomorrow than today. But the
condition of environment will always be poorer than before. Hence, the concept of sustainable development raises certain
questions for the present generations to answer. What is our present? Are we happy with our present? Prospective changes of
the magnitude described above raises fundamental questions about the kind of world we will bequeath to our children and
about the nature and goals of development. The present in which we live is important as it shapes our future. Nothing much
can be done to recover the damages imposed on nature in the past. But if we shape our surroundings based on environmental
ethics and economically exploit our present environment we would lend a healthier tomorrow to our children. As we have
examined some environmental issues in the previous chapters, we would commonly agree that human population growth,
loss of biodiversity, habitat destruction, ozone depletion, global climate change, pollution (air, water, noise etc.) and limited
food & energy supply are environmental concerns of global scale. In the past two decades a great deal of work from
researchers, ecologists, environmental scientists, social scientists, geographers and demographers have build up a very clear
picture of what our tomorrow would be like: Some initiatives have been taken up both at government and non-government
level. Still promising environmental concern at individual level is far lacking beyond sustainable needs. Although population
growth continues to expand at an unsustainable pace but still certain countries have achieved a demographic transition to zero
population growth. However, positive signs from developing nations are still absent. We have achieved breakthroughs in
renewable energy sources, agro-forestry schemes and better pollution control advancements. Increased man awareness,
resourcefulness and enterprise will help eliminate poverty and resource wastage and will make our environment a much

better place to live in. Until environmental concerns do not find space in our heart we would never be able to delicately
handle our surroundings when we are at home or public. We should recognize things at personal and collective grounds to
protect nature and to create a sustainable environment.
Urban Problems Related to Energy
Big cities and towns have always influenced education, religion, commerce, communication and politics, which have in turn
influenced culture and society in various proportions. Initially only a very limited section of the society lived in cities and
towns while the chief occupation of major population had been fishing, hunting, agriculture and cattle rearing. However
Industrial Revolution lead to expansion of cities and town both in size and power. In developing nations, especially a large
segment of society from villages moved to cities for occupational support (occupational migration). This exactly was the
cause of rapid expansion of cities and formation of metropolitans like Delhi, Bombay, Chennai, Bangalore, Calcutta and
others. This ultimately brought into picture the concept of urbanization and industrializations, which provided many benefits
to society, especially to the rich, but also introduced some evils in it. Here evils referred to were the increasing demand on
energy resources; whose consumption in turn lead to multitude problems of pollution, resource shortage, diseases and waste
disposal. Some of the major urban problems related to energy are as under:
(i) Electricity
Electricity from various sources is a major requirement of expanding cities, towns and villages. Each and every activity of
mans life is now someway related to electricity consumption. Housing gadgets like mixer-grinder, T.V., computer, music
systems, geysers, fans, lights, A.C.s, microwave, water lifting pump, warm blowers, coolers, etc. form the essential
components of a house. This all together has led to an electricity energy crunch. It is well known that some part of electricity
is lost in transmission and greater part is stolen. The remainder is simply not enough to support the majority of people in the
city and thats why the problem of electricity in cities is on the rise. The buildings are empowering the cities like anything but
nowhere we see dams, supplying electrical units, increasing in number at the same pace. Therefore, what majority of the
cities face today is a usual cut of electricity for a minimum of 6-8 hrs. This makes todays urban life handicapped.
Resourceful enjoy the resource benefit from the rising generator and inverter culture, which in turn put pressure on resources
and lead to pollution problems.
(ii) Fossil fuels (petroleum, natural gas and coal)
Fossil fuels have always been under a great threat from times immemorial. In the absence of technological advancements
these have served mankind for several years. In this quest for energy the coal reserves have suffered a lot. With rise in
technical knowhow man started generating power from nuclear sources, hydroelectric power, wind power etc. But still these
contribute a little. We still depend on thermal power a lot.
(a)Petrol and Diesel: Transport and communication has brought the petroleum reserves of the world under a great threat. The
rise in number of vehicle per year is immense. To understand the gravity of the problem a glance of metropolitan roads and
lanes is enough. Even the roads and lanes of big cities, small cities and towns are loaded with two wheelers.
(b)Natural Gas: The common usage of natural gas is in the form of Liquid Petroleum Gas (LPG). There is a terrific rise in the
usage of LPG driven household commodities with the expanding population. Earlier the LPG usage was only limited to
kitchen for cooking. The advent of technology introduced a numerous household items making its use like gas geysers, gas
heaters, gas fans, gas lanterns etc. In a way it is serving as a substitute of electricity, which is other reason for increasing
pressure on oil wells/reserves.
(c)Coal: The world population has extracted and used coal reserves thinking as if it is a never-ending commodity/resource. It
has served Sustainable Development,
Urban Problems,
Water Conservation and Management,
Resettlement and Rehabilitation of People,
Environmental Ethics,
Global Warning,
Environment Protection Act,
Issues involved in Enforcement of Environment Legislation,
Millions throughout the ages, earlier it was primarily used to support kitchens. People also utilized it for heating stoves/
heaters in colder regions of the world. Later, its usage in the railways became the chief cause of its rapid exhaustion. Coal
reserves are a limited source of energy now. It should be used judiciously and economically.
(iii) Fuel wood
Fuel wood being used for the ignition of fire is chiefly responsible for the destruction of impoverished forestlands. Though
fuel wood collection to support family daily chores is allowed in certain parts of the forest generally the outskirts but the
greed and dearth compels women to penetrate deep into the forest. Generally the big cities are characterized by the absence
of forestland at the fringes. But whatever degraded forest is available serve as a source of fuel wood even in and around
urban centres e.g. Dehradun is a well-developed city, but in its fringes we can still see women and children carrying loads of
fuel wood.
Water Conservation
We could save as much as half of the water we now use for domestic purposes without great sacrifice or serious changes in
our lifestyles. Simple steps, such as taking shorter showers, stopping leaks, and washing cars, dishes, and clothes as
efficiently as possible, can go a long way toward forestalling the water shortages that many authorities predict. Isnt it better
to adapt to more conservative uses now when we have a choice than to be forced to do it by scarcity in the future?
Rain Water Harvesting
Water is commonly taken for granted as natures gift. Often it is used wastefully in agriculture, but industry and people
pollute and poison available water supplies at an alarming rate. Water problems arise from increasing demands generated by
rapid population growth; urbanization, industrialization and irrigation for additional food production. In many areas
excessive pumping of groundwater not only brings down water quality, but also depletes it this affects sustainability. The
capacity of irrigation tanks numbering about five lakh in the country is shrinking due to situation and encroachment. Scarcity
is noticed even in high rainfall areas like Cherrapunji (Assam), Western Ghats and Kerala. This is due to improper
management and poor conservation of rainwater. Indias water potential is substantial but the scarcity is felt everywhere even
for drinking. This is because the countrys water policy and management is not very specific and implementation is poor.
Total rain in the country is about 400 M hm (million hectare meters). The runoff in the rivers is estimated at 186 M ha.
Further the utilizable groundwater is calculated as 40 M hm. However, the utilizable quantity is about 110-115 M hm (70 M
hm from surface and 40 M hm from groundwater). To meet the relentless increase in demand for water for various purposes

and to achieve the goal of optimal use and to get the maximum benefits, it is necessary to make water resource development
holistic through a comprehensive integrated river basin planning and management. This can be done only if a wide range of
disciplines are involved. Wastage of water due to leakage in pipes and unattended repairs results in about 30-40 per cent
water resource lost. The landscape watershed units can be effectively subdivided into discrete hydrological units. Since the
watersheds are spatially laid from ridge to valley, they most efficiently conserve land and water resources and help secure
water availability throughout the growing season. The land area of the watershed drains into a common point. Hence, the
drainage water can be easily stored in above -ground storage structures for recycling during droughts or for growing an
additional crop. Rain fed agriculture research and development has been dominated by the concept of high yields for decades.
It arose from the scientific principles developed for the green revolution high input, high-output technologies. Fatigue and
cracks are now developing in the green revolution areas. For rain fed agriculture, an area-based development through
watershed management provides an excellent framework for sustaining semi-arid tropical ecologies. Also the landscape
watershed units focus on the maintenance of managed biodiversity through diversified cropping systems. It is significant to
note that a broad range of baseline information on watershed-based soil and water conservation technologies already exists. A
study commissioned by the National Institute of Agricultural Extension Management, Hyderabad, showed that if the
watershed technology is to succeed it must be specific to natural endowments of the location; it must be built on indigenous
knowledge; it should be based on peoples participation; it must be equitable in sharing of costs and benefits, and villagebased institutions must be put-in-place right from inception of the project.
Watershed Management
It was suggested that, rather than allowing residential, commercial, or industrial development on flood plains, these areas
should be reserved for water storage, aquifer recharge, wildlife habitat, and agriculture. Sound farming and forestry practices
can reduce runoff. Retaining crop residue on fields reduces flooding, and minimizing. Ploughing and forest cutting on steep
slopes protects watersheds. Wetlands conservation preserves natural water storage capacity and aquifer recharge zones. A
river fed by marshes and wet meadows tend to run consistently clear and steady rather than in violent floods. A series of
small dams on tributary streams can hold backwater before it becomes a great flood. Ponds formed by these dams provide
useful wildlife habitat and stock-watering facilities. They also catch soil where it could be returned to the fields. Small dams
can be built with simple equipment and local labour; eliminating the need for massive construction projects and huge dams.
Watershed-based frame for rain fed agriculture provides uncommon opportunities for achieving sustainable food and
nutritional security. It is time that the watershed development agenda is considered a programme for-the masses.
Resettlement and Rehabilitation of People
Land for land is a better policy than cash settlement. Even in implementing this policy, the land is not given in the
command area in most cases, forestland is either cleared on waste fallow land given without any provision for developing the
land or for the supply of necessary inputs; a village is broken up and families dispersed; villagers are usually left to buy
private land, take loans from the government, which puts poor villagers at a disadvantage- land prices in neighboring villages
shoot up steeply if the government takes up resettlement; the villagers are resettled in distant places, sometimes in a totally
alien environment and culture, thus creating insurmountable adjustment problems. Oustees from Pong dam in Himachal
Pradesh were settled in Anupgarh in Rajasthan, bordering on Pakistan. The people were generally left to fend for themselves.
Arrangements for drinking water, dispensaries, schools, village roads or drainage of the rehabilitation sites are only
completed years later. In the case of the Ukai Dam in Gujarat, resettlement work was undertaken by the Ukai Nav Nirman
Samity. Even so, out of a total of 18,500 affected families, only 3500 families could be resettled.
People who could previously barely manage to survive in their traditional environment are uprooted as a result. The
objectives of rehabilitation should be:
1. The people displaced should get an appropriate share in the fruits of development.
2. Creating new settlements with their own environment should rehabilitate them.
3. Removal of poverty should also be an objective of the rehabilitation policy and therefore some land to all.
4. Oustees (even the landless) should be given assurance of employment.
5. While dealing with tribal one should also keep in mind the following five principles of tribal-development accepted during
Jawaharlal Nehrus era as tribal panchsheel.
6. Tribal should develop along the lines of their own genius and we should avoid imposing anything on them.
7. We should try to encourage their traditional arts and culture in every way.
8. Resettlement should be in the neighborhood of their environment. If resettlement is not possible in the command area, top
priority should be given to the development of irrigation facilities and supply of basic inputs for agriculture; drinking water,
wells, grazing grounds for cattle schools for the children, primary health care units and other amenities should be arranged.
9. In partly affected village, villagers should be given the option of shifting out with others with the same compensation as
available to evacuees.
10. Training facilities should be set up to upgrade the skills of affected people and reservation in jobs should be made for the
willing adults among the evacuees.
11. Special attention should be given to the rehabilitation of artisans and village crafts people.
12. Villagers should be taken into confidence at every stage or implementation and they should be educated, through open
meetings and discussion about the legalities of the Land Acquisition Act and other rehabilitation provisions.
13. The aid of voluntary agencies planning and implementation programme.
Rehabilitation Problem
Involuntary displacement of human population is always traumatic. Irrespective of the causes leading to such migrations the
degree of suffering experienced by such people simply cannot be quantified in money values, and even in words it can be
described only inadequately. But, unfortunately, ousting of people likely to be submerged under irrigation or hydel power
dams is a classic case where hardships are imposed on people in spite of the pro-people laws and policies proclaimed by the
Government. Below is a critique of the Tehri Dam Rehabilitation.
Compensatory Land
The project authorities commenced the Scheme by allocating 2767 acre of land in the Dehra Dun area, which was already
reeling under severe pressure from tourism, limestone quarrying and urban expansion. Rehabilitation should be collective in
the villages, almost each family depends on the other. The social and moral obligations towards each other bind them into
one cohesive whole. The authorities are rehabilitating individual families and not the village as a whole.
Monetary Compensation
Mere payment of cash is not rehabilitation. Moreover, the amount of cash paid as compensation is insufficient to buy land in
other places because of the high rates. The oustees being basically farmers lack the business acumen needed to set up a viable

commercial alternative. Since they are not accustomed to having such large sums (relative to their usually small incomes) in a
lump sum, they are ignorant as to how they should spend it.
Mismanagement
The project authorities estimated the total affected population in 1981 as 46,000. Using the Census Office figures, the total
number affected for 1981 is act 70,000.
Lack of Public Relations
The majority of populace to be displaced consists of advises, tribal, scheduled castes that have a unique lifestyle. The
traumatic experience of shifting to new areas and new occupations involving drastic changes in their lifestyle weighs heavily
on these people. The absence of any public relation efforts has further aggravated the situation.
Housing compensation
It is necessary to highlight a major flaw in the procedure for fixed immovable property like houses, well, barns fence, cattlestalls, etc. The present procedure evaluates the current worth or value after depreciation for determining the amount of
compensation. This concept is faulty. He should be paid an amount for his house etc., equivalent to the cost of reconstructing
a dwelling place equal to the plinth area lost under submergence. This amount (i.e., replacement cost) will obviously be more
than the current worth of his old dwelling.
Role of Nongovernmental Organization
Background and Definition:
The organizations, which do not represent the government, are one of the nations greatest resources for developing and
implementing environmental laws and policies. In fact, some of the tasks for social renewal and progress have had to be
performed by NGOs (Non-Governmental Organizations). In many countries, NGOs were established in the early seventies.
The adverse effects of a seemingly unlimited economic growth, which started after World War II, has led to polluted air and
water, acid rain, and dying forests. The concern caused by these phenomena was the reason why a new social movement
called the Environmental Movement arose. This resulted in many initiatives by citizens. Local residents began to organize
and oppose some activities like the construction of a highway, an industrial site, a runway, pollution of a river or the
disruption of a nature reserve. As all these initiatives were addressed to the government, it soon became apparent that actions
would be more successful when properly coordinated than when started individually. A group can achieve more and collect
more data so as to be well prepared when confronting the opposition. In this way a lot of new organizations were founded
which can be classified under the name NGO. All those citizen initiatives made the environmental problem in to a political
problem. It appeared on the political agenda of the respective governments and the NGOs gained power and influence and
became an important political factor.
In this context an NGO can be defined as:
(1) A group of citizens organizing grassroots activities to oppose a proposed government/ private project which is expected
to have an adverse impact on the environment
(2) An association of scientific experts providing the government with neutral non-partisan advice on a topic related to
control and prevention of Pollution and safeguarding of Environment
(3) A coalition of industry, communicating their companies view to the government.
Categories of NGOs
As far as the conservation of nature and environmental protection are concerned, the NGOs range from groups with a vague
and loose structure to ultramodern, organized institutes with national and international branches. There are also several
possible strategies of working. On the basis of these strategies NGOs can be roughly distinguished into three categories:
1. Groups and organizations that mainly engage in propagating and helping in the process of implementing the
environmental policy of the governments. Through different activities, they try to influence official policy and, if
necessary, to alter it. These groups represent a direct form of public participation.
2. Groups and organizations that mainly engage in information and educational activities. They pursue broad-based
public awareness activities and a change in mentality with regard to nature and the environment. They influence the
political decision making process and the official policy in an indirect way.
3. Groups and organizations applying themselves to an environmentally aware and ecologically sound way of life. By
setting an example they try to convince others and pursue a change in the collective mentality.
Important Roles of NGOs
In rural areas, these NGOs have often complemented the work of government agencies filling in the gaps where necessary.
In other cases, they have helped monitor (and hence improve) the functioning of local government bodies. They have also
played a part in the rehabilitation of victims of natural disasters or communal riots. They have also succeeded in raising
public awareness and consciousness on issues where no one else was paying any attention by taking up neglected or
unpopular causes. Such NGOs have played a vanguard role in championing the necessity of clean air and water. It is largely
due to the work of such dedicated NGOs that the Supreme Court has passed new injunctions against air and water pollution,
banned smoking in public places, or correctly brought attention to violations of urban noise ordinances. In recent times, some
useful and interesting work has been performed by NGOs fighting to make public records more readily accessible, and make
public undertakings (such as those responsible for electricity, water supply and municipal works) more transparent in their
functioning, and more responsible to the public interest. Some of these NGOs have won important legal victories through
effectively framed Public Interest Litigations (PILs). To this extent, public support and backing for such NGOs is essential to
ensure that the legal gains translate into real changes in society. Only when the work of such
NGOs begin to have widespread impactaffecting political party, administrative agencies and public and private corporations
will their work translate into real and effective victories. It is important that the good work done by small groups of valiant
individuals not go waste. Enactment of statutes on Pollution Control and the experience gained in implementation of the
various provisions of these Acts in the past more than two decades had indicated that Govt. machinery alone couldnt
effectively cope-up with the task of pollution control until supported by the masses. The need for participation of masses in
achieving the targets committed in the Policy Statements for Abatement of Pollution has been felt strongly. Public interest
litigations have successfully demonstrated that responsible and concerned NGOs and public spirited individuals can bring
about significant pressure on polluting industries for adopting pollution control measures. NGO being one of the most
effective media to reach the people these days may play a significant role in this regard. NGOs are assisting the State
Pollution Control Boards to a greater extent in providing firsthand information and generating mass awareness with regard to
control of pollution and can better function in this field in the following ways:

 By conducting preliminary river surveys and survey in air pollution control area for identification of any pollution
source
By keeping vigil on withdrawal of water/discharge of sewage or trade effluent by any industry
By conducting sampling and analysis of river/well water to ascertain the quality of river/well water
By providing information regarding poisonous, noxious or polluting matter in any stream or well or on land or in air
By keeping vigil in the surrounding area, river, well, land and air against pollution and reporting to State
Board/Central Board
By providing information whether any river stretch requires prohibition on use for disposal of polluting matters
By providing information regarding violation of consent such as discharges in odd hours etc
By providing information on fish kill or other sudden damage to the environment not noticed by the State Board
NGOs in India
The NGOs have achieved several important victories for the people of India. Their work has been of crucial importance in
the past. Few of the non-government organizations working for betterment of environment in India are as follows:
Bombay Environmental Action Group (BEAG), Mumbai
Centre for Environment Education (CEE), Ahmedabad
Centre for Himalayan Environment and Development, Chamoli
Centre for Science and Environment (CSE), New Delhi
Environment Society of India, Chandigarh
Environmental Resources Research Centre (ERRC), Thiruvananthapuram
Environmental Society of Tirupati
Green Ray Foundation, Panaji Indian Environmental Society (IES), New Delhi
Indian Society for Nature Volunteer, Sonepat
Jammu & Kashmir Environment and Wasteland Development Society, Jammu
Nilgiri Wildlife and Environment Association, Otacamand
Orissa Environmental Society (OES), Bhubaneshwar
Rajasthan Environment Preservation Society, Jaipur
Research in Environment, Education and Development Society (REEDS), Hyderabad
Sheratgarh Environmental Society (SES), Shehratgarh,
Society for Conservation of Forest and Wildlife, Pune
Society for Promotion of Wastelands Development (SPWD) New Delhi
NGOs International
Few of the International Non-governmental organizations are as follows:
Center for International Environmental Law
Conservation International
Earth Action
Earth Times
EcoNet Acid Rain Resources
EnviroLink
Global Environment Facility
Greenpeace
International Institute for Sustainable Development (IISD): Linkages
IISDInternational Forest Policy
Natural Heritage Network
United National Environmental Program
World Conservation Monitoring Centre
The World Conservation Union
World Resources Institute
World Wildlife Fund
Advantages and Disadvantages:
The benefits from NGOs are as under
They are flexible in adapting to local situations and responding to local needs and therefore able to develop
integrated as well as sectoral projects.
They have the ability to experiment freely with innovative approaches and, if necessary, to take risks.
They enjoy good rapport with people and can render micro-assistance to very poor people.
They have the ability to communicate at all levels, from the neighborhood to the top levels of government.
They are able to recruit both experts and highly motivated staff with fewer restrictions than the government.
The disadvantages could be:
Paternalistic attitudes restrict the degree of participation in programme / project design.
Restricted/constrained ways of approach to a problem or area.
Reduced replicability of an idea, due to non-representativeness of the project or selected area, relatively small
project coverage, dependence on outside financial resources, etc.
Territorial possessiveness of an area or project reduces cooperation between agencies, seen as threatening or
competitive.
Environmental Ethics
The Earth is unique among all the planets in our solar system. It is endowed with plentiful resources. Mans greed to raise his
standard of living compels him control and tap natural resources. Many rivers throughout the world have been controlled to
provide power, irrigation, and navigation for the people at the expense of the natural world. If such gifts of nature are not
tapped for resource generation, many people think it to be wastage of resources. The capitalists want to use the forests for
timber production and not doing so is closely linked to economic hardships. Removing the trees would destroy something
that took hundreds of years to develop and may never be replaced. Efforts to manage the interactions between people and
their environment are an age-old practice. At one time, pollution was a local, temporary event, but today, pollution problems
have crossed international borders and have become global. The seminars over chemical and radioactive waste disposal
witness the increasingly international nature of pollution. Ethical issues dealing with the environment are no different from
other kinds of problems. The concept of an environmental ethics could encompass differing principles and beliefs. Ethics is

one branch of philosophy, which fundamentally attempts to define what is right, and what is wrong, regardless of cultural
differences. Environmental ethics are formulated on the basis that human beings are also a part of nature and nature has many
interdependent components. In any natural ecosystem, the wellbeing of the individual and of each species is linked to the
wellbeing of the entire community. In a world increasingly without environmental borders, nations, like individuals, should
have a fundamental ethical responsibility to respect nature and to care for the Earth, protecting its life-support systems,
biodiversity, and beauty, caring for the needs of other countries and future generations. Environmental ethicists argue that to
consider environmental protection as a right of the planet is a natural extension of concepts of human rights, although there
are many different attitudes about the environment.
Three types of the ethics are identified as (a) the development ethic, (b) the preservation ethic, and (c) the conservation ethic.
Each of these ethical positions has its own appropriate code of conduct against which ecological mortality may be measured.
The development ethic is based on actions. Development in any sector is inevitable. But the development should not crop up
at the cost of environmental failure. This philosophy is strengthened by the idea that, if it can be done, it should be done.
The preservation ethic considers nature special in itself. Some preservationists have an almost religious outlook regarding
nature. They believe that nature is beautiful place to live in and it should be maintained for feeding, breeding, enjoyment and
peace. On the other hand scientific outlook argue that the human species depends on and has much to learn from nature. Rare
and endangered species and ecosystems, as well as the more common ones, must be preserved because of their known or
assumed long-range, practical utility. The third environmental ethic is referred to as the conservation ethic, It recognizes the
desirability of decent living standards, but it works towards a balance of resource use and resource availability. Economic
growth and resource exploitation are attitudes shared by developing societies. As a society, we continue to consume natural
resources as if the supplies were never ending. All of this is reflected in our increasingly unstable relationship with the
environment, which grows out of our tendency to take from the common good without regard for the future.
Industrial Environmental Ethics
Industries are harmful to the health of environment and hence at large are considered as nuisance. When raw materials are
processed, some waste is inevitable e.g. paper industry leads to a lot of wastage and pollution of water. It is usually not
possible to completely control the dispersal of all by-products of a manufacturing process. Also, some of the waste material
may simply be useless. Ethics are involved, however, when an industrialist compromise upon the quality of a product or
waste disposal to maximize profit. It is cheaper to dump wastes into a river than to install a wastewater treatment facility. At
its core, environmental justice means fairness. It speaks to the impartiality that should guide the application of laws designed
to protect the health of human beings and the productivity of ecological systems on which all human activity, economic
activity included, depends.
Environmental Ethics at Individual level
As human populations and economic activity continue to grow, we are facing a number of environmental problems that
threaten not only human health and the productivity of ecosystems, but in some cases the very habitability of the globe. We
have to recognize that each of us is individually responsible for the quality of the environment we live in and that our
personal actions affect environmental quality, for better or worse. Our environmental ethics must begin to express itself not
only in national laws, but also in subtle but profound changes in the ways we all live our daily lives. It appears that many
individuals want the environment cleaned up, but they do not want to make major life-style changes to make that happen.
Global Environmental Ethics
This new sense of urgency and common cause about the environment is leading to unprecedented cooperation in some areas.
Ecological degradation in any nation almost inevitably impinges on the quality of life in others. For years, acid rain has been
a major irritant in relations between the United States and Canada.
Climate Change
Introduction
The recent interest in global warming and sustainable development has become a global talk. The most important global
environmental topics as chosen by a panel of about 12 world experts were as follows: human population growth, biodiversity and conservation, climate change, forest decline, hazardous wastes, land degradation, human pathogens, urban
environment, work environment and resource depletion. Man is as closely related to nature as he is to himself, because he is a
part of it. An outright dependence on nature has been a striking feature of mans progress through the centuries of his
struggle. Climate has from the very beginning regulated man in practically every aspect of life and has played a very
important role in the development of civilizations all around the world. Mans impact on climate began 5000 to 9000 years
ago, as he was able to alter the environment by burning and felling forest and tilling the earth. The most extensive change
wrought by man prior to our own times was the gradual conversion of most of the temperate forest zone to crops that is an
artificial steppe or savanna. Thus until the industrial revolution and probably until the present century, man had little effect on
the climate except on a very local scale. Presently global warming has emerged as one of the most important environmental
issues ever to confront humanity. This concern arises from the fact that our everyday activities may be leading to changes in
the earths atmosphere that have the potential: to significantly alter the planets heat and radiation balance, and thereby lead
to a warmer climate in the next century and thereafter. International efforts to address this problem have been on for the last
decade, with the Earth Summit at Rio in 1992 as an important launching point and the Conference of Parties in Buenos Aires.
Although India as a developing country does not have any commitments or responsibilities, at present, for reducing the
emissions of greenhouse gases such as carbon dioxide (CO 2) that lead to global warming. Pressure is increasing on India and
other large, rapidly developing countries such as China and Brazil to adopt a more pro-active role.
What is Climate Change?
Climate change is a newcomer to the international political and environmental agenda, having emerged as a major policy
issue only in the late 1980s and thereafter. It has emerged since the 19th century that CO 2 in the atmosphere is a greenhouse
gas, that is, its presence in the atmosphere helps to retain the incoming heat energy from the sun, thereby increasing the
earths surface temperature. Of course, CO2 is only one of several such greenhouse gases in the atmosphere. Others include
methane, nitrous oxide and water vapour. However, CO 2 is the most important greenhouse gas that is being affected by
human activities. CO2 is generated by a multitude of processes. Since the Industrial Revolution, when our usage of fossil
fuels increased dramatically, the contribution of CO2 from human activities has grown large enough to constitute a significant
perturbation of the natural carbon cycle. The concentration of CO2 in the Earths atmosphere was about 280 parts per million
by volume (ppmv) in 1750, before the Industrial Revolution began. By 1994 it was 358 ppmv and rising by about 1.5 ppnw
per year. If emissions continue at the 1994 rate, the concentration will be around 500 ppmv, nearly double the pre-industrial
level, by the end of the 21st century.
Global Warming and the Greenhouse Effect
In the late 1900s researchers realized that the world may be getting warmer. The last two decades of the 1900s witnessed
some warm and cool years. However, not enough evidences were available to support the theory of global warming. But this

a well-known fact that accumulation of several greenhouse gases can lead to a rise in temperature (global warming). If a
global warming phenomenon sets in this would result in major changes in worlds climate. The increase in temperature might
lead melting of snow on poles, which would terrifically add, to ocean waters. Hence the level of seas, and oceans would rise,
this would largely affect the coastal areas. These would submerge under coastal Waters due to expansion of seas and oceans.
Besides the Temperate climate pattern would shift northward and present temperate regions would become hot & dry. The
Greenhouse Effect is a natural phenomenon that plays a central role, in determining the earths climate. The hot surface of the
sun radiates heat and light energy. Several gases in the atmosphere are transparent to light but absorb infrared radiation.
These allow sunlight to pass through the atmosphere and be absorbed by the earths surface. This energy is again radiated as
heat energy, which is absorbed by the gases. As the effect is similar in nature to what happens in a botanical greenhouse (the
glass panes allows the light energy to enter inside but diminishes the loss of heat), these gases are called greenhouse gases
and the resultant warming from their increase is called the greenhouse effect. Anthropogenic activities add to the
phenomenon accelerating greenhouse gas building process. Global increase of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere viz.,
carbon dioxide, nitrous oxide, methane and chlorofluorocarbons are now well documented. In addition to all these changes,
troposphere and stratospheric chemistry are being modified due to the addition of these gases as well as emission of carbon
monoxide, nitrogen oxides and other compound. The United State Environmental Protection Agency, Office of Policy,
Planning and Evaluation in 1989 have documented the increase of the different greenhouse gases.

The concentration of carbon dioxide into the atmosphere has increased by 25% since the industrial revolution. Carbon
dioxide is increasing at a rate of about 0.4% per year and is responsible for about half of the current increases in the
greenhouse effect. The concentration of methane has more than doubled during the last three centuries. Agricultural sources
particularly rice cultivation and animal husbandry has probably been the most significant contributors to historical increase in
concentrations. But there is the potential for rapid growth in emissions from landfills, coal seems, permafrost, natural gas
explorations and pipeline leakage, and biomass burning associated with forest clearings in the future. The concentrations of
nitrous oxide have increased by 5-10% since pre-industrial times. The cause of this increase is highly uncertain, but it has
been understood that the use of nitrogenous fertilizer, land clearing biomass burning and fossil fuel combustion have all
contributed. Nitrous oxide is currently increasing at a rate of about 0.25% per year, which represents and imbalance between
sources and sinks of about 30%. CFCs were introduced into the atmosphere for the first time during the century; the most
common species are CFC-12 and CFC-11. Of major concern because of their potential to deplete stratospheric ozone, the
CFCs also represent about 15% of the current increases in the greenhouse effect. The chemistry of the atmosphere is
changing due to emission of carbon monoxide, nitrogen oxides, and volatile organic compounds, among other species, in
addition to the changes in the greenhouse gases already described. This alters the amount and distribution of ozone and the
oxidizing power of the atmosphere, which changes the lifetimes of methane and other greenhouse gases. Changes in global
ozone are quite uncertain, and may have contributed to an increase or decrease in the warming commitment during the last
decade.
Acid Rain
Although the phenomenon of acid rain (more correctly acid deposition) was identified in Manchester, England, as long ago
as 1852, and described more thoroughly in 1872, modern scientific research has been going on only since the mid-1950s.
Public concern about the problem began in the late 1960s. Acid rain is an environmental hazard that is transponder in nature.
Northeastern America, North Western Europe and India are facing an acute problem of acid rain. Acid rain has affected
certain rivers, lakes, streams and forests in United Kingdom (UK), United States of America (USA), Germany and many
other countries.
Acid rain literally means the presence of excessive acids in rain waters. Acid precipitation is a mixture of strong mineral
acids sulphuric acid (H2SO4), nitric acid (HNO3) and in some locations, hydrochloric acid (HCl). It usually has a ph of less
than 5.6, the value of distilled water in equilibrium with atmospheric carbon dioxide.
Acid rain problem is a result of anthropogenic activities. Most acids come from cars, homes, industries and power stations
but some share is contributed by natural sources such as volcanoes, swamps and planktons. The acid problem is basically
associated with the transport and subsequent deposition of oxides of sulphur, nitrogen and their oxidative products. These are
produced by combustion of fossil fuels, power plants, automobile exhausts and domestic fires etc.
Formation of Acid Rain
Acid rain is one of the form of acid deposition which can either be wet or dry, acid rain, snow, dew, fog, frost and mist are the
wet form of deposition, while dust particles containing sulphate and nitrates which settle on ground is called dry deposition.
Wet Acid Rain
Coal, fuel wood or petroleum products have sulphur and nitrogen. These elements, when burnt in atmospheric oxygen, are
converted into their respective oxides (SO 2 and NO3), which are highly soluble in water. By anthropogenic and by natural
sources, oxides of sulphur and nitrogen enter the atmosphere.
Reactions
Reaction with Sulphur
S + O2 SO2
2SO2 + O2 2SO3
Reaction with Nitrogen
NO + O3 NO2 + O2
NO3 + NO2 N2O5
When air is saturated with water droplets (humid conditions), N 2O5 invariably reacts with water vapors to form droplets of
HNO3.
N2O5 + H2O 2HNO3
Besides some HNO2 is also formed
N2O3 + H2O 2HNO2
SO3 in humid conditions forms droplets of H2SO4.

SO2 + O2 + H2O H2SO4

HNO3 and H2SO4 thus formed combine with HCl to generate precipitation, which is commonly referred to as acid rain.
The primary reason for concern is that acid deposition acidifies streams, and taken on coarse, sandy soils low in lime: The
effect is seen particularly in headwater areas and in wet montane environments, wherever sulphate loading from
anthropogenic sources is strong. The chemical and physical consequences of lake acidification include, increased leaching of
calcium from terrestrial soils, mobilization of heavy metals such as aluminium, zinc, and manganese and an increase in the
transparency of lake waters. The biological consequences include market changes in communities of aquatic plants and
animals, with a progressive lessening of their diversity. Acid deposition may further impoverish forests soils, developed on
sandy substrata poor in lime. As a consequence of accelerated leaching of nutrients, such as phosphorous, potassium,
magnesium and calcium from these soils, forest productivity would eventually be reduced. Moreover, the acid sulphate
particles that contribute to acid precipitation are in the size range that penetrates deep into the lung, and they may well
exacerbate lung diseases and increase mortality rates.
Ozone Layer Depletion
Joseph Farman, of the British Meteorological Survey, and colleagues reported in the scientific journal Nature that
concentrations of stratospheric ozone above Antarctica had plunged more than 40 percent from 1960s baseline levels during
October, the first month of spring in the Southern Hemisphere, between 1977 and 1984. It meant that for several months of
the year a hole forms in the ozone layer, which protects animals and plants from ultraviolet solar radiation. Suddenly it
seemed that the chemical processes known to deplete ozone high in the earths atmosphere were working faster and more
efficiently than predicted.
Chemistry of the Ozone Layer
Oxygen molecules (O2), abundant throughout the atmosphere, are split apart into individual atoms (O + O) when energized
by radiation from the sun. These atoms are free to collide with other O 2 molecules to form ozone (O 3). The particular
configuration of the ozone molecules allows them to absorb the suns radiation in ultraviolet wavelengths that are harmful to
life if they penetrate to the earths surface. The ozone molecules formed by collision are partially removed by other naturally
occurring chemical reactions, and so the overall concentration of stratospheric ozone remains constant. High above the
stratosphere, the density of gases is so low that oxygen atoms rarely find other molecules to collide with, and ozone does not
form in abundance. Below the ozone layer, too little solar radiation penetrates to allow appreciable amounts of ozone to form.
Thus most of the worlds ozone is in a stratospheric layer bulging with ozone at latitudes from 10 to 35 kilometers. Closer to
the ground, in the troposphere, ozone produced through a series of chemical reactions involving hydrocarbons and nitrogen
oxide emissions from vehicles and industrial activity is an effective greenhouse gas. Thus, ozone plays two very different
roles in global environmental change: one in the stratosphere as a shield against harmful ultraviolet radiation, and another
nearer the ground in the troposphere as a greenhouse gas find a health hazard.
The researchers hypothesized in 1974 that increasing concentrations of chlorofluoro-carbons (CFCs), synthetic compounds
that are chemically very stable in the lower atmosphere, rise unchanged through the lowest atmospheric layer, the
troposphere. Even though CFCs are produced mostly in the industrialized countries of Europe and North Americawhere
they are used in a wide variety of applications such as for solvents and refrigerants, the researchers surmised that upon
reaching the stratosphere, the CFCs encounter high-energy ultraviolet light, which breaks them down, releasing their chlorine
atoms. The chlorine atoms can then engage with ozone in a catalytic reaction, within which, each chlorine fragment can
destroy up to 100,000 ozone molecules before other chemical processes remove the chlorine from the atmosphere.
The Antarctic Ozone Hole
Now, many scientists describe the Antarctic ozone hole as the first unequivocal evidence of ozone loss due to man-made
chlorine and one of the first clearly definable effects of human-induced global change. They found that the ozone levels dip
at about the same latitudes where levels of chlorine monoxide ascend. Scientists are convinced that the elevated levels of
chlorine and bromine account for much of the ozone depletion. The ozone molecules are formed over the tropics and are
delivered along with chlorine to the Antarctic, as well as to the Arctic, via atmospheric motions. In Antarctica, a circulation
pattern known as the Antarctic polar vortex traps the ozone cover the South Pole for several months. It is within this vortex
that scientists have measured such shockingly low ozone concentrations during the first two weeks of October shortly after
the beginning of the Southern Hemisphere spring. The chemical reactions that take place on these surfaces convert chlorine
from forms that do not react with ozone to other, less stable forms that readily break up in the presence of sunlight and go on
to destroy ozone. Both cold temperatures and sunlight arc critical to the process leading to ozone depletion in the Antarctic.
Antarctic ozone is depleted not during the winter, when temperatures are coldest and the South Pole is immersed in darkness,
but in the southern spring, after sunlight returns but temperatures are still low.
Effect on Line
The ozone layer is essential to life because it shields it from damaging ultraviolet radiation. Researchers are trying to learn
how humans, vegetation, and aquatic ecosystems each may be affected by ozone depletion. Direct exposure to ultraviolet
radiation can damage the human immune system, cause cataracts, and increase the incidence or skin cancer. The EPA
estimated in 1986 that the incidence of skin cancers would raise 2 percent for each a percent depletion of stratospheric ozone.
As part of the effort to understand the effects on vegetation and crops, researchers have tested more than 200 plant species,
two-thirds of which show sensitivity to increased ultraviolet exposure. Soybeans, one of civilizations staple food crops, are
particularly susceptible to ozone damage, as are members of the bean and pea, squash and melon, and cabbage families. Plant
responses to ultraviolet radiation include reduced leaf size, stunted growth, poor seed quality, and increased susceptibility to
weeds, disease, and pests. Scientists are also in the early stages of understanding how ultraviolet radiation might affect
marine ecosystems and animals. Concern about these systems begins with phytoplankton, microscopic marine algae that form
the base of the marine food web. Studies in the tropics have shown that significant amounts of ultraviolet radiation can kill
them, while lesser amounts can slow photosynthesis and thus productivity. In Antarctica, this could affect kill, tiny
crustaceans a notch up the food chain, and then fish, birds and marine mammals including seals and whales. While water
provides some protection from radiation, crude estimates indicate that ultraviolet radiation can penetrate to depths of 10 to 20
meters. Some phytoplankton is known to be tolerant of ultraviolet radiation, whereas others cannot tolerate any. A likely
response will be for tolerant species to replace sensitive ones, though no one knows how this would affect the fish that eat
them.
Nations Joining to Protect the Ozone Layer
The Montreal Protocol on Substances That Deplete the Ozone Layer, negotiated in September 1987, calls for 50 per cent
reduction in CFC production from 1986 levels by 1999. Forty-nine nations- including Canada, the United States Japan, and
many nations in Europe, which together consume 80 percent of the chemicals controlled-have ratified the protocol. The

protocol is a delicate balance between the most up-to-date scientific information, reliable industrial expertise, and committed
political leadership, all supported by strong and informed public interest. The Montreal Protocol may prove to be a model for
actions that span national boundaries and interests as the world addresses common environmental issues such as greenhouse
warming and other forms of global change.
Wasteland Reclamation
What is land degradation? Land degradation refers to the physical or chemical processes, which make land, unfit for a variety
of purposes like agriculture, commercial, residential etc. Why land becomes degraded? Geological processes and
anthropogenic activities are chiefly responsible for land degradation. Can degraded land be reclaimed or rejuvenated? To
answer this grave question we have Central Arid Zone Research Area (CAZRA) at Jodhpur concerned with the conservation
of land. During recent years increase in human activity has led to the degradation of habitat including cultivated land forests,
Mangroves etc. About 50% of the land throughout the planet is arid with problem of acidity and salinity. Restoration of these
areas is a matter of concern for developed as well as developing countries. However, in sites method are relatively in
efficient. With the advent of biotechnology however a number of opportunities for recovery of degraded land have arisen
through manipulation of biological systems.
Wasteland
Land, which does not give enough economic return or is otherwise useless, can broadly be termed as wasteland. National
Wasteland Development Board (NWDB) in the ministry or Environment and Forest have defined wasteland as that land
which is degraded and is presently lying unutilized. Further it has classified it into two categories as i) Culturally wasteland
and ii) Non-cultural wasteland. Characteristics features of wasteland can be summarized as under:
The land becomes ecologically unstable and unproductive.
Land that has nearly or completely lost its topsoil.
Land that has developed toxicity in the zone of roots for the growth of most plants.
Land Reclamation
It is a process of making an uncultivable land fit for cultivation which is then said to have been reclaimed. Generally it is
carried out either by temporary or permanent control.
Temporary Control includes
1. Ploughing of salt-surface crust deeply into the soil
2. Removing surface accumulation from the soil
3. Neutralizing the effects of certain salts by use of other salts or acids
Permanent Control includes
1. Adequate lowering of water table
2. Satisfactory water infiltration
3. Leaching excess salts out of the soil
4. Intelligent management of soil
Physical Improvements involves
1. Applying enough water
2. Keeping drains open and in good repair
3. Preventing excessive evaporation
A few biotechnological methods are described below:
(i)
Reforestation through micro propagation
(ii)
Improvement in soilby mycorrhize
(iii)
Improvement of soilthrough N2 fixation
(iv)
Development of stress tolerant plant through biotechnology manipulation
(v)
Toxic site reclamation through selective engineer microbes
Reforestations (Micro Propagation)
Ex-situ conservation activities have been carried out through establishment of gene banks. They have become particularly
important for the conservation of crop varieties or improvement of crops and & a forestation programmes. The UNEP has
advocated for in-situ and ex-situ conservation efforts. However, funds for ex-situ conservation have been enhanced recently.
A special emphasis has been given to a forestation since forest is a good source of food, fodder, fiber and pulp. Moreover
they help in maintaining climatic stability and biodiversity. It has been shown that degraded lands can be effectively used and
restored by planting forests. Using trees of wide adaptability and productivity for this purpose clonal propagation method
have been prescribed rather than using seeds of uncertain genetic quality. Clonal micro propagation can be achieved through
techniques of tissue culture. It has been estimated that multiplication state of 100-200 per year is technically possible for
many species towards this objective genotypes capable of growing well on degraded land have been selected for mass
propagation/multiplication.
The clonal multiplication involves 4 steps.
(i)
Maintaining an aseptic culture
(ii)
Shoot multiplication using apical meristem or buds
(iii)
Rooting of in vitro forms shoots
(iv)
Acclimatization and transfer of micro propagated plantlets to the field
According to an estimate in 1990 500 million plants of diverse nature were produced through micro propagation in 60
countries. In New Zealand large number of micro propagation plantlets Pine trees (Pinus radiata) are been used and it is
estimated that 2 million plantlets were in the field in the year 1992.
Methods for Reclaiming Land
1. Reclamation & management of saline and alkaline soils can be done through:
Alkali soils usually contain excessive amounts of sodium and therefore have a poor physical condition. To be reclaimed these
soils must be changed chemically and improved physically. The chemical changes consist of exchanging calcium for sodium
and thus leaching away the Na salts. Application of PO4 fertilizers is usually recommendable for low phosphorous containing
soils.

2.

Reclamation of waterlogged land:

Agricultural land is said to be water logged when its fertility is affected by the height of water table, due to flooding of root
zone of plants, ill-aeration results. They can be made productive by providing efficient surface drainage and sub-surface
drainage, Pipe/tile drains, deep open trenches
3. Reclamation of soils damaged by sea water:
Areas near seacoasts suffer occasional flooding by seawater. In such cases soil shaves reclaimed by pumping out the excess
salts, water & drainage e.g. Netherlands.
4. Reclamation of mined wasteland:
Mining and its allied works have ravaged the land surface. To reclaim such ravaged lands species selected should be able to
quickly grow and effectively stabilize and improve the soil. Mixture of grasses rather than woody perennials is preferred.
Consumerism and Waste Products
Increase in demand on depleting resources is never-ending and human beings quest to achieve breakthroughs in technical
advancements will never be final. People to satisfy their wants and lead a more comfortable life relate the concept of
consumerism to increased usage of consumer goods. People easily adapt to disposable life-style as it leads to a cut down on
household chores. The market forces devise such things to sell comfort to people, which attract people, the most. Soon people
realize that comfort has become the necessity of life. The Indian market trend and culture is fast adapting to the western
society where packed food material and other life supporting commodities are readily available in packed condition. Market
strategies set to work trying new tactics to get consumers buy more. People in turn make consumption a way of their life,
which leads to generation of solid Waste problems. People consume and throwaway the refuge at an ever-growing rate.
Packed food resource consumption is, in itself a great problem to deal with. We get easy food supply even in aeroplanes and
trains in packed condition. Besides our daily life activities related to consumption of flour, vegetable, milk, butter, marketing
of household goods and others all takes place through plastic bags, paper bags, tin cans and others. Plastic bags are nonbiodegradable. So when they are thrown away, they create havoc that is potentially eternal. Municipal reports from Assam
and Haryana speak of drains clogged by discarded plastic bags, backflow in sewage pipes, and disease spreading through
pond-like accumulation of sewage, which also serves as sites of mosquito breeding. Nations with high standard of living
generate more of solid waste than developing countries. This causes an ever-increasing burden of garbage, which in turn is
related to their disposal problems. Even land filling and other methods of disposal have their own limitations. We need ample
of land to bury, burn or dispose waste. Ash from incineration is also a major problem because the ash contains lead,
cadmium, mercury, and arsenic in various proportions from batteries, lighting fixtures and pigments. The toxic substances are
more concentrated in the ash than in the original garbage and can lead to water pollution. Case studies shows that even land
beneath landfills get polluted and cause air pollution above the ground and water pollution below the ground. The most
fundamental way to reduce waste is to prevent it from ever becoming waste. Another way market operations reduce waste is
by making consumer products in concentrated form. Municipal composting is another source-reduction technique. On an
individual level, we can all attempt to reduce the amount of waste we generate. Every small personal commitment from each
of us could have the cumulative result of a significant magnitude in reducing the solid waste production.
The Environment Protection Act, 1986
(No. 29 of 1986) An Act to provide for the protection and improvement of environment and for matters connected therewith,
whereas decisions were taken at the United Nations Conference on the Human Environment held at Stokholm in June 1972,
in which India participated, to take appropriate steps for the protection and improvement of human environment;
Short Title, Extent and Commencement
1. This Act may be called the Environment (Protection) Act, 1986.
2. It extends to the whole of India.
3. It shall come into force on such date as the Central Government may, by notification in the Official Gazette, appoint and
different dates may be appointed for different provisions of this Act and for different areas.
The Act clearly states and explains each and every term very precisely like environment, environmental pollutants,
environmental pollution, handling, hazardous substance, occupier, prescribed.
General Powers of the Central Government
Power of Central Government to take measures to protect and improve environment
1. Subject to the provisions of this Act, the Central Government shall have the power to take all such measures, as it deems
necessary or expedient for the purpose of protecting and improving the quality of the environment.
2. Planning and execution of a nationwide programme for the prevention, control and abatement of environmental pollution;
3. Laying down standards for the quality of environment in its various aspects;
4. Laying down standards for emission or discharge of environmental pollutants from various sources.
5. Restriction of areas in which any industries, operations or processes or class of industries, operations or processes shall not
be carried out or shall be carried out subject to certain safeguards;
6. Laying down procedures and safeguards for the handling of hazardous substances;
7. Examination of such manufacturing processes, materials and substances as are likely to cause environmental pollution;
8. Carrying out and sponsoring investigations and research relating to problems of environmental pollution;
9. Inspection of any premises, plant, equipment, machinery, manufacturing or other processes, materials or substances and
giving, by order, of such directions touch authorities, officers or persons as if may consider necessary to take steps for the
prevention, control and abatement of environmental pollution;
10. Preparation of manuals, codes or guides relating to the prevention, control and abatement of environmental pollution.
Air Pollution Act, 1981
An Act to provide for the prevention, control and abatement of air pollution, for the establishment, with a view to carrying
out the aforesaid purposes, of Boards, for conferring on and assigning to such Boards powers and functions relating thereto
and for matters connected therewith. Whereas decisions were taken at the United Nations Conference on the Human
Environment hold in Stockholm in June, 1972, in which India participated, to take appropriate steps for the preservation of
the natural resources of the earth which, among other things, include the preservation of the quality of air and control of air
pollution and whereas it is considered necessary to implement the decisions aforesaid in so far as they relate to the
preservation of the quality of air and control of air pollution.
Short title, extent and commencement
1. This Act may be called the Air (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act, 1981.
2. It extends to the whole of India.
3. It shall come into force on such date as the Central Government may, by notification in the official Gazette, appoint.

The Act clearly states and explain each and every term very precisely air pollutant, air pollution, approved appliances,
approved fuel, automobile, central board, chimney, control equipment, emission, industrial plant, member, occupier,
prescribed, state board.
Water Pollution Act, 1974
An Act to provide for the prevention and control of water pollution and the maintaining or restoring of wholesomeness of
water, for the establishment, with a view to carrying out the purposes aforesaid, of Boards for the prevention and control of
water pollution, for conferring on and assigning to such Board powers and functions relating thereto and for matters
connected therewith. Whereas it is expedient to provide for the prevention and control of water pollution and the maintaining
or restoring of wholesomeness of water, for the establishment, with a view to carrying out the purposes aforesaid, of Boards
for the prevention and control of water pollution and for conferring on and assigning to such Boards powers and functions
relating thereto.
Short title, application and commencement
1. This Act may be called the Water (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act, 1974,
2. It applies in the first instance to the whole of the States of Assam, Bihar, Gujarat, Haryana, Himachal Pradesh, Jammu and.
Kashmir, Karnataka, Kerala, Madhya Pradesh, Rajasthan, Tripura and West Bengal and the Union Territories; and it shall
apply to such other State which adopts this Act by resolution passed in that behalf under clause (1) of the article 252 of the
Constitution.
3. It shall come into force, at once in the States of Assam, Bihar, Gujarat, Haryana, Himachal Pradesh, Jammu and Kashmir,
Kamataka, Kerala, Madhya Pradesh, Rajasthan, Tripura and West Bengal and in the Union Territories; and in any other State
which adopted this Act under clause (1) of article 252 of the Constitution on the date of such adoption and any reference in
this Act to the commencement of this Act shall, in relation to any State or Union Territory, mean the date on which this Act
comes into force in such State of Union territory.
The Act clearly states and explains each and every term very precisely like board, central board, member, outlet, pollution,
prescribed, sewage effluent, sewer, state board, state government, trade effluent etc.
The Wildlife (Protection) Act, 1972
An Act to provide for the protection of wild animals and birds and for matters connected therewith or ancillary or incidental
thereto.
Short title, extent and commencement
1. This Act may be called the Wild Life (Protection) Act, 1972
2. It extends, in the first instance, to the whole of the States of Andhra Pradesh, Bihar, Gujarat, Haryana, Himachal Pradesh,
Madhya Pradesh, Manipur, Punjab, Rajasthan, Uttar Pradesh and West Bengal and to all the Union territories; and it shall
also extend to such other State as may adopt this Act by resolution passed in that behalf in pursuance of CI. (1) of Art.252 of
the Constitution.
It shall come into force in a State of Union territory to which it extends, or may become extended in future, on such date as
the Central Government may, by notification, appoint, and different dates may be appointed for different provisions of this
Act or for different States or Union territories. The Act clearly states and explains each and every term very precisely like
animal, animal article, big game, board, captive animal, cattle, chief wild life warden, closed area, collector, commencement
of this act, dealer, director, game reserve, government property, habitat, hunting, land, license, manufacturer, meat, national
park, notification, permit person, prescribed, sanctuary, small game, special game, state government, taxidermy, trophy,
uncured trophy, vehicle, vermin, weapon, wild animal, wild life, wile life warden.
Forest Conservation Act
Indias Forest Policies
Development of forest is guided by the policies adopted by a nation to manage them. Scientific forestry was adopted in India
since over a century back. Countrys first forest policy was enunciated in 1894. After the Independence, Indian Republic
therefore formulated her National Forest Policy in 1952. The National Commission on Agriculture established in
1970 went into the forestry situation in the country and suggested a need for a new forest policy, in their Report of 1976. The
Constitution of the Independent India placed forests under the State List of the Seventh Schedule in 1950. The States were
vested with the administration of the forests. The Constitution has recognized the importance of protection of forests and
their improvement. It is stipulated in Article 48-A, that the State shall endeavourer to protect and improve the environment
and to safeguard the forests and wildlife of the country. The period between 1950 and today has witnessed large-scale
depletion of forests and attrition of forestlands. Forests lands were cleared and diverted to other uses like agriculture,
industries, hydroelectric projects, settlement of displaced persons and foreign refugees, etc.
This also resulted in diminishing wildlife in the country due to loss of their habitat. Realizing the importance of forests for
the wellbeing of the nation, the Parliament, by the 42nd
Amendment to the Constitution, in 1976, brought Forests and Wildlife on the concurrent list in Seventh Schedule. In the year
1980, the President of India promulgated the Forest (Conservation) Ordinance, 1980, which put severe restrictions on dereservation of forest or use of forestland for non-forest purposes, without prior approval of the Central Government.
Forests play three important roles in national economy of any country, they are: (a) Protective, (b) productive and (c) as a
source of accessory benefits. This calls for an effective legislation. The Indian Forest Act, 1927, is in force today for the same
purpose. Similarly a comprehensive legislation for the protection of wildlife and nature is to be found in the Wildlife
(Protection) Act, 1972.
Issues involved in enforcement of Environmental, Legislation
Politics and the environment cannot be separated. The late 1980s and early 1990s witnessed a new international concern
about the environment, both in the developed and developing nations of the world. Environmentalism is also seen as a
growing factor in international relations. This concern is leading to international cooperation where only tension has existed
before. While there exists no world political body that can enforce international environmental protection, the list of
multilateral environmental organizations is growing. There is no international legislature with authority to pass laws; nor are
there international agencies with power to regulate resources on a global scale. An international court at the Hague in the
Netherlands has no power to enforce its decisions. Nations can simply ignore the court if they wish. This environmental
coming of age is reflected in the broadening of intellectual perspective. Governments used-to be preoccupied with
domestic environmental affairs. Now, they are beginning to broaden their scope to confront problems that cross international
borders, such as trans boundary air and water pollution, and threats of a planetary nature, such as stratospheric ozone

depletion and climatic warming. It is becoming increasingly evident that only decisive mutual action can secure the kind of
world we seek.
Factors Affecting International Environmental Laws
Identification and gravity of the problem: It is easier to find a solution to a problem once it is widely acknowledged as
critical.
Statistics: Sufficient fieldwork should be done to collect the required data on the extent of the problem to find possible
solutions.
Geo-Location: To identify the sources and cause of problems and the areas under its effects.
Law and order: Whether countries have laws protecting the environment and administrative proceedings to enforce those
laws.
National and international pressures: Who favors and who opposes action on the issue in each country.
Infrastructure (Institutions and policies): Whether there is a mechanism in place for cooperative action among the interested
countries.
International cooperation: Whether the affected countries have a tradition of cooperation or conflict.
The Central Pollution Control Board (CPCB)
The Central Pollution Control Board (CPCB) a statutory organization was constituted in September, 1974 under the Water
(Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act, 1974. It serves as a source of information and also provides technical services to
the Ministry of Environment and Forests based on the provisions of the Environment (Protection) Act, 1986.
Principal functions of the CPCB, as spelt out in the Water (Prevention and Control of Pollution)
Act, 1974, and the Air (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act, 1981, are:
(i) To promote cleanliness of streams and wells in different areas of the States by prevention, control and abatement of water
pollution, and
(ii) To improve the quality of air and to prevent, control or abate air pollution in the country. One of the mandates of CPCB is
to collect, collate and disseminate technical and statistical data relating to water, air and land pollution.
Functions of the Central Pollution Control Board (CPCB)
One em Advise the Central Government on any matter concerning prevention and control of water and air pollution
and improvement of the quality of air.
Plan and cause to be executed a nation-wide programme for the prevention, control or abatement of water and air
pollution;
Co-ordinate the activity of the State Board and resolve disputes among them;
Provide technical assistance and guidance to the State Boards, carry out and sponsor investigation and research
relating to problems of water and air pollution, and for their prevention, control or abatement;
Plan and organize training of persons engaged in programme on the prevention, control or abatement of water and
air pollution;
Organize through mass media, a comprehensive mass awareness programme on the prevention, control or abatement
of water and air pollution;
Collect, compile and publish technical and statistical data relating to water and air pollution and the measures
devised for their effective prevention, control or abatement;
Prepare manuals, codes and guidelines relating to treatment and disposal of sewage and trade effluents as well as for
stack gas cleaning devices, stacks and ducts;
Disseminate information in respect of matters relating to water and air pollution and their prevention and control.
Lay down, modify or annul, in consultation with the State Governments concerned, the standards for the quality of
air and water.
The State Pollution Control Board
At state level individual pollution control boards have been constituted which has a Chairman initiated by the state
government who has special knowledge and practical experience in respect matters relating to environmental protection. The
board also consists of members representing Government, local authorities and members from interest groups representing
agriculture, industry, trade and labour.
Functions of the State Pollution Control Board
To plan a comprehensive programme for the prevention, control or abatement of pollution and to implement the
same.
To advise the State Government on any matter concerning the prevention, control or abatement of pollution.
To collect and disseminate information relating to pollution.
To collaborate with the Central Board in organizing training programs and mass education programmes.
To inspect control equipment, industrial plant or manufacturing process and to issue directions to take steps for the
prevention, control or abatement of pollution.
To inspect air pollution control areas at such intervals to assess the quality of air take steps for the prevention,
control or abatement of air pollution.
To lay down, in consultation with the Central Board, standards for emission of air pollutants from industrial plants
and automobiles and for the discharge of any air pollutant into the atmosphere from any other source.
Advise the State Government with respect to the suitability of any premises or location for carrying on any industry
which is likely to cause air pollution.
Establish or recognize laboratories to perform its functions efficiently.
Public Awareness
Environmental Science aims at creating understanding among masses of the delicate balance, which exists, between natural
environment and its dependents (humans) to optimize the exploitation of resources on economic basis, which would lead to
sustainable development. Secondly, it encourages students and researchers to make careers in the field of environment
knowledge of the basic principles of ecology and environmental science would inbuilt a sense of duty in the citizens to care
and. manage the natural resources on an optimal basis. Such awareness is essential because the causes and solutions to
environmental problems are often linked. Public awareness addresses issues by which a common man becomes aware of
activities, which would result in improvement of the overall environment When public awareness rises to a level where
masses come to know the dos and donts of the environment, the rules and regulation have little role to play. People should
understand that how they should react to pollution problems, natural hazards, anthropogenic hazards, waste-disposal
problem, hunting, deforestation and ecosystem problems (bio-magnification, food chain and food web concept).

Public awareness increases upon making the people understand how malpractices affect environmental systems and in turn
how environmental systems affect whom. But one important question arises here. Who would inform whom and when?
Public participation in environmental decision-making can help to a great extent. Their participation has both moral and
practical implications. Environmental awareness increases easily in financially stable and better-educated people through
book reading, films, newspaper, magazines and other electronic media. Nongovernmental organizations (NGOs) can play a
better role in spread of information up to village levels. Addressing issues of environmental significance to private voluntary
organizations, NGOs, farmers, organizations, cooperatives, schools, universities - and private entrepreneurs, can increase
public awareness. This would bring more information to bear on the planning process. Among the various sources, which can
increase the public awareness the role of mass media, is vibrant. It is so because people love to watch T.V., listen radio, read
newspaper and magazines.

Unit V
HUMAN POPULATION AND THE ENVIRONMENT
Population Growth:
Introduction
Human society is governed by interaction and cooperation with other human beings. Latest trends in technology and medical
knowledge are available to control human population growth and to improve the health. Still population continues to increase
and poverty become greater than ever before. Humans are social animals who have freedom of choice. They largely take
decision by heart rather than mind. It is evident from historical records, social situations, ethical and religious considerations
and personal desires. Today the greatest hindrance to controlling human population is no more biological but falls into the
province of philosophers, theologians, politicians, sociologists, and others. The cause of the population problem is to be
understood if we are to deal successfully with the population problem.
Carrying Capacity
The carrying capacity of an area is the number of individuals of a species that can survive in that area over time. In most
populations, four broad categories of factors determine the carrying capacity for a population.
These factors are:
(1) The availability of raw materials,
(2) The availability of energy,
(3) The accumulation of waste products and their means of disposal and
(4) Interactions among organisms.
The total of all of these forces acting together to limit populations size is known as environmental resistance, and certain
limiting factors have a primary role in limiting the size of a population. In some cases, these limiting factors are easy to
identify and may involve lack of food, lack of oxygen, competition with other species, or disease.
The Human Population Issue
Current population growth has led to famine in areas where food production cannot keep pace with population growth;
political unrest areas with great disparities in availability of resources (jobs: goods, food); environmental degradation by poor
agricultural practices (erosion, desertification); water pollution by human and industrial waste; air pollution caused by the
human need to use energy for personal use and for industrial applications; extinctions caused by people converting natural
ecosystems to managed agricultural ecosystems; and. Destructive effects of exploitation of natural resources (strip, mining,
oil spills, groundwater mining). In addition to population size, the kind of demands a population places on its resources is
also important. Highly industrialized populations require much more energy and material resources to sustain their way of
life than do the populations of the less-developed world.
A Population Growth Curve
Sex ratios and age distributions within a population directly influence the rate of reproduction within a population. Each
species has an inherent reproductive capacity, or biotic potential, which is its ability to produce offspring. However, this high
reproductive potential results in a natural tendency for populations to increase. For example, two mice produce four
offspring, which, if they live, will also produce offspring while their parents are also reproducing. Therefore, the population
will tend to grow in an exponential fashion. Population growth tends to follow a particular pattern, consisting of a lag phase,
an exponential growth phase, and a stable equilibrium phase. Fig. 15 shows a typical population growth curve. During the
first portion of curve, known as the lag phase, the population grows very slowly because the process of reproduction and
growth of offspring takes time. Most organisms do not reproduce instantaneously but must first mature into adults. Mating
and the development of the young ones into independent organisms follow this period. By the time the first batch of young
has reached sexual maturity, the parents may be in the process of producing a second set of offspring. Since more total
organisms now are reproducing, the population begins to increase at an exponential rate. This stage in the population growth
curve is known as the exponential growth phase. This growth will continue for as long as the, birth rate exceeds the death
rate. Eventually, however, the death rate and the birth rate will come to equal one another, and the population will stop
growing and reach a relatively stable population. size and is said to be the stable equilibrium phase. Hence, populations
cannot grow continuously because of the concept of carrying capacity.
Causes of Population Growth
There is an ultimate carrying capacity for the human population and limiting factors will come into play to cause populations
to stabilize. However, unlike populations of other kinds of organisms, human populations are also influenced by a variety of
social, political, economic, and ethical factors. Humans have accumulated knowledge that allows for predictions about the
future and can make conscious decisions based on the likely course of events and adjust their lives accordingly. Part of that
knowledge is the certainty that as populations continue to increase, death rates and birth rates will become equal. This can be
accomplished by allowing the death rate to rise or by choosing to limit the birth rate. It would seem that controlling human
population should be a simple process. Once everyone understands that lowering the birth rate is more human than allowing
the death rate to rise, most people should make the correct decision; however, it is not quite that simple.

Biological Reasons for Population Growth

The study of human populations, their characteristics, and what happens to them is known as demography. Demographers
can predict the future growth of a population by looking at several different biological indicators. When we look at birth rates
and death rates in various countries of the world, in almost all cases the birth rate exceeds the death rate. Therefore, the size
of the population must increase. Some countries that have high birth rates and high death rates, with birth rates greatly
exceeding the death rates, will grow rapidly (Afghanistan and Ethiopia). Such countries Usually have an extremely high
mortality rate among children because of disease and malnutrition. Some countries have high birth rates and low death rates
and will grow extremely rapidly ~Guatemala and Syria). Infant mortality rates are moderately high in these countries. Other
countries have low birth rates and death rates that closely match the birth rates and will grow slowly (Sweden and the United
Kingdom). These and other more, developed countries typically have very low infant mortality rates. Obviously, the most
important determinant of the rate at which human populations grow is related to the number of women in the population who
are having children and the number each will have. The total fertility rate of a population is the number of children born per
woman per lifetime. A total fertility rate of 2.1 is known as replacement fertility, since in the long run, if the total fertility rate
is 2.1, population growth will stabilize. When population is not growing and the number of births equals the number of
deaths, it is said to exhibit zero population growth. The age structure of a population also has a great deal to do with the rate
of population growth. If a population has a large number of young people who are in the process of raising families or who
will be raising families in the near future, the population will continue to increase even if the families limit themselves to two
children.
Factors Controlling Population Growth
Man is the only one who has regulated his population by developing new astonishing technologies for better and secured
future on one hand. And on other hand, creates a problem of population explosion. Some factors are:
(i) Famines in a country or state lead to destruction.
(ii) Natural calamities like floods, droughts, earthquakes and volcanic eruptions, hurricanes etc. lead to death of
thousands of people.
(iii) Epidemic diseases, endemic diseases wipe a big number of populations.
(iv) Wars cause heavy casualties.
(v) Unnatural accidents caused during transportation, fires etc.
Some factors that have helped the population growth are:
(a) High production of food and better technologies for storage, processing and distribution.
(b) Better medical facilities provided during childbirth and under five years ago by immunization.
The factors are many but they can be grouped into three as:
(i) Geographic factor: Like climate, soil, water, mineral resources, transportation etc.
(ii) Demographic factor: Like birth rates (natality), death rates (mortality), sex ratio etc.
(iii) Socio-economic factors: Like marriages, job availability, resources etc.
In the developed countries, population has started declining because of(i) Better medical and family planning facilities.
(ii) The low death and high birth rates. .
(iii) The educated people who know about the abuses of overpopulation have small family.
Population and Standard of Living
Standard of living is a difficult concept to quantify since different cultures have different attitudes and feelings about what is
good and desirable. Here, we compare averages of several aspects of the cultures in three countries: (1) the United States,
which is an example of a highly developed if industrialized country; (2) Argentina, which is a moderately developed country;
and (3) Zimbabwe, which is less developed. Obviously, tremendous differences exist in the standard of living among these
three countries. What the average U.S. citizen would consider a poverty level of existence would be considered a luxurious
life for the average person in a poorly developed country. Standard of living seems to be closely tied to energy consumption.
Population Explosion-Family Welfare Programme:
Growth of Human Population
Emigration: The number of individuals going out from a population to join another population in a new locality resulting in
decrease of the original population.
Immigration: It is the addition of new individuals to the population from other localities.
Density dependent factors: An increase in population leads to competition, since all its individuals have identical
requirements for food and space. Population increase causes scarcity of food, consequently leading to death due to starvation.
Density independent factors: Interaction between populations in a given area can lead to mutual benefits, to competition for
resources or dependence of one on the other.
Population explosion: The very great and continuing increase in human population in modern times. This is a great hazard to
the development and prosperity of a nation.
Consequences of population explosion:
(i) It can lead to depletion of resources.
(ii) Severe competition for food and space.
(iii) Increase in psychological stress and strain.
(iv) Rapid pollution of environment.
(v) Large scale unemployment.
To meet the demands- of growing population, forests are cut, oceans are exploited and the entire natural equilibrium gets
disturbed. A growth human population first faces the problem of food, then shelter and thirdly other socio-economic
problems. Even if enough food is produced and the population growth does not show a steady slow growth but explosions
then many secondary problems will certainly arise which are more persisting and problematic. Like in increase in
competition for shelter, education, medical, rise in price index, ecological crisis etc.
Human Population: Malthuss Human Population Theory
In 1798 T.R. Malthus published an essay on population; the great economist outlined the problem of population graphically
and stated that human population tends to increase in geometrical pattern (1-2-4-8.......) whereas the food production
increases by arithmetic progression (1-2-3-4.........). This is called as theory of human population growth proposed by
Malthus. For nearly 150 years Malthus view was nearly forgotten as the advancement of technologies to place. The world
population during Stone Age was only 10 million as indicated in records. Earlier the annual growth rate, in last three

centuries was roughly 0.4 = 0.5% whereas it reached to 2% in last two decades. The doubling time (the time required by a
population to double itself) reduced from 200 years in 1650 A.D. to merely 35 years in 1980. During 1800 A.D. the birth rate
and death rate was almost balanced.

Current Population Trends

Currently, the world population is over 5.5 billion. By the year 2010, this is expected to increase to just over 7 billion people,
in Africa, Asia, and Latin America, which already have nearly 80 percent of the world population. The total population of
Africa, Asia, and Latin America will increase from the current 4.4 billion to over 7 billion by 20 I 0, when they will contain
83 percent of the worlds people. These regions not only have the highest population growth rates, but also have the lowest
per capita gross national product (GNP). The GNP is an index that measures the total goods and services generated within a
country. This large difference in economic well being is reflected in dissimilarity in the standard of living, an abstract
measure of the degree to which necessities and comforts of daily life are met.

Consequences of Continued Population Growth

As the human population continues to increase, the pressure for the necessities of life will become greater. Differences in
standard of living between developed and less-developed countries will remain great because most population increases will
occur in less-developed countries. The supply of fuel and other resources is dwindling. The pressure for these resources will
intensify as the industrialized countries seek to maintain their current standard of living. People in less developed countries
will continue to seek more land to raise the crops needed to feed themselves unless major increases in food production per
hectare occur. Developed countries may have to choose between helping the less developed countries while maintaining their
friendship, or isolating themselves from the problems of the less developed nations. Even if the industrialized countries
continue to get a disproportionate share of the worlds resources, the amount of resource per person will decline as population
rises. It seems that, as world population increases, the less developed areas will maintain their low standard of living.

Measures to Control over Population

Various methods for discouraging population growth in shortest period are:
(i) To educate the people about the abuses of overpopulation (Population education), food production, self-employment.
(ii) To provide free family planning aids (Family planning methods).
(iii) Motivating people to undergo sterilization process (Birth control).
(iv) More incentives to families observing family planning norms (Limited family)
(v) By imposing legal restrictions (by laws). (vi) Over-population is one of the numerous problems facing India. The solution
of the population problem is very urgent. The population problem can be solved by major steps, which are given below:
(a) Education: The enormous rate at which Indian parents have been producing children is because of illiteracy and
ignorance. People should be educated about the consequences of over-population and uses of planned and small family.
(b) Family planning: The expression family planning means a deliberate effort, and the adoption of suitable methods, to
restrict the growth of family. That is to say family planning involves a deliberate limitation on the size of family.
Following are some of the important family planning measures:
Use of contraceptives (Mechanical, Chemical and Natural methods): Contraception means the prevention of
conception. There are many contraceptive techniques available for use e.g. Today etc.
Sterilization
Abortion
Use of other natural methods
Mechanical method
Condom (For males use): The condom is a sheath of rubber, which fits over the erect penis. It is placed on the penis of
male before it is introduced into the vagina for copulation.
Diaphragm (For females use): The diaphragm is a rubber cup stretched over collapsible metal spring coil. It is designed to
fit over the cervix (the mouth of uterus).
Intrauterine Contraceptive Device (IUD): It is a small metal or plastic device, which is designed to fit inside the uterus
mouth. A doctor must fit and remove IUD.
Norplant: A new implant has been cleared by Health Ministry of India. The implant placed below the skin, ensures the
contraceptive power up to 5 years. It is new contraceptive to India and there is some resistance to womans body.
Initially it will be used in urban areas.
Chemical Method
Jellies, creams and foam: A number of different spermicidal jellies, creams, and foams are available for use of contraceptive
agents. These jellies, creams or foams are inserted into vagina five to fifteen minutes before copulation to take place.
Oral contraceptive: These are popularly known as pill, which are combinations of synthetic sex hormones (estrogens and
progesterone) e.g. overall, mala. They suppress the production of ovum by hormones and alter the adulatory cycle.
Sterilization: It is surgical technique by which the passage of sperms or ovum is disconnected. Both men and women can be
sterilized without losing their ability to function sexually.
Vasectomy: In man the sterilization procedure is called a vasectomy. In this procedure the vesa differentia, the tubes that
lead from the testes to the ejaculatory ducts, are cut so that the sperm produced in the testis cannot reach the ejaculatory ducts
to enter the ejaculate.
Tubectomy: In females tubectomy is done. In this procedure, the fallopian tubes, which transport the egg from the ovaries to
the uterus are cut and tied off.
Environment and Human Health:
Webster Collegiate Dictionary defines health as the state of being hale and sound in body mind or soul especially from
physical disease or pain. The concept of health incorporates physical state free from diseases, social and mental caliber of a
human being. Community refers to a group of persons living at one place that shares and have social contact. A healthy man
is an asset to the country, but a sick man is a burden. Community health services provide medical treatment of various
diseases, controls the spread of communicable diseases, control of pests and insects, social welfare health service, maternity
and child welfare services, school medical services, hospital, research institutions etc. Lack of nutrition, clothing and
improper housing, etc. spread many communicable diseases. Maternal and infant mortality
rate raises poverty also leads to child abuse, liquor and drug addiction, exploitation and crime against women, etc.
Environment and health are inter-dependent. Physical environment include climate, sound and radioactive pollution sunrays
and heat, air pressure, water and air directly or indirectly affect our health. A person is surrounded by biological environment
where insects and many other biological microbes, which in turn spread diseases. Social and economic environment also
determine the standard of health. Mans social environment is developed in a family and family is the basic unit of a society.
Small-sized families where family members are happy and prosperous their health will be in good condition. In large families
rearing of children become a difficult task. Meeting the demands of nutritious food and health are not given priority with the
result childrens personality and overall development suffers.
(i) Socio-economic factor
It leads to inadequate family resources, which cannot fulfill the wants and thus reduces the health standards and food problem
is more prevalent in poor families. Lack of sanitary habits and inappropriate nutritional food will develop communicable and
harmful diseases. Illiteracy is one of the major defects to raise the standard of living, sanitation and health.
(ii) Communicable disease problem
In India communicable diseases generally spread on a large scale. The contaminated food and water intake, dirt, sewage
waste, improper light and pure air, Improper ventilation arrangements in the house, stagnant water and dirt, overcrowding,
lavatory and cleanliness are some of the causes for the spread of diseases. Communicable diseases may spread through air,
contact, contaminated food and water directly. Cholera diarrhea, typhoid etc., are some of the diseases. Insects and microbial
parasites spread malaria and plague like diseases.
Importance of Environment
Vegetative plants and trees are called autotrophy because they can produce their own food through the process of
Photosynthesis, this category is primary productive unit and their entire living organism depends on the vegetation for
acquiring food. Photographs like insects, animals, birds and all human beings cannot produce their own food. Some
microorganisms like bacteria, fungus, microbes, etc., derive food from dead plants and animals. Thus, all the living
organisms are interdependent for their survival. Human being is always adjusting to the ever-changing environment and in
the past he has never attempted to alter it. But after twentieth century there has been a tremendous increase in physical wants
and desires. Fast development in every sphere of life has undergone with the ever-increasing wants and demands for food
products. Ever increasing pressure on land has caused forestland to be utilized for cultivation. There is all-round development

and progress in the field of science and industries, new technology is being introduced and I variety of products are now
being produced. As a result environmental pollution has increased. New technology has provided us goods to make our lives
happier, more comfortable and luxurious, pollution hazards and its ill effect are being observed in every sphere of life. There
is general reduction in physical power and energy, also deterioration of health standards. Development and destruction are
co-related and give rise to many problems due to environmental pollution, water pollution, air pollution, destruction of
forests, disappearing wild life, radiation effect, on living organisms. Man is acquiring essential resources from the nature
itself. Hence, it is essential to protect and preserve the natural resources. Natural disaster and destruction have increased the
temperature on the earth is steadily rising. Certain drastic steps are needed in order to save our planet.
Diseases
(a) Through respiration: By nose, mouth, lungs, cough, sneeze, spit, spreads cold, measles, tuberculosis, pneumonia, etc.
(b) Through intestine: Human excreta spread typhoid, diarrhoea, intestinal worms, cholera, poliomyelitis, etc.
(c) Skin: Scale of the skin, skin pus like smallpox, measles, etc.
(d) Through blood: AIDS, malaria, yellow fever, dengue, filarial, etc., are some of the diseases which spread through blood.
1. Diphtheria
It is an acute infectious and communicable disease caused by involvement of respiratory system. The microorganisms of this
disease attack the tonsils, trachea, nasal passage and sound box and secrete a false membrane of oxytoxin, which cause
inflammation. In severe conditions it causes difficulty in breathing. This disease is quite common among the children of the
age of 6 months to five years. It can also occur up to the age of 15 years. The mortality rates are 50% in respect of diphtheria
occurring below the age of 5 years.
Pathogenic organism: The microbes spreading diphtheria belong to bacillus group and are of three types:
1. C. Diphtheria gravies
2. C. Diph. Intermedius
3. C. Diph. Miti
Mode of spread: The spread of this disease may be by:
(a) Direct contact chiefly through the carriers, whether sick or healthy. Nasal carriers are more dangerous than throat
carriers.
(b) Indirect transmission through infected articles such as, clothes, toys, utensils, etc.
Incubation period: It is of 2 to 5 days duration when the microbes enter the body.
Infective period: After the patient shows the symptoms of diphtheria and the period when microorganism leave the body
is of 2-5 weeks on an average.
Symptoms: Initially the patient feels weak, nausea, and loses appetite and alertness.
Immunization: D.P.T. (Diphtheria, Whooping cough, Tetanus) vaccine is introduced to the child at the age of 6 weeks to 9
months in three doses. This vaccine is given at the interval of one month. A booster dose is given at the age of 2 years.
Prevention and Control
The patient should be isolated.
Disinfections of the home, bedding clothes, toys, utensils, etc., is done thoroughly.
2. Whooping cough or pertusis
Whooping cough or pertusis is an acute respiratory infections disease caused by Bacillus pertusis involving trachea, bronchi
and bronchioles creating intense cough. Whooping cough occurs in all ages. Effect of cold weather and in colder regions
enhances the incidence of disease.
Spread of disease: Since it is an infectious disease main source is the nasal discharge and cough. It spreads directly from
person to person.
Incubation period: It is of seven to fourteen days.
Infective period: Three weeks after the symptoms are observed. Symptoms: The patient coughs frequently and its severity
increases at night loss of appetite insomnia, weakness persists. Immunization: Vaccine is prepared from dead bacillus and
is administered along with D.P.T. (Diphtheria, pertusis, tetanus).
3. Tuberculosis
It is a chronic bacterial disease and highly infectious. Tuberculosis spreads through air and affects the lungs of the person. It
is caused by tubercle bacillus. This is prevalent both in tropical and temperate climate.
Spread of disease: Tuberculosis spreads in the following manner:
(a) The infection spreads by inhalation of droplets expelled by the patient thro, sneezing, coughing, yawning etc.
(b) Through direct contact
(c) Infected articles, clothes, utensils, etc. may spread the disease.
Incubation period: Incubation period is about four to six weeks.
Symptoms: Initially, the patient feels easily exhausted, fatigue doing ordinary work and feels excessive fatigue. Loss of
appetite, hoarseness of throat, pain in the chest due to infected lungs. Patient sweats profusely at knight and feels weak.
Immunization: Child should be given B.C.G. (Bacillus Chalmette Guerine) vaccine by intra-dermal injection within the
first three months of age.
Control and prevention: Following steps need to be undertaken to control the spread of tuberculosis:
Health and general sanitary conditions of the community should be taken good care of. Every human being should
live in fresh air and sunshine.
Workers of cotton and ginning mills, coalmines, tobacco bidi making etc. should wear protective shield to prevent
inhalation of dust or silica dust.
Patient should be isolated. The disinfections of clothes, utensils, articles rooms etc. should be properly ensured.
4. Cholera
Cholera is an acute infectious disease caused by the infection of intestinal canal, characterized by sudden vomiting, watery
diarrhea, cramps in legs and leads to fast dehydration.
Pathogenic organisms: Cholera producing microorganisms are Vibrio species and they can belong to two sub-groups:
1. Vibrio cholera 2. Vibrio El tor
Vibrio cholerae: Vibrio cholerae is found in stools and vomits of the patient. It is active, mobile and grows in
alkaline medium. It dies at 55C in minutes. In contaminated water the organism can survive for two weeks. Insects,
particularly housefly disseminates this disease, Vibrio El tor: The other germ Vibrio el tor spreads in the Bay of
Bengal and coastal areas in large scale through direct contact, unhygienic conditions, over-crowding, fair and feast

on festivals incubation period: The duration of incubation period is very short, ranging from a few hours to five
days.
Period of communicability: Lasts until the patient is free from cholera germs.
Symptoms: Patient starts vomiting and suffers loose motions. This may lead to loss of water and minerals in the body.
Immunization: Vaccine is prepared from dead Vibrio cholera and is given when there is a danger of spread of cholera.
Prevention and Control
All deject should be collected in the can in which quick lime is placed at the bottom.
Anti-fly measures should be adopted.
Avoid eating of rotten fruit, boiling of water and milk, protection from flies and dust.
Phenyl, bleaching powder and other disinfectant should be sprayed in the area.
Segregation and disinfections of soiled clothes, articles used by the patient.
5. Malaria
Malaria spreads in the rainy season. The malaria parasite is a protozoon named Plasmodium. It survives in the red blood
corpuscles of the human blood. Man acquires infection by the bite of an infected female anopheles mosquito, which inject the
malarial parasites in the form of spores.
The malaria parasite is of four types:
(i) Plasmodium: It has a life cycle of 48 hours causing fever after every two days. .
(ii) Plasmodium malaria: It has a life cycle of 72 hours causing fever after every three days.
(iii) Plasmodium falciparum: Irregular fever may occur after every 48 hours. The symptoms are very severe and of
malignant type: high fever, delirium and death
(iv) Plasmodium ovale: This virus produces mild kind of malaria. They are found mostly
in Africa.
Incubation Period: The time when the insect bites and till the symptoms appear is called incubation period, which is
as follows:
1. Plasmodium vivex14 days
2. Plasmodium malaria30 days
3. Plasmodium falciparum12 days
Spread of disease: Female anopheles mosquito spreads malaria disease. For the spread of the disease, the optimum
conditions are a mean temperature of 20 to 30C with 63% humidity. Economic conditions, insufficient food, overcrowding, increase the incidence of malaria. Irrigation, leakage in canals, water logging, and rice cultivation may serve as
the breeding place for mosquitoes. Symptoms
The cold stage: The patient feels cold and suffers from fever, headache, nausea and vomiting.
Anemia and enlargement of spleen and liver are the after- effects of the disease.
Prevention of Malaria:
Malaria can be prevented in the following manner:
Proper drainage, removal of stagnant water.
To destroy mosquitoes at some stage of his life cycle i.e., during larva stage, or adults. Use of oil, diesel, kerosene,
Gammexane, etc. can destroy the breeding.
Cutting of vegetation, which has grown thickly, and servers as a breeding place in the daytime. Putting net, wire
grill on doors and windows.
6. Tetanus
A toxin of tetanus bacillus induces tetanus or lockjaw, followed by wound. Tetanus bacillus lives in the contaminated soil of
road, gardens and agriculture land. These microbes survive in the intestinal track of horses and cattle. They attack the nervous
system and causes instant death.
Spread of disease: The bacillus enters the body through various wounds and spread their toxin in the blood stream like
during operations, unhygienic deliveries of babies, etc.
Incubation Period: Generally it is of 8 to 10 days.
Immunization: Tetanus toxoid vaccine is given along with D.P.T. (Diphtheria, Pertusis, Tetanus). Intra-muscular injection
is given in three doses at the interval of one month. One booster dose is given at the age of 5-6 years and another booster
dose is repeated when the child is 10 years and 16 years of age. Tetanus vaccine is given as a preventive measure.
Prevention: All wounds should be treated carefully especially if there is a fear of contamination with refuses or soil
wound should be thoroughly cleaned with disinfectant or 3% iodine solution. In addition, ATS (Anti Tetanus-serum)
injection should be given.
Human Rights:
A right may be defined as something to which an individual has a just claim. Human rights are those that individuals have by
virtue of their existence as human beings. The right to life itself and the basic necessities of food and clothing may be
considered fundamental human rights. Human rights traditionally have been put in two categories as:
(i) Natural rights and
(ii) Civil rights.
Natural rights are those that belong to individuals by virtue of their humanity: the right to remain alive, to sustain life with
food and shelter and to follow the dictates of their conscience.
Civil rights are based on positive law: they are derived from laws and judicial decisions. Civil or legal rights are those
granted by a government. The entitlements are defined in the Universal Declaration of Human Rights adopted by the United
Nations General Assembly on Dec. 10, 1948, as a common standard of achievement for all people and nations. It urged the
right to political, economic, social and cultural self-determination the right to peace, the right to live in a healthful and
balanced environment and the right to share in the Earths resources. Here, we are dealing with that part of Human natural
rights which encompasses protection of environmental issues as these ultimately govern human health and survival:
(i) The right to life.
(ii) The right to an adequate standard of living and social security.
(iii) The right to education.
(iv) For children, the right to freedom from exploitation.
(v) The right of access to health-care services, with States aiming to reduce infant and child mortality and abolish traditional
practices prejudicial to health.
(vi) The right of access to clean air to breathe.
(vii) The right of access to drink-clear and clean water.
(viii) The right to live in noise pollution free environment.

(ix) The right of access to gifts of nature/ resources.

(x) The right to live in a disease free environment.
Value Education:
Aims of Health Education
The aims for community health education are as follows:
(i) Healthy practices in day-to-day living should be inculcated among the children from a very early age. This is how they
will be able to understand the importance of health, hygiene and sanitation. .
(ii) The knowledge about our body and various organs of our body and their functions helps a person to understand the
disease, its causes and common ailments. Such factors which affect the health standards like smoking, eating tobacco, drug
addiction intake of liquor etc., can be checked by resorting to some law and amendments to improve the health standards. .
(iii) In order to create a clean environment in a city or town, people should be encouraged and awareness be created. Clean
and safe drinking water system, good sanitary lavatories be provided at crowded places.
(iv) Proper arrangements for providing better health services to the people should be
ensured and they should be introduced to various governmental health programmes like mother and child welfare, child
welfare services, family planning, etc.
(v) Training programmes for officers, health workers, private doctors, nurses, midwives, etc. should be undertaken from time
to time.
(vi) Health education can be imparted in an effective manner by personal contact programmes.
(vii) Personal hygiene, regular exercise and rest, importance of nutritive foods, ventilation and its effect on health, clean
sanitary environment, causes of pollution and its prevention are some of the general topics for health education.
(viii) Practical knowledge should be provided about communicable diseases, serious health problems and first aid and
emergency services.
Principles of Health Education
Every individual learns and understand something from his culture and social background. Based on school health
programme adult-education programme is planned accordingly. Before understanding various teaching methods one should
know the principles behind learning. These principles are as follows:.
(i) Every individual has learning capacity throughout his life.
(ii) Learning capacity is not affected by advancing age of an individual, but by lack of interest and desire for learning.
(iii) For learning the same material, all individuals will not learn the same way. This variation is due to the background
experiences and individuals circumstances and exposure.
(iv) Individuals own effort will play a significant role in making a change in habits and concepts. Learning is not the outcome
of one individual saying something to other individual, but it is learnt through his own efforts and willingness.
(v) An individual learns for love, satisfaction. and basic human needs of survival, food and social approval. .
(vi) People learn faster when they are acquainted with the objectives and goals. Means of achieving those goals and use the
resources properly should be clear.
(vii) An individual take an appropriate time to learn something new, so one should be given enough time to absorb what he
has learnt.
Purification of water at domestic level
Purification of water at domestic level can be achieved by the following methods:
1. Distillation
2. Boiling
3. Filtration
4. Chemical method of sterilization
5. Ultra-violet sterilization.
(i) Distillation: In the process of distillation water is heated and evaporation takes place, whereby water changes back to
water when cooled. This process is called condensation. The condensed water is the purest form of water, free from microbes
and impurities.
(ii) Boiling: It is boiled for ten minutes to kill the microbes present in it and also removes the temporary hardness of water.
(iii) Filtration: Different varieties of filters are used to purify the water at domestic level.
Chemical methods for water sterilization
(i) Aluminium sulphate: It is largely used to purify muddy water.
(ii) Chlorine: Chlorine gas or tablet is added to destroy disease-producing germs. It is a very cheap and convenient method.
(iii) Potassium permanganate: It oxidises the organic matter and destroys 98% of the microorganisms in four to six hours.
(iv) Purification by the use of ultra-violet rays: Ultra-Violet rays have the power of destroying microorganisms from the water
without any chemical change. They exert their action only when the water is fairly clear and bright.
The Aids Pandemic:
The AIDS (Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndrome) virus has caused a worldwide epidemic, which can be called a
pandemic because it continues to spread throughout the world. Millions of people have been infected. The virus was first
identified as the cause of AIDS in the late 1970s. Since then, individuals with the infection have been reported in nearly every
country in the world. Estimated mortality rates are about 60 percent, according to the U.S. Centres for Disease Control and
Prevention. The disease is spread through direct physical contact, between individuals in which body fluids containing the,
virus enter the bloodstream. Sharing of contaminated needles among intravenous drug users and sexual contact are the mostlikely methods of passage. In the United States, the disease was once considered a problem only for the homosexual
community and those who use intravenous drugs. This perception is rapidly changing. Many of the new cases of AIDS are
being found in women infected by male sex partners and in the children of infected women. In parts of Africa, the disease has
always been primarily a heterosexual disease. In the poor countries of central Africa, many believe that permissive sexual
behavior and prostitution have created conditions for a rapid spread of the disease. In addition, there is little opportunity for
medical care. Many people have already died from the disease. Others who are currently infected will die in the near future.
Some villages are already beginning to notice a change in the structure of their populations. With the death, of young
infected adults, villages are composed primarily of older people and children. The disease is spreading at an alarming rate,
and, it has no cure as yet and no vaccine so far. The disease is almost fatal. People in the age group 20-39 are more
susceptible to getting AIDS. Causative germ of AIDS is a virus named HIV (Human Immunodeficiency Virus). It has been
detected in body fluids like blood, semen, saliva, tears and urine. It attacks the immune system (i.e. the cells that fight
against infections) and the patient suffers seriously from even minor infections of other diseases. Even cancers appear when
the immune system fails. Incubation period i.e. the time between receiving the infection and the appearance of symptoms

may even be more than 10-12 years. During this period the persons show positive results for HIV infection and they are
popularly called HIV-positive. Most individuals, when AIDS is fully developed, die within 3 years from other infections or
cancers. Symptoms during this period may include swollen lymph nodes, fever, night sweats and weight loss.
Transmission of Aids
The AIDS virus is highly infective. It is transmitted by any one of the following methods:(i) Sexual intercourse between a man and woman, when anyone of two is infected. (The virus occurs in the fluids of the
reproductive passages). Prostitution is the biggest source to spread the infection. Safest is the single partnership wife and
husband relationship.
(ii) Homosexual intercourse (anal sex) with an infected person. The disease is more common in homosexual males.
(iii) Contaminated blood transfusions. In many situations the patients have to be given blood transfusions as in excessive
bleeding resulting from injury, or during surgery, etc. Some children are born with the disease thalassemia with defective
hemoglobin of the blood. Such children have to be given regular blood transfusions usually every 3-4 weeks and very often
the blood transfused is from professional donors.
(iv) Mother to child transmission - The germ from the infected mother may cross through the placenta and reach the embryo
in the womb.
(v) Injection needles if shared by more than one person may introduce the virus from one individual to another. The disease is
quite common in drug abusers. For the same reason, doctors in hospitals now use only disposable syringes, which are used
just once. AIDS is not transmitted by contact with patients clothes and other articles, shaking hands, eating together and
sharing bathrooms and toilets.
Women and Child Welfare:
Women and Environment
As child bearers, family caretakers and consumers; as food-products, fuel and water gatherers and users; as field, forest,
factory and office workers, women are primary managers, and often preservers of natural resources. Womens work is
generally undervalued. As a result, women constitute a disproportionate number of the poorest groups of people and are
victims of hunger, illiteracy, poor health, scarce social and technical services, inadequate population policies and other
consequences of poverty. In addition, womens participation and influence is inadequately represented in decision-making
spheres concerning environment and development issues affecting the quality of their lives.
Child Power
Children begin to acquire an extremely important economic role. They do many crucial tasks like caring for younger
children, fetching fuel, fodder and water and grazing animals, so that the adults can undertake waged labour. Children have
become the unwitting victims of the continuing energy hunger in a family below the poverty line, is compelled to meet its
energy needs only by producing several children. But this will not only have important implications for the education, health
and nutrition of children but also for the countrys massive family planning programmes and the health of women. If
underfed and overworked, women are also expected to bear many children; the impact on their health will obviously be
drastic.
Some organizations working for women and child welfare are:
National Institute of Public Co-operation and Child Development (NIPCCD)
World Health Organization
Central Social Welfare Board
Voluntary Health Association of India
Indian Council of Child Welfare
United Nations Childrens Fund and others.
(A) Central Social Welfare Board
Central social welfare board was established in 1953 under the social Welfare Ministry. It generally assists in the
improvement and development of social welfare activities. Grant in aid programme, welfare programme development,
control and evaluation work, training and motivation is the main objectives of the social welfare board. Its functions are:
(a) The spirit of continued partnership between statutory and voluntary welfare services to act as complementary and
supplementary to each other.
(b) Provides technical and financial aid to the Panchayati Raj Institutions in accordance with the schemes and principles
approved by the government of India.
(c) Promotes social welfare activities intended for family, women, children and the handicapped.
(d) Assistance in case of unemployment, under employment, old age, sickness, disablement and other cases of underserved
organization.
(e) It is change over from un-organized charity to the systematic line of support by state government wherever considered
necessary or desirable.
(f) Need for rationalizing the system of rendering financial assistance to voluntary organization for the uncovered areas.
(g) Conducting of regular surveys regarding the needs and requirements of the social welfare organization.
(h) Co-ordination and cooperation among the voluntary organizations functioning at all levels, amongst themselves and with
the governmental agencies, between the concerned government departments at central and state level, district and local
levels.
Other functions of Central Social Welfare Board
(i) Mahila Mandal Programme: Various voluntary Mahila Mandals are getting assistance from the central social welfare
board.
(ii) Holiday Homes for Children are organized for 15 days for socially and economically backward families. The camp aims
at giving training to children in discipline, sense of group living and team spirit, help in national integration, apart from
exposure to new surroundings.
(iii) Creches Programme: This programme provides day care services for children of working and ailing mothers.
(B) VHAI-Voluntary Health Association of lndia
Indian Womens Sabha: The Indian Womens Sabha organizes Maternity and child health centres. The branches of this
Sabha ate found all over the country; clinics, hospitals, adult education centres, milk distribution centres and family planning
programmes are managed by the womens sabha.
(C) Indian Council of Child Welfare (ICCW)

Indian council of child welfare was established in 1952 for the welfare of children and providing health services to them. The
council has its branches in every state with its head quarters at New Delhi. The main functions of the institution are:
(i) Initiate, undertake or aid directly or through its branches or affiliated bodies schemes for the furtherance of child welfare
in India.
(ii) It provides dissemination of knowledge and information and to educate public opinion for child welfare programmes on a
scientific basis.
(iii) Establish a central bureau for the study and collection of data and statistics in respect of child welfare work.
(iv) It cooperates with national and international organizations having similar objectives.
(D) United Nations Childrens Fund (UNICEF)
It is an international agency, a subsidiary body of the General Assembly. It came into being on 11th December 1946 after the
Second World War. Now, the words international and emergency have been dropped from the name of the organization.
It is now called United Nations Childrens Fund but abbreviation in vogue is still UNICEF. UNICEF has completed 48 years
of service in India. UNICEF is not financed through the regular U.N. budget, but by voluntary contributions from the
member countries, besides individual organizations. 10% of its resources come from the sale of UNICEF greeting cards. Aid
is given only for those projects, which aim to prevent disease and promote health of the mothers and children.
India and UNICEF
UNICEF has completed 48 years in the year 1997 and has provided assistance, training programmes and many regional
projects started from time to time. UNICEF has changed many facets and programmes for the ever-changing health
standards. In 1959 WHO and FAO along with UNICEF started a nutritional programme for the children of less than 5 years
of age. Then it was changed to Extended Nutritional Programme, which was organized through Mahila Mandals. In 1963 this
programme was made more useful by giving nutrition to children and also to pregnant and lactating mothers and named as
Applied Nutrition Programme. In the decade 1980-90, UNICEF expanded its services to remote rural areas.
Functions of UNICEF
(i) Child Development and Survival
UNICEF provides priority to infant and childrens health and nutrition programmes. Child and infant mortality rate during
the decade 1985-95 declined from 110/1000 children to 8711000.
(ii) Universal Immunization
Expanded Programme on immunization (EPI). This programme was started by the W.H.O. in 1974 for providing
immunization against six fatal diseases i.e. measles, poliomyelitis, diphtheria, whooping cough or pertusis, tetanus and
tuberculosis. This fulfils the concept of providing primary health protection for all children.
(iii) Nutrition
UNICEF assist in conducting the Applied Nutrition Programme by establishing nutrition centres, school and community
gardens. It provides funds for training and nutrition programme at rural level.
(iv) Primary Health Care
The UNICEF sponsors Child health care programmes. It provides funds for the training of doctors, nurses, and public health
officers, health workers. UNICEF is providing equipment and material for primary health centres and sub-centres as well as
hospitals and laboratories, which support them.
(v) Formal and Informal Education
UNICEF provides stipends for refresher training to teachers including primary-school teachers.
(vi) Water and Sanitation
Water and sanitation are part of health programming and UNICEF co-operates in programmes to supply safe water and
improved sanitation.
(vii) Urban Services
UNICEF provides stipends to more women and girls for training in child care, homecrafts, food preservation and incomeearning skills and provides stipends to train local leaders to help organize activities in their own villages and communities.
Role of information technology in environment and human health:
With the beginning of the electronic age in recent years, our world has become a place where information and
communication are regarded as the most valuable resources. Our world has now shrunk to a global village and we now have
access to places our grandparents didnt know existed. Information from cosmopolitans to unexplored frontiers are all now
available at a drop of a hat, its just a matter of mouse-click. Data flows at the speed of light in todays wired world, or shall,
we say the wireless, paperless and non-messy world. The advent of the Internet has, in a way, brought continents together
once again. Modern technology has also minimized our utilization of resources; e.g. todays, sophisticated engineering has
replaced the blind usage of metals in every production. Thanks to the marvel of lightweight alloys and composite building
materials, automobiles now require half as much metal as they typically used to do a generation ago. Today 1,000 soft drinks
cans are manufactured with around 6 kg of aluminium, which once used to require 50 kg of steel. In the 1970s, when the fear
of an impending shortage of metals gripped the world, countries like the United States began stockpiling essential minerals to
keep their resource inventory up-to-date. Copper for electric wiring, telephone cables, and electric motors were in short
supply. But then glass-fibre optic cables, ceramic magnets, microwave relay systems and satellite communication networks
were invented. We now have a copper surplus. Similarly, technology has also cut down our fuel consumption. Diesel engines
replaced coal-based steam engines in locomotives, which were, further replaced by more efficient and pollution-free electric
engines. The popularity of high-mileage yielding, fuel-efficient vehicles have made the gasoline guzzling vehicles obsolete in
the market. Such advancements in the field of information technology have made distance between two places immaterial.
Today, people can communicate via teleconference and transmit data through fax machines and computer networks, and save
precious time & fuel wasted earlier in traveling for meetings and business appointments. It is no longer necessary for all
workers to commute to an office building in the congested city to do their work. Increasingly, workers have home offices
linked electronically to co-workers, clients, libraries, databases, and business opportunities elsewhere in the world.
Commercial establishments are moving away from the brick and mortar set-ups to more affordable, cost-efficient, farreaching virtual offices on the Internet.