NAVAL POSTGRADUATE SCHOOL

Monterey, California

THESIS
OPNET/STK INTEGRATED ENVIRONMENT FOR
MODELING AN UAV NETWORK
by
Yang Shun Yu
September 2003
Thesis Advisor:
Second Reader:

Alex Bordetsky
Rex Buddenberg

Approved for public release; distribution is unlimited

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Masters Thesis
4. TITLE AND SUBTITLE: OPNET/STK Integrated Environment 5. FUNDING NUMBERS
for Modeling an UAV Network
6. AUTHOR(S) Yang Shun Yu
7. PERFORMING ORGANIZATION NAME(S) AND ADDRESS(ES)
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Naval Postgraduate School
Monterey, CA 93943-5000
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ABSTRACT (maximum 200 words)

In this thesis, an OPNET/STK integrated model is used as an example to

demonstrate the development of an UAV communication network. First, the
concept of using an UAV as a mobile node in a network is addressed. Second,
both OPNET and STK modeling tools are described in a separate chapter to
describe each individual modeling characteristic. Third, an OPNET/STK
integrated model is illustrated to show the characteristics of a combined
environment and to analyze the interoperability and performance of this
combined model. Finally, some recommendations and conclusions are stated for
further study.
14. SUBJECT TERMS OPNET, STK, C4I, HALE, UAV, Global Hawk, Wireless
Communications, Network Centric Warfare, Network Centric Operation,
Military Satellite Communication, Computer Models
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ABSTRACT
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ii

Approved for public release; distribution is unlimited

OPNET/STK INTEGRATED ENVIRONMENT FOR MODELING AN UAV
NETWORK
Yang Shun Yu
Lieutenant, R.O.C. Taiwan Navy
B.S., Chinese Naval Academy, 1993
Submitted in partial fulfillment of the
requirements for the degree of
MASTER OF SCIENCE IN SYSTEMS ENGINEERING
from the
NAVAL POSTGRADUATE SCHOOL
September 2003

Author:

Yang Shun Yu

Approved by:

Alex Bordetsky
Thesis Advisor
Rex Buddenberg
Second Reader
Dan C. Boger
Chairman, Department of Information Sciences

iii

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iv

ABSTRACT

In this thesis, an OPNET/STK integrated model is used

as an example to demonstrate the development of an UAV
communication network. First, the concept of using an UAV
as a mobile node in a network is addressed. Second, both
OPNET and STK modeling tools are described in a separate
chapter

to

describe

characteristic.

Third,

illustrated

show

to

an
the

each
OPNET/STK

individual

modeling

integrated

characteristics

of

model

is

combined

environment and to analyze the interoperability of these

two tools. Finally, some recommendations and conclusions
are stated for further study.

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vi

TABLE OF CONTENTS

I.

INTRODUCTION ............................................1
A.
BACKGROUND .........................................1
B.
PURPOSE OF RESEARCH ................................1
C.
SCOPE AND METHODOLOGY ..............................2

II.

UNMANNED AERIAL VEHICLE NETWORK CONCEPT .................5

A.
INTRODUCTION .......................................5
B.
CONCEPT OF OPERATION ...............................5
1.
Communication Network .........................5
a.
Types of Network .........................5
b.
Switch Technique .........................6
c.
Packet Switching .........................6
2.
Satellite Platform ............................7
3.
UAV as a Mobile Node ..........................7

III. OPNET IN NETWORK MODELING ..............................13

A.
INTRODUCTION TO OPNET MODELING ....................13
1.
Capabilities .................................13
2.
Various Models ...............................13
a.
Data Link Layer .........................13
b.
Routing Protocols .......................14
c.
Transmission Protocol ...................14
d.
Network Layer Protocol ..................14
e.
Miscellaneous Models ....................14
3.
Radio Module .................................15
B.
OPNET IN MODELING UAV NETWORK .....................15
C.
NETWORK PERFORMANCE ...............................23
IV.

STK IN AIRBORNE PLATFORM MODELING ......................27

A.
INTRODUCTION TO STK MODELING ......................27
1.
Key Features .................................27
a.
Analytical Capability ...................27
b.
Orbit/Trajectory Generation .............27
c.
Visibility Analysis .....................28
d.
Sensor Analysis .........................28
e.
Attitude Analysis .......................28
f.
Visualization of Results ................28
g.
Comprehensive Data Reporting ............29
2.
Analysis Modules .............................29
a.
STK/ASTROGATOR ..........................29
b.
STK/ATTITUDE ............................29
c.
STK/CHAIN ...............................29
d.
STK/COMMUNICATIONS(STK/COMM) ............30
vii

e.
f.
g.
h.

B.

STK/CONJUCTION ANALYSIS TOOLS (STK/CAT) .30

STK/COVERAGE ............................30
STK/MISSILE MODELING TOOLS ..............30
STK/PRECISION
ORBIT
DETERMINATION
SYSTEM (STK/PODS) .......................30
i.
STK/ORBIT DETERMINATION(STK/OD) .........31
j.
STK/RADAR ...............................31
k.
STK/SCHEDULER ...........................31
l.
STK/SPACE ENVIRONMENT ...................31
STK IN MODELING AIRBORNE NODES ....................31

V.

OPNET/STK INTEGRATED MODEL .............................35

A.
INTRODUCTION TO OPNET/STK MODEL INTEGRATION .......35
B.
MODELS INTEGRATION ................................36
C.
MODEL ANALYSIS ....................................38

VI.

CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS .........................41

A.
SUMMARY ...........................................41
B.
CONCLUSIONS .......................................41
C.
RECOMMENDATIONS ...................................42

BIBLIOGRAPHY ................................................45
INITIAL DISTRIBUTION LIST ...................................47

viii

LIST OF FIGURES

Figure
Figure
Figure
Figure
Figure
Figure
Figure
Figure
Figure
Figure
Figure
Figure
Figure
Figure

1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
12.
13.
14.

UAV Communication Network Topology. ..........11

Network Topology. ............................16
Satellite 2 Attributes. ......................18
Brazil Subnet Node Architecture. .............19
Mobile Node Attributes. ......................21
Mobile Node Architecture. ....................22
Statistics. ..................................24
Demonstration of Animation. ..................25
STK Orbit Design Environment. ................32
UAV Orbital Parameters. ......................33
STK/OPNET Integration. .......................37
STK/OPNET Integration. .......................38
STK/OPNET MODEL Statistics. ..................39
Comparison of Before and After Integration. ..40

ix

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LIST OF TABLES

Table 1.

Global Hawk Characteristics. ..................9

xi

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xii

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

First, I want to express my deepest gratitude to my

wife

and

my

son

for

their

understanding

and

continued

support during the course of my studies and thesis work at

the Naval Postgraduate School.
Secondly, I want to thank my thesis advisor, Professor
Alex Bordetsky, for his superb advice and mentorship.
Finally, I would like to give special thanks to my
thesis

second

reader,

Professor

support he has provided.

xiii

Rex

Buddenberg

for

the

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xiv

I.
A.

INTRODUCTION

BACKGROUND
Communications are the cornerstone of today's military

forces. Without effective communications, the forces are

limited

to

sometimes

the

capabilities

isolated

from

the

within
major

the

scope

player.

In

and

are

order

to

receive and transmit the message between units, the units

need to be connected. However, this is not always possible
because of the terrain or when the forces are beyond the
communication range.
In the U.S. Naval Institute Proceedings, Vice Admiral
A.

K.

Cebrowski

outlines

how

military

operations

increasingly will capitalize on the advances and advantages

of information technology. He specifies, The shift from
platform to network is what enables the more flexible and
more

dynamic

construction

network
of

high

centric
quality

operation.
networks

Therefore,

is

top

the

priority.

[CAK98]
As the military continues into the new century, it
must

take

full

advantage

of

order

to

gain

situation

awareness.

acquiring

the

speed

of

network

command

is

centric
A

major

warfare

in

player

in

well-coordinated

Command, Control, Communication, Computer, and Intelligence

(C4I) infrastructure.
B.

PURPOSE OF RESEARCH
The C4I infrastructure forms the foundation of unity

and speed of command that is vital to conducting military

operations.

Before

implementing

the

infrastructure,

modeling process needs to be taken into account in order to

1

monitor both the budget and models performance as well as

the feasibility accordingly.
The

purpose

of

this

thesis

is

to

demonstrate

the

integrated environment of the Optimum Network Performance

(OPNET)/Satellite

Tool

Kit

(STK)

that

can

be

used

for

modeling the Unmanned Aerial Vehicle mobile communication

network.

Model

integration

can

promote

the

models

performance while the use of an UAV as a mobile node in a

network

can

extend

the

communication

range

so

that

the

forces can stay connected. Once the forces are connected,

the network centric operations can then be implemented.
C.

SCOPE AND METHODOLOGY

System

integration

is

an

important

issue

in

many

aspects. Model integrations play a key role in making the

models performance as close as possible to a real world
scenario.

For

modern

network

simulations,

both

dynamic

platform and terrestrial networks must be modeled. These

two areas start from different environments so there must
be some integration not only from a system point of view
but

also

platform

from
and

modeling

terrestrial

standpoint.
network

Although

models

can

dynamic
work

in

collaboration, automated interface mechanisms between the

two models should be devised to provide intimate realtime
integration. [KYJ01]
In this thesis, an OPNET/STK integrated model is used
as an example to demonstrate the development of an UAV
communication network. First, the concept of using an UAV
as a mobile node in a network will be addressed. Second,
both OPNET and STK modeling tools will be described in a
separate

chapter

to

describe
2

each

individual

modeling

characteristic. Third, an OPNET/STK integrated model will

be illustrated to show the characteristics of a combined
environment

and

to

performance

of

this

analyze

the

combined

interoperability
model.

Finally,

and
some

recommendations and conclusions will be stated for further

study.

THIS PAGE INTENTIONALLY LEFT BLANK

II. UNMANNED AERIAL VEHICLE NETWORK CONCEPT

A.

INTRODUCTION
The current revolution in military affairs is based on

information.

Systems

and

concepts

of

warfare

based

on

obtaining and distributing information have been created to

meet

this

need.

However,

these

systems

need

flexible

platform equipped with communication mechanisms to connect

and relay information to each other efficiently. Current
operational communications system rely on satellite-based
equipment

that

overloaded.

The

is

inflexible,

use

of

an

UAV

finite,
as

expensive,

central

node

and
in

network can address all four of these aspects. Furthermore,

it can play a vital role in network centric operations.
B.

CONCEPT OF OPERATION
1.

Communication Network

Networking

technologies

have

connected

almost

the

entire world together. The concept of a Global Information

Grid (GIG) communication network would power information
limitlessly. [CHP02] The use of an UAV as a mobile node is
an implement of networking. Moreover, this thesis explores
the

use

of

establishing

an
the

UAV

as

basic

network

design

node.

parameters

Therefore,
for

communication network renders it necessary to define some

preliminary considerations before describing the model.
a.
A

Types of Network
Local

Area

Network

(LAN),

Metropolitan

Area

Network (MAM), and Wide Area Network (WAN) are all examples
of communication networks. WAN covers a large geographical
area. Typically, a WAN consists of a number of
5

interconnected switching nodes. A transmission from any one

device

is

routed

through

these

internal

nodes

to

the

specified destination device.

A

LAN

is

communication

network

that

interconnects a variety of devices and provides a means for

information exchange among those devices. The scope of the
LAN is small, typically a single building, or a cluster of
buildings.
b.

Switch Technique

For the transmission of data beyond a local area,

communication is typically achieved by transmitting data
from

source

to

destination

through

network

of

intermediate switching nodes. The switching nodes are not

concerned

with

the

content

of

the

data.

Rather,

their

purpose is to provide a switching facility that will move

that

data

from

node

to

node

until

they

reach

their

destination. The end devices that wish to communicate may

be referred to as stations. The stations may be computers,
terminals, telephones, or other communicating devices.
c.

Packet Switching

Data is transmitted in blocks called packets. A

typical

upper

bound

on

packet

length

is

1,000

octets

(bytes). If a source has a longer message to send, the

message is broken up into a series of packets. Each packet
consists of a portion of the data, or all of the data for a
short message, that a station wants to transmit, plus a
packet

header

that

contains

control

information.

The

control information, at a minimum, includes the information

that the network requires in order to be able to route the
packet through the network and deliver it to the intended
6

destination. At each node en route, the packet is received,

stored briefly, and passed on to the next node. [SWC02]
2.

Satellite Platform

Current

operational

communications

satellite-based

equipment

expensive,

overloaded.

and

that
A

is

systems

rely

inflexible,

geo-synchronous

on

finite,
satellite

operates at approximately 23,000 miles above the earths

equator providing constant 24 hours access. [TOM01]

This

is the altitude that a satellite must maintain to provide

continuous

coverage

of

specific

geographic

area,

approximately 1/3 of the earth.

Satellites are expensive to build and launch. The cost
is not just measured in dollars. If anything goes wrong
during

the

launch

or

while

in

orbit,

repairs

are

impossible. The shuttle only travels to approximately 350

miles above earth. Therefore, it does not have the range to
retrieve a geosynchronous satellite. If a problem should
occur, there is no current way to repair it in orbit. The
satellite becomes a liability if units are dependent on it
for connectivity.
Current trends in technology also limit the usefulness
of legacy systems. The usefulness of a satellite lasts only
a few years before new technology overtakes the embedded
circuitry.

Since

upgrading

systems

is

impossible,

satellite quickly becomes obsolete. The advantage of an UAV

is that it can be constantly repaired and upgraded with new
technology.
3.

UAV as a Mobile Node

The communications environment has a growing need for

increased bandwidth, more satellite services, and enriched
7

transmission capability at cheaper costs. An up and coming

idea to help with this situation is the use of airborne
communications nodes (ACN). These platforms will orbit at a
high

altitude

services.

Not

for

the

purpose

only

will

these

of

relaying

platforms

wireless

be

able

to

supplement the growing demand cheaper, it will also provide

better security because of its higher altitude.
The
platforms

concept
in

the

of

placing

communications

stratosphere

is

on

these

ever-increasing.

The

stratospheric region of interest extends from about 39,500

feet to just below 100,000 feet. In a military environment,
this

altitude

provides

added

security

for

UAV

flight

operations from enemy observation and retaliation. As the

development of UAV becomes more sophisticated, using UAV as
a

mobile

node

for

communication

network

for

todays

military operations is understandable not only because it

is beneficial but also essential.
Several

platforms

for

UAV

networking

could

be

considered, yet the most popular militarily is Global Hawk.

The Air Force has begun to study using Global Hawk as an
ACN

and

frequency

has

investigated

parameters.

some

Table

characteristics. [USAF98]

payload,

lists

the

flight,
Global

and

Hawks

Contractor:

Northrop Grumman Integrated Systems

Power plant:

Alison model AE3007H turbofan

Length:

44 feet (13.5 meters)

Height:

15 feet (4.6 meters)

Weight:

92000 pounds (3,680 Kilos) empty

25600 pounds (9,846 Kilos) gross

Wingspan:

116 feet (35.4 meters)

Speed:

Cruise 343 knots

Range:

Ferry 13,500 nm
Mission 3000 nm with 30 hours on station

Loiter Altitude:

65,000 feet (19,810 meters)

Fuel Capacity:

14,500 pounds (5,800 Kilos)

Payload:

2,000 pounds (907.2 Kilos)

System Cost:

$15 Million per airframe

Ingress/Egress:

300 nm

Climb/Descent:

200 nm

Runway clearance:

5000 feet

Sensor Coverage:

40,000 nm square

Communications:

VHF/UHF voice
UHF (SATCOM and LOS)
X-Band (LOS)
Ku-Band (SATCOM)

Table 1.

Global Hawk Characteristics.

9

For the UAV to function as a mobile node in a network,

several factors need to be considered, including but not
limited to, loiter time, altitude, and payload. Access is
one of the most important requirements for a local area
network to operate effectively. This requirement dictates
that an UAV must be available 24 hours a day with minimal
disruption

in

service,

similar

to

Geosynchronous

satellite. The use of Global Hawk can certainly fulfill

this requirement.
This

thesis

uses

Global

Hawk

as

an

example

in

demonstrating the UAV network concept. However, it is not

necessary to use any prototype of an UAV. Furthermore, it
would be costly if UAVs were used to test and evaluate
(T&E) the performance of a network without doing simulation
and

modeling

in

advance,

which

is

why

OPNET

and

modeling tools are so critical and useful.

A generic network topology is shown in Figure 1.

10

STK

SATELLITE
COMMS

SURVEILLANCE
MISSION

SURVEILLANCE
MISSION

UAV-UAV NETWORK
AIR-TO-AIR
MISSION
STRIKE
MISSION

COMM/TASKING

Unmanned
Control Platform

COMM/TASKING

RESUPPLY
MISSION

COMM/TASKING

FRIENDLY
GROUND CONTROL
(MOBILE)
Manned
Control Platform

UAV Communication Networks Topology

Figure 1.

UAV Communication Network Topology.

11

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12

III. OPNET IN NETWORK MODELING

A.

INTRODUCTION TO OPNET MODELING

1.

Capabilities

The OPNET simulation software has the ability to build

hierarchical

network

models

and

manage

complex

network

topologies with unlimited sub-network nesting. It can model

wireless, point-to-point, and multipoint links. This part
of the software makes it a good tool for modeling networks.
OPNET can incorporate physical layer characteristics,
environmental

effects,

availability,

and

OPNET

has

the

as

well

throughput

ability

to

as

account

for

delay,

of

links.

characteristics

use

geographical

and

mobility

modeling by controlling each node's position dynamically or

in

predefined

graphics

can

trajectories.
be

Maps

added

to

and

other

background

facilitate

graphical

representations for easier assimilation of data.

Results
comprehensive
series,

from
tools

histograms,

OPNET
to

are

easily

display,

probability

plot

interpreted
and

analyze

functions,

with
time

parametric

curves, and confidence intervals, which can be exported to

a spreadsheet.
2.

Various Models

The

main

advantage

of

this

software

is

the

vast

library of models that are readily available and accepted

within the industry.
a.

Data Link Layer

Asynchronous Transfer Mode (ATM)

Ethernet

Fiber Distributed Data Interface (FDDI)

13

Frame Relay

LAN Emulation (LANE)

Link Access Procedure, Balanced (LAPB)

Sliding Window Protocol (SWP)

Spanning Tree Bridge (STB)

Spatial Reuse Protocol (SRP)

Token Ring

X.25
b.

Routing Protocols

Border Gateway Protocol (BGP)

Interior Gateway Routing Protocol (IGRP)

Open Shortest Path First (OSPF)

Routing Information Protocol (RIP)

c.

Transmission Protocol

Transmission Control Protocol (TCP)

Transport Adaptation Layer

d.

Network Layer Protocol

Internet Protocol (IP)

Resource Reservation Protocol (RSVP)

IPX
e.

Miscellaneous Models

Applications Model

ISDN/xDSL

Job Service Discipline (JSD)

Raw Packet Generator (RPG)

Static Distributed Routing (SDR)

Vendor Models

Wireless LAN (802.11)

Specialized Models
14

Circuit-Switched

DOCSIS

IP Multicasting

Multi-Protocol Label Switching (MPLS)

Private Network-Network Interface (PNNI) [OPN01]

3.

Radio Module

The

Radio

Module

modeling

radio

links

Mobile

nodes

provides
and

include

the

mobile

ground,

added

capability

communications

airborne

and

of

nodes.

satellite

systems. Mobile node models incorporate three-dimensional

position

attributes

that

can

change

dynamically

as

simulation progresses. Node motion can either be scripted

as a position history or determined on an adaptive basis by
position

control

processes.

Node

movement

can

be

automatically displayed during or after a simulation with

OPNET's animation features. Network diagrams and animations
can include standard or custom map backdrops.
B.

OPNET IN MODELING UAV NETWORK

Brian Chau's LEO Satellite Network Model was chosen

and

downloaded

from

www.opnet.com

to

demonstrate

the

concept of an UAV network. [OPN00] The practical reason is

that

UAV

provides

many

of

the

advantages

that

LEO

satellite possesses. Figure 2 depicts the Network Topology.

15

Figure 2.
From

the

README

Network Topology.
file,

the

author,

Brian

Chau,

describes the model as follows:

This project contains a simple radio network. It
contains two sub-networks, one in Brazil and the
other in Algeria. Mobile users from each subnetwork generate traffic that is destined for
broadcast in the other sub-network. This project
studies the effect of using two low earth orbit
(LEO) satellites with and without on-board data
buffers.
There are many different scenarios that measure
the throughput and end-to-end delay through the
network; each with different traffic loads. There
are
also
scenarios
that
have
animations
16

associated.
The
animations
contain
custom
animation code. There are also two scenarios that
produce scalar data, one for the buffered and one
for the un-buffered satellite.
The mobile users sent data packets to the local
base station using a CSMA protocol. This data is
then queued at the base station until it can be
uploaded to the satellite. In the un-buffered
satellite case, the base station must wait to
hear the control signal from the other base
station before sending a packet. This ensures
that the satellite has line-of-sight (LOS) to
both base stations.
In the buffered satellite case, the base station
waits until it hears its own control signal
returned from the satellite. This ensures that
the satellite has line-of-sight to the base
station. For every control signal that is
returned, a data packed can be sent to the
satellite. It will be queued on the satellite
until line of sight is established with the
destination base station. [OPN00]
One could think of the model as two types of LANs, one
in Brazil and the other in Algeria. The two units could not
communicate with each other due to the nature of terrain
and

communication

range.

By

using

the

UAV

as

node,

flights above these two LANs would connect the LANs at a

rather low cost, preventing frequency interference, while
the

valuable

satellites

resources

other paramount users.

17

could

be

spared

for

Figure 3.

Satellite 2 Attributes.

Figure 3 shows the attributes for Satellite 2 and the

Brazilian subnet. The attributes for the two satellites are
identical and the two-subnet nodes, Brazil and Algeria, are
also identical.
As shown in Figure 3, the attributes editor depicts a
vsat_2200

orbit

model

that

has

4,000,000

meters

as

altitude, which is insufficient and unrealistic for the UAV

model. OPNET has a built-in pathway to import the Satellite
18

Tool Kit (STK) by Analytical Graphics, Inc. if the models

provided are not sufficient. While OPNET is able to model
orbit data as a standalone product, the interface enables
the STKs user to import orbit data from that software into
the

OPNET

Modeler/Radio,

thereby

eliminating

possible

duplication of effort. [OPN03]

The
satellite

Satellite
simulation

Tool

Kit

software.

is
In

the
the

widely
next

accepted

chapter,

the

interface will be introduced and the orbital parameter will

be created and imported into the OPNET.

Figure 4.

Brazil Subnet Node Architecture.

19

Figure 4 shows the Brazil subnet node architecture.

Since OPNET uses a hierarchical set of graphical editors, a
user can progressively develop more detailed attributes for
the nodes by clicking on each one of the nodes. One can
view the Brazil subnet by double clicking. The zigzag lines
in Figure 4 are the trajectory paths that were defined by a
series of 11 Cartesian coordinates. By right clicking on
the mouse, one can edit this attribute in the same manner.
The mobile node attributes and base station attributes are
shown

in

receiving

Figure

5.

frequency

For

the

base

station,

the

minimum

is

350

MHz,

minimum

transmitting

frequency is 300 MHz, and the altitude is set at 300. The

node is a leo-sat base-station model in OPNET. A user can
modify

this

by

clicking

on

the

description

and

then

editing. Mobile node attributes within the subnets are set

at 50 for altitude and a ground speed of 2 meters per
second. The node is a leo-sat-mobile model, which can be
modified in the same manner as the base station node.

20

Figure 5.
The

mobile

Mobile Node Attributes.

nodes

are

all

identical

and

the

architecture can be seen through the node editor in Figure

6 below. Data flow and the physical resources are depicted
in the editor. Network devices and the system can be edited
by

right

clicking

the

mouse.

The

antenna

model

is

isotropic, which has a uniform gain in all directions. The

pointing reference theta is 180 degrees. The other option
is directional in that the user must define the pattern.

21

Figure 6.

Mobile Node Architecture.

By double clicking m_queue, m_generator, local_sink,

and remote_sink, the Process Editor can be opened so as to
graphically specify the level of detail for these processes
in response to events. The Process Editor in OPNET uses a
finite state machine (FSM) approach to enable the user to
specify the details. Default settings are provided with the
model.

However,

generators

use

the
an

attributes

exponential

can

be

modified.

distribution

instead

constant, and this could be modified via the Editor.

22

Packet
of

Transmitter modules transmit packets to the antenna at

1024

bits/second,

using

100

percent

of

its

channel

bandwidth. For each arriving candidate packet, the receiver

module

consults

several

properties

to

determine

if

the

packet's average BER (bit error rate) is less than some

specified threshold. If the BER is low enough, the packet
is sent to the sink and destroyed. [OPN01]
The

processor

longitude,
requires

and

for

module

altitude

specific

calculates

coordinates
target.

the

that

The

latitude,

the

pointing

antenna
processor

makes this calculation by using a kernel procedure that

converts a nodes position in a subnet, described by the x
position

and

position

attributes,

into

the

global

coordinates the antenna requires. [OPNO1]

C.

NETWORK PERFORMANCE
In Figure 7 below, on the left hand side, a user can

select the statistics to view for further analysis and the

results

of

the

analysis

are

shown

on

the

right.

The

quantity and detail of reports are scalable in OPNET. In

this example, nearly all of the options are selected for
the thru-8-pph scenario. The statistics gathered are delay,
queue size, throughput, and load. Global statistics as well
as individual subnet statistics are computed.
A user can change the collection mode for different
statistics. These modes specify the way in which statistics
are captured (all values, bucket, sample, glitch removal),
as well as their collection mode. [OPN0l] Additionally, the
sample frequency can be manually set for each collection
mode selected.

23

Figure 7.
Figure

demonstrates

Statistics.
the

animation

viewer

whereby

events for a particular scenario are visually displayed.

The buffers for each satellite flash on the screen in the
upper left hand corner bar charts once the animation begins
to run. The relative size of the queue is shown in red.
Blue and green lines flash for varying lengths of time to
indicate the transmission of packets. The satellites change
their position periodically and only one satellite at a
time is actually shown communicating with the ground base
stations. Toolbar options at the top of the window allow
the user to control the animated simulation.
24

Figure 8.

Demonstration of Animation.

25

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26

IV. STK IN AIRBORNE PLATFORM MODELING

A.

INTRODUCTION TO STK MODELING

STK

is

the

commercial-off-the-shelf

(COTS)

analysis

and visualization tool that supports aerospace, defense,

and

intelligence

initiatives.

The

STK

makes

it

easy

to

analyze complex land, sea, air, and space scenarios and

determine

optimal

results

in

solutions

graphical

with

and

the

text

ability

to

formats

present

for

easy

interpretation and analysis.

STK provides the analytical engine to calculate data
and display multiple 2-D maps to visualize various timedependent
related

information

objects

such

for
as

satellites
launch

and

other

vehicles,

space-

missiles,

and

aircraft.
1.

Key Features
a.

Analytical Capability

STK includes complex algorithms that take care of

number-crunching
STK,

the

user

exercises
can

in

quickly

a
and

matter

of

seconds.

accurately

With

calculate

satellite's position and attitude in time, evaluate complex

in-view

relationships

objects

as

well

as

among

space,

compute

air,

satellite

land

and

and

sea

ground-based

sensor coverage areas.

b.

Orbit/Trajectory Generation

STK

provides

propagators

(Two-body,

multiple

analytical

J2,

SGP4,

J4,

and

numerical

imported

ephemeris

data) to compute satellite position data in a wide variety

of coordinate types and systems.

27

c.

Visibility Analysis

Inter-visibility

access

times

between

any

STK

objects can be calculated and displayed on the 2-D map

during animation. These times can be reported and graphed
as

visibility

between

all

timelines.

types

of

The

STK

vehicles,

can

calculate

facilities,

access

targets,

and

sensors to all objects, including planets and stars, within

the scenario. In addition to simple line-of-sight, these
visibilities can be constrained by geometric constraints
such

as

sensor

field-of-view,

ground-

or

space-based

minimum elevation angle, azimuth angle, and range.

d.

Sensor Analysis

Sensor fields-of-view can be added to ground- and

space-based STK objects to provide an additional level of
fidelity to the visibility calculations. These time-varying
sensor coverage areas are displayed on the 2-D map and can
be

pointed

either

via

user-specified

azimuth

and

elevation angle or targeted at another ground or spacebased object.

e.

Attitude Analysis

Standard attitude profiles generated within STK,

external
analyze

attitude
attitude

quaternion
motion

files,

and

its

provide

effect

on

means

various

to
STK

calculated parameters.
f.

Visualization of Results

STK

allows

users

to

view

all

time-dependent

information in a variety of 2-D map displays. Multiple maps

with different styles can be displayed at once. Time can be
animated

forward,

reverse

and

in

real-time

to

display

scenario dynamics: space and ground-based object positions,

28

sensor

coverage

areas,

visibility

status,

lighting

conditions and star and planet positions. Output can also

be recorded as streamed map images.
g.

Comprehensive Data Reporting

STK

features

number

of

standard

report

and

graph styles that summarize key information. With access to

hundreds of data elements, the user can also create custom
reports or graphs for individual objects or a group of
objects. All reports can be exported in industry-standard
formats for export into popular spreadsheet tools. [STK03]
2.

Analysis Modules
a.

STK/ASTROGATOR

This
planning

for

supports

interactive,

Earth-orbiting

and

orbit

maneuver

interplanetary

missions.

STK/ASTROGATOR includes finite and impulsive burn modeling,

targeted maneuver sequences, fuel usage calculations, and
multiple

constrained

stopping

conditions.

All

STK/ASTROGATOR calculations are supported by a variety of

sophisticated drag models and numerical integrators.
b.

STK/ATTITUDE

This provides the capability to assess numerous

attitude profiles within a single trajectory. User-defined
vectors

and

axes

can

be

used

to

define

new

attitude

profiles. Attitude view adds the capability to see results

in

3-D

of

any

propagated

attitude

projected

into

any

desired reference frame. Environmental forces and open or

closed-loop control can be accounted for using the attitude
simulation capability.
c.
This

STK/CHAIN
extends

STK

pair-wise

access

capabilities

with multi-hop link analysis and constellation analysis for

29

complex

networks.

In

addition

to

visibility

periods,

STK/CHAIN also provides information regarding the nature of

the link, such as the angle between consecutive objects and
the number of potential visibilities for each object.
d.

STK/COMMUNICATIONS(STK/COMM)

These provide dynamic link performances and RF

interference

analysis

for

communication

networks.

It

includes gain contours, RF environment modeling, multiple

antenna types, laser communication link modeling, and the
full spectrum of link analysis parameters.
e.

STK/CONJUCTION ANALYSIS TOOLS (STK/CAT)

These

tools

conduct

proximity

analysis

to

determine potential collisions, laser firing opportunities,

and launch windows.
f.

STK/COVERAGE

This performs detailed coverage analysis of userdefined

geographic

regions

over

time.

The

STK/COVERAGE

allows users to evaluate a variety of figures of merit

(FOM) to optimize systems design and mission planning.
g.

STK/MISSILE MODELING TOOLS

These offer a high fidelity missile propagator

that

simulates

missile

flights,

all

events

of

including

unclassified/classified

boost,

staging,

post-boost

maneuver, deployment, and re-entry as well as interceptor

capabilities.
h.

STK/PRECISION
(STK/PODS)

ORBIT

DETERMINATION

SYSTEM

This system provides precise orbit determination

that

uses

accurately

space

and

predict

ground

based

spacecraft

parameters.
30

observation
orbits

and

data

to

related

i.

STK/ORBIT DETERMINATION(STK/OD)

This

processes

spacecraft

tracking

data

to

determine orbits and related parameters such as tracking

system biases. In addition, STK/OD calculates a realistic
assessment of the orbit and bias estimate errors, which can
be used to verify accuracy requirements of proposed systems
and planned mission schedules.
j.

STK/RADAR

This

analyzes

both

mono-static

and

bi-static

radar systems and supports operations in Synthetic Aperture

Radar (SAR) and Search/Track modes.
k.

STK/SCHEDULER

This provides a powerful scheduling and planning

application. Users define tasks and resource requirements,
request
Graphical

schedule
User

solutions,
Interface

and

(GUI)

analyze
or

results

Application

via

Program

Interface (API).
l.

STK/SPACE ENVIRONMENT

This predicts the ionizing dose rate and total

radiation

dosage,

South

Atlantic

Anomaly(SAA)

entry/exit

times, vehicle equilibrium temperature and exposure impacts

from debris along an orbit or trajectory. [STK03]
B.

STK IN MODELING AIRBORNE NODES

As addressed in the previous chapter, the attributes

editor depicts a vsat_2200 orbit model that has 4,000,000

meters as altitude, which is insufficient and unrealistic
for the UAV model.

For a deployed UAV, the orbit shall be

arbitrary and unlimited to fit the missions need.

In line with the OPNET model, two rectangle orbits are
created for the two UAVs in STK. One flight is above the
Brazil LAN and the other flight is above the Algeria LAN.
31

Due

to

the

geographical

range,

the

two

LANs

could

not

communicate with each other. Using the UAV that served as a

relay node, it will connect the two LANs while valuable
satellite

resources

can

be

freed

for

other

fundamental

users. The STK modeling environment is depicted in Figure

9.

Figure 9.

STK Orbit Design Environment.

The users could set up the flight path parameters in

STK, such as longitude, latitude, altitude, flight speed,
acceleration, and turn radius for the UAV to operate. In
this example, the altitude is set as 19,000 meters and the

32

flight speed is set as 343 knots so as to reflect the

Global Hawk characteristics. The UAV orbital parameters are
created and depicted in Figure 10.

Figure 10.

UAV Orbital Parameters.

33

THIS PAGE INTENTIONALLY LEFT BLANK

34

V.
A.

OPNET/STK INTEGRATED MODEL

INTRODUCTION TO OPNET/STK MODEL INTEGRATION

The main purpose of M&S is to get the most equivalence

out of the proposed model in order to gain the benefits

from the model. However, one model tool may be strengthened
in certain domains while the other model tool may be good
in other areas that might cause a certain level of the
models
reflect

insufficiency.
the

In

equivalence

other

words,

because

of

models
the

could

lack

of

not
an

integrated mechanism for a specific need.

The

success

of

modeling

the

mobile

network

relies

mostly on how well the mobile nodes are modeled. Models

need to be able to reflect reality. Otherwise, the model
would be useless. The tool OPNET has been used mainly for
network-performance

modeling

and

simulation.

However,

it

fails to represent dynamic nodes in the mobile network. In

contrast, STK is strong in mobile platform modeling and
analysis

but

mechanism.

lacks

Therefore,

network-performance

combining

these

two

analyzed

tools

should

illustrate the behavior of the dynamic node in the mobile

network with sufficient network-performance support.
For modern network simulations, both dynamic platform
and terrestrial networks must be modeled. System modelers
will first augment existing network simulation models with
dynamic

behaviors.

These

two

areas

start

from

different

environments so there must be some integration not only

from

system

point

of

view

but

also

from

modeling

standpoint. Although dynamic platform and terrestrial

35

network

models

interface

can

mechanisms

work

in

between

collaboration.

the

two

models

Automated
should

be

devised to provide intimate realtime integration. [KYJ01]

B.

MODELS INTEGRATION
In the previous chapter, the attributes editor depicts

vsat_2200

orbit

model

that

has

4,000,000

meters

as

altitude, which is insufficient and unrealistic for the UAV

model. For a deployed UAV, the orbit shall be arbitrary and
unlimited to fit the missions need.
An interface for the OPNET Modeler/Radio allows users
to import orbit data for use in the performance analysis of
communications satellites. The OPNETs interface into STK
is designed to provide users with more flexibility as they
tailor the modeling and simulation environments to study
the

performance

of

proposed

and

existing

satellite-

communication networks. While OPNET is able to model orbit

data as a standalone product, the interface enables STKs
users to import orbit data from that software into the
OPNET

Modeler/Radio,

thereby

eliminating

possible

duplication of effort. [OPN03]

Prior to importing data from STK into OPNET, the STK
orbit files need to be created. The OPNET converts the
orbit file into an .orb file and store the file in the
op_models directory. Only .v or .sa format orbits files
created in STK 3.0 or higher can be converted. [OPN03]
Figures 11 and 12 depict the integrating process.

36

Figure 11.

STK/OPNET Integration.

37

Figure 12.
C.

STK/OPNET Integration.

MODEL ANALYSIS
For

network

simulation,

the

Measure

of

Performance

(MOP) such as latency, delay, queue size, and throughput

should be consistent with the overall combined network of
dynamic

platform

and

terrestrial

systems.

[KYJ03]

The

OPNET/STK integrated environment is used to model the UAV

in

communication

simulation

network.

perspective,

the

best

From

the

effort

is

modeling
to

and

integrate

different modeling tools so as to exam the interoperability

of the proposed model. In other words, those MOPs for the
integrated

modes

shall

not
38

be

significantly

different

before

and

after

the

integration.

Figure

13

shows

the

statistics of this integrated model. Figure 14 demonstrates

there

is

no

significant

difference

before

integration.

Figure 13.

STK/OPNET MODEL Statistics.

39

and

after

Figure 14.

Comparison of Before and After Integration.

40

VI.
A.

CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS

SUMMARY
The

concept

communication

of

using

network

UAV

and

as

the

mobile

node

OPNET/STK

in

integrated

environment were addressed. Furthermore, both OPNET and STK

modeling

tools

demonstrate

were

each

introduced

individual

in

separate

modeling

chapters

to

characteristics.

Finally, the OPNET/STK integrated model was illustrated to

show the characteristics of a combined environment and to
analyze

the

interoperability

and

performance

of

this

combined model.
B.

CONCLUSIONS
The author arrived at several conclusions during the

course of this research. The following are considered the

most pertinent. The research conducted provided support for
the UAV concept as a viable option and should be further
studied.

The

following

are

the

most

viable

conclusions

drawn from this research:

The use of an UAV as a mobile node will free up

valuable
satellite
time
allowing
currently
constrained systems to operate more efficiently.
The UAV is not a replacement for satellite
communications
but
a
complement
to
its
capabilities.

The success of modeling the mobile network relies

heavily on modeling the mobility of the node
within the network and STK can support the
modeling of these mobile nodes.

The combination of OPNET/STK provides sufficient

capability to study the mobile platform within
the terrestrial network.

The interoperability between OPNET and STK works

pretty well, however, the importing process is
41

limited and awkward. For the UAV data files

created in STK to be eligible to be imported to
OPNET, the format has to be either .v or .sa,
furthermore, it takes several conversions to make
the UAV data files to be the .sa format, this
does not reflect the reality properly when the
subject is simply the UAV.
The following difficulties were discovered with this
model:

C.

Although the orbital parameter can be modeled and

shown in STK, however, those movements could not
be seen in OPNET.

Although OPNET is a powerful and effective

modeling
and
simulation
tool,
incorporating
various attributes from a link budget such as
altitude, transmitter power, and bandwidth can
require significant time in order to gain the
familiarity necessary to run the system.

Due to the complexity of the model, it is

difficult to test the feasibility of the network
communication plan, and how attenuation factors,
i.e. rain, dust, and noise would affect the
performance of the model.

The OPNET can model many data link layer

protocols,
i.e.,
ATM,
FDDI,
Frame
Relay,
nevertheless, none of these protocols reflect the
characteristics of a multi-nodes radio based
network.
The
illustration
used
masks
this
shortcoming by limiting the radio-nodes to two,
i.e., a point-to-point radio link, however, when
numerous exist as suggested in Figure 1, the need
for a Medium Access Protocol (MAC) becomes
apparent. Since general purpose MAC protocol for
radio-WANs do not exist, therefore neither OPNET
nor STK model them.

RECOMMENDATIONS
The research conducted in this thesis suggests that

the use of an UAV as a mobile node in a communication

network is a feasible option. Further research using the
modeling

and

simulation

tools
42

OPNET

and

STK

for

this

concept

is

justified.

Significant

savings

in

money

and

efforts can be attained from these insightful and flexible

tools.
Link
parameters

budgets
are

that

necessary

analyze
before

current

conducting

operational
any

further

research using OPNET/STK. Also, link analysis that reflects

future communication requirements should be made. A best
effort case scenario from link analysis is needed before
any modifications to the contributed model are completed.
Otherwise,

the

model

may

be

dramatically

inaccurate

and

useless.
OPNET
into

the

provides
network.

jammer

This

node

should

be

that

introduces

introduced

in

noise
later

research in order to provide a more accurate depiction of a

real world scenario.

43

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44

BIBLIOGRAPHY
[CAK98] Cebroowski, Arthur K., and John J. Garstka,
Network Centric Warfare: Its Origin and Future, U.S.
Naval Institute Proceedings 124, No. 1 (January 1998), pp.
28-35.
[CHP02] CHIP Magazine, Power to the Edge-Transformation of
the Global Information Grid, Summer 2002, pp. 6-10.
[JSB03] [cx.hanscom.af.mil/jsb-mil/conops.pdf], July 2003
[KYJ03] [www.informs-cs.org/wsc01papers/183.PDF], pp. 13461352, July 2003.
[OPN01] OPNET, Modeler User Guide 9.0, OPNET Technologies,
Inc., 2002.
[OPN03] [www.opnet.com], July 2003.
[OPN00] Chau, Brian, OPNET Contributed Model,
[www.opnet.com], 2000.
[PHO03] [www.phoenix-int.com], July 2003.
[ROD01] Roddy, D., Satellite Communication, New York:
McGraw-Hill, 2001.
[STK03] [www.stk.com], July 2003.
[TMN98] Aidarous, Salah and Plevyak, Thomas,
Telecommunication Network Management, The Institute of
Electrical and Electronics Engineer, Inc., New York, New
York, 1998.
[TOM01] Tomasi, W., Electronic Communication System
Fundamentals Through Advanced, 4th Ed., Upper Saddle River:
Prentice Hall, 2001
[USAF98] United States Air Material Command, Global Hawk
System Overview, 1998.
[WCN02] Stallings, W., Wireless Communication and Networks,
Upper Saddler Rivers: Prentice Hall, 2002.

45

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46

INITIAL DISTRIBUTION LIST

1.

Defense Technical Information Center

Fort. Belvoir, Virginia

2.

Dudley Knox Library

Naval Postgraduate School
Monterey, California

3.

Professor Alex Bordetsky

Naval Postgraduate School
Monterey, California

4.

Professor Rex Buddenberg

Naval Postgraduate School
Monterey, California

5.

Chairman, Information Sciences Department

Naval Postgraduate School
Monterey, California

47