Basic Concepts of Color, Light, Dyes, Pigments, Classification of Dyes and

Dyeing Mechanism

Dyeing-an

Introduction:

Textiles are usually coloured to make them attractive for aesthetic appeal. There are two ways of
adding colour to a textile substrate-printing and dyeing. Printing adds colour to the surface in
discrete places, whereas dyeing completely covers the substrate with colour. Dyeing is the
process of imparting colors to a textile material through a dye (colour). Dyes are obtained from
flowers, nuts, berries and other forms of vegetables and plants as well as from animal and
mineral sources. These are known as natural dyes. The other class of dyes is known as synthetic
dyes. These are based on a particular type of chemical composition. Some of these dyes areAcid (Anionic) dyes, Basic (Cationic) dyes, Neutral- Premetalized dyes, sulfur dyes, vat dyes,
reactive dyes, pigment dyes etc.

Dyestuff

Color:
There are three terms generally used to describe and specify colour. These are hue, value and
chroma.
Hue: hue is a term used for color, for example, pink, mauve, scarlet, beige, tan, etc are hues.
Value: value is a term used to describe lightness, darkness, tone or shade of hues. A colour is
termed light in value when it approaches white and dark in value when it has a deep colour or
approaches
black.
Chroma: chroma is the term used to describe the depth of colour that is the dullness, brightness,
saturation, intensity, vividness or purity of colour. A bright, intense colour is said to have high
chroma.

Colour

Mixing:

The rainbow: Sunlight is generally accepted as the source of white light and it consists of the
seven colours of rainbow. These are violet, blue, blue-green, green, yellow, orange and red.

Fundamental laws of colour mixing can, therefore, be classified into two types, namely:
1. Additive colour mixing occurs when two or more lights mix together.
2. Subtractive colour mixing occurs when colourants are mixed together.

Additive

Colour

Mixing:

Additive colour mixtures are always lighter than any of the individual components since each
light adds luminous energy to the final mixture. Blue, green and red light waves when mixed will
add together to produce white light. Red, blue and green are called the primary additive colours.
Examples

of

the

RED

additive

GREEN

of

GREEN

BLUE

effect

BLUE
+

=
=

CYAN

RED

RED+GREEN+BLUE

coloured

are:

YELLOW
(BLUE-GREEN)

=
=

light

MAGENTA
WHITE

Knowledge of additive colour mixing is necessary to understand subtractive colour mixing which
is utilized in textile dyeing and printing. The primary additive colours are also the basis of
colour specification.

Subtractive

Colour

Mixing:

The mixing of dyes, printing pastes, paints and pigments is called subtractive colour mixing. The
term subtractive is used as colour is subtracted or removed from each colour to produce black.
The production of black by mixing the three subtractive colours in equal proportions can be
explained
as
follows:
WHITE
WHITE
WHITE

BLUE

YELLOW

(MINUS

BLUE)

GREEN

MAGENTA

(MINUS

GREEN)

CYAN

(MINUS

RED)

RED

The mixing of subtractive primaries yellow, magenta and cyan can be predicted mathematically
as
follows:
YELLOW+MAGENTA=
=WHITE-BLUE-GREEN=RED

(WHITE-

BLUE)+(WHITE-

GREEN)

YELLOW+CYAN=(WHITE-BLUE)+(WHITE-RED)
=WHITE-BLUE-RED=GREEN
MAGENTA+CYAN=(WHITE-GREEN)+(WHITE-RED)
=WHITE-GREEN-RED=BLUE
YELLOW+MEGENTA+CYAN=WHITE-BLUE-GREEN-RED=BLACK

Dyes and Pigments:

The substances used to colour textiles can be classified as dyes and pigments. The pigments are
water insoluble. They are mostly used for paints, printing inks and plastics. They can also be
applied on textile materials, by adding in polymer melt or solution or by applying on fibre
surface with help of an adhesive type substance called binder. The pigments may be classified as
follows:
1. Inorganic pigments, such as various metallic oxides, hydroxides, chromates or other salts,
are mostly used for paints and similar colour preparation.
2. Organic pigments, such as insoluble azo or polycylic keto compounds, are mostly applied
on textiles.
3. Toners are sparingly water soluble azo compounds precipitated as barium, calcium or
magnesium salts.
4. Lakes are water-soluble dyes precipitated as metallic salts.
5. Complex of basic dyes with selected inorganic acids such as phosphomolybdic acid,
phosphotungstic acid and phosphomolybtungstic acid resulting in fluorescent pigments
which are used for printing of textiles and for making poster or signal colours.
6. Metallic co-ordination complexes of organic compounds, e.g. copper phthalocyanine.
Dyes are water soluble. Certain dyes are attached to certain fibre types. They are usually
adsorbed into the fibre. Dyes used for textile materials must possess the following four principal
properties:
1. Intense colour
2. Solubility in water, either permanently or temporarily during dyeing.
3. Affinity or substantivity towards textile fibres so that they are absorbed and retained by
them. Reactivity of certain dyes with fibres assures firm retention.

4. Adequate fastness, i.e. ability to withstand the treatments which the textile materials
undergo in manufacturing processes and in normal use.

The Basic Operations in Chemicals Processing:

The wet processing sector can be divided into three distinct sections: preparation processes,
colouration processes, finishing process. These are shown in the following table.

Table: The three function of wet processing sector

Preparation processes
These processes ensure
that textiles have the right
physical and chemical
properties to enable them
to be coloured or finished.
Examples:
Singeing
Desizing
Scouring
Bleaching
Heat setting, etc.

Coloration processes
These processes exist to
provide the textile with
coloured either for
aesthetic reasons or for
some functional purpose
determined by the
product.
Examples:
Dyeing
Printing

Basic
Light

Finishing processes
These processes exist to
provide the textile with the
properties that end use
demands and which have
not already been provided
by any earlier processes.
Examples:
Starch finish
Resin finish
Water repellency
Flame retardancy
Handle modifications
Anti soiling finish, etc.

Concepts:
and

Color:

Colours normally visible to us are combination of the effects of,

1. Properties of the coloured substance.
2. Properties of the light falling on it and getting reflected or transmitted (or both)
3. Properties of our eyes, on which the reflected/transmitted light falls.
The sun is the main and most important source of energy in our solar system. It emits energy in
the form of light. The light travels in the form of waves at tremendously high velocity i.e. 3*10
m/s.
Sunlight is composed of light of different wavelengths. Of these, only the wavelengths in the
range 400-700 nm are visible to the human eye. Light is an electromagnetic radiation and the

distribution of the wavelengths of the radiation in the visible region of sunlight and their
corresponding colours are given in the following table:
Colour composition and wavelengths of the radiation in the visible region of sunlight:
Colour
Violet
Indigo (Blue)
Blue green
Green
Yellow
Orange
Red

Colour

Wave length (nm)

390-430
430-460
460-500
500-570
570-590
590-610
610-700

and

Chemical

Constitution:

It has been established that coloured compounds must contain unsaturated chemical groups,
which
are
known
as
chromophores
or
colour
bearing
groups.
A compound containing a chromophore is known as chromogen. There are certain colour helping
or
colour
intensifying
groups
known
as
auxochromes.
Auxochromes may be of the acidic or basic type, i.e. anionic or cationic. Some of the important
auxochromes
are,
-OH;

-NH

;-COOH;-SOH;-OSOH;-NR;

-NHR

etc.

Functional Groups of Fiber:

Cotton: OH-, at higher pH it is ionizable

Wool: -COOH, -NH, -CONH2. At pH 3-4 ionized positively so acid dye is used to dyeing

Acrylic: -COOH, -SO3H, -O SO3H

Silk: -NH2, -CONH

Viscose: -OH, -COOH

Polyester: -OH, -COOH. No ionization effect, high temperature used for dyeing with
dispersing.

Diacetate: -OH, -COOCH3

Triacetate: -COOCH3

Classifications

of

Dyes:

Dyes are classified in two ways based on:

1. According to chemical constitution
2. According to use

Classification According to Chemical Constitution:

A number of chemical classes are reported in colour index. A dye may have multiple chemicals
groups. Hence, a dye may belong to more than one chemical class. The chemical classes are
unlimited as because dyes with newer classes are constantly being developed. Some of the
chemical classes reported are:
1. Nitroso(R.NOH)
2. Disazo
3. Stilbene
4. Anthraquinone
5. Quinoline
6. Indamines
7. Oxazole
8. Nitro(R.NO)
9. Trisazo
10. Xanthenes
11. Methine
12. Indophenol
13. Thiazole
14. Monoazo
15. Polyazo
16. Acridine

17. Azine
18. Sulphur
19. Lactone
20. Indigoid
21. Vinyl sulphone
22. Chlorotriazinyl
23. Hydroxyketone
24. Aminoquinone
25. Phthalocyanine

Classification According to Method of Application:

Synthetic

Dyes:

Synthetic dyes are classified based upon their chemical composition and the method of their
application
in
the
dyeing
process.

Basic

(Cationic)

Dyes:

Basic (Cationic) dye are water-soluble and are mainly used to dye acrylic fibers. They are
mostly used with a mordant. A mordant is a chemical agent which is used to set dyes on fabrics
by forming an insoluble compound with the dye. With mordant, basic dyes are used for cotton,
linen, acetate, nylon, polyesters, acrylics and modacrylics. Other than acrylic, basic dyes are not
very suitable for any other fiber as they are not fast to light, washing or perspiration. Thus, they
are generally used for giving an after treatment to the fabrics that have already been dyed with
acid dyes. The modified basic dyes called pendant cationic dyes were developed by separating
ionic changes away from the chromophore. These dyes have superior light fastness.

Direct

(substantive)

Dyes:

Direct dyes have direct Substantivity to cellulosic materials and are also termed as Substantivity
dyes. They are used for dyeing wool, silk, nylon, cotton, rayon etc. These dyes are not very
bright and have poor fastness to washing although they are fairly fast to light.

Mordant

Dyes:

The mordant or chrome dyes are acidic in character. Sodium or potassium bichromate is used
with them in the dyebath or after the process of dyeing is completed. This is done for getting the
binding action of the chrome. They are mostly used for wool which gets a good color fastness
after treatment with mordant dyes. They are also used for cotton, linen, silk, rayon and nylon but
are
less
effective
for
them.

Vat

Dyes:

Vat dyes are insoluble in water and cannot dye fibers directly. However, they can be made
soluble by reduction in alkaline solution which allows them to affix to the textile fibers.
Subsequent oxidation or exposure to air restores the dye to its insoluble form. Indigo is the
original vat dye. These dyes are the fastest dyes for cotton, linen and rayon. They are used with
mordants to dye other fabrics such as wool, nylon, polyesters, acrylics and modacrylics.

Reactive

Dyes:

Reactive dyes react with fiber molecules to form a chemical compound. These dyes, they are
either applied from alkaline solution or from neutral solutions which are then alkalized in a
separate process. Sometimes heat treatment is also used for developing different shades. After
dyeing, the fabric is washed well with soap so as to remove any unfixed dye. Reactive dyes were
originally used for cellulose fibers only but now their various types are used for wool, silk,
nylon, acrylics and their blends as well. Depending on the reactive group these dyes are
classified into a number of subgroups, namely cold-brand (M-brand), remazol (Vinyl sulphone),
high-exhaust
(HEbrand),
etc.

Disperse

Dyes:

Disperse dyes are water insoluble. These dyes are finely ground and are available as a paste or a
powder that gets dispersed in water. These particles dissolve in the fibers and impart color to
them. These dyes were originally developed for the dyeing of cellulose acetate but now they are
used
to
dye
nylon,
cellulose
triacetate,
and
acrylic
fibers
too.

Sulfur

Dyes:

Sulfur Dyes are insoluble and made soluble by the help of caustic soda and sodium sulfide.
Dyeing is done at high temperature with large quantities of salt so that the color penetrates into
the fiber. After dyeing, the fabric is oxidized for getting desired shades by exposure to air or by
using chemicals. Excess dyes and chemicals are removed by thorough washing. These dyes are
fast to light, washing and perspiration and are mostly used for cotton and linen.

Pigment

Dyes:

Although pigments are not dyes in a true sense, they are extensively used for coloring fabrics
like cotton, wool and other manmade fibers due to their excellent light fastness. They do not
have any affinity to the fibers and are affixed to the fabric with the help of resins. After dyeing,
the
fabrics
are
subjected
to
high
temperatures.

Affinity

of

Dyes

for

Fibers:

As fibre vary considerably in chemical structure and as dyes too have different chemicals groups
that are characteristic of them, it can be easily understood that all dyes will not have the same
affinity
for
all
fibres.
It is the difference between the chemical potential of dye in its standard state in the fiber & the
corresponding chemical potential in the dye bath i.e. tendency of a dye to move from dye bath
into a substance. It is expressed in Joule or cal (per mole) and quantitative expression of
substantivity.
Suitability of various dye-classes for textile fibres may be summarized as follows:
1. Cellulosic (cotton and viscose): Direct, azoic, sulphur, vat, solubilised vat, reactive,
ingrain, mineral, pigment, oxidation colours(limited use).
2. Cellulosic(Jute): Most of the above classes except those require causic soda. Additionally
acid and basic dyes.
3. Protein (wool,silk, nylon): Acid and selected direct dyes, basic dyes(limited use).
4. Polyester, Cellulose acetate and less commonly nylon: Disperse dyes.
5. Acrylic and Modacrylic: Conventional and modified basic dyes.

Common Terms Used in Dyeing:

Substantivity:
The attraction between a substrate and a dye or other substance under the precise condition of
test whereby the test is selectively extracted from the application medium of substrate. It is the
qualitative expression of affinity. Substantivity depends on temperature, type of fiber, electrolyte
concentration. Substantive dyes have affinity and are soluble. In simple terms Substantivity
indicates the ability of a dye to go to from the solution phase to the fibre.

Exhaustion:
This is a measure of the proportion of the dye absorbed by the fibre in relation to that remaining
in the dye bath. Thus it indicates the amount of dye that has moved from the solution into the
fibre under given dyeing conditions. It is also a measure of the Substantivity of the dye for the
fibre.

Material

to

Liquor

Ratio

(M:L):

This expression refers to the weight volume relationship between the fibre to be dyed and the
total volume of dye bath. It is normally abbreviated as MLR and sometimes written as M:L ratio.
An M:L ratio 1:20 means that a dye bath volume of 20 litres is required to dye 1 kg of dye fibre.
The material to liquor ratio is also sometimes referred to as an inverse ratio and called the liquor
to goods ratio or simply the liquor ratio and this ratio is given by the following expression.
Liquor

to

goods

ratio

=(total volume of dye liquor used in ml)/ Dry weight of material dyed in grams)
Typical liquor ratios used in different types of machine:
1. In all the liquor circulating machines like kier, jet dyeing and cheese dyeing machines the
M:L ratio is 1:4 or 1:5.
2. In a jigger it is 1:4.
3. In padding machine it is 1:1.
4. In a winch machine it is the range 1:10 to 1:25.
5. In open beck the ratio would be 1:20 to 1:40.
Expression: the term expression indicates the percentage increase in the weight of dry fabric
after
padding.
Shade percentage: shade percentage refers to the quantity of dye taken for a dyeing expressed
as a percentage of the dry weight of the fibre to be dyed.

Dyeing assistants: Dyeing assistants are chemicals that facilitate in one way or another, the
production of the required shades in dyeing. They also called auxiliaries. Some typical dyeing
assistants are: water softening/sequestering agents, exhausting agents, dispersing agents, leveling
agents,
retarding
agents,
anti
foaming
agents,
etc.

Mechanism of Dyeing:
The process of dyeing may be divided into three phases,
1. Adsorption of dyestuff at the fibre surface
2. Diffusion of the dyestuff through the internal structure of the fire, and
3. Fixation or anchoring of the dye molecule at a suitable location or dye site.

Adsorption:
In the first phase or step the dye molecules in the dye bath move towards the fibre and those that
are nearest to the fibre get adsorbed on to the fibre surface. They form a very thin layer of
molecules on the fibre surface. Other dye molecules still in the dye bath can be adsorbs only if
this
adsorbed
layer
moves
further
into
the
fibre.

Penetration:
In the second step, the adsorbed dye molecules enter the fibre structure and gradually penetrate
or diffuse into the pores or canals in the structure. The rate of penetration and the depth to which
they get will depend upon the molecular characteristics of the dye, the molecular arrangement in
the fibre and the dyeing conditions. Diffusion or penetration of dye in the fibre accounts for
almost the whole of dyeing time. The greater the penetration of dye into the fibre the brighter and
better is the dyeing. Good penetration is thus the key to quality dyeing. Poor penetration results
in dull, surfacial dyeing with unsatisfactory colour fastness properties.

Fixation:
The final step is one where the dye molecules find suitable locations or dye sites, where they get
fixed or anchored. The forces by which the dye molecules are held thus inside the fibre vary in
nature
and
strength
and
depend
upon
the
dye-fibre
relationship.
The exact nature of the forces holding dye particles to fibre surface is not fully understood, but
the possibilities may be classified as follows:
1. Van der waals forces.
2. Hydrogen bonds.
3. Salt linkage.

4. Covalent bonds, etc.

Dyeing
Aqueous
Vapor

medium:
phase:

Water,
cationic,

Medium:
Solvent,
anionic,

Foam
and

etc
nonionic

Stages of Coloration of Textile Materials:

The colouration of textiles may be carried out at the following stages:
1. Mass pigmentation of polymer melt or solution.
2. Dyeing of polymer gel.
3. Fibres tow dyeing.
4. Loose-stock or fibre dyeing.
5. Dyeing of fibre top or sliver.
6. Yarn dyeing.
7. Fabrics dyeing.
8. Garments dyeing.
Various

Coloration

Routes:

Various

coloration

routes

Gel Dyeing:
1. Lowest cost of coloration.
2. Requirement of dyes of high quality.
3. Poor flexibility to trade demands.
4. Inferior quality compared to crude production
5. Requirement of large lots per colour.
Tow dyeing:
1. 10% less dye cost than gel dyeing, more flexibility of choice of dyes.
2. Moderate flexibility to trade demands.

as

follows:

3. Comparatively smaller lots per colour, e.g. 2.5 tons.

Fibre dyeing:
1. Lowest dye cost, maximum choice of dyes.
2. Moderate flexibility to trade demands.
3. Smaller lots per colour.
Top dyeing:
1. Used for blend yarns.
2. Moderate flexibility to trade demands.
3. Smaller lots per colour.
Yarn dyeing:
1. Requirement of high-quality dyes.
2. Good flexibility.
3. Useful for patterned fabrics.
4. Additional winding cost.
Fabric dyeing:
1. Maximum flexibility, rapid response to market.
2. Requires maximum levelness of dyeing.

Dyeing

Methods:

Color is applied to fabric by different methods and at different stages of the textile manufacturing
process.

Stock

Dyeing:

Stock dyeing is used to dye fibers. In this process, the staple fibers are packed into a vessel and
then dye liquid is forced through them. Although the dye solution is pumped in large quantities,
the dye may not penetrate completely into the fibers and some areas may be left without dyeing.
However, the following blending and spinning processes mix up the fibers in such a thorough
way that it results in an overall even color. Woolens are usually stock dyed.

Top

Dyeing:

Top is the combed wool sliver. It is wound on perforated spools and the dye solution is circulated
through
it.
This
method
results
in
very
even
dyeing.

Yarn

dyeing:

When dyeing is done after the fiber has been spun into yarn, it is called yarn dyeing. In this
method, the dyestuff penetrates the fibers to the core of the yarn. There are many forms of yarn
dyeing- Skein (Hank) Dyeing, Package Dyeing, Warp-beam Dyeing, and Space Dyeing.

Skein

(Hank)

Dyeing:

The yarns are loosely arranged in skeins or coils. These are then hung over a rung and immersed
in a dye bath in a large container. In this method, the colour penetration is the best and the yarns
retain a softer, loftier feel. It is mostly used for bulky acrylic and wool yarns.

Package

Dyeing:

The yarns are wound on spools, cones or similar units and these packages of yarn are stacked on
perforated rods in a rack and then immersed in a tank. In the tank, the dye is forced outward from
the rods under pressure through the spools and then back to the packages towards the center to
penetrate the entire yarn as thoroughly as possible. Mostly, the carded and combed cotton which
are
used
for
knitted
outerwear
is
dyed
through
this
method.

Warp-beam

Dyeing:

It is similar to package dyeing but more economical. Here, the yarn is wound on to a perforated
warp beam and then immersed in a tank for dyeing it applying pressure.

Space

Dyeing:

In this method, the yarn is dyed at intervals along its length. For these two procedures- knitdeknit method and OPI Space-Dye Applicator- are adopted. In the first method, the yarn is
knitted on either a circular or flat-bed knitting machine and the knitted cloth is then dyed and
subsequently it is de-knitted. Since the dye does not readily penetrate the areas of the yarn where
it crosses itself, alternated dyed and undyed spaces appear. The OPI Space-Dye Applicator
technique produces multi coloured space- dyed yarns. The yarns are dyed intermittently as they
run at very high speeds through spaced dyebaths. They are continuously subjected to shock
waves
produced
by
compressed
air
having
supersonic
velocities.

Piece

Dyeing

The constructed fabrics are piece dyed for the flexibility they provide. The textile manufacturer
can dye the whole fabric in batches according to the fashion demands of the time thus avoiding
wastage and resultantly loss. There are several methods prevalent or piece dyeing.

Beck

Dyeing

It is used for dyeing long yards of fabric. The fabric is passed in rope form through the dyebath.

This rope of the fabric moves over a rail onto a reel which immerses it into the dye and then
draws the fabric up and forward and brings it to the front of the machine. This process is repeated
many
times
until
the
desired
color
intensity
is
obtained.

Jig

Dyeing:

It is similar to the process of beck dyeing with a slight variation. The fabric in jig dyeing is held
on rollers at full width rather than in rope form as it is passed through the dyebath.

Pad

Dyeing:

Padding is also done while holding the fabric at full width. The fabric is passed through a trough
having dye in it. Then it is passed between two heavy rollers which force the dye into the cloth
and squeeze out the excess dye. Then it is passed through a heat chamber for letting the dye to
set. After that it is passed through washer, rinser and dryer for completing the process.

Jet

Dyeing:

Fabric is placed in a heated tube where jets of dye solution are forced through it at high
pressures. The fabric too moves along the tube. The solution moves faster than the cloth while
coloring
it
thoroughly.

Solution

Pigmenting

or

Dope

Dyeing:

This is a method applied for dyeing the synthetic fibers. Dye is added to the solution before it is
extruded through the spinnerets for making synthetic filaments. This gives a colorfast fiber as the
pigments
are
used
which
are
the
fastest
known
colors.

Garment

Dyeing:

When the finished textile product such as hosiery or sweaters are dyed, it is called garment
dyeing. A number of garments are packed loosely in a nylon net and put into a dyestuff filled tub
with a motor driven paddle. The dye is thrown upon the garments by the moving paddles' effect.
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