Chapter 5

Is This Safe to Eat?

A crust eaten in peace is better than a
banquet attended by anxiety.
(Aesop, 6th century B.C.)
There is no love sincerer than the love of
food. (George Bernard Shaw)

Photo by Milton Friend

Contents
General Guidelines.................................................................................................................209
Conditions/Things One Might Encounter.............................................................................216
Should I Eat This?..................................................................................................................228
Literature Cited.......................................................................................................................229

Bolded words within the text indicate terms that are defined in the Glossary.

208 Disease Emergence and Resurgence: The WildlifeHuman Connection

Chapter 5

Is This Safe to Eat?

The harvest and consumption of wildlife is as old as
humankind and often has sustained human exploration into
unsettled areas. Wildlife still remain a primary foodbase for
many native peoples throughout the world. From shellfish
to bear, humans today continue to hunt, fish, and otherwise
harvest wildlife for recreation, social and cultural needs,
dietary supplementation, subsistence, and other purposes that
result in the consumption of game meat (Fig. 5.1).
Over time, experience has taught people what food is
safe to eat and how it should be prepared. This is especially
true for those who subsist upon wildlife. Fortunately, the
meat from wildlife generally is safe to eat when properly
harvested and prepared; however, many people infrequently
consume wildlife and are less experienced than subsistence
users of wildlife in making judgments about what is safe to
eat, how to handle the meat between the times of harvest and
preparation, and how the meat should be prepared (Table
5.1). Disease emergence and resurgence has added a dimension that also must be considered for wildlife (e.g., chronic
wasting disease in deer and elk) and domestic foods alike
(see Chapters 2 and 3).
This chapter provides guidance for sporadic consumers of
wildlife because, unlike farmed food animals (domestic and
captive-reared wildlife species) or commercially harvested
finfish and shellfish, the meat from free-living wildlife in the
USA and many other countries is not regulated and inspected
by government authorities. The safe consumption of game
harvested by the public in these situations depends entirely
on the actions and discretion of those harvesting and preparing these food items. These individuals commonly encounter
conditions in wildlife carcasses that cause them to ask the
question Is This Safe to Eat? (Fig. 5.2) and in some situations to unnecessarily discard edible meat.
Recreational harvest of wildlife and ecotourism (see
Chapters 2 and 3) are two situations where knowledge about
the wholesomeness of wildlife food items is beneficial. Relevant insights can be gained from the Internet, publications
such as this one, and agency health advisories associated
with wild game. Recommendations and guidelines developed
by health specialists should be heeded. Most importantly,
when in doubt about the safety of the meat, play it safe
and dispose of the meat in a responsible manner, rather than
consume it.
Do not feed tainted meat to companion or farm animals
because that could jeopardize their health and result in those

animals becoming diseased and infecting others. Unfortunately, no matter how much we know about the meat being
considered for consumption, there always will be some degree
of risk. Some hazards can be invisible and thus, at times,
impossible to avoid (e.g., eggs and salmonellosis, hamburger
and Escherichia coli).

General Guidelines
What you dont know can hurt you (Anonymous)
Knowledge is the antidote to fear (Ralph Waldo
Emerson)

The following general guidelines regarding the harvest and

preparation of wild game meat apply to all species and geographic areas despite this chapters focus on North American
vertebrates. Invertebrates, like shellfish, are important food
items in many parts of the world and also are subject to a
wide array of diseases (see Chapter 2). These species are filter
feeders and, in underdeveloped countries, they are found in
water often contaminated by human waste. Also, worldwide,
harmful algal blooms that produce toxins hazardous to
humans can contaminate their habitat. Therefore, shellfish
harvesters need to be well-informed about environmental
conditions where they are harvesting shellfish. Hepatitis
and various forms of shellfish poisoning can result from illinformed choices involving the harvest and consumption of
clams, oysters, and other species.
Learn About the Local Area
Individuals harvesting wildlife should be well informed
about wildlife disease activity and concerns in the local area
where harvest is being pursued. This holds true for the patch
of woods in the back forty, as well as for a safari in Africa.
For example, appropriate inquiry could inform a novice
hunter in Arkansas that the bacterial disease tularemia is
present in that state. The hunter could then take appropriate
precautions when handling wild rabbits or rodent species
and also avoid exposure to ticks and other potential vectors
of tularemia. Fishermen who check local water conditions
often can obtain information about contaminant levels and
health advisories about the safe amount of fish to be eaten
from that area.

Is This Safe to Eat? 209

Know Whom to Contact

Wildlife consumers can contact local public health authorities and the local fish and game agencies to pursue questions
or concerns about the health status of wildlife.
Learn Proper Handling and Preparation
Quality care of carcasses in the field and proper technique
for removing internal organs and other viscera are important
for maintaining the quality of the meat to be consumed.
Learn these techniques from an experienced person when
possible. Wildlife extension and hunter education specialists
within universities and state wildlife agencies often are good
sources for information on how to handle wild game in the
field and prepare it for the table.1 Various extension bulletins,
pamphlets, and other publications addressing these matters
are available. For example, A Bibliography of Cooperative

Extension Service Literature on Wildlife, Fish, and Forest

Resources is a comprehensive list of relevant publications
from all over the USA.2 Another good source for finding
wildlife related resources is http://www.uwex.edu/ces/wlb.
Guidance also can be obtained from sportsman-related manuals and video tapes.
Consider how much time will lapse between actual harvest
of the animal, cleaning, and proper storage prior to transport
to the site where it will be prepared for food. Field and
weather conditions are important aspects of this evaluation,
as decomposition increases with temperature. Also, blowing
dust, flies, and other field conditions may require protective
bags and other containers to protect the carcass. Ambient
temperatures may also require refrigeration or other means
for cooling carcasses to prevent spoilage.

Illustration by John M. Evans

Figure 5.1 Game meat serves the food, cultural, and social needs for a wide variety of peoples.

210 Disease Emergence and Resurgence: The WildlifeHuman Connection

Internal organs and intestines from large mammals, such

as deer, should be completely removed immediately after
harvesting the animal. In warm climates, it is advisable to
field dress large game birds and medium-sized animals
as well. Care should be taken not to rupture the stomach,
intestines, or other internal organs. Thoroughly clean the
inside of the carcass if wounds associated with the animals
harvest or removal of viscera have resulted in their rupture
and soiling of the body cavity. Cut away and discard hemorrhaged tissue from wounds as these tissues may contain lead
and other bullet and shot fragments.
Wear disposable gloves to prevent skin contact with viscera and blood from animal carcasses when field dressing
and preparing carcasses for consumption (Fig. 5.3). Abrasions
on the preparers skin allow bacteria and other pathogens
present in the carcass to cause infection, if skin protection

is inadequate. Preventing skin contact with the carcass by

outer clothing also can serve as a barrier from ticks and other
ectoparasites.
When cleaning wild game, dispose of unwanted parts
responsibly to avoid endangering local domestic and wild
animals. For example, discarding the viscera from cottontail
rabbits in a manner that allows dogs or other carnivores to
feed on that material facilitates the life cycle of a common
tapeworm (Fig. 5.4). Similarly, fish-cleaning stations are
commonly provided at some boat launching areas for the
disposal of unwanted fish parts.
Various techniques are used to preserve and prepare
game meat for consumption. Basic understanding of the
proper application of techniques is important for avoiding
health problems (Table 5.2). For example, smoking meat is
a popular way to prepare fish and game, although, if done

Table 5.1. Characteristics of game-meat consumers in the USA and sources for that meat.
Typical role
of game meat
in diet

Primary
source of
meat

Primary
harvest of
meat

Subsistence

Primary
source of
animal protein

Wild

Personal

Local to
regional

Individuals (primarily native peoples and

those living in remote areas) are usually
knowledgeable about harvesting, processing,
and food preparation; practical knowledge of
species being harvested and the appearance
of normal body conditions.

Supplemental

Frequent and
important
source of
animal protein

Wild

Personal

Local to
regional

Same as subsistence and includes larger

percentage of general public in locations such
as Alaska where there is an abundance of
wildlife and relatively few people.

Recreational

Occasional
source of
animal protein

Wild

Personal

Local to
international

Many individuals infrequently harvest wildlife and may have little knowledge of their
diseases. Levels of knowledge vary and range
from high to low.

Novelty

Infrequent
novelty food

Wild

Other

Local to
international

Meat typically provided by friend who harvests wildlife; consumer with very limited
information relative to harvest conditions and
care of meat.

Cultural

Important
component to
satisfy food
needs

Wild/ commercial

Other

Local to
international

Meat, organs, powders, and other consumables from wildlife for medicinal, spiritual,
sexual, and other purposes. Primary native
peoples; minority of general public.

Gourmet

Low frequency Commercial

specialty
cultural mores

Other

Local to
international

Generally government inspected foods from

farmed, ranched, and sometimes wild stocks
of animals.

Other

Local to
international

Government inspected foods; finfish and

shellfish primary species involved. Product
may be from captive or wild stocks depending
on species.

Consumer
type

General public Commercial

products

Commercial

Primary
origin
of meat

Comments

Is This Safe to Eat? 211

for commercial smoking of fish within the USA have been

adjusted to provide safer products from this process. Home
smoking is controlled by the individual.
Other general precautions with hunted game include considerations involving bullet fragments and shotshell pellets
present in tissues of harvested animals. Lead shot used for
bird hunting has been the cause for cases of appendicitis in
people who have ingested this shot along with the meat.7 This
shot has a tendency to lodge in the appendix and cause a rupture; it is not a cause for lead poisoning in people. However,
shot and bullet fragments can be embedded in meat and can
cause chipped and broken teeth if bitten into. Finally, it is
unwise to consume animals found dead if the cause of death
is unknown. An experienced person may be able to evaluate
a freshly dead carcass and determine the cause of death,
thereby salvaging the meat for consumption when appropriate. However, seldom is such action warranted.

Photos by Milton Friend

improperly, can result in serious consequences. Improper

smoking of fish, commercial and individual, from the Great
Lakes (North America) has resulted in human fatalities
caused by type E botulinum toxin.36 The temperature during
the smoking was not high enough for a long enough period of
time to inactivate Clostridium botulinum toxin. Regulations

General Risk Assessment

Below are three recommendations for hunters to evaluate
the health of their quarry:
1) Before the animal actually is killed, its behavior and
general appearance should be noted. Sick and, of
course, dead animals should not be harvested for food
consumption. However, a decision should be made
at the time as to whether problematic animals should
be left alone or collected for evaluation purposes.
Circumstances will dictate what should be done, and
it is important not to violate any regulations regarding
taking and possessing wildlife. Whenever apparent
disease conditions are encountered, local wildlife
authorities (e.g., wildlife agencies) should be notified.

Figure 5.2 Questions about the safety of game meat may

arise after animals have been harvested and possible abnormalities are seen, or because disease events in the region
cause higher awareness.

2) At the time of harvest, thoroughly inspect the outside

of the carcass.
External Exam:
Do the haircoat, feathers, or other body coverings
look healthy? (Fig. 5.5A, B)

Photo by James Runningen

Is the animal in good body condition or is it very

thin or emaciated? (Fig. 5.5C, D)

Figure 5.3 The use of disposable or reusable impermeable

gloves affords a great deal of protection at little expense and
inconvenience when processing wildlife carcasses in the field
and when handling the meat and tissues from these animals
prior to their being prepared as food.

Are abnormal conditions present, such as growths,

deformities, or injuries? (Fig. 5.5EK)
Are there other signs of illness, such as evidence
of diarrhea (abnormal looking or soft stool adhered
to the vent area)? (Fig. 5.5L, M)
When conducting external examinations, it is
important to recognize that infectious disease
is not the only cause for unfit appearance of an
animal. Old age, malnutrition, mechanical injury,

212 Disease Emergence and Resurgence: The WildlifeHuman Connection

Illustration by John M. Evans

and physical defects that inhibit food gathering and

eating are among other factors that can lead to this
type of appearance. For example, fish with lamprey scars may be thin because of the lampreys
effects on the fish (Fig. 5.6).
Tumors on some fish (Fig. 5.7) have been associated with environmental contaminants;8,9 if tumors
are found, check whether fish consumption advisories have been issued for the respective area.
Consider observations made during the external
examination, along with those from the internal
examination, in deciding about the suitability of
the meat for consumption. Carcasses that appear
to be grossly diseased should not be opened for
internal examination.
3) After harvest, and following the external exam, the
inside of the carcass should be inspected when the
animal is field dressed or otherwise processed.

Figure 5.4 Infective eggs of the

dog tapeworm are shed in the
feces of carnivores, such as coyotes, and are ingested by rabbits
while feeding along the ground.
The eggs hatch within the rabbit
and the resulting larvae migrate
to various tissues within the
rabbits body. Carnivores become
infected when they consume rabbits containing these larvae (cysticerci). Dogs commonly become
infected by feeding on improperly
discarded remains from rabbits
harvested by hunters.

Internal Exam:
How does the carcass smell?
Do any of the tissues or organs appear irregular or
abnormal in shape or color? (Fig. 5.8AF)
Do any of the tissues or organs appear to contain
abscesses? (Fig. 5.8G)
Are there any tissues or organs that contain what
appear to be parasites? (Fig. 5.8HJ)
Use all of your senses when examining a carcass. Bad
odors generally arise from rotting tissues, perhaps from
an old injury that has abscessed. However, the spillage of
intestinal tract content into the body cavity during removal or
from rupture during harvest may also be the source for such
odor. The food source of the animal may also result in strong
odors that are not an indication of disease. Cedar, sagebrush,
and bivalves (mussels) are examples of foods consumed by

Is This Safe to Eat? 213

Photo A, U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service; B, Nick Drahos, NYDEC;

C, Milton Friend

Photo K, USGS National Wildlife Health Center; L and M,

Milton Friend

Photos H, I, and J, Milton Friend

Photo D, James Runningen; E, Milton Friend; F and G, James Runningen

Figure 5.5 Aberrations in hair/feather coat, emaciated body condition, deformities, sores, and soiling of the vent area are
common external indications that an animal may be afflicted by disease. (A) The extensive loss of feathers on the head of this
loon is believed to have been caused by ringworm resulting from infection by Trichophyton sp. fungi. (B) The white, wooly-like
hair within the hair coat of this white-tailed deer also is aberrant, but has genetic rather than a pathologic basis. (C) Emaciation
such as that seen in the breast of the lower pheasant and (D) by the rib cage of this gray wolf may result from food deprivation
(malnutrition), chronic infectious diseases, and other causes. (E) The shorter than normal lower jaw of this white-tailed deer is
genetic, while the deformed upper portion of the bill on this white pelican (F) was likely caused by injury rather than infectious
disease. In contrast, (G) the nodule on the face of this canvasback duck was caused by avian tuberculosis. (H) The greatly swollen
mammary glands of this white-tailed deer (mastitis) and (I) the swollen lower portions of the feet of another white-tailed deer are
caused by different types of pathogenic bacteria capable of causing disease in humans. Handling these types of animals without
protective gloves is hazardous as contact with drainage from infected areas can cause human infection through abrasions in the
skin. (J) The lesion on the tongue of this white-tailed deer was caused by bluetongue virus, one of the causes of hemorrhagic
disease in deer, livestock, and some other mammals. (K) The lesion under the tongue of this mallard duck was caused by duck
plague virus. (L) The blood-soiled vent area of this mallard duck also is due to duck plague, a viral disease of waterfowl and (M)
the green soiled vent area of this Canada goose is due to lead poisoning.
214 Disease Emergence and Resurgence: The WildlifeHuman Connection

Table 5.2 Common techniques for home preparation of game meat within the USAa,b
Method

Description

Species commonly prepared

Comments

Smoking

Meat is brined for several

days to weeks and then
placed in a closed but
vented chamber where it is
heated for hours to several
days. Flavoring results from
the type of wood/sawdust
used for specifically creating
smoke during the heating
process.

Many types of
meat including
venison, birds, fish,
and occasionally
shellfish.

Homemade and commercial smokers, including small

volume electric units are used. Insufficient heating relative
to temperature reached and time that highest temperature
is maintained fails to kill spore-forming bacteria that may be
present.38,39 Human cases of botulism (Clostridium botulinim) have resulted from home-smoked fish and other game
meat.3,5

Jerky

Typically, uniform thin strips

of lean meat that have been
air dried, often following a
prolonged period of brining
(several weeks). Smoking is
commonly used as a part of
the drying process.

Deer, caribou
and other large
mammals.

Popular for venison and sometimes used for novelty preparation of species not typically prepared for food. Insufficient
heating during the drying process may result in the survival
of larval forms of parasites encysted within game meat along
with contamination by bacterial organisms during processing
of the carcass. Examples include human cases of trichinellosis from the consumption of cougar jerky40 and Esherichia
coli 0157:H7 from venison jerky.41

Sausage

Highly seasoned minced

game meat, such as
venison, combined with
domestic beef and /or pork
to increase fat content. This
mixture is usually stuffed in
casings of animal intestine
and then cold smoked (low
temperature) for several
days and then finished by
hot smoking (cooking temperature) for 24 hours.

Same as jerky.

Popular use for less prized cuts of game meat from deer and
elk. Commonly served as snacks at the homes of hunters,
distributed to friends, and used as sandwich meat. Because
of the relative low meat temperatures (about 150F) reached
during preparation, it is important that both the game and
domestic meat be from wholesome animals. Secondary
bacterial contamination that may occur when processing the
carcass is especially important and requires that basic sanitation be incorporated throughout all aspects of processing
the animal and during sausage preparation.

Canning

Previously treated (cooked,

cured) or raw meat is heated
in a sealed container to
exclude air.

Same as smoking.

Canning is the oldest and most important means of preparing ambient, stable long shelf-life foods.42 Clostridium botulinium is the pathogen of greatest concern for the commercial
canning industry43 and also for home-canning. The anaerobic
environment resulting from canning facilitates the germination of Cl. botulinium spores that may be present. The combination of temperature and time required to destroy botulinum
toxin produced by these bacteria is 212F for 10 minutes.39
The thermal death time for spores of Cl. botulinium at 250F
is 2.45 minutes. These temperatures must be maintained at
the center of the interior of the container.38

Direct cooking

Essentially all methods used

for cooking domestic meats
(fish, poultry, beef, etc.) are
used to cook game meat.

Mammals, birds,
fish, shellfish and
incidental species,
such as frogs and
turtles.

Game meat is often eaten rare to maintain the delicate

flavors of different meats or prevent drying due to the low fat
content of many species. Proper handling, including temperature control (refrigeration/freezing) to prevent spoilage and
secondary bacterial contamination is important for sustaining
the wholesomeness of the meat.44

Other

A variety of other techniques

such as salting, fermentation and other processes are
used to prepare game for
consumption.

Various

Use of these techniques is generally less common than the

above techniques except for regional and ethnic/cultural
preferences. Similar cautions identified for the above techniques apply. Detailed information about various methods
for food handling and preparation that apply to game meat is
available from many sources and should be consulted when
considering unfamiliar methods. 38,39,44,45

a
Game meat is generally wholesome. All of the methods identified in this table are generally safe when properly applied. Unlike domestic meats, the health status of the animal
is not known nor is there a regulatory inspection process to evaluate game meat. Therefore, the burden for inspection and quality control from harvest through processing and food
preparation lies with those involved in the utilization of game meat.
b
Extreme examples of the edibility of meat from wild mammals are reports of meat eaten from a young mammoth frozen in the Siberian tundra for about 15,000 to 20,000 years and
bone marrow from a horse that had been frozen in Alaska for 50,000 years and was served at a dinner in New York.39

Is This Safe to Eat? 215

wildlife that may make them smell odd, but do not represent
potential human health hazards. The appearance of internal
organs and tissues is often compromised by damage during
the harvest of the animal and may be difficult to evaluate.
However, the appearance of abscesses, fungal growth, and
tumors within the body cavity should generally result in the
rejection of the carcass for consumption.

there are a number of conditions of wildlife that may be

encountered. Some are harmless, but cause uninformed
observers to discard edible meat. Others are potentially hazardous. Some of the conditions commonly seen within the
USA are highlighted in the remainder of this chapter.
Parasites
Parasites generally are more apparent than other pathogens
to those processing wildlife for their meat and other purposes.
Parasites, or evidence of their presence, may be seen externally on the animal and internally within the intestines, on
major organs such as the liver, and as a result of cyst formation within muscle tissue (Table 5.3). If present, people may
want to know what they are and whether it is safe to eat the
meat from this animal.

Conditions/Things One Might

Encounter
Nature does nothing without a purpose (Anonymous)
Neurosis seems to be a human privilege (Freud)

Most wildlife are wholesome and do not pose any significant risks for disease when cleanly harvested, properly
handled, and prepared appropriately as food. Nevertheless,

External Parasites

Photo courtesy of the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Center for Great
Lakes and Aquatic Sciences

Most people are not surprised or concerned when they

encounter ectoparasites, such as ticks and lice (Fig. 5.9) on
wildlife carcasses. However, that is not the situation when
larval forms of bot and warble flies are encountered for the
first time. Depending on the fly species and wildlife host,
these larvae may be encountered in nasal cavities, sinuses or
retropharyngeal pouches, subdermal, and even in muscle
tissue.10 Despite the outward appearance (Fig. 5.10), the meat
from infested carcasses is safe to eat.
Sarcoptic mange (Sarcoptes scabiei) is another external
parasitism that causes considerable concern (Fig. 5.11).11
Infestation does not, by itself, render the animal unfit for
consumption, but severe infestations can result in unhealthy
animals and secondary infections by opportunistic bacteria
can render such carcasses unfit for consumption. Protective
gloves should always be used when handling animals with
mange, because some of the subspecies of mites that cause
this disease are capable of transient human infestations.11

Figure 5.6 Those not familiar with lamprey-induced wounds

may mistake the lesions in the flesh of fish to have been caused
by disease agents instead of the attachment and detachment
of lampreys.

Figure 5.7 (A) Tumors within the mouth area of some fish, such as the brown bullhead, have been associated with environmental
contaminants; (B) the tumor on this northern pike is of unknown cause. Fish that have external tumors should not be consumed.

216 Disease Emergence and Resurgence: The WildlifeHuman Connection

B. Photo by Milton Friend

A. Photo by Stephen B. Smith, USGS

Photo A. James Runningen; B, Milton Friend; C, J. Christian

Franson

Photo D, Milton Friend; E, James Runningen; F, Milton Friend

Photos G, H, and I by Milton Friend

Photo J by Milton Friend

Figure 5.8 Abnormal coloration, size, and shape of organs, the presence of
growths within the body, and other indicators of disease are often readily seen when
carcasses are opened. Examples include: (A) pale coloration of tissues, such as
that caused by stress associated with improperly handling live animals (capture
myopathy); (B) the accumulation of white, gritty deposits in the surface of organs,
such as the heart of this bird due to dietary protein imbalances (visceral gout); (C)
encasement of the heart and part of the liver by a fibrous covering in this bird, and
(D) the translucent covering of the liver in another bird are the result of infection
by the bacterium Escherichia coli. (E)The numerous, raised, firm nodules seen in
this whooping crane are the result of avian tuberculosis. (F) The nodular area in
the lung of this deer is a malignant tumor. (G) Abscesses, such as those in the leg
of this muskrat, are sufficient reason to reject the use of meat from the carcass.
(H) Parasites, such as these roundworms in the intestine of a raccoon, (I) stomach
worms in a white-tailed deer, and (J) tapeworms in the intestine of this goose are
commonly seen in wildlife carcasses. These parasites do not represent a state of
disease and are not reasons to discard the carcass.

Is This Safe to Eat? 217

Table 5.3 Examples of parasite infections that may be observed in North American wildlife harvested for human
consumptiona
Disease/
parasite

Parasite
type

Primary
wildlife for
occurrence

Observations

Human
risks

Recommended action

Tracheal worm
Syngamus trachea

Nematode
(roundworm)

Upland game
birdsb

Large red worms in the

trachea (Fig. 5.15)

None

Meat is edible

Gizzard worms
Amidostomum spp.

Nematode

Upland game
birds

Groups of small worms within

the gizzard

None

Discard severely parasitized gizzards; thoroughly cook parts, if

only lightly parasitized

Histomoniasis
Histomonas
meleagris

Protozoan

Upland game
birds

Lesions only, parasite is

microscopic; liver with discrete circular pale areas, ceca
with necrotic debris (Fig. 5.17)

None

Discard liver; consumption of

muscle tissue acceptable

Sarcosporidiosis
Sarcocystis spp.

Protozoan

Waterfowl

Immature form of parasite

that look like grains of rice in
muscle tissue (Fig. 5.13)

None

Discard heavily infected tissue due

to poor texture

Trichomoniasis
Trichomonas gallinae

Protozoan

Doves,
pigeons

Lesions only; parasite is

microscopic; yellow cheeselike masses in mouth, throat,
and crop (Fig. 5.16)

None

Meat is edible

Thorny-headed
worms

Acanthocephalan

Waterbird, wild Nodules on the surface of the

pigs, raccoons, intestine and worms protrudturtles, fish
ing through the intestine (Fig.
5.14)

None

Meat is edible

Dog tapeworm
Taenia pisiformes

Cestode
(tapeworm)

Rabbits

Bladder-like larval cysts free

in the body cavity (Fig. 5.18)

None

Meat is edible; do not feed viscera

to dogs or other canids

Myiasis

Warble and
bot fly larvae

Rabbits, squirrels, caribou

Larvae imbedded in skin,

muscle, or present in nasal
passages (Fig. 5.10)

Nonec

Meat is edible after removal of

areas of larval infestation

Larva migrans
Baylisascaris
procyonis

Nematode

Raccoon

Adult worms found within

intestine (Fig. 5.8H)

Yes

Well-cooked meat can safely be

eaten. However, need to avoid
exposure to fecal material and
intestinal tract contents because
larvated eggs are infectious for
humans if accidentally ingested

Mange
Sarcoptes scabiei;
Notoedres douglasi

Mites

Squirrelsd

Major hair loss, crusted, thickened skin (Fig. 5.11)

Yes

Meat is edible but heavy infestations can result in secondary

bacterial infections that preclude
eating the meat. Avoid skin contact
with carcasses as transient infections by S. scabiei possible

Demodectic mange
Demodex odocoilei

Mite

Deer

Hair loss, thickened skin,

pustules on skin

None

Same as other manges, but no risk

for human infestation

Liver fluke
Fascioloides magna

Trematode
(Fluke)

Deer

See text (Fig. 5.19)

None

See text

Cysticercosis

Cestode

Moose

See text (Fig. 5.20)

None

See text

Ich
Ichthyophthirius
multifiliis

Ciliate

Fish

Readily seen, small white

spots on skin, fins, gills

None

Heavily infected fish may have

secondary infections and should be
discarded; other fish are edible

218 Disease Emergence and Resurgence: The WildlifeHuman Connection

Table 5.3 Examples of parasite infections that may be observed in North American wildlife harvested for human
consumptionaContinued.
Disease/
parasite

Parasite
type

Primary
wildlife for
occurrence

Observations

Human
risks

Recommended action

Black spot/grub
Uvulifer ambloplitis

Digenetic
trematode
(fluke)

Fish

Readily seen, small (pinhead

size) black spots on skin, fins,
and embedded in flesh

None

Fish are edible

White grub
Posthodiplostomum
minimum and others

Digenetic
trematode

Fish

Small (1 mm or less) white

spots in internal organs

None

Heavily infected fish may have

secondary bacterial or fungal infections and should be discarded

Yellow grub
Clinostomum
complanatum

Digenetic
trematode

Fish

Large (3 to 8 mm) nodules

appearing under the skin and
in the flesh

None

Parasites are highly visible after

skinning the fish because of their
yellow color and size; flesh should
be thoroughly cooked or remove
parasites prior to eating fish

Heterosporis
Heterosporis spp.

Microsporidian

Fish

See text (Fig. 5.12)

None

See text

a
Information provided is for wildlife species commonly eaten by humans. Some of these parasites also infect a wide range of other species. There are many parasites observed (some
of which are pathogenic for humans) in other wildlife species that generally are not eaten by humans with access to commercial sources of food.

Upland gamebirds = species such as wild turkey, grouse, pheasant, quail, and partridge.

Humans can become infested by some species of fly larvae following the deposition of eggs on the human body by adult flies.

Sarcoptic mange is most commonly seen in canids such as coyotes and foxes, species not commonly used by humans for food.

Ich or white spot is probably the most important freshwater

fish parasite in the world; it is seen in the skin of many species of fishes in the temperate zone, but has no human health
significance.12 Heterosporis (Heterosporis spp.) is a newly
identified parasite of fishes in the upper Midwest (USA) and
in Canada that infects muscle tissue. Infected areas appear
white and opaque (Fig. 5.12) and, in heavily infected fish,
90 percent or more of the body may consist of the parasite
spores rather than muscle tissue. There is no evidence that
humans can be infected by this parasite.13 Other common fish
parasites causing spot-like lesions are the grubs (digenetic
trematodes or flukes) that infect warm-water fishes. The
black grub (Uvulifer ambloplitis) causes black spot disease.
The white grub (Posthodiplostomum minimum), which is
found in internal organs, and the yellow grub (Clinostomum
complanatum), which is found under the skin and embedded
in flesh, are other spot-like diseases.14 These parasites are not
considered to be of human health importance (Table 5.3).
Internal Parasites

The most commonly seen and questioned internal parasites of wild game in North America are Sarcocystis spp. and
acanthocephalans in birds, the dog tapeworm in cottontail
rabbits, liver flukes in white-tailed deer, and cysticercosis
in moose. Lesions caused by other parasites are commonly
seen, but those parasites may be too small to be seen without
magnification or are not readily visible because of their locations within the host (Table 5.3).

Photo by Milton Friend

Figure 5.9 Ticks are commonly found on both mammals and

birds, and may vector a variety of diseases to humans. Therefore, precautions should be taken to avoid their transfer when
handling wildlife carcasses. Self-inspection should follow the
processing of carcasses when ticks are observed and prompt
removal of any ticks found should be done in an appropriate
manner (e.g., avoid crushing the tick and leaving their mouth
parts imbedded in persons skin).

Is This Safe to Eat? 219

Photos by Milton Friend

Figure 5.10 (A) Fly larvae embedded in the tissues of a nestling cottontail rabbit, and (B) more mature larval stages (bots)
embedded in an adult cottontail.

Sarcosporidiosis, or rice breast disease, is a common

parasitic disease of some species of waterfowl and other wildlife; it is present under the skin rather than internally within
the body.15 The cysts formed in muscle tissue appear as ricegrain sized bodies, thus, the common name for this disease
(Fig. 5.13). This highly visible protozoan infection does not
constitute a public health threat, and properly cooked meat
containing this parasite is safe to eat. Parasites of the Phylum
Acanthocephala also are commonly seen in some species of
birds (Fig. 5.14)16 and mammals.17 Their presence does not
constitute a public health threat. Other common parasitic
infections that may be seen in game birds include tracheal

worms in pheasant (Fig. 5.15), trichomoniasis in doves (Fig.

5.16), and blackhead in turkey (Fig. 5.17).
Larvae of the dog tapeworm, Taenia pisiformis, are commonly encountered by rabbit hunters (Fig. 5.18), because
rabbits are a primary intermediate host for this parasite.
Humans are not infected. Hunters that feed the viscera from
rabbits to their dogs may infect those dogs because, along
with coyotes, foxes, and several other carnivores, dogs are
definitive hosts for the parasite.18
Discovering the large American liver fluke, Fascioloides
magna, within fibrous capsules in deer liver is often a startling
finding for those unfamiliar with this parasite (Fig. 5.19).

C
B

Figure 5.11 Mange is a common disease of wildlife that affects numerous mammal species including the (A) gray squirrel,
(B) red fox, and (C) wolf.

220 Disease Emergence and Resurgence: The WildlifeHuman Connection

Photos A and B, Milton Friend. Photo C, USGS National Wildlife Health Center file photo

Photo by James Runningen

Photo courtesy of Karl Hayden, Fisheries and Applied Aquacultures, Auburn

University, Alabama, USA

Figure 5.12 Black grub infection of Heterosporis spp. in

muscle of largemouth bass.

Figure 5.13 Cysts of Sarcocystis sp. in the breast muscle

of a mallard duck.

These flukes occur in pairs or groups within those capsules

and can be up to 8 cm long. There are no records of humans
being infected by this parasite19 and no reason for the meat
of the animal to be discarded, even if the unpalatable appearance of an infected liver may cause rejection of that part of
the animal as food.20
Cysticercosis due to infection by Taenia ovis krabbei is
common in moose populations that are closely associated
with wolves, the definitive host for this tapeworm. Parasite
prevalence of 60 to 70 percent has been reported for some
moose populations in Canada.18,21,22 The larvae of this parasite
encyst in skeletal muscles and in the connective tissue fascia
in and between those tissues (Fig. 5.20). Heavy infections

can result in significant tissue damage or loss of good body

condition. Although human infections do not occur, reindeer
meat infected with cysticerci is unacceptable for human
consumption.18 Despite the appearance of infected meat,
heavily parasitized meat can be consumed without adverse
effects on humans.23
Not all parasites of wildlife can be seen or easily detected
and some of those that are hidden are pathogenic for
humans. Hunters should be familiar with any disease activity in the areas where they hunt and know how to properly
cook game meat to prevent exposure to parasitic diseases,
such as trichinellosis and toxoplasmosis. Trichinellosis in
humans is caused by ingestion of the nematode Trichinella

Photo by James Runningen

Photo by Rebecca A. Cole

Photo by J. Christian Franson

Figure 5.14 (A) Large numbers of acanthocephalan parasites may be seen protruding from the intestine of some birds; (B)
these parasites attach to the inner surface of the intestine. Severe infections by some species, such as in this sea otter (C),
may be pathogenic for the animal.

Is This Safe to Eat? 221

Photo by Milton Friend

Photo by J. Christian Franson

Figure 5.15 Tracheal, or gapeworm infection of a ring-necked

pheasant. This parasite does not infect humans.

Photo by Milton Friend

Figure 5.16 Trichomoniasis is the cause of the yellow,

cheesy-like growths in the esophagus of this mourning dove.

Figure 5.17 The pale areas within the liver of this partridge
are due to histomoniasis, or blackhead.

spp. (primarily T. spiralis) that are encysted in striated muscle

tissue of infected animals, such as wild swine and carnivores
(e.g., bears). Natural infections occur in many different species of wildlife, including predatory birds.24 Since infection
is not readily detectable, except by laboratory methods, it
is important to thoroughly cook the meat from wild game
commonly associated with this disease.25 Recent cases of
trichinellosis involving jerky made from cougar meat serves
as an example of the consequences of inadequate food preparation (see Chapter 2).
Toxoplasmosis (Toxoplasma gondii) is a common and
sometimes serious infection of humans. Infections most
commonly occur by ingestion of cysts in infected meat and
by oocysts (infective eggs) in food and water that have been
contaminated by cat feces. Many species of wildlife and
domestic animals are naturally infected with T. gondii. To
prevent exposure, wild game meat should not be consumed
raw. Meat from any animal should be cooked to 150 F prior
to consumption, meat should not be tasted while cooking, nor
should homemade game sausages be tasted during seasoning.
Cooking destroys encysted organisms, and thorough hand
washing removes surface contamination and should follow
any handling of raw game meat.
A variety of nematodes (roundworms) and cestodes
(tapeworms) may be encountered when cleaning fish. Most
of these are harmless if accidentally ingested,12 but several,
such as the cod worm, Phocanema decipiens, have caused
human cases of disease (see Chapter 2). Eustrongylides spp.,
a nematode that causes massive bird mortalities (Fig. 5.21),26
also has been the cause of several human cases of serious
disease.12 Diphyllobothrium latum and other species within
this genera commonly infect humans when fish are eaten
raw.49 Thoroughly cooking fish eliminates any hazards from
parasites that may be present.
Bacteria
Although most wildlife harvested do not have bacterial
diseases of significance for humans, exceptions do occur
(Table 5.4). Like other species, wildlife are subject to a wide
variety of bacterial infections. Some are primary infections,
such as avian cholera (Pasteurella multocida) and tularemia
(Francisella tularensis), while others involve secondary
invasion of wounds and other debilitating processes. Types
of diseases encountered will vary with the species harvested
and geographic area. However, humans are unlikely to harvest wildlife affected with diseases that kill rapidly, such as
anthrax and avian cholera. Therefore, unless animals found
dead are being processed for food, there should be little concern about those types of diseases when consuming personally harvested game meat. Also, the majority of bacterial diseases present, result in significant (but not diagnostic) lesions
in infected animals, thereby providing visible evidence of
disease, even to the untrained eye (Fig. 5.22). Because
unapparent infections can occur and intestinal contents may

222 Disease Emergence and Resurgence: The WildlifeHuman Connection

Photos by Milton Friend

Figure 5.18 The bladder-like structure (arrow) in the body cavity of this cottontail rabbit contains large numbers of cysticerci
(larvae) of the dog tapeworm. These larvae have also been found encysted in other parts of the body, (B) such as within the
fascia of the leg of this snowshoe rabbit and in its liver.

Photos by Milton Friend

Photos by Ed Addison

Figure 5.19 (A) The large American liver fluke is a common parasite of white-tailed deer in some regions of the USA.
(B) Tissue damage to this organ can be extensive.

Figure 5.20 Larval forms of the tapeworm Taenia ovis krabbei are commonly found encysted in the muscle tissue of moose.

Is This Safe to Eat? 223

A. Photo by Milton Friend

Photo by J. Christian Franson

Viruses
Wildlife are affected by a broad spectrum of viral diseases.
However, in North America few of these diseases are likely
to be encountered by people harvesting wildlife for food.
Many of these diseases primarily occur in species not typically eaten by most people (e.g., small rodents) or the disease
has caused severe illness or death that makes the harvest of
infected animals unlikely.
Viral diseases that cause external tumors typically occur
infrequently, seldom are lethal, and are readily observed.
Cutaneous fibromas of deer are hairless tumors that hang from
the skin and generally are of no significance for the animal
unless their location interferes with sight or feeding (Fig.
5.23). These papillomas pose no health hazards for humans
and the meat from these animals is suitable for consumption.
Aggregations of tumors, or especially large tumors, often
become abraded, which then can allow infection by bacteria
and fungi. These animals should not be eaten.

C. Photo by Milton Friend

contain Salmonella and other enteric pathogens, when processing game meat, it is important to avoid contamination of
meat by fecal material. In general, the presence of lesions on
internal organs suspected to be caused by infectious bacterial
diseases is reason to discard the carcass.
Brain abscesses are occasionally found by deer hunters,
but these lesions do not pose a health threat for humans and
should not result in disposal of the carcass. These abscesses
are thought to result from invasion by skin-inhabiting bacteria. They are much more prevalent in males than females,
often are associated with the antler pedicel, and generally
occur following velvet shedding to shortly after the antlers
are shed.20 Brain tissue from infected animals should be
discarded. Even if not infected, brain should no longer be
utilized in any foods because of the emergence of chronic
wasting disease (see Prions, this chapter).

B. Photo by James Runningen

Figure 5.21 The roundworm Eustrongylides sp. and the

raised tunnels (arrows) it causes within the intestine are seen
in this snowy egret.

Figure 5.22 Examples of visible evidence of infectious disease associated with some bacterial diseases of wildlife are:
(A) nodules along the rib cage of this white-tailed deer with
bovine tuberculosis; (B) numerous, small, yellow and white
spots on the liver of this beaver that died from tularemia; and
(C) hemorrhages on the heart of a goose that died from avian
cholera.

224 Disease Emergence and Resurgence: The WildlifeHuman Connection

Table 5.4 Examples of potential bacterial infections in North American wildlife commonly harvested for human consumptiona

Disease

Pathogen

Primary
wildlife for
occurrence

Observations

Human
risks

Recommended action

Brucellosis

Brucella spp. Bison, elk,

Enlarged reproductive
caribou, feral organs, enlarged leg joints,
swine
retained placental materials

Yes

Wear protective gloves when

processing carcass, minimize
contact with reproductive
organs, do not open enlarged
joints or areas of fluids that
may be encountered within
the carcass, and cook meat
thoroughly.46

Brain abscessation

ActinomyDeer
ces spp.,
Staphylococcus spp.,
Streptococcus spp.

Abscess within the brain, pus

at antler base

Yes

Meat of animal is safe, prevent contact with abscesses

and contamination of carcass.
Wear protective gloves when
removing antlers for trophy use;
discard gloves along with head
and replace with new gloves if
further handling/processing of
animal is to occur.

Dermatophilosis

Dermatophilus congolesis

Numerous;
deer to
rabbits

Major thickening of areas of

the skin with pustular, scabby
lesions and associated hair
loss

Yes

Prevent contact with infected

areas of skin; self-limiting focal
infections can occur in humans
and more severe infections may
occur in immunocompromised
people.47 Meat from animal is
safe to eat.

Tuberculosis

Mycobacterium bovis

Deer, elk,
bison

Nodules containing cheesylike material or granular-like

substances within lymph
nodes, organs, and along the
internal surface of the rib area
(Fig. 5.22A)

Yes

Properly discard infected

animals and notify authorities
of findings. Meat from animal
should not be consumed.

Avian tuberculosis

M. avium

Birds

Masses of nodules within

major organs and/or along
intestines (Figs. 5.5G and
5.8E)

Yes

Same as for mammalian tuberculosis.

Tularemia

Francisella
tularensis

Rabbits,
beaver,
muskrat

Pale spots scattered within

the liver and spleen (Fig.
5.22B)

Yes

Thoroughly cook meat to be

eaten, wear protective gloves
when handling carcasses, and
prevent transfer of ticks and
other biting arthropods.

Furunculosis

Aeromonas
salmonicida

Troutb,
salmon

Ulcers on skinc and in muscle

tissue; organ haemorrhages

No

Discard carcass, consumption

not recommended.

a
Information provided is for wildlife species commonly eaten by humans. Some of these bacteria also infect a wide range of other species. There are many bacteria observed (some of which are pathogenic for humans) in other wildlife species that generally are not eaten
by humans with access to commercial sources of food.
b

Now recognized that many species of fish are infected by A. salmonicida.48

c
Classical disease produces boil-like lesions on skin and in muscle tissue; pathology varies widely with age of fish, type of disease
caused, and whether typical or atypical A. salmonicida infections are involved. 48

Is This Safe to Eat? 225

Photo by Thomas Yuill

Figure 5.24 Fibromas on gray squirrels collected from a

city park.

Prions
Prion diseases continue to be a relatively little understood
yet heavily studied group of emerging infectious diseases.
They include scrapie, a long existing sheep disease; bovine
spongiform encephalopathy (BSE) of cattle; Creutzfeld-Jacob
disease (CJD) and kuru of humans; a variant CJD (vCJD)
associated with BSE that causes disease in humans; mink
spongiform encephalopathy; and most recently chronic wasting disease (CWD) of deer and elk.30,31
CWD is of great concern to hunters and game ranchers
as it is ultimately fatal and affects several deer species (Fig.
5.28). Unlike the vCJD associated with BSE, no link has
been found between CWD and disease in humans. However,
because there are many unanswered questions about CWD,

Photo by James Runningen.

Photo by Milton Friend

Photo by Milton Friend

Figure 5.23 A white-tailed deer with multiple cutaneous

fibromas.

Fibromas of viral origin also occur in the gray squirrel

(Fig. 5.24). There is no known human health hazards associated with these tumors or any of the other papillomas found
on wildlife throughout the world, with the possible exception
of those from nonhuman primates.27 Within the USA, Shopes
fibroma (Fig. 5.25), a poxvirus infection of cottontail rabbits, is perhaps the most common tumor-like disease seen in
wildlife. As for the papillomavirus, this fibroma generally is
of little consequence for infected animals and has no human
health implications.28 Poxvirus infections also occur in birds
(Fig. 5.26), sometimes resulting in death because of impaired
vision and inability to feed. Here again, there are no known
human health risks associated with these viruses.29
Hemorrhagic disease is another malady hunters may
encounter in wild ruminants such as deer and antelope (Fig.
27). Epizootic hemorrhagic disease (EHD) viruses and bluetongue (BT) viruses are the causative agents. Epizootics of
EHD and BT periodically kill large numbers of wildlife, but
the viruses involved are not infectious for humans.20

Figure 5.25 Shopes fibroma on the foot of a rabbit.

Figure 5.26 A bald eagle with an extreme avian pox infection

leading to its death because of an inability to feed.

226 Disease Emergence and Resurgence: The WildlifeHuman Connection

health officials advise against consuming meat from animals

known to be infected with CWD. In addition, hunters should
wear disposable gloves when field dressing deer or elk taken
in areas where this disease is found and when deboning meat.
The purpose for deboning is to remove associated neural
tissue, the consumption of which is considered to be the
primary pathway for exposure to prions. A separate knife,
not the one used to butcher the deer, should be used to sever
the spinal cord when the head is removed. This precaution
avoids contamination of the primary butcher knife by nerve
tissue that may contain the disease agent if the animal was
infected. Also, avoid handling and consuming brain, spinal
cord, lymph nodes, eyes, tonsils, and spleen when processing deer and elk from areas where CWD is known to be
present.3032 Complete instructions on handling, testing, and

disposing of deer and elk carcasses can be obtained from the

Department of Natural Resources in the state where the deer
or elk are to be harvested. Observations of deer or elk with
the appearance of CWD should be reported to that agency.

Figure 5.28 Clinical signs and the unthrifty appearance of

animals, rather than internal pathology, are indications of the
potential that a deer or other cervid is infected with chronic
wasting disease. Testing of appropriate tissue is required for
a diagnosis.

Photos by Milton Friend

Figure 5.27 Hemorrhages in the tissues and organs, such

as in this white-tailed deer, are common findings in deer
and antelope dying from epizootic hemorrhagic disease and
bluetongue.

Photo courtesy of Christina Sigurdson, Colorado State Univeristy

Photo by Milton Friend

Fungi
Wildlife may either become infected by fungal organisms,
such as Aspergillus spp. (Fig. 29), or they may be affected by
toxins produced by fungi (e.g., mycotoxins). Aspergillosis is
the most common fungal disease likely to be seen in birds and
is likely to be highly visible. Typically, infected birds have
yellow plaque-like lesions that have a cheesy appearance and
consistency and are found in the lungs and airsacs. Lesions
similar to bread mold also may be present.33 Severely infected
birds often are very thin and are likely to be discarded on this

Figure 5.29 The presence of cheesy plagues and the bread mold present on the surface of tissues within this Canada
goose is indicative of the fungal disease aspergillosis.

Is This Safe to Eat? 227

basis. The potential for human infection resulting from exposure to fungi present in the carcass is very low and properly
cooked meat would be safe to eat. Nevertheless, consumption
of these carcasses is not recommended.
Individuals harvesting mammalian wildlife may encounter superficial (skin) fungi that may or may not be involved
with skin lesions that appear as discrete round areas of scaling, crusting, and hair loss. Typically, these lesions appear
on the head and back, may result in depigmentation and a
thickening of the skin in areas of infection. These infections are commonly referred to as ringworm or tinea and,
medically, as dermatophytosis. Several genera of fungi are
involved. Microsporum spp. and Trichophyton spp. are the
most likely to be transmissible from animal to humans.34 Meat
from infected carcasses poses no known human health risks.
Human exposure is prevented by wearing protective gloves
when handling carcasses and hides.
Toxins
Wildlife may be exposed to a wide variety of toxins in
addition to infectious agents. These toxins may be of natural
(e.g., microbial) or synthetic (e.g., pesticides) origin. Rarely
will the carcass reveal any obvious signs that the animal had
been exposed to these toxins. Therefore, coverage of these
types of agents is beyond the scope for this chapter. Birds
clinically ill from diseases, such as avian botulism and aflatoxicosis (Fig. 5.30), may be seen in the field because the
time between intoxication and death often extends for several
days.35 Those concerned about natural and synthetic toxins
should avoid consuming wildlife that appear to be excessively
thin and, prior to harvesting wildlife, check with the state
Department of Natural Resources to determine if any health
advisories have been issued.

diseases of concern. Some of these, like bovine tuberculosis

(Mycobacterium bovis) are old diseases that have gained new
prominence.37 Therefore, hunters and game consumers within
the USA need to be informed about diseases affecting wildlife
in areas where harvests are being considered because major
differences in risks are associated with inspection processes
for commercial meats versus individuals handling and processing their own game meat.
Because free-living wildlife do not receive preemptive
human intervention to combat disease (e.g., antibiotics in
feed, vaccines, etc.), there is a high probability that vertebrates infected by significant pathogens will die before they
are harvested. Therefore, at least within North America, there
is little reason to consider properly handled and prepared
game meat to be of greater risk as a source for disease than
domestic meat. Nevertheless, local exceptions involving
chronic diseases, such as bovine tuberculosis, may exist.
Therefore, general knowledge of the health status of wildlife
in the area of harvest is important. This knowledge constitutes
informal health advisories and is helpful in making informed
choices about what one chooses to eat and how to prepare
it. Similar judgments are made in response to formal health
advisories issued for domestic foods and advisories issued
for environmental contaminants that may be present in fish
and other foods harvested from aquatic environments.
Common sense should always be a factor in what one eats
and does not eat, regardless of the source of the food item.
Game meat is a staple food item for many people throughout
the world, a gourmet food for some people, and for most
people, food that is greatly enjoyed. Bon apptit.
Pauline Nol and Milton Friend

Should I Eat This?

The type of food eaten is a personal choice. The popularity and high nutritional value of finfish and shellfish are
reflected in the rapid growth of aquaculture during recent
years, because wild stocks can no longer meet the demands
for those food items. Greater demands for venison, bison,
and other wildlife meats have resulted in substantial increases
in the captive-rearing of various wildlife as alternatives for
domestic species whose meat has higher fat and cholesterol
content (see Chapter 3, Fig. 3.18). From a human nutritional
perspective, wildlife often are a better choice than livestock
and poultry.
Within the USA, most game meat consumed is from
free-ranging rather than ranched wildlife. Emergence and
reemergence of infectious diseases in wildlife and other
species (see Chapters 2 and 3) continues to result in new

Photo by Ronald Windingstad

The discovery of a new dish does more for human

happiness than the discovery of a new star. (BrillatSavarin)36

Figure 5.30 In general, wildlife with abnormal behavior and

appearance, such as this sandhill crane affected by a fungal
toxin, should not be harvested for human consumption..

228 Disease Emergence and Resurgence: The WildlifeHuman Connection

Literature Cited
1. Mennes, M.E., and Craven, S.R., 1992, Wisconsins wild
game: enjoying the harvest: Madison, Wis., University of
Wisconsin-Extension, Cooperative Extension Publication
B3573, 33 p.
2. Ruff, R.L., Covell, D.F., Nosek, J.A., and Craven, S.R.,
1993, A bibliography of cooperative extension service
literature on wildlife, fish and forest resources: Madison,
Wis., University of Wisconsin, 116 p.
3. Dowell, V.R., Jr., Gangarosa, E.J., and Armstrong, R.W.,
1970, Clinical and epidemiological aspects of botulism in
the United States, in Herzberg, M., ed., Proceedings of the
first U.S.-Japan conference on toxic micro-organisms, mycotoxins, botulism: Washington, D.C., U.S.-Japan Cooperative Program in Natural Resources and U.S. Department of
the Interior, p. 360364.
4. Sugiyama, H., Bott, T.L., and Foster, E.M., 1970, Clostridium botulinum type E in an inland bay (Green Bay of Lake
Michigan), in Herzberg, M., ed., Proceedings of the first
U.S.-Japan conference on toxic micro-organisms, mycotoxins, botulism: Washington, D.C., U.S.-Japan Cooperative
Program in Natural Resources and U.S. Department of the
Interior, p. 287291.
5. Smith, L.D.S., 1975, The pathogenic anaerobic bacteria:
Springfield, Ill., Charles C. Thomas, 430 p.
6. Todd, E.C.D., 1973, Seafood-associated diseases in
Canada: Journal of Association of Food and Drug Officials,
v. 56, p. 4552.
7. Friend, M. 1999, Lead, in Friend, M., and Franson, J.C.,
eds., Field manual of wildlife diseasegeneral field
procedures and diseases of birds: U.S. Geological Survey,
Information and Technology Report 1999001, p. 317334.
8. Baumann, P.C., Mac, M.J., Smith, S.B., and Harshbarger,
H.C., 1991, Tumor frequencies in walleye (Stizostedion vitreum) and brown bullhead (Ictalurus nebulosus) and sediment contaminants in tributaries of the Laurentian Great
Lakes: Canadian Journal of Fisheries and Aquatic Sciences,
v. 48, p. 18041810.
9. Baumann, P.C., Smith, I.R., and Metcalfe, C.D., 1996,
Linkages between chemical contaminants and tumors in
benthic Great Lakes fishes: Journal of Great Lakes Research, v. 22, p. 131152.
10. Colwell, D.D., 2001, Bot flies and warble flies (Order Diptera: Family Oestridae), in Samuel, W.M., Pybus, M.J., and
Kocan, A.A., eds., Parasitic diseases of wild mammals (2nd
ed.): Ames, Iowa, Iowa State University Press, p. 4671.
11. Bornstein, S., Mrner, T., and Samuel, W.M., 2001, Sarcoptes scabiei and sarcoptic mange, in Samuel, W.M., Pybus,
M.J., and Kocan, A.A., eds., Parasitic diseases of wild
mammals (2nd ed.): Ames, Iowa, Iowa State University
Press, p. 107119.
12. Hoffman, G.L., 1999, Parasites of North American freshwater fishes (2nd ed.): Ithaca, N.Y., Comstock Publishing
Associates, 539 p.
13. Wisconsin Department of Natural Resources, 2003, Heterosporis (yellow perch parasite), accessed June 28, 2004, at
URL http://www.dnr.state.wi.us/org/water/fhp/fish/health/
disease.htm
14. Lane, R.L., and Morris, J.E., 2000, Biology, prevention,

15.

16.

17.

18.

19.

20.

21.

22.
23.

24.

25.

26.

27.

28.

and effects of common grubs (digenetic trematodes) in

freshwater fish: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Technical
Bulletin Series no. 115, 6 p.
Tuggle, B.N., and Friend, M., 1999, Sarcocystis, in Friend,
M., and Franson, J.C., eds., Field manual of wildlife diseasegeneral field procedures and diseases of birds: U.S.
Geological Survey, Information and Technology Report
1999001, p. 219222.
Cole, R.A., 1999, Acanthocephaliasis, in Friend, M., and
Franson, J.C., eds., Field manual of wildlife diseasegeneral field procedures and diseases of birds: U.S. Geological
Survey, Information and Technology Report 1999001,
p. 241243.
Thomas, N.J., and Cole, R.A., 1996, The risk of disease and
threats to the wild population: Conservation and management of the southern sea otter, Endangered Species Update,
v. 13, p. 2327.
Jones, A., and Pybus, M.J., 2001, Taeniasis and echinococcosis, in Samuel, W.M., Pybus, M.J., and Kocan, A.A., eds.,
Parasitic diseases of wild mammals (2nd ed.): Ames, Iowa,
Iowa State University Press, p. 150192.
Pybus, M.J., 2001, Liver flukes, in Samuel, W.M., Pybus,
M.J., and Kocan, A.A., eds., Parasitic diseases of wild
mammals (2nd ed.): Ames, Iowa, Iowa State University
Press, p. 121149.
Davidson, W.R., and Nettles, V.F., 1997, Field manual of
wildlife diseases in the Southeastern United States (2nd ed.):
Athens, Ga., Southeastern Cooperative Wildlife Disease
Study, 417 p.
Addison, E.M.J., Fyvie, A., and Johnson, F.J., 1979, Metacestodes of moose, Alces alces, of the Chapleau Crown
Game Preserve, Ontario: Canadian Journal of Zoology,
v. 57, p. 16191623.
Samuel, W.M., Barrett, M.W., and Lynch, G.M., 1976, Helminths in moose of Alberta: Canadian Journal of Zoology,
v. 54, p. 307312.
Ontario Ministry of Natural Resources, 1979, Taenia krabbei - muscle cysticercosis, in Manual of common parasites,
diseases and anomalies of wildlife in Ontario (2nd ed.):
Ontario, Queens Printer (http://www.unbc.ca/nlui/wildlife_diseases/taenia_krabbei.htm).
Dick, T.A., and Pozio, E., 2001, Trichinella spp. and trichinellosis, in Samuel, W.M., Pybus, M.J., and Kocan, A.A.,
eds., Parasitic diseases of wild mammals (2nd ed.): Ames,
Iowa, Iowa State University Press, p. 380396.
Lockhart, J.M., 1997, Trichinosis, in Davidson, W.R., and
Nettles, V.F., 1997, Field manual of wildlife diseases in the
Southeastern United States (2nd ed.): Athens, Ga., Southeastern Cooperative Wildlife Disease Study, p. 129131.
Cole, R.A., 1999, Eustrongylidosis, in Friend, M., and
Franson, J.C., eds., Field manual of wildlife diseasegeneral field procedures and diseases of birds: U.S. Geological
Survey, Information and Technology Report 1999001, p.
223228.
Sundberg, J.P., Van Ranst, M., and Jenson, A.B., 2001, Papillomavirus infections, in Williams, E.S., and Barker, I.K.,
eds., Infectious diseases of wild mammals (3rd ed.): Ames,
Iowa, Iowa State University Press, p. 223231.
Robinson, A.J., and Kerr, P.J., 2001, Poxvirus infections, in
Williams, E.S., and Barker, I.K., eds., Infectious diseases of

Is This Safe to Eat? 229

 29.

30.

31.

32.

33.

34.
35.
36.

37.

wild mammals (3rd ed.): Ames, Iowa, Iowa State University

Press, p. 179201.
Hansen, W., 1999, Avian pox, in Friend, M., and Franson,
J.C., eds., Field manual of wildlife diseasegeneral field
procedures and diseases of birds: U.S. Geological Survey,
Information and Technology Report 1999001, p. 163169.
Williams, E.S., and Miller, M.W., 2002, Chronic wasting
disease in deer and elk in North America: Revue Scientifique et Technique, Office International des Epizooties,
v. 21, p. 305316.
Williams, E.S., Kirkwood, J.K., and Miller, M.W., 2001,
Transmissible spongiform encephalopathies, in Williams,
E.S., and Barker, I.K., eds., Infectious diseases of wild
mammals (3rd ed.): Ames, Iowa, Iowa State University
Press, p. 292302.
Bartelt, G., Pardee, J., and Thiede, K., 2003, Environmental impact statement on rules to eradicate chronic wasting
disease from Wisconsins free-ranging white-tailed deer
herd: Madison, Wis., Wisconsin Department of Natural
Resources, 175 p.
Friend, M., 1999, Apergillosis, in Friend, M., and Franson,
J.C., eds., 1999, Field manual of wildlife diseasegeneral
field procedures and diseases of birds: U.S. Geological
Survey, Information and Technology Report 1999001,
p. 129133.
Burek, K., 2001, Mycotic diseases, in Williams, E.S., and
Barker, I.K., eds., Infectious diseases of wild mammals (3rd
ed.): Ames, Iowa, Iowa State University Press, p. 514531.
Brillat-Savarin, J.A., 1825 (1926), The physiology of taste,
or, Meditations on transcendental gastronomy: New York,
N.Y., Boni and Liveright, 360 p.
Friend, M., and Franson, J.C., eds., 1999, Field manual of
wildlife diseasegeneral field procedures and diseases of
birds: U.S. Geological Survey, Information and Technology
Report 1999001, 426 p.
Clifton-Hadley, R.S., Sauter-Louis, C.M., Lugton, I.W.,
Jackson, R., Durr, P.A., and Wilesmith, J.W., 2001, Mycobacterium bovis infections, in Williams, E.S., and Barker,
I.K., eds., Infectious diseases of wild mammals (3rd ed.):
Ames, Iowa, Iowa State University Press, p. 340360.

38. Food and Agriculture Organization, 1990, Manual on

simple methods of meat preservation: Rome, Food and
Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, 87 p.
39 . Lawrie, R.A., 1998, Lawries meat science (6th ed.): Cambridge, UK, Woodhead Publishing, 336 p.
40. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, 1996,
Outbreak of trichinellosis associated with eating cougar
jerkyIdaho, 1995: Morbidity and Mortality Weekly
Report, v. 45, p. 205206.
41. Keene, W., Sazie, E., Kok, J., Rice, D., Hancock, D., Balan,
V., Zhao, T., and Doyle, M.P., 1997, An outbreak of Escherichia coli O157:H7 infections traced to jerky made from
deer meat: Journal of the American Medical Association, v.
277, p. 12291231.
42. Bratt, L., 1995, Heat treatment, in Footitt, R.J., and Lewis,
A.S., eds., The canning of fish and meat: London, Blackie
Academic and Professional, p. 178211.
43. Footitt, R.J., and Lewis, A.S., eds., 1995, The canning of
fish and meat: London, Blackie Academic and Professional,
310 p.
44. Romans, J.R., Costello, W.J., Carlson, C.W., Greaser, M.L.,
and Jones, K.W., 2001, The meat we eat (14th ed.): Danville, Ill., Interstate Publishers, 1112 p.
45. Campbell-Platt, G., and Cook, P.E., eds., 1995, Fermented
meats: London, Blackie Academic and Professional, 242 p.
46. Thorne, E.T., 2001, Brucellosis, in Williams, E.S., and
Barker, I.K., eds., Infectious diseases of wild mammals (3rd
ed.): Ames, Iowa, Iowa State University Press, p. 372395.
47. Leighton, F.A., 2001, Dermatophilosis, in Williams, E.S.,
and Barker, I.K., eds., Infectious diseases of wild mammals
(3rd ed.): Ames, Iowa, Iowa State University Press,
p. 489490.
48. Hiney, M., and Olivier, G., 1999, Furunculosis (Aeromonas
salmonicida), in Woo, P.T.K., and Bruno, D.W., eds., Fish
diseases and disorders, Vol. 3, Viral, bacterial and fungal
infections: Wallingford, UK, CABI Publishing, p. 341425.
49. Palmer, S.R., Soulsby, E.J.L., and Simpson, D.I.H., 1998,
Zoonosesbiology, clinical practice, and public health
control, Oxford, Oxford University Press, 948 p.

230 Disease Emergence and Resurgence: The WildlifeHuman Connection