An Introduction to Nuclear

Technology

Dr. Prinath Dias

FOREWORD

To-day it is all too easy to access information on a topic by just entering some key words
into an internet search engine. However the results can often be confronting with a lot of
information being cited but without anything underpinning its provenance and importantly its
validity information does not always equate with facts. In producing this book Dr Dias has
successfully achieved the courageous task he set himself of addressing a wide range of needs and
interests, from providing students with a basic knowledge nuclear technology, to giving
engineers knowledge of the basics of nuclear power generation, to informing users of nuclear
technology as well as providing a resource on nuclear technology that can be useful for
informing policy makers. Readers of his book will be able to benefit from his knowledge and
long experience in this area.

I first met Dr Dias in the Philippines in 1993 when I was working at the International
Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA). I was the Coordinator for the Regional Cooperative Agreement
for Asia and the Pacific (RCA) and he was the new fresh faced National RCA Representative for
Sri Lanka. In this role as the National RCA Representative for Sri Lanka, Dr Dias involved
himself across the spectrum of duties ranging from development and refinement of ongoing
policies and procedures as well as the important task of ensuring that Sri Lankas nuclear science
and technology needs and priorities were well-presented in the development of the RCA future
programme. In 2003 it was no great surprise to me when Dr Dias was appointed by the IAEA as
RCA Coordinator.

Because of my role in various RCA Meetings, Working Groups and

Committees as well as my various assignments for the IAEA as an International Expert, Lecturer
or Consultant, I found myself working very closely with him over the years. This proved to be a
very effective and strong relationship that has even been able to withstand my complete lack of
interest in cricket!

I feel that behind the scenes the RCA has been as a strong influence in both the
motivation for the production of this book as well as the platform that has facilitated my long
association with Dr Dias. I hope the readers will forgive me for giving a little information in the
ii

next paragraph about the RCA. It has been in operation since 1972 and has been a trail blazer in
regional nuclear cooperation, setting standards and operational modalities that have been an
example to others. Importantly it has had a strong and practical impact on the introduction into
the individual participating countries of much needed nuclear technologies covering areas
including; agriculture, environment, heath care, industry and safety.

This again underpins the

importance of this book as an aid to increase understanding of the technology.

The policies and programme for the RCA are developed and determined solely by the
Member States who have signed up to the Agreement. Currently there are 17 Member States 1
and two countries2 are expected to sign on in the near future as new Member States. The RCA
programme is implemented under the umbrella of the IAEA through the IAEA Technical
Cooperation Department. The major objective of the RCA is to facilitate regional cooperation in
research, development and training related to nuclear science and technology in the Asia Pacific
region. In this role the RCA has been a major instrument to facilitate the introduction of the
priority areas of nuclear science and technology identified and agreed by the Member States.
It has been an honour and a privilege for me to contribute this Foreword to Dr Dias
book, which is a source of sound, balanced and authoritative information that can provide the
reader with the elements necessary for a clear understanding of the basics of nuclear science and
technology as well as assisting in giving balance to those tasked with decision making related to
nuclear matters.

Dr John F Easey
Consultant, International Expert and Senior Advisor
Australia

Australia, Bangladesh, China, India, Indonesia, Japan, Republic of Korea, Malaysia, Mongolia, Myanmar, New Zealand,
Pakistan, Philippines, Singapore, Sri Lanka, Thailand and Viet Nam.
2
Cambodia and Nepal

iii

PREFACE
This book is based on the lecture notes prepared for the use of the Final Year Electrical
Engineering students of University of Moratuwa. It gives a basic knowledge of nuclear physics,
an understanding of the methods of detecting radiation, an understanding of radiation safety, an
introduction to the use of nuclear technology for power generation and a knowledge of the other
areas of applications of nuclear technology. A prior knowledge of nuclear technology will not be
required to make use of this book. The Chapter on Nuclear Reactor Analysis requires knowledge
of mathematics but can be skipped altogether without prejudice to other chapters of the book.

The book will be useful for students who need an understanding of the basics of nuclear
technology, for engineers who need a knowledge of the basics of nuclear power generation, for
those who already use or intend to use nuclear technology for purposes other than generation of
electrical power and for policy makers to get an understanding of the areas of applications of
nuclear technology.

Dr. Prinath Dias

iv

TABLE OF CONTENTS
CHAPTER I - INTRODUCTION

CHAPTER II- BASIC NUCLEAR PHYSICS

2.1 Atomic Structure and Nuclear Reactions

2.2 Radioisotopes and Radioactive Decay

2.3 Activity and Decay Rates

11

2.4 Nuclear Reactions and Cross Sections

13

2.5 Neutron Flux and Cross Sections

17

2.6 Mass Defect and Binding Energies.

21

CHAPTER III - RADIATION MEASUREMENT AND DETECTION

24

3.1 Introduction

24

3.2 Gas Filled Detectors

24

3.3 Scintillation Detectors

29

3.4 Gamma Spectroscopy

31

3.5 Semicondictor Detectors

36

3.6 Other types of Detectors

37

3.7 Counting Statistics

39

CHAPTER IV - RADIATION PROTECTION

42

4.1 Introduction

42

4.2 Quantities and Units

43

4.3 Sources of Radiation

46

4.4 Biological Effects of Radiation.

49

4.5 Estimation of Doses of Radiation.

52

4.6 Principles of Radiation Protection

59

CHAPTER V - NUCLEAR POWER PLANTS

62

5.1 The Fission Reaction

62

5.2 The Main Components of Nuclear Power Plants.

65

5.3 Pressurized Water Reactors (PWRs)

68

5.4 Boiling Water Reactors(BWRs)

75

5.5 Pressurized Heavy Water Reactors (PHWRs)

79

5.6 Safety Aspects of Power Plants

83

CHAPTER VI - NUCLEAR POWER IN THE SRI LANKAN CONTEXT

89

6.1Constraints

89

6.2 Economical And Environmental Aspects

91

6.3 Reactor Safety

93

6.4 Planning For Nuclear Power

95

CHAPTER VII - NUCLEAR REACTOR ANALYSIS

97

7.1 Introduction

97

7.2 Definitions

98

7.3 Continuity Equation

100

7.4 Diffusion Theory

103

7.5 Analytical Solutions

105

7.6 Numerical Solutions

114

CHAPTER VIII - NON-POWER APPLICATIONS OF

NUCLEAR TECHNOLOGY

118

8.1Introduction

118

8.2 Properties of Radioisotopes and Radiation

118

8.3 Applications of Radiation and Radioisotopes in the Industrial Sector

119

8.4 Applications of Radiation and Radioisotopes in the Medical Sector

127

8.5 Applications of Radiation and Radioisotopes in the Agricultural Sector

131

vi

CHAPTER I
INTRODUCTION

The atomic age began with the discovery of radioactivity in 1896 by a French scientist by
the name of Henri Becquerel when he accidentally left a few crystals of a salt of uranium on a
photographic film.

From the image that was observed on the film when it was developed,

Becquerel concluded that the uranium salt emits invisible and previously unknown radiation.
Two years later Madame Marie Curie observed the same phenomenon in two other previously
unknown elements she extracted from a mineral containing uranium known as pitchblende.
These elements were named Polonium and Radium and she named this phenomenon
radioactivity. Henri Becquerel, Marie Curie and her husband Pierre Curie were awarded the
Nobel Prize for Physics in 1903 for their work on radioactivity. Marie Curie won it for a second
time in 1911 for her discovery of Polonium and Radium.

Later it was discovered that three types of rays are emitted by these elements. Some of
the rays consisted of particles carrying a positive electrical charge, some of them carried a
negative electrical charge and the third type consisted of high energy electromagnetic radiation.
They were respectively named alpha, beta and gamma radiation. It was also discovered that one
element is transformed into another upon emission of positively or negatively charged particles
which led to the postulation that atoms consist of positively and negatively charged particles.
This contradicted Daltons Atomic Theory according to which atoms are indivisible.

Experiments carried out by Lord Rutherford on scattering of alpha particles lead to the
conclusion that the atoms consist of a positively charged nucleus surrounded by negatively
charged electrons which is the presently accepted model of an atom. Rutherford also postulated
the existence of electrically neutral particles in the nuclei called neutrons. The existence of this
particle was confirmed by Chadwick in 1932 when he produced them in a reaction between
alpha particles and beryllium.

Two German scientists by the name of Otto Hahn and Friedrich Strassmann observed in
1934 that bombardment of uranium by neutrons produce atoms which are much lighter than
uranium. Two other scientists by the name of Lise Mietner and Otto Frisch postulated this was
due to the uranium nuclei splitting into two and they called this process fission. It was also
discovered that fission reaction releases a vast amount of energy, more than a million times the
energy released in chemical reactions, due to the difference in the masses being converted to
energy according to Einsteins equation E = mc2. Shortly after this discovery Hans van Halban
discovered that uranium nuclei emit neutrons when they undergo fission. This made it possible
to obtain a chain reaction since the neutrons released by the fission of one nucleus can be utilized
to induce fissions of other nuclei.

The possibility of using the fission reaction to produce a military weapon of mass
destruction was realized by a Hungarian scientist by the name of Leo Slizard who had emigrated
to USA because of the Second World War in Europe. Since a great deal of research on fission
was carried out in Germany, he conveyed to Dr. Albert Einstein the possibility of Nazi Germany
developing such a weapon, who in turn informed the US President Theodore Roosevelt by a
letter written in August 1939.

The decision to develop a military weapon using fission was made by the US
Government in December 1941, a few days after the Japanese attack on Pearl Harbour in Hawaii
and a project code named Manhattan Project was launched to produce an Atom Bomb before
Nazi Germany could do so. By that time it was known that either U-235 of Pu-239 in highly
purified form is needed to produce a nuclear weapon. There were large uncertainties in the
estimations of the quantities needed.

Uranium has two isotopes U-235 (0.7%) and U-238 (99.3%). Since they have identical
chemical properties they cannot be separated using chemical processes. Physical methods based
on the slight difference in atomic masses were considered to separate U-235 from natural
uranium and three possible methods were considered, namely, centrifugal, electromagnetic and
gaseous diffusion. The centrifugal method was soon discarded and all efforts were concentrated
on the other two methods. A gigantic diffusion plant was constructed at Oak Ridge in Tennessee
2

in mid-1943 covering an area of 50 acres. The very large amount of energy needed to run the
plant made it necessary to construct a separate electrical power plant. Another plant employing
the electromagnetic separation method was also constructed at Oak Ridge. It was found that the
use of slightly enriched uranium (uranium with an increased percentage of U-235) greatly
increased the efficiency of the electromagnetic plant.

A sufficient quantity of U-235 was

produced by June 1945 by feeding the electromagnetic plant with 7% enriched uranium obtained
from the diffusion plant. This was used for the bomb named Little Boy which was dropped on
Hiroshima.

The other isotope that can be used in nuclear weapons Pu-239 is not a natural isotope but
can be produced in a nuclear reaction between U-238 and neutrons. A sufficient number of
neutrons to produce the required amount of Pu-239 can be generated only by a controlled chain
reaction in a nuclear reactor. The worlds first nuclear reactor was built by a group of scientists
lead by Enrico Fermi in a squash court of University of Chicago. The reactor consisted of
graphite blocks with uranium rods embedded in them. Graphite slows down the neutrons from
an energy of about 2 MeV to 0.025 eV which increases the probability of fission. The slowing
down of neutrons using a material such as graphite is known as neutron moderation. The reactor
became critical (ie. a chain reaction was obtained) for the first time in December 1942. Pu-239
for Fat Man, the bomb that was dropped on Nagasaki was produced in a larger reactor
constructed at Hanford in Washington.

A special chemical plant (known as a reprocessing

plant) was also constructed to separate Pu-239 from uranium and the highly radioactive mixture
of fission products.

The reactors that were constructed to produce plutonium produced a large amount of heat
too. The heat generated was released to the environment through the cooling system. It was soon
realized that this heat can be used to generate electrical energy. After testing several different
types of experimental nuclear reactors, it was decided to use water cooled and water moderated
reactors (light water reactors) with slightly enriched uranium. The first nuclear power plant in
USA, a 90 MW plant was constructed in 1957 at Shippingport, Pennsylvannia. USSR, UK and
Canada also acquired this technology and constructed nuclear power plants of their own design.
USSR used graphite moderated water cooled reactors, UK developed graphite moderated gas
3

cooled reactors and Canada developed reactors moderated and cooled by heavy water (D2O - the
oxide of deuterium which is an isotope of hydrogen).

There was a steep increase in the nuclear power generating capacity in these countries
and in several other countries in 1960s and early 1970s. However the installation of new nuclear
power plants slowed down after mid 1970s due to safety concerns and other reasons. At the end
of 2010 there were 440 nuclear power plants in operation in 29 countries with a total installed
capacity of 374,000 MWe, generating 14% of the electrical energy generated in the world. Nine
countries (France, Belgium, Sweden, Ukraine, Slovakia, Hungary, Slovenia, Armenia and
Switzerland) depended on nuclear power plants for more than 35% of the electrical energy
requirements. The concerns about climate change caused by release of greenhouse gases in
burning fossil fuels have created resurgence for nuclear power and here has been an increase in
the new orders for nuclear power plants in the recent years.

A few years after the World War II, USSR and UK also developed the capability of using
nuclear weapons, and soon it was realized that the spread of these weapons could be a major
threat to world peace. As a solution to this, the former President of USA General Eisenhower in
his famous Atoms for Peace speech, proposed to the United Nations that assistance should be
provided to developing nations to use nuclear technology for peaceful purposes with a guarantee
that it will not be used for military purposes as a pre-condition for obtaining such assistance.
The International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA) was established in Vienna, Austria in 1957 to
implement this proposal. Sri Lanka is a founder member of the IAEA which has 151 Member
States at present. (as of November 2010). The IAEA provides technical assistance to developing
countries to use nuclear technology for peaceful purposes through its Technical Cooperation
Programme while ensuring this technology is not used for military purposes through its
Safeguards Programme.

A treaty known as the Nuclear non-Proliferation Treaty (NPT) was introduced in 1969 to
further strengthen the nuclear non-proliferation regime. This treaty was indefinitely extended in
1995. The main obligations under this Treaty for the non-nuclear weapons states is to allow
safeguards inspectors of the International Atomic Energy Agency to inspect nuclear facilities and
4

inventories of nuclear materials to ensure they are not been used for the purpose of
manufacturing or developing nuclear weapons. The weapons states have an obligation under the
treaty to take positive action to work towards eliminating nuclear weapons. However, many
non-nuclear weapons states are of the opinion that this obligation has not been carried out
satisfactorily.

Developing Member States of the International Atomic Energy Agency which have
entered into the NPT and the Safeguards agreements, qualify for Technical Assistance from the
Agency for peaceful uses of Nuclear Technology.

In addition to nuclear power, the Agency

provides technical assistance for use of nuclear technology in medicine (eg. for nuclear imaging,
radioimmunoassay, radiotherapy, sterilization of medical products by radiation, sterilization of
human tissues for transplantation, radio-labeled DNA probes for medical diagnosis) in
agriculture (eg. radiation induced mutation breeding, determination of fertilizer up-take,
determination of soil moisture, for improving nutrition, reproduction and heath of livestock), and
in industry (non-destructive testing, radiation processing, nuclear analytical techniques, nuclear
tracer applications, nucleonic control systems). Sri Lanka annually receives about 500,000 US$
worth of technical assistance for the use of nuclear technology in the above mentioned fields.

The following chapters cover basic nuclear physics, radiation safety, detection of
radiation, nuclear power plants and non-power applications of nuclear technology.

References.
1. S. Groueff, Manhattan Project, Little, Brown, and Co., Boston
2. F. Barnaby, Man and the Atom ,Thames and Hudson Ltd., London
3. United Kingdom Atomic Energy Authority, The Development of Atomic Energy 19391984, Chronology of Events , The Bourne Press
4. Bulletin of the International Atomic Energy Agency, Vol 42 No.1, 2000

CHAPTER II
BASIC NUCLEAR PHYSICS
2.1 Atomic Structure and Nuclear Reactions
As mentioned in Chapter I the research on the phenomenon of radioactivity disproved
Daltons Atomic Theory according to which the atoms are indivisible.
constitute the atoms are known as sub-atomic or fundamental particles.

The particles that

A number of

fundamental particles have been discovered and more could be discovered in the future. The
main fundamental particles that are important from the point of view of practical applications of
nuclear technology are given below.

Units
Because of the very small mass a unit known as the atomic mass unit (amu) is commonly
used to measure the mass of fundamental particles. The atomic mass unit is defined as 1/12 of
the mass of a C-12 atom (a carbon atom with 6 protons and 6 neutrons in the nucleus). One amu
is equivalent to 1.66 x 10

- 27

kg.

The energy equivalence of 1 amu is 931.48 MeV. (eV =

electron volt = 1.602 x 10-19 J).

The electrical charge of an electron usually denoted by e is used as the unit of
measuring the charge of fundamental particles. 1 e = 1.602 x10-19 C.

Electrons (negatrons) and Positrons

The electron(or negatron) has a rest mass of 0.00055 amu or 9.11 x 10 -31 kg and carries a
negative electrical charge of e. The energy equivalence of the mass of an electron is 0.51 MeV.
Positively charged particles with the same mass and charge are known as positrons. Positrons
and electrons interact with each other resulting in mass to energy conversion releasing energy in
the form of gamma radiation. This is known as annihilation radiation as the two particles are
destroyed (or annihilated) in the process.

Protons
The proton has a rest mass of 1.007277 amu or 1.67261x10-27 kg and carries a positive
electrical charge of e and is a constituent particle of nuclei of atoms. Protons with negative
charges also have been discovered.

Neutrons
Neutrons have a mass of 1.008665 amu or 1.67492x10-27 kg which is slightly more than
the mass of a proton and is a constituent particle of nuclei of atoms. As the name implies the
neutrons are electrically neutral. The neutrons as free particles are unstable and decay to protons
with emission of an electron and a particle known as anti-neutrino.

Photons
Photons are particles associated with electromagnetic waves. Photons have a zero mass,
a zero electrical charge and travel at the speed of light. The energy of the particle is given by E
= h where is the frequency of the radiation and h the Plancks constant.

Neutrinos and Anti-Neutrinos

These are also particles with extremely small mass and zero electrical charge. Antineutrinos are emitted in negative beta decay and neutrinos in positive beta decay. These particles
share the energy emitted with the beta particles.

Isotopes
The nuclei of atoms consist of protons and neutrons and are surrounded by a cloud of
electrons. Since the number of electrons is equal to the number of protons the atom is electrically
neutral. The number of protons in the nucleus of an atom is called its atomic number and is
denoted by Z. Each element has a unique atomic number. The number of neutrons in the
nucleus is called the neutron number and is denoted by N. The sum of the atomic number and
neutron number is called the mass number of the nucleus (or the atom) and is denoted by A.
7

A nucleus (or an atom) of mass number A and atomic number Z is denoted by ZA X or XA, where X is the chemical symbol. Examples are
12
6

238
92

U (or U-238),

232
90

Th (or Th-232), and

C (or C-12).

Nuclei or atoms with the same atomic number and different mass numbers are called
isotopes. Examples are U-233, U-235, and U-238 or 11 H (hydrogen), 12 D (deuterium) and 31T
(tritium). All isotopes of the same element have identical chemical properties but different
nuclear and physical properties. For example, U-233 and U-238 are fissile but U-238 is not.
Hydrogen and deuterium are stable but tritium is radioactive.

Nuclei with the same neutron number are called isotones.

Nuclei can exist in different energy states. The energy levels of Bi-209 is shown in Fig.
2.1. Nuclei with the same mass and atomic numbers but at different energy states are called
isomers.

10
8
Energy
(MeV) 6
4
2
0

Fig. 2.1 - Energy Levels of Bi-209

2.2 Radioisotopes and Radioactive Decay
While many of the nuclei are stable a large number of nuclei are unstable. The unstable
nuclei emit energy in the form of electromagnetic radiation or sub-atomic particles and are
converted to more stable nuclei.

Such nuclei are called radioactive nuclides and this

phenomenon is known as radioactivity.

8

Heavy Isotopes
Atomic
Number
(A)

Neutron poor
Isotopes

Stable Isotopes

Neutron rich
Isotopes

Neutron Number (N)

Fig. 2.2 - Stable and Radioactive Isotopes

A plot of Atomic Number vs. Neutron Number of all stable isotopes fall within a narrow
band as shown in Fig. 2.2

The isotopes found to the right of this band have too many neutrons

and are known as neutron rich isotopes. Similarly the isotopes found to the left of this band do
not have a sufficient number of neutrons to make them stable and are known as neutron poor
isotopes. Neutron rich isotopes attempt to achieve stability by converting a neutron to a proton
while neutron poor isotopes attempt to achieve stability by converting a proton to a neutron.

Decay of neutron rich isotopes.

1
0

n 11p 01

An example of - decay is,

137
55

Cs 137

56 Ba 1

A nucleus of Cs-137 decays into Ba-137 releasing a - particle and an anti-neutrino in the
process. The atomic number is increased by 1 while the mass number remains the same.

Decay of neutron poor isotopes.

1
1

p 01n 10

An example of + decay is,

22
11

22
Na10
Ne 01

A nucleus of Na-22 decays into Ne-22 releasing a - particle and a neutrino in the
process. The atomic number is decreased by 1 while the mass number remains the same.

Neutron poor isotopes can also increase the neutron number by a process known as
electron capture.

In this process an atomic electron interacts with a proton in the nucleus to

form a neutron, which increases the neutron number by 1 and decreases the atomic number by 1.
Isotopes heavier than lead commonly decay by emitting what is known as an alpha
particle. An alpha particle is a nucleus of the helium atom which comprises of two protons and
two neutrons and is a highly stable particle. An example of alpha decay is given below.
4
U 234
90Th 2 He ( particle)

238
92

The nucleus formed as a result of beta decay, electron capture or alpha decay often
contains excess energy and is said to be in an excited state. The excess energy makes the
nucleus unstable and the nucleus returns to the ground state from the excited state by emitting the
excess energy in the form of electromagnetic radiation.

This is known as gamma radiation.

The emission of gamma radiation in the decay of Cs-137 to Ba-137 is illustrated in Fig. 2.3.

10

137
55

Cs
-decay
137
56 Ba (Excited State)
0.662 MeV gamma radiation
137
56

Ba (Ground State)

Fig. 2.3 -Emission of Gamma Radiation in Decay of Cs-137

2.3 Activity and Decay Rates

Unlike any other materials, the radioactive materials are quantified by their rate of decay
rather than their mass or volume. For example, while a quantity of non-radioactive cobalt may
be measured in terms of the mass of the material, the quantity of radioisotope Co-60 (cobalt-60)
is measured in terms of its decay rate or activity.

The activity is simply the number of

radioactive decays or disintegrations per unit time and depends on the number of nuclei in the
sample and the rate of decay of the radioisotope.
The SI unit of activity is Becquerel (Bq) which corresponds to a decay rate of one decay
per second. Another unit that is still being commonly used is the Curie (Ci), which is based on
the activity of 1 g of Ra-226. 1 Ci = 3.7 x 1010 Bq.
The rate of decay is proportional to the number of nuclei in the sample, and the constant
of proportionality is called the decay constant and is denoted by .
The activity of an isotope at a time t is given by,
C(t ) N (t )

Bq

where C(t) is the activity at a time t, N(t) the number of nuclei at time t and the decay
constant in s-1.
Since the activity is equal to rate of decay,

11

dN
N
dt

The solution of this differential equation is, N (t ) N 0 e t

nuclei.

where N 0 is the initial number of

The time taken for an isotope to decay to half of its original activity is called the half-

life of the isotope and is denoted by T1/2. It can be easily shown that ,

T1/ 2

ln(2)

0.693

The half-lives of some commonly used isotopes are given below.

Isotope
Half-life
Tritium (H-3)
12.33 y
C-14
5730 y
Co-60
5.3 y
Cs-137
30.0 y
Tc-99m
6h
U-238
4.51 x 109 y
Pu-239
24390 y
h = hour, y = year

The decay product (daughters) of some of the isotopes (parents) could also be
radioactive. The daughter product will also decay to form another radioisotope as shown below.

239
92

239
93

Np

The decay chain continues until the final product is stable.

239
94

Pu

If an isotope A decays to

an isotope B which in turn decays into another isotope, the number densities of the isotopes A
and B are given by the equations,

dN A
A N A
dt

dN B
B N B A N A
dt

and

12

The solutions are,

N A (t ) N A 0 e A t

N B (t ) N A0

and

A
(e t e t )
B A
A

where NA0 is the initial number of nuclei of isotope A.

If the half-life of the parent is much greater than the half-life of the daughter, ie.B>>A
then after a sufficiently long period of time, the number density of the daughter will be given by,

N B (t ) N A0

A
e
B

At

A
N A (t )
B

Under these conditions, the activities of the parent and the daughter are the same and the
material is said to exist in secular equilibrium.

2.4 Nuclear Reactions and Cross Sections

A nuclear reaction is an event in which transfer of nucleons (neutrons and protons) occur
between nuclei resulting in production of new nuclei and emission of particles and/or gamma
radiation. An example of a nuclear reaction is,

16
8

O +

1
0

16
7

N +

1
1

A nucleus of O-16 absorbing a neutron is converted to N-16 with the emission of a proton. The
nuclear reaction,
A

+ a

is commonly indicated by the notation A(a,b)B.

by

16
8

The above nuclear reaction can be indicated

O (n,p) 167 N . Energy-mass, momentum, the electrical charge and the number of nucleons
13

will be conserved in all nuclear reactions. While mass can be converted to energy and vise-versa
in nuclear reactions the total energy equivalence or the total mass equivalence (converted using
E=mc2) will be conserved.
In most nuclear reactions where neutrons interact with nuclei, first the neutron is
absorbed into the nucleus to form what is known as a compound nucleus. The compound
nucleus contains excess energy partly due to the kinetic energy of the neutron it has absorbed and
partly due to the difference in the ground state energies of the original nucleus and the compound
nucleus. This excess energy leaves the compound nucleus in an excited state and it can de-excite
and return to the ground state in a number of different ways.
The following are some of the nuclear reactions of importance in the field of nuclear
engineering.

1. Elastic Scattering (n,n)

The compound nucleus formed by the absorption of a neutron de-excites by the emission
of a neutron which will carry away the excess energy. The kinetic energy of the particles is
conserved in this reaction. The moderation of neutrons or slowing down of neutrons from
high energies (about 2.0 MeV) to thermal energies (average energy 0.025 eV) in nuclear
reactors is mainly due to the elastic scattering between neutrons and the nuclei of the
moderating medium. An example of elastic scattering is,

1
0

n0

12
6

13
6

12
6

C+

1
0

* indicates the C-13 nucleus is in an excited -state.

2. Inelastic Scattering (n,n)
Similar to elastic scattering the compound nucleus formed by the absorption of the
neutron to the nucleus, de-excites by emitting a neutron. However, unlike in the case of
elastic scatting, the resultant nucleus is left in an excited state and de-excites by emission of
excess energy in the form of gamma radiation. Since a part of the energy is carried away by
gamma radiation, unlike elastic scattering, this reaction does not conserve kinetic energy of
14

the particles. Inelastic scattering also contributes to moderation (slowing down) of neutrons
in nuclear reactors and is more pre-dominant at high energies. An example of inelastic
scattering is,

1
0

n +

56
26

57
26

Fe

Fe *

56
26

Fe * + 01 n

56
26

Fe 26 + 01 n

3. Neutron capture (n,)

In neutron capture reactions, the compound nucleus de-excites by emitting the excess
energy in the form of gamma radiation. The incident neutron is lost as it is absorbed by the
target nucleus. The wanted (for control purposes) and unwanted losses of neutrons in nuclear
reactor is due to this reaction. An example of neutron capture is,

1
0

n0

12
6

13
6

C6

13
6

C+

The interaction between C-12 nuclei and neutrons can result in either elastic scattering or
neutrons capture.

4. Neutron fission (n,f)

The compound nuclei formed by absorption of neutrons by heavy nuclei could result in
the nucleus from breaking into two smaller nuclei and releasing energy and neutrons in the
process. The source of energy in nuclear power plants is the fission reaction. The release of
neutrons makes it possible to obtain a chain reaction. The nuclei produced by the reaction
are called fission products and are radioactive.

Most of the disadvantages of power

generation using fission is due to these radioactive fission products which have to be isolated
from the human environment while the reactor is in operation and after they are removed
from the reactors as spent fuel. An example of a fission reaction is,

235
92

1
0

236
92

140
55

15

Cs +

93
37

Rb + 3 01 n + E

5. Transmutation
The absorption of neutrons could result in the formation of a new element. An example is,

238
92

+ 01 n

239
92

239
93

Np

239
94

Pu

This process converts U-238 which is 99.3% of natural uranium to Pu-239 which is a fissile
material similar to U-235. Only 0.7% of natural uranium is U-235.

6. Fusion
Light isotopes can combine to form a heavier isotope and release energy in the process. This
reaction is known as fusion. The reason for release of energy in fission and fusion reactions
will be explained in a following section. An example of fusion is given below.

3
1

2
1

T+

4
2

He +

1
0

n+ E

7. (,n) Reaction
This reaction is very commonly used to generate neutrons for experimental purposes and for
initiating the fission reactions in nuclear reactors.

4
2

He

9
4

12
6

Be

C +

1
0

A finely powered mixture of an alpha emitter such as Am-241, Pu-238, or Ra-226 and
beryllium produces neutrons by the above reaction.

16

2.5 Neutron Flux and Cross Sections

The rate of interaction between neutrons and a given type of nuclei depend on, the
neutron number density, the neutron energy, the number density of the nuclei and the nuclei
itself.

Neutrons
Target

Nuclei

Fig 2.4
Consider a beam of neutrons with a number density of n neutrons/m3and a velocity of
v m/s striking a target with an area of A m2 and a thickness t m as shown in Fig. 2.4.
It can be easily shown that nv neutrons will cross a unit area of the target per unit time, or
nvA neutrons will cross the target in a unit time.
Let the number density of the nuclei in the target be N nuclei/ m3 . The number of nuclei
in the target = N A t.
We introduce an effective area of m2 around each nucleus and say that a neutron will
interact only if it strikes this effective area.
The total effective area the target presents to the beam of neutrons is N A t m2.
The total effective area as a fraction of the area of the target = N t
Since only the neutrons that enter this effective area will interact, the fraction of the
neutrons that interact is equal to this fraction of the effective area.
Since nvA neutrons cross the target per unit time, the number of interactions per unit
time = (nvA) . ( N t)

17

Since the volume of the target is At, the number of interactions per unit volume of the
target per unit time =nvN per m3 per s.
The product nv is called the neutron flux and is denoted by the symbol .
The effective area is called the microscopic cross section and the product N the
macroscopic cross section. Macroscopic cross section is denoted by the symbol .
Hence the interaction rate of neutrons per unit volume =

A unit known as the barn is used to measure the microscopic cross sections. The barn (b) is a
very small unit and 1 b = 10-28 m2. The macroscopic cross section has units of m-1.

The following table gives some of the cross sections commonly used in reactor
calculations.
Interaction
Elastic Scattering
Inelastic Scattering
Total Scattering
Neutron Capture
Fission
Absorption
All interactions

Microscopic
Cross Section
es
in
s = es+ in
c
f
a = c + f
t = s + a

Macroscopic
Cross Section
es
in
s = es+ in
c
f
a = c + f
t = s + a

The neutron cross sections are energy dependent and the absorption cross sections of
most nuclei decrease with increasing neutron energy.

Cross sections of heavy elements have

sharp peaks at certain energies of neutrons known as resonances.

The neutrons which are

slowed down from about 2 MeV to 0.025 eV in nuclear reactors, pass through this energy range
and have a high probability of being absorbed. These absorptions are known as resonance
absorptions.

The values of cross sections of all known nuclei have been determined experimentally
and are contained in a computerized data-base known as the Evaluated Nuclear Data File
18

(ENDF). Since the cross sections are energy dependent they are usually averaged over a range
of energies and these average values are used in the calculations. Cross sections averaged over
the range of thermal neutrons are called thermal cross sections. Thermal cross sections of some
of the isotopes are given below.

Isotope/element
1
1
2
1

D
Boron
Carbon
235
92 U
239
94

Pu

Microscopic
Absorption Cross
Section (b)
0.332

Microscopic Fission
Cross Section (b)

0.0005

0.0

759.0
0.0034
678.0

0.0
0.0
577.0

1015.0

741.0

0.0

The macroscopic cross section of a material comprising of more than one isotope is given by,
N k k , whereNk is the atomic number density of the kth isotope and k , its microscopic
k

cross section.
The atomic number densities can be calculated using Avagadros number since one kilo
gram-atom will contain 6.023 x 1026 atoms (Avagadgros number in atoms/kg-atom) or one kilo
gram-mole will contain 6.023 x 1026 molecules. Therefore, if the density is kg/m3, and the
atomic weight (or molecular weight ) is M, the atomic number density N is given by,

Av
M

atoms/m3.

where Av is the Avagados number in atoms/kg-atom (or moles per kg-mole)

Example 1:
Determine the atomic number density of sodium if the density of sodium is 970 kg/m 3
and the atomic weight 23.0.
Solution:
19

The atomic number density = 6.023 x 1026 x 970 /23 = 2.54 x 1028 atoms/m3

Example 2:
Determine the atomic number density of hydrogen in water if the molecular weight of
water is 18.02.
Solution:
Since the density of water is 103 kg/m3, the number of water molecules per m3 =
6.023x1026 x 103 / 18.02 = 3.343 x 1028
Since each molecule of water contains 2 atoms of hydrogen, the atomic number density
of hydrogen is 6.643 x 1028 atoms/m3.

Example 3:
Tritium can be produced by bombarding Li-6 (lithium) with neutrons. If lithium has an
atomic weight of 6.015 determine the rate of production of tritium in a 0.01 kg target of lithium
kept in a research reactor with a thermal neutron flux of 1015 n/m2-s. The thermal absorption
cross section of Li-6 is 945 b.
Solution:
Neutron number density of lithium = N

Av
M

Macroscopic absoption cross section = = N =

Av
M

Number of absorptions per unit volume per unit time = =

Av
M

If the volume of the sample is V, the number of absoprtions per unit time =

Av
M

mAv
, where m is the mass of the sample.
M

Therefore, the rate of production of tritium = 945 x 10-28 x 0.01 x 6.023 x 1026 x 1015/6.015 =
9.46 X1013 nuclei/s.

20

2.6 Mass Defect and Binding Energies.

The mass of a nucleus of any isotope is slightly less than the sum of the masses of the
nucleons (ie. protons and neutrons ) that form the nucleus, as shown in the example given
below. This difference is known as the mass defect.

Mass of a proton
Mass of a neutron
Mass of 6 protons
Mass of 6 neutrons
Total mass of nucleons in a

12
6

C nucleus

1.007277 amu
1.008665 amu
6.043662 amu
6.051990 amu
12.095652 amu
12.000000 amu

12
6

Mass of a C nucleus
Mass difference (mass defect)

0.095652 amu

If a C-12 nucleus is formed using 6 protons and 6 neutrons, the mass difference or the
mass defect will be converted to energy and released. If the process is to be reversed, this
amount of energy should be added to the nucleus.

Since the energy equivalence of the mass

defect should be added to the nucleus to break it apart, it can be considered as the energy that
binds the nucleons of the nucleus together. This energy is called the binding energy of the
nucleus. Since the energy equivalence of 1 amu= 931.48 MeV, a nucleus of C-12 has a binding
energy of 0.0957 X 931.48 = 89.1 MeV.
BINDING ENERGY CURVE
10

Binding Energy per Nucleon

50

100

150

M ass Number (A)

21

200

250

Fig. 2.5

Fig. 2.5 shows a plot of the binding energy per nucleon of different nuclei vs. their mass
number. The release of energy in fission and fusion reactions can be easily explained using this
curve.
The fission of a heavy nucleus such as U-235 will form two smaller nuclei with mass
numbers in the range of 80 to 160. From the Binding Energy Curve it can be seen that the
products resulting from this reaction has a higher binding energy than the U-235 nucleus. Since
the fission products have higher binding energies per nucleon than the fissile nucleus, the
reaction improves the stability of the nuclei. The processes that improve stability are always
accompanied by release of energy.
In fusion, two nuclei with very small mass numbers combine to form a nucleus with a
larger mass number. From the Binding Energy Curve once gain it can be seen that this nucleus
has a higher binding energy than the two smaller nuclei. Once again, the stability is improved
and therefore energy is released. The following examples of fission of U-235 and fission of D-2
and T-3, illustrate this further.

Consider the fission reaction,

235
92

1
0

236
92

140
55

Cs +

93
37

Rb + 3 01 n + Efission

From the law of conservation of energy and mass and Einsteins equation,
Efission = [ (MU + mn) - (MCs + MRb + 3 mn) ] c2

where MU, MRb, and MCs are the masses of nuclei of U-235, Rb-93, and Cs-140, mn the mass of
a neutron and c the velocity of light.
MU = 92 mp + 143 mn - 235 BEU / c2
MCs = 55 mp + 85 mn - 140 BECs / c2
MRb = 37 mp + 56 mn - 93 BERb / c2
22

where BEU, BECs and BERb are the binding energy per nucleon of U-235, Cs-140 and Rb-93
and mp the mass of a proton. Therefore,

Efission = 140 BECs + 93 BERb - 235 BEU

Since BERb = 8.54 MeV, BECs = 8.32 MeV and BEU = 7.59 MeV, the energy released
in the above fission reaction is,

Efission = 175.37 MeV. On the average, the fission of U-235

releases 200 MeV per fission.

Similarly from the fusion reaction,

3
1

T+

2
1

4
2

He +

1
0

n + Efusion

it can be shown that,

Efusion = 4 BEHe - 3BET - 2 BED

Where BEHe, BET and BED are the binding energy per nucleon of He-4, T-3 and D-2
respectively.

Since these values are 7.07 MeV, 2.83MeV and 1.11 MeV respectively, E fusion=

17.57 MeV. Thus the fusion of D-2 and T-3 to form He-4 releases 17.6 MeV of energy.

References
1. Irving Kaplan,Nuclear Physics, Addision-Wesley Publishing Company, Inc.
2. John R. Lamarsh, Introduction to Nuclear Engineering, Addision-Wesley Publishing
Company, Inc
3. S. Glasstone and A. Sesonske Nuclear Reactor Engineering, Van Nostrand Reinhold
Company
.

23

CHAPTER III
RADIATION MEASUREMENT AND DETECTION
3.1 Introduction
All applications of nuclear technology require measurement of ionizing radiation. The
requirements can range from determination of doses of radiation for safety purposes,
measurements required for non-power applications of radiation and radioisotopes and to
monitoring and control of nuclear power plants. The energy deposited by radiation when it
interacts with matter is utilized to measure and detect radiation. This chapter describes the
methods of measuring radiation and the methods of processing the signals received from
radiation detectors to derive the information required.
3.2 Gas Filled Detectors
Gas-filled detectors make use of the creation of ion-electron pairs by radiation when it
interacts with gaseous media. Alpha and beta particles directly induce such ionizations and are
known as directly ionizing radiation while gamma radiation and neutrons produce ionization by
secondary processes and therefore are known as indirectly ionizing radiation.

Gas filled detectors comprise of sealed chambers filled with a suitable gas. When
radiation interacts with the molecules of the gas the transfer of the energy to the molecules
results in the production of positively charged ions and electrons. The ionization can be either
due to direct interaction with the incident particles or through a secondary process in which some
of the energy of the incident radiation first produces energetic electrons which cause the
ionization. In addition to ionization, the incident radiation can also move the electrons to a
higher energy level or excite the atoms. Since a part of the energy is lost due to excitation the
average energy loss per incident particle is higher than the energy required to produce an ionelectron pair. The energy dissipation per ion-electron pair in different gases is given in the
following table.

24

Table 3.1 - Energy Dissipation per Ion-electron Pair

Energy per Ion-electron pair in eV.

Fast Electrons
Alpha Particles
27.0
25.9
32.5
31.7
38.0
37.0
35.8
36.0
35.0
35.2
32.2
32.2
30.2
29.0

Gas
A
He
H2
N2
Air
O2
CH4

Since the number of ion-electron pairs created in the gas is directly proportional to the
energy deposited by the incident radiation in the medium, the electrical charge generated in the
medium can be used to measure the number of charged particles entering the chamber and their
energies.

Gas-filled chamber

anode
A

cathode

Fig. 3.1
Consider a sealed gas-filled chamber as shown in Fig 3.1. If a variable d.c. voltage is
applied between the anode and the cathode while the chamber is kept in a radiation field, the
charge collected indicated by the current through the micro-ammeter, will vary as shown in Fig.
3.2

25

Collected
Charge

V5

V6

V4

V3
V1

V2

Applied Voltage

Fig. 3.2 - Gas Amplification Curve

If the applied voltage is zero no charge is collected as the ions and electrons recombine to
neutralize each other. As the voltage is gradually increased the collected charge will also
increase as the recombination is reduced as a result of the electrons moving towards the central
anode. At voltage V1 all the ion-and electrons are collected as the applied voltage is high enough
to prevent recombination.
There will be no change in the charge collected up to an applied voltage of V2 as all the
ion-electron pairs are collected during this range of voltage. This region of the curve is called
the ionization chamber region.
As the voltage is increased beyond V2 the charge collected will increase as a result of the
electrons accelerating towards the anode under the influence of the electrical field, gaining
enough kinetic energy to induce secondary ionizations. As a result, the collected charge would
be more than the initial electrical charge produced by incident radiation. This process is known
as gas amplification.
Up to a voltage of V3 the collected charge would be proportional to the initial electrical
charge and the region between voltages V2 and V3 is called the proportional region.

26

As the

voltage is increased further, the gas amplification will also increase but will not be proportional
to the initial electrical charge. The region between V3 and V4 is known as the region of limited
proportionality.
At voltages between V5 and V6 the ionization inside the chamber will produce an
avalanche of electrons and the charge collected will be independent of the initial electrical
charge. This region is known as the Geiger-Muller or G-M region.
The gaseous medium will break-down at voltages above V6, resulting in a continuous
discharge.
Ionization Chambers
Ionization chamber detectors operate in the ionization chamber region of the gasamplification curve. Cylindrical chambers with a central anode and an outer cathode are most
commonly used, but parallel plate ionization chambers are also used for specific purposes. These
chambers are used very commonly for radiation protection measurements and for secondary
standard calibration of radiation monitors since they can be designed for a high sensitivity
without being overloaded when placed in strong radiation fields.
Ionization chambers are mostly used in the current mode as shown in Fig. 3.1. But they
can also be used in pulse mode as shown in Fig. 3.3. The current pulse created by the ionization
caused by incident radiation is converted to a voltage pulse by passing it through a resistor.
Because there is no gas-amplification, the pulse height is small and therefore external
amplification is required.

Output

Fig. 3.3 - Pulse Mode Operation

27

Proportional Counters
Proportional counters operate in the proportional region of the gas-amplification curve
and are exclusively used in the pulse mode (Fig. 3.3). Since the collected charge is proportional
to the initial charge, which in turn is proportional to the energy dissipated by incident radiation
inside the chamber, the height of the voltage pulse is proportional to the energy of the radiation.
While the number pulses produced in a given time is equal to the number of particles (charged
particles or photons) interacting in the chamber during this period, the height of the pulses can be
used to determine the energy of the incident radiation.
Since the gas-amplification is more than 1, proportional detectors are more sensitive than
ionization chambers and the amount of external amplification required is less.

Geiger-Muller Detectors
Geiger-Muller detectors or G-M detectors operate in the Geiger-Muller region of the gasamplification curve and are widely used for a number of purposes but mostly in radiation
protection.

The G-M detectors are less expensive than most of the other types of detectors.

They are robust and therefore are suitable for field use.
Because of the high gas amplification the output-voltage could be of the order of 1V,
which makes it possible to use G-M detectors with very little or no external amplification.
Since the collected charge is independent of the initial ionization, unlike ionization
chambers and proportional counters, the voltage pulse height is independent of the energy of the
ionizing particles.

Dead Time
Of the ion-electron pairs produced in G-M detectors, the electrons have a higher mobility
than the ions and therefore are collected by the anode before all the ions are collected by the
cathode. Until all the ions are collected there will be a net positive charge surrounding the anode
which will increase the effective radius of the anode. This will decrease the electric field which
is inversely proportional to the radius.

If another charge particle enters the detector chamber

while the detector is in this condition, it will produce a voltage pulse with a smaller height and if
the height of the pulse is less than the discriminator setting of the counting system, it will not be

28

counted.

The period required by the detector to recover after receiving an ionizing particle is

called the dead-time which is of the order of 100s.

Let m be the number of counts recorded per second by a counting system connected to a
G-M detector. If the dead-time is seconds, the detector would be dead for seconds after
each count or since there are m counts per second it will be dead for m seconds in each
interval of 1 second. Therefore the number of particles not counted during a one second interval
should be proportional to m. If n particles interact with the detector in 1 second,
nm
m
m or n
n
1 m

There will be no appreciable reduction in the count-rate if m<< 1. But the dead-time
would result in G-M detectors giving a lower reading when measuring very high radiation fields
when the product of the count-rate and the dead-time is not negligible compared to 1.

3.3 Scintillation Detectors

Crystals of certain materials emit minute light pulses when they interact with radiation.
Although not visible to the naked eye they can be seen when viewed through a microscope and
has been one of the early methods of detecting and measuring radiation.

The modern

scintillation detectors are used together with photomultipliers, which convert the light pulses to
voltage pulses.
The intensity of the light pulses emitted is proportional to the energy absorbed by the
scintillating crystal and since the height of the voltage pulses produced by a photo-multiplier is
proportional to the intensity of the light pulse triggering the signal, the height of the voltage
pulses is proportional to the energy absorbed by the scintillating crystal.

29

photo-multiplier
scintillator

anode

dynodes

photocathode

optical coupling

Fig. 3.4 Scintillation Detector and Photo-multiplier

Fig. 3.4 shows the schematic diagram of a scintillation detector optically coupled to a photomultiplier. The photocathode emits electrons when the light pulses emitted by the scintillator
strike it. The dynodes are kept at successively increasing electrical potentials relative to the
photocathode. The electrons emitted by the photocathode therefore are accelerated towards the
first dynode which emits an increased number of electrons when the electrons emitted by the
photocathode strikes it. These electrons strike the second dynode, which in turn emits an
increased number of electrons. The electrons emitted by the last dynode are collected by the
anode to produce a voltage pulse the height of which is proportional to the energy absorbed by
the scintillation detector from the ionizing particle.

Fig. 3.5 A Scintillation Detector

30

3.4 Gamma Spectroscopy

Radioisotopes emit gamma radiation at distinct energies and the energy of gamma
radiation emitted can be used as a means of identifying unknown radioisotopes. The quantity of
the isotope present also can be determined using the intensity of the gamma radiation emitted.
The method used for qualitative and quantitative analysis of materials containing radioisotopes is
known as Gamma Spectroscopy. Gamma Spectroscopy has a large number of very practical
applications since it is a non-destructive method of analysis, it is extremely sensitive and only a
very small quantity of the sample is required for the analysis. Non-radioactive samples also can
be analyzed using this method by first making them radioactive by exposing them to a high
neutron flux, in a research reactor. (Neutron Activation Analysis) The following is a brief
description of the theory and methodology of Gamma Spectroscopy using scintillation detectors.

Interaction of gamma radiation with matter

There are three principal modes of interaction of gamma radiation with matter, namely
a)photo-electric interaction, b) Compton scattering and c) pair-production.

In photoelectric interactions all the energy of the gamma radiation is transferred to an

electron (usually an electron in the K shell) which is ejected. The kinetic energy of the electron
will be equal to the energy of the gamma radiation minus the binding energy of the electron. (ie
the energy required to remove the electron). Since the electrons have a very small range
compared to gamma radiation, the energy of the electron will be absorbed by the medium.
Therefore, in photoelectric interactions all the energy of the incident gamma ray will be absorbed
by the medium it is interacting with. Photoelectric interactions are the pre-dominant mode of
interactions at low gamma energies.

Compton scattering results in the emission of a secondary gamma ray and an electron.
The energy of the incident gamma ray is shared between the ejected electron and the secondary
gamma ray. If the secondary gamma is emitted at an angle of to the direction of the incident
gamma ray, it can be shown that, the energy of the secondary gamma is given by,
31

E '

E
1

E
(1 cos )
mo c 2

where E is the energy of the incident gamma ray and moc2 the rest energy of an electron = 0.511
MeV. The secondary gamma has a maximum of E (=0) and a minimum of E/ (1+2 E / moc2)
at =. If the secondary gamma leaves the medium without further interactions, a part of the
energy of the incident gamma ray will be carried away with it, and the energy absorbed by the
medium will be less than the energy of the incident gamma ray. But if the secondary gamma ray
interacts with the medium resulting in its energy being absorbed by the medium, the total energy
absorbed by the medium will be equal to the energy of the incident gamma ray. Compton
scattering is the most predominant mode of interaction at intermediate energies.

Energy to mass conversion occurs in pair-production interactions and the energy of the
incident gamma ray is converted to an electron and a positron both of which have rest energies of
0.511 MeV. The excess energy, i.e. E - 1.022 MeV is shared between the positron and the
electron as kinetic energy. Pair production can occur only at gamma energies above 1.022 MeV
and is predominant at high gamma energies.

The positron after it has spent its kinetic energy

combines with an electron to destroy each other and converts the combined mass of the two
particles to energy in the form of two gamma rays each with an energy of 0.511 MeV. This is
known as annihilation radiation.

Energy Absorbed by Scintillation Detectors

The above discussion shows that while in some of the interactions between matter an
gamma radiation, all the energy of the incident gamma radiation is absorbed, in other
interactions, only a part of the energy is absorbed. Thus, when gamma radiation interacts with a
scintillation detector coupled to a photomultiplier tube, a large number of voltage pulses will
have the same height corresponding to interactions where all the energy is absorbed by the
scintillating material. The height of these pulses will be proportional to the energy of gamma
radiation. The rest of the pulses will be of various heights depending on the fraction of the
energy absorbed by the scintillating material.
32

Pulse Height Analysis.

d.c
High
Voltage

Detector

Timer

Linear
Amplifier

Pulse
Height
Analyzer

Counter

Fig. 3.6 Single Channel Analyzer

Fig. 3.6 shows a typical single channel counting system. The scintillation detectors
commonly used in gamma spectroscopy are NaI crystals with a small quantity of thallium as an
impurity and are symbolically denoted as NaI(Tl) detectors. The signal from the detector is fed
into a linear amplifier with variable gain and the output of the amplifier is fed into a pulse height
analyzer.
The pulse height analyzer rejects all the voltage pulses below the setting of a
discriminator which can be set to any desirable value. Thus only pulses with heights above the
discriminator setting will be counted by the digital counter. The pulse height analyzer also has a
window setting.

In the window mode operation, the pulse height analyzer, in addition to

rejecting pulses with heights below the discriminator setting, will also reject pulses with heights
above the sum of the discriminator setting and the window setting.

For example, if the

discriminator setting is 1V and the window setting 0.1 V, only the pulses falling into the interval
of 1.0V to 1.1V will be counted. The counter is controlled by a timer which makes it possible to
count the number of pulses in a specified time period.
It is possible to use the above counting system to obtain a pulse height spectrum by
keeping the window at a small fixed setting while varying the discriminator setting. The plot of
the number of counts observed during a fixed time interval against the discriminator setting will
give the pulse height spectrum. The above counting system is known as a single channel

33

analyzer (SCA) because only one pulse height interval or one channel can be observed at a
time.

Fig. 3.7 A Single Channel Analyzer

A multi-channel analyzer (MCA) counts the number of pulses in a large number of

intervals or channels simultaneously and displays the spectrum on a VDU. Most MCAs also
have built-in software for analyzing the pulse height spectra.

Fig. 3.8 A Multi-Channel Analyzer

34

Channel No.

Channel No.

Fig 3.9a Cs-137 Spectrum

Fig 3.9b Co-60 Spectrum

Fgs.3.9a shows a pulse height spectrum obtained using a Cs-137 source which emits
gamma radiation at an energy of 0.662 MeV. The peak of the spectrum is known as the
photopeak and is produced by the voltage pulses resulting from interactions in which all the
gamma energy is absorbed by the detector. Therefore, the discriminator setting at the photopeak
(SCA) or the channel number of the photopeak (MCA) will be proportional to the energy of the
incident gamma radiation. Fig. 3.9b shows the spectrum obtained from a Co-60 source. Co-60
emits gamma radiation at energies of 1.17 MeV and 1.33 MeV. The two photopeaks of the
spectrum correspond to these two energies.

Because the channel number (or discriminator setting) at the photopeak is proportional to
the energy of gamma radiation, if spectra are obtained using several gamma sources of known
energies, and the channel numbers (or discriminator settings) at the photopeaks are plotted
against the corresponding gamma energies, a linear relationship would be obtained. This is
known as an energy calibration curve and most MCAs have the software to obtain the best linear
fit through the data points.

Now if the photopeak of an unknown gamma source is obtained

using either an SCA or an MCA, the energy of the radiation can be obtained from the energy
calibration curve. Computer based MCAs have the software to determine the energy of the
gamma radiation from the calibration curve and to compare it with a library of gamma energies
of all radioisotopes to identify the unknown isotope.

35

In addition to the above mentioned qualitative analysis, gamma spectroscopy also can be
used for quantitative analysis, since the area under the photopeaks are proportional to the activity
of the isotope. Therefore, by obtaining the areas under the photopeaks of the spectra of a source
of known activity, and of a sample of unknown activity, the activity of the sample can be easily
determined.

3.5 Semiconductor Detectors

Radiation creates hole-electron pairs in semiconductor materials by transferring energy to
the electrons to make them jump from the valence band to the conduction band. This may be
considered analogous to the production of ion-electron pairs in gas-filled detectors. The energy
required for production of a hole-electron pair in a semiconductor is much less than the energy
required to ionize a gas. For example production of a hole-electron pair in silicon requires only
3.65 eV while about 30 eV is required to produce an ion-electron pair in a gas. (see Table 3.1).
Because of the production of a larger number of hole-electron pairs, the statistical deviation is
smaller and as a result the semiconductor detectors have a higher energy resolution than gasfilled or scintillation detectors.
Semiconductor detectors comprise of a reverse biased p-n junction and the depletion
layer has a high sensitivity to radiation. The hole-electron pairs produced by radiation are
collected by the application of a bias voltage. As in the case of gas-filled detectors the current
pulses are converted to voltage pulses by passing them through resistors. Since the sensitive area
of the detector is the depletion layer, it is necessary that the energy of the radiation to be
measured is absorbed by the depletion layer.
Two types of semiconductor detectors known as surface-barrier detectors and diffused
junction detectors are commonly used for detection of alpha particles and gamma radiation
respectively. Surface barrier detectors are constructed by etching n-type silicon with HF-HNO3
and exposing to air to form a thin film of p-type semiconductor.

The very small thickness

makes it possible for alpha particles to penetrate it and enter the depletion layer. A schematic
diagram of a surface barrier detector is shown below.

36

To amplifier

Depletion layer

Fig. 3.10 Surface Barrier Detector

The detection of gamma radiation requires a deeper depletion layer than that of a surface
barrier detector and diffused-junction detectors are most commonly used for this purpose, made
either by ion implantation or by diffusion of the dopant. In the first method a particle accelerator
is used to embed doping ions (eg. boron ions) on the surface of an n-type crystal.

In the second

method the semiconductor surface is coated with the dopant and allowed to diffuse into the
material by heating it to a high temperature in an inert environment. Both methods produce a
depletion layer with sufficient thickness to detect photons.
Two of the most commonly used types of diffused-junction detectors are Ge(Li) and
Si(Li) detectors. Lithium is the dopant in both types of detectors. Because of the higher density
and atomic number of germanium, Ge(Li) detectors are preferred for gamma spectrometry while
Si(Li) detectors are commonly used for detection of low energy X-radiation. Both the detectors
have to be maintained at very low temperatures and liquid nitrogen is needed for this purpose,
which is a disadvantage. The detectors are mounted on a Dewar flask containing liquid nitrogen.

3.6 Other types of Detectors

Thermoluminescent Detectors (TLDs)
Crystals of certain inorganic materials can absorb energy from ionizing radiation and
store that energy by transferring its molecules to a metastable state. The stored energy is
released in the form of visible light when the crystal is heated to a certain temperature. The
intensity of the light emitted depends on the dose of radiation the crystal is exposed to and

37

therefore can be used for personal dosimetry i.e. to measure the doses of radiation received by
radiation workers. LiF and CaSO4 with Mn as an impurity are commonly used.

The thermoluminescent crystal is mounted on a card of about 2 cm X 3cm which is

placed inside a holder that can be clipped on to the clothing of radiation workers. After a
specified period of time the TLD card can be read by heating it to a specified temperature and
measuring the intensity of the light emitted using a photomultiplier. The card can be re-used
after reading. The intensity of the light emitted can be converted to a dose of radiation using a
calibration curve obtained by exposing a set of similar TLD cards to known quantities of
radiation and measuring the intensity of light emitted by each of them. Several crystals mounted
on the same card and covered by different shielding material can be used to separately determine
the doses from different types of radiation.

The property of thermoluminescence is also used in archeological dating as bricks

contain thermoluminescent materials. The TL crystals are annealed in the process of baking the
bricks which will release all the stored energy. Thereafter they are continuously exposed to the
natural background radiation and the energy of the radiation is stored in the material. By
estimating the dose the materials has been exposed to over a period of time by measuring the
light emitted when heated to the required temperature, the age of the brick can be estimated as
the annual background dose is known.

Film Badges
Like TLDs film badges can also be used for personnel monitoring. Exposure to radiation
creates an image on photographic film. This was how radiation was first discovered by Henri
Becquerel.
A photographic film covered with a light-tight material and mounted on a film holder is
clipped on to the clothing of a radiation worker. After a specified period of time the film is
read by processing it and measuring the thickness of the AgO layer on the film. The dose can
be calculated from a calibration curve as in the case of TLDs. The film badges cannot be reused
like TLDs but can be retained as a permanent record of the radiation doses.

38

Sections of film

badges can be covered with various shielding materials to separately determine the doses from
different types of radiation.

3.7 Counting Statistics

The fact that a long-lived radioisotope will keep on emitting radiation for a very long
period of time is a very clear indication that all the nuclei of the isotope do not decay at the same
time. While some of the nuclei would decay at the very next instant some of them will not decay
for a very long period of time. The decay constant introduced in Chapter II is the probability of a
given nucleus decaying in a unit period of time and therefore there will be an average number of
N decays per unit time in a sample containing N nuclei.

Binomial Distribution
Consider a sample of a radioisotope containing N nuclei. If the probability of a single
nucleus decaying in a unit time is ,
the probability of n nuclei decaying during this interval = n
The probability of (N-n) nuclei not decaying during this interval =(1- )(N-n)
Since there are NCn combinations of selecting n nuclei from N nuclei the probability of observing
exactly n decays during the specified interval,

w( n) N Cn n (1 ) ( N n)
This is the well-known Binomial distribution which has a mean of

nw( n) N
n

and a variance of ,

2 ( n ) 2 w( n) N (1 )

39

This shows there is a finite probability of observing any number of decays in a given time
interval although it can be shown that the probability of observing a number of decays much
greater than or much less than the mean number of decays is very small. This also shows that
any single observation could be different from the mean value and it is important to know what
this deviation is and to minimize it.

Poisson Distribution
In situations where the time of observation of radioactive decay is much less than the
half-life of the isotope << 1. Therefore 1 e and (1 ) N n e N . Since the number of
decays observed is much less than the number of nuclei in the sample n <<N.
Therefore, N Cn

Nn
.
n!

w( n)

Hence,

n e
n!

This is the well known Poisson Distribution which has a mean of =N and a standard
deviation of .

Statistical Error
The standard deviation is an indication of the deviation of a randomly observed value
from the mean of the observations. For a normal distribution 68% of the observations can be
expected to be within one standard deviation from the mean or within . 95.5% of the
observations would be within two standard deviations from the mean and 99.7% of the
observations will be within three standard deviations.

If the mean value of a set of observations is 10,000 the standard deviation would be 100.
Therefore the probability of any observation deviating by more than 100 or by 1% from the mean
would be about 32%. The probability of the deviation being more than 2% is 4.5% and being
more than 3% is 0.3%. Therefore when making an observation of the order of 10,000 it can be

40

said that with a high level of confidence the deviation of that observation from the mean value is
very small.

On the other hand if the mean value of a set of observations is only 25, the standard
deviation is 5 or 20% of the mean.

Therefore there is a 32% probability of any single

observation giving a statistical error of more than 20%.

It is therefore necessary to select a counting time which will give a number of counts of
the order of 10000 in order to keep the statistical error within reasonable limits.

References
1. B.E. Noltingk Instrument Technology - Electrical and Radiation Measurements,
Butterworths
2. G.G. Eichholz and John W. Poston Principles of Nuclear Radiation Detection, Ann Arbor
Science Publishers Inc.
3. Glenn F. Knoll Radiation Detection and Measurement, John Wiley and Sons

41

CHAPTER IV
RADIATION PROTECTION

4.1 Introduction
Until the discovery of X-rays by Roentgen in 1894 and the discovery of radioactivity by
Becquerel in 1896, the human exposure to radiation has been limited to natural sources of
radiation. Since then, human beings have been exposed to a number of man-made sources of
radiation in addition to the natural sources.

The largest exposure to man-made radiation has

been from the radiation sources used for medical diagnostic and therapeutic purposes.

Soon after the discovery of radiation it was found that radiation can be harmful to human
beings. Persons who had been conducting experiments on radiation for demonstrating the
benefits developed skin burns.

Madame Curie developed radiation burns on her fingers as a

result of handling radium, and Henri Becquerel developed burns on his chest after carrying a vial
of radium-bearing barium chloride in his pocket.

By 1911 it was discovered that exposure to radiation can also induce malignancies (i.e.
cancer). By then 50 radiologists had developed X-ray induced cancers. 50 women out of 2000
engaged in painting clock dials with radium-paint during 1924 to 1930 developed various forms
of cancer. They had ingested radium as a result of using their lips to sharpen the point of their
paint brushes. There were numerous other cases where persons developed cancer as a result of
exposure to radiation.

As a result of the growing recognition of the hazards of exposure to radiation, the Second
International Congress of Radiology established an international body known as the International
Commission on Radiation Protection (ICRP) in 1928, to set standards on permissible exposure to
radiation. Since then the ICRP has been periodically reviewing the most current scientific
information on effects of ionizing radiation and revising their standards whenever necessary.
The Basic Safety Standards on Radiation Protection adopted by the International Atomic Energy
42

Agency in collaboration with the WHO, and the ILO are based on the recommendations of the
ICRP.

The following sections of this chapter describes the quantities used in radiation protection
and their units of measurement, the types of radiation sources, the health effects of radiation, the
methods of estimating the doses from external and internal sources and practices adopted to
control and minimize the exposure to radiation.

4.2 Quantities and Units

Activity:
Activity is the measure of the rate of decay of a given amount of a radioisotope. The SI Unit of
measurement is the Becquerel (Bq) which corresponds to 1 decay per second. The unit Curie
(Ci) which is the activity of 1 g of Ra-226 or 3.7 X 1010 decays per second is also used in
measuring activity. 1 Ci = 3.7 X 1010Bq.

Absorbed Dose:
The health effects of radiation depend on the amount of energy absorbed by the tissues when
exposed to radiation in interactions between the radiation and the molecules of the tissues. The
absorbed dose is defined as the amount of energy absorbed by a unit mass of matter. The SI unit
is called the Gray (Gy) which corresponds to an absorbed energy of 1 Joule in 1 kg.

Equivalent Dose:
In addition to the absorbed energy the health effects also depend on the type of radiation
a person is exposed to. For example, a dose of alpha radiation is more harmful than the same
absorbed dose of gamma radiation. The absorbed dose corrected for the effects of different types
of radiation by multiplying by a quantity called the radiation weighting factor (wR) is called the
equivalent dose and measured in a unit called the Sievert (Sv). The equivalent dose in a tissue
T is given by,

HT wR . DT ,R
R

43

where DT,R is the absorbed dose averaged over the tissue or organ T, due to radiation type R.
Radiation weighting factors for different types of radiation are given in Table 4.1

Table 4.1 - Radiation Weighting Factors

Radiation type and energy range

Photons of all energies

Electrons and muons of all energies
Neutrons, energy < 10 keV
10 keV to 100 keV
100 keV to 2 MeV
2 MeV to 20 MeV
> 20 MeV
Protons, energy > 2 MeV
Alpha particles, fission fragments and
heavy nuclei

Radiation
Weighting
Factors (wR)
1
1
5
10
20
10
5
5
20

Effective Dose:
Different organs of the body exhibit different sensitivities to radiation. Therefore the health
effect not only depends on the equivalent dose but also on the exposed organ. The equivalent
dose weighted by weighting factors assigned to different organs is known as the effective dose.
That is, effective dose

E wT . H T
T

wherewTis the weighting factor of organ or tissue T, and HT the equivalent dose to organ or
tissue T . The weighting factors assigned to different organs are given in Table 4.2

44

Table 4.2 - Tissue Weighting Factors

Organ or Tissue

Tissue Weighting
Factor (WT)
0.20

Gonads (Ovaries and

testes)
Red bone marrow
Colon
Lung
Stomach
Bladder
Breast
Liver
Oesophagus
Thyroid
Skin
Bone surface
Remainder

0.12
0.12
0.12
0.12
0.05
0.05
0.05
0.05
0.05
0.01
0.01
0.05

Committed Equivalent Dose and Committed Effective Dose

Following the intake of a radioisotope to the body through inhalation and ingestion, a person will
continue to be exposed to radiation due to its presence in the body. The equivalent dose and the
effective dose will depend on the activity of the isotope which will vary with time due to
radioactive decay and due to the biological functions of the human body. The time integral of
the equivalent dose rate (effective dose rate) is called the committed equivalent dose (committed
effective dose). The period of integration is usually taken as 50 years for adults and 70 years for
children.

Collective Equivalent Dose and Collective Effective Dose:

The long term health effects of radiation are stochastic and therefore depend on the number of
persons exposed to radiation in addition to their individual equivalent doses. The summation of
the product of the equivalent doses and the number of persons exposed to that equivalent dose is
called the collective equivalent dose and is measured in man-Sv.

If 1 million persons are

exposed to an average equivalent dose of 1 mSv, the collective equivalent dose is 1000 man-Sv.

45

Similarly the summation of the products of the effective doses and the number of persons
exposed is called the collective effective dose.

Dose Commitment:
Certain activities could result in persons being exposed to radiation over a period of time. For
example atmospheric nuclear testing conducted up to mid-1970s has resulted in release of
radioactivity to the environment and exposure to radiation release by such radioactive materials
will continue until they remain in the environment.

The dose commitment is defined as the

infinite time integral of the per capita equivalent dose rate or the per capita effective dose rate,
due to a specified event.

4.3 Sources of Radiation

4.3.1 Natural Sources of Radiation.
The human beings have been exposed to natural sources of radiation from the time they
appeared on this earth.

Some even argue that the natural radiation has benefited the man-kind

and it has contributed to evolution of the species. It has been also stated that human beings have
developed tolerance to natural radiation as a result of being exposed to it for a long period of
time, and therefore natural radiation is not harmful. One must realize that there is absolutely no
difference between man-made and natural ionizing radiation and therefore the health effects will
depend on the amount of radiation a person is exposed to and not whether it is natural or manmade.
Natural radiation is mainly due to gamma radiation that enters the earths atmosphere
from outer-space and due to the natural radioisotopes in the earths crust.
Gamma radiation that enters the earths atmosphere from outer space is known as cosmic
radiation.

The radiation levels depend on the altitude and can vary from 0.03 Sv per hour at

sea level to 13 Sv per hour at 20,000m. A person flying from New York to Paris will receive
an equivalent dose of about 50 Sv.

46

What is classified as terrestrial external radiation is the radiation received from the
natural radioactive materials in the environment, mainly the decay products of the natural
radioisotopes U-238 and Th-232. The concentration of U-238 and Th-232 in certain locations is
much higher than the global average and those living in such areas receive a much higher dose of
radiation. Some locations along the north-western and south-western beaches of Sri Lanka, State
of Kerala in India, Ramsar in Iran, and Guarapari in Brazil are some examples.

The radiation received from radioisotopes in the human body is called internal radiation.
The main sources of internal radiation are C-14 and K-40. A certain percentage of carbon,
potassium and hydrogen in human bodies are the radioisotopes C-14, K-40 and tritium. Human
beings are continuously exposed to radiation due to these natural radioisotopes.

Some of the building materials contain U-238 a decay product of which is the radon gas.
This gas accumulates in poorly ventilated buildings and is one of the common natural sources of
radiation. The radon gas and its decay products is also a source of natural radiation.

The following table summarizes the average annual doses of radiation from natural
sources.
Source of Radiation
Cosmic rays
Terrestrial gamma radiation
Radionuclides in the body (except
radon)
Radon and decay products
TOTAL

Annual equivalent dose

(mSv)
0.39
0.46
0.23
1.30
2.4

4.3.2 Man-Made Sources of Radiation

Since the discovery of radiation and its uses, human beings have been exposed to manmade radiation in addition to the above mentioned natural sources of radiation.

The main

sources of such exposure are medical exposures, fall-out from atmospheric testing of nuclear
weapons and, nuclear power plants and the fuel cycle.

47

Medical exposure belongs to two categories, namely diagnostic and therapeutic

exposures. Normal X-ray examinations, CT scans and nuclear medical scans commonly used in
medical diagnosis expose patients to ionizing radiation. Patients are also exposed to radiation in
radiotherapy commonly used in treatment of cancer.

The average dose received from medical sources will depend on the average number of
medical exposes per person and the average radiation dose received per medical examination.
These two factors widely vary from country to country. While medical examinations are more
frequent in developed countries than in developing countries, the dose per examination is usually
higher in developing countries due to the poor quality of the facilities.

It has been estimated that continuing present medical practices over the next fifty years
will result in a collective effective dose commitment of 90 million man-Svfrom diagnostic
practices and 75 million man-Sv from therapeutic practices.

Starting from 1945 to about 1975 the nuclear weapons states (USA, former USSR,
France, UK and China) have conducted about 425 atmospheric tests of nuclear weapons and as a
result, a large amount of radioactive materials have been released to the environment A treaty
known as the Partial Nuclear Test-ban Treaty introduced in mid 1970s prohibits atmospheric
testing, and since then the testing of the weapons have been carried out underground without
release of radioactive materials to the environment.

It has been estimated the collective

effective dose commitment from the testing of nuclear weapons in the atmosphere to be 30
million-man Sv.

Contrary to the strong public opinion, nuclear power is the smallest source of man-made
exposure to radiation.

Nuclear power plants release very small quantities of radioactive

materials to the environment during normal operation.

However, there is potential for the

release of a much larger quantity of radioactivity, in an accident.

In addition to the power

plants, mining and processing of uranium and reprocessing of spent fuel can also release small
quantities of radioactivity to the environment The collective effective dose commitment due to
the operation of nuclear power plants up to 1992 has been estimated to be 0.4 million man-Sv
48

and 2 million man-Sv from the operation of nuclear power plants at the current rate for next 50
years.
The main sources of radiation are summarized below.

Source of Radiation

Natural Sources
Medical sources
Diagnosis
Treatment
Atmospheric nuclear weapons tests
Nuclear Power
Severe accidents
Occupational exposure
Medical
Nuclear Power
Industrial uses
Defence activities
non-uranium mining

Basis of commitment

Current rate for 50 years

Completed practice
Total Practice to date
Current rate for 50 years
Events up to 1992
Current rate for 50 years

Collective
effective dose
commitment
(million man-Sv)
650
90
75
30
0.4
2.0
0.60
0.05
0.12
0.03
0.01
0.40

4.4 Biological Effects of Radiation.

The biological effects of ionizing (nuclear) radiation are due to its ability to damage
DNA, the genetic material of the cells. The damage is due to the direct effects of ionization on
the DNA structure and the indirect effects due to the production of chemically active free
radicals in the vicinity of the DNA molecules. The changes in the DNA molecules can either kill
the cells or cause certain alterations in the cells. While some of the changes are repaired by the
natural biological mechanisms, some of the mutated cells remain in that form. These mutations
are transferred to the successive generations of the cells and can remain in the human body for a
very long period of time.

49

4.4.1 Acute Effects of Radiation

If a person is exposed to a very high dose of radiation, it could result in a large number of
cells in his body being destroyed. Such high levels of exposure are possible only in severe
accidents involving very strong sources of radiation. This could affect the functioning of critical
organs and the health effects can be seen within a short period of the exposure to radiation.
Furthermore, these effects can be seen in all persons exposed to these levels of radiation and
therefore are also known as deterministic effects as against stochastic effects due to exposure to
lower levels of radiation described in Section 4.4.2.

Deterministic effects occur at above a

threshold level, and the severity of the effects increase with the dose.

A dose of 3 to 6 Gy to gonads (ovaries and testes) will cause permanent sterility and
dose of 3-5 Gy to the skin will cause erythema or reddening of the skin.(radiation burns). A
clinically significant depression of blood formation occurs above a dose of 0.5 Gy to the bone
marrow. A whole body dose of 3 to 5 Gy will kill 50% of those who are exposed and is known
as lethal dose 50 or LD50.

4.4.2 Chronic Effects of Radiation

Long term effects due to exposure to lower levels of radiation are known as chronic
effects. These are caused by the cells that are mutated by radiation and survive, passing the
mutations from generation to generation of cells. These mutated cells can remain in the human
body for a very long period of time and develop into cancerous cells as a result of certain
triggering events which are not fully understood yet. If the affected cells are in the reproductive
organs (ovaries and testes) the mutations can be passed on to the off spring of the affected
person.
Unlike acute effects, the chronic effects are stochastic and not deterministic. That is, they
do not appear in all persons exposed to radiation, but when a large population is exposed, there
will be an increase in the number of health effects such as cancers, when compared to the
number of such health effects in a similar population not exposed to radiation.
50

The quantification of the chronic effects is much more difficult than acute effects due to
the following reasons.

Cancer and genetic effects are also caused by a large number of other factors in addition to
radiation and therefore the determination of health effects due to radiation require the
comparison of a population exposed to radiation with a similar population not exposed to
radiation.

The population considered for the study should be large enough to obtain statistically
significant results, since the difference between the number of incidents of health effects in
the two populations should be more than the statistical deviation.

The effects are seen a very long time after the exposure, and therefore it is necessary to study
the health effects in a large population for an extended period of time.

The doses the study group has been exposed to should be correctly determined

Human beings cannot be purposely exposed to radiation for determination of the health
effects.
The main source of information on the chronic effects of radiation has been the Japanese

bomb victims who have been closely monitored by the United Nations Scientific Committee on
Effects of Atomic Radiation (UNSCEAR).

The radiation doses they have received have been

estimated from the distances they were at from the epicenter of the bomb explosion and their
health effects have been studied for an extended period of time. However, these studies have
produced data on the chronic effects due to relatively high doses of radiation. In estimating the
risks due to lower doses of radiation, it is assumed that the risk is linearly proportional to the
dose of radiation and that there is no threshold limit.

UNSCEAR estimates the life-time probability of cancer from low doses of radiation to be
5 x10-2 per Sv. This corresponds to 50 additional cancers per collective equivalent dose of 1000
man-Sv. The individual risk is 1 in 20,000 for an equivalent dose of 1 mSv. According to the
American Cancer Society, about 1800 deaths per year are caused by cancer induced by all
causes, in a population of one million.

UNSCEAR has also estimated the risk of genetic effects (effects seen in the offspring and
successive generations of the person exposed) due to exposure to radiation to be 1.2 X 10-2
51

perSv or 12 per 1000 man-Sv, for all generations after the exposure. The number of normal
genetic effects in a population of 1 million is given below for comparison.

The Genetic Effect

The number of normal
incidents per million
live births

Dominant and recessive

mutations

Chromosomal diseases

12,5000

3,400

Other hereditary
diseases
90,000

4.5 Estimation of Doses of Radiation.

The exposure to the radiation could be either due to a source of radiation external to the
body or due a radiation source inside the body. These two types of exposures are known as
external and internal exposures, respectively.

Radiation sources emitting gamma radiation, X-

radiation and neutrons are the main sources of external exposures because of the penetrative
ability of these types of radiation. Alpha radiation can be stopped by the outer skin. While beta
radiation can penetrate the skin their range inside the tissues is much less than that of gamma
radiation.

Radiation sources emitting alpha and beta radiation are more important when it

comes to internal exposure. Since the radiation sources are within the body, the penetrative
power is not important. The short range of alpha and beta radiation results in absorption of their
energy within a small volume, which give rise to high doses of radiation as the absorbed dose is
defined as the energy absorbed per unit mass.

4.5.1 External Doses of Radiation.

The external doses depend on the activity of the radiation sources, the distance from the
source, and the isotope concerned. The doses due to gamma sources can be easily estimated by
calculating the energy deposited in a unit mass of the tissue.
Consider a point gamma source with an activity of C Bq. If the number of gammas
emitted per disintegration is n , the gamma flux at a distance of r m from the source is,
I

Cn
4r

52

/m2-s

If the energy of the gamma radiation is E MeV, the energy flux is given by,
I E

Cn E
4r 2

1.602 X 1013

MeV/m2-s
Cn E
4r

J / m2-s, since 1 MeV = 1.602 x 10-13 J

When gamma radiation interacts with a medium, a part of the energy in gamma radiation
will be absorbed by the medium. The amount of energy absorbed per unit path length through
the medium is proportional to the energy flux. The constant of proportionality is called the linear
absorption constant and is denoted by . The linear absorption constant depends on the medium
and on the energy of gamma radiation.
Therefore the energy absorbed by a unit volume of a medium is,
1.602 X 1013

Cn E
4r

J/ m3-s where is the linear absorption constant in m-1.

By definition, the absorbed dose is the energy absorbed per unit mass and a dose of 1
Gray corresponds to 1 J / kg. Therefore the absorbed dose rate is given by,

1.602 X 1013 Cn E
D
Gy/s where is the density of the medium in
2
4r

kg/m3. (/) is called the mass absorption constant and has units of m2/kg.
Since the radiation weighting factor for gamma radiation is one, the equivalent dose rate is given
by,

5.77 X 107 Cn E
H
mSv/h
2
4r

The following table gives the mass absorption constants in tissue at different gamma
energies.
E (MeV)
/ (m2/kg)

0.3
0.00312

0.4
0.00317

0.5
0.00320

0.6
0.00319

0.8
0.00311

1.0
0.0030

1.25
0.00288

1.5
0.00276

Example
Calculate the equivalent dose rate at a distances of 1 m and 3 m from a 5.0 GBq source of
Cs-137. Each decay of a nucleus of Cs-137 emits a gamma ray with energy of 0.662 MeV.
53

Solution:
From the table, the mass absorption coefficient at 0.662 MeV = 0.003165 m2/kg
Equivalent dose rate at 1 m =5.77x10-7 x 5.0x109 x 1 x 0.662 x 0.003165mSv/h
4 x x 12
= 481Sv/h
Equivalent dose rate at 3 m =5.77x10-7 x 5.0x109 x 1 x 0.662 x 0.003165mSv/h
4 x x 32
= 53Sv/h
Example 2
Calculate the equivalent dose rate at 1 m from the centre of a 3 m long rod of Co-60 with
an activity of 2GBq. Co-60 emits gamma radiation at 1.17 MeV and 1.33 MeV and it can be
assumed that each decay of Co-60 emits 2 photons with an average energy of 1.25 MeV.
Solution
L x
dx
Q
d

(d2+x2)1/2

P
Let the activity of the source shown in the figure be C Bq/m

The gamma flux at point P due to a point source of length dx at Q = C n dx

4 (d2+x2)
L
Cn
Cn dx
tan 1 ( L d )
Gamma flux at point P due to the rod
=
=
2
2
2d
x )
L 4 ( d
= 2x109 x2 x tan-1 (1.5)/ (2x x 1)
I = 6.26 x 108/m2-s
Mass absorption constant at 1.25 MeV(/)=0.00288 m2/kg
Therefore the dose rate

= 5.77 x 10-7 x I x E x (/)

54

=5.77 x 10-7 x 6.26 x 108 x 1.25 x 0.00288

= 1.3 mSv/h

4.5.2 Internal Doses of Radiation.

The internal radiation is due to radioisotopes that have entered the human body by
inhalation or ingestion. The isotopes depending on their chemical nature could concentrate in a
particular organ. For example, iodine will be concentrated in the thyroid gland and radium
which is chemically similar to calcium, in the bone.

The isotopes will be removed from the

body due to radioactive decay and due to biological functions. The biological half-life or the
time taken for half the material to be removed will depend on the isotope.
Consider an isotope with an activity of C(t) Bq in an organ with a mass of M kg. If each
decay of the isotope emits energy of E MeV, and if all this energy is absorbed by the organ, the
dose rate is given by,

(t ) 1.602 x1013 C (t )E Gy/s

D
M

5.77 X 107

C (t )E
mGy/h
M

The equivalent dose rate is given by,

( t ) 5.77 X 10 7 C ( t ) EwR mSv/h, where wR is the radiation weighting factor of
H
M

the radiation type concerned.

Many isotopes emit more than one type of radiation when they decay. The above equation is
modified in the following form to take this into account.
(t ) 5.77 X 107 C (t ) mSv/h
H
M

is called the effective energy factor and is defined by,

Fi Ei wi where, fi is the

fraction of emission of ith type of radiation, Fi the fraction of the energy absorbed by the organ
concerned, Ei the energy of the radiation in MeV, and wi the radiation weighting factor of ith
type of radiation. The effective energy factors of some of a few isotopes are given below.
55

Nuclide
Organ

H-3(in water)
whole body

(MeV)

0.01

I-131
whole body /
thyroid
0.44 / 0.23

Cs-137
whole body /
bone
0.59 / 1.4

Ra-226
bone

U-235
bone

110.0

230.0

As mentioned earlier, the ingested or inhaled isotopes are removed by radioactive decay and by
natural biological functions.

The activity of an isotope in an organ is given by the following equation.

dC ( t )
qCd C b C
dt

Cd is the rate of uptake of the isotope in Becquerel per unit time, q is the fraction taken up by
the organ concerned, is the radioactive decay constant and b the biological decay constant.
(b = 0.693/ T1/2b , where T1/2b is the biological half-life.)

The biological and radioactive half-lives of some of the important isotopes are given below.
Nuclide
Biological
Half-life
(days)
Radioactive
half-life (days)
q (ingestion)
q (inhalation)

H-3(in
water)
11.9

I-131

Cs-137

Ra-226

U-235

138

70

1.64 x 104

300

4.5 x 103

8.04

1.1 x 104

5.9 x 105

2.6 x 1011

1.0
1.0

0.3 (thyroid)
0.23
(thyroid)

0.04 (bone)
0.03 (bone)

0.04
0.03

1.1 x 10-5
0.028

If the up-take is continuous and constant the activity is given by,

qCd (1 e efft )
C (t )
whereeff is + b .
eff

The activity due to single up-take of Co is given by,

C(t ) qCoe efft

56

Example 1:
Determine the equivalent dose rate and the annual equivalent dose to an infant due to
consumption of 0.125 kg of milk-powder per day with a Cs-137 contamination level of 20
Bq/kg. Assume the weight of the infant to be 10.0 kg. The effective half-life of Cs-137 is 20
days, the effective energy factor 0.59 MeV and the fraction of the ingested Cs-137 retained by an
infant is 0.4.

Solution:
Rate of up-take

Cd

= 20 X 0.125 = 2.5 Bq/day

Although milk is not consumed continuously, since the time interval between feeds is
much less than the effective half-life of the isotope, it can be treated as a continuous
uptake.
Effective decay constant

eff

= 0.693/T1/2 = 0.693/20
= 0.0346 d-1
= qCd (1-e-eff t)

Therefore, the activity of Cs-137

eff

= 0.4 x2.5 x (1-e-0.0346t) Bq

C(t)
0.0346

=28.9(1-e-0.0346t) Bq
C (t )
= H (t ) 5.77 X 107
mSv/h
M

The dose rate

= 5.77 x 10-7 x 0.59 x28.9 x (1-e-0.0346t)

10
= 2.36 x10 --2 (1-e-0.0346t) Sv/d

Equivalent dose rate

wheret is the time from the commencement of the consumption of contaminated

milk, in days.
365

Equivalent dose during one year =

2.36x10
0

= 7.95 Sv

57

(1 e 0.0346t )dt Sv

Using the average body weight of Sri Lankan infants, and treating the body
weight also as a variable to account for the growth during one year, a dose of
12.635 Svhas been obtained.
Comparing this with the annual natural background radiation equivalent dose of
2.4 mSv, it can be seen that the consumption of milk power with a Cs-137
contamination level of 20 Bq/kg contributes only a negligible addition to the
doses received from natural sources

Example 2
A radiation worker drinks 0.25 L of water contaminated with tritium in the form of T2O
at a contamination level of 5 GBq/m3. Determine the equivalent dose rate and the annual dose
during the first year after the ingestion of tritium. Assume the mass of water in the body of an
average person to be 35 kg. The effective energy factor for tritium is 0.01 MeV, the biological
half-life is 11.9 days.

Solution
= 0.25 x 5 = 1.25 x 109 Bq

The uptake of tritium Co

Since the radioactive half-life is much greater than the biological half-life, the effective
half-life = biological half-life

= 11.9 days

Decay constant

=0.693/11.9 = 0.0581 d-1

Therefore the activity of tritium C(t)

= 1.25 x 109exp (-0.0581 t) where t is the time

after the ingestion of tritium, in days.

Equivalent dose rate
5.77 X 10 7

(t ) 5.77 X 107 C (t )
H
M

1.25x10 9 xe 0.0581t x 0.01

35

= 0.206 x exp (-0.0581 t) mSv/h

365

Annual equivalent dose

= 24 x 0.206 x exp( 0.0581t )dt

0

= 85.1 mSv

58

4.6 Principles of Radiation Protection

Because of the detrimental biological effects of exposure to radiation, described in
Section 4.4, it is essential that all activities that result or could result in the workers or the
general public being exposed to radiation is subject to certain standards of safety.

The

International Basic Safety Standards for Protection against Ionizing Radiation and for the Safety
of Radiation Sources published in 1996, jointly by the International Atomic Energy Agency
(IAEA), World Health Organization (WHO), Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO),
International Labour Organization (ILO), Pan American Health Organization (PAHO), and the
Nuclear Energy Agency (NEA) of Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development
(OECD), provides guidelines on the safety standards to be applied to minimize the hazards of
radiation exposure while maximizing the benefits. The following is a very brief summary of the
salient points of the Basic Safety Standards.

A human activity that adds radiation exposure to which people normally incur due to
natural background radiation, is called a practice, and activities that seek to reduce the existing
radiation exposure, are called interventions. The following basic principles are taken into
consideration in optimizing exposure due to a practice.

a practice should be allowed only if it yields sufficient benefits to outweigh the detriment it
causes due to exposure to radiation

individual doses from all practices should not exceed specified dose limits

radiation sources and installations should be provided with the best available protection and
safety measures to make the exposures to radiation as low as reasonably achievable, taking
economic and social factors into account

the legal person (a person or an organization) authorized to carry out a certain practice should
bear the primary responsibility for the safety of the practice.

inculcation of a safety culture that governs the attitudes and the behavior of individuals and
organizations dealing with sources of radiation

The implementation of the Basic Safety Standards require the establishment of a National
Regulatory Authority empowered with legal authority to authorize practices, to inspect regulated
59

activities and to enforce legislation and regulations on radiation safety.

Any legal person

planning to carry out any practice should notify the Regulatory Authority of its intention. If the
Regulatory Authority is satisfied that the intended practice can be carried out according to
required safety standards and if the practice can be justified from radiation protection point of
view, it could authorize the practice. The authorization could be in the form of a registration or
a license. The authorization of the Regulatory Authority should be made legally mandatory to
engage in a practice. The Regulatory Authority should conduct periodic safety inspections to
ensure the registrants or licensees conform to the required safety standards.

It is essential to measure the doses of radiation, workers are exposed to and to maintain
them below specified dose limits given below. Thermoluminescent dosimeters (TLDs) or film
badges are usually used for this purpose.

Occupational Dose Limits

The doses radiation workers are exposed to should not exceed,
1. an effective dose of 20 mSv per year averaged over five consecutive years
2. an effective dose of 50 mSv in any single year
3. an equivalent dose to the lens of the eye of 150 mSv per year and
4. an equivalent dose to the extremities (hands and feet) or the skin of 500 mSv per year.

Public Dose Limits

The estimated average doses to the general public from all practices concerned should not
exceed
1. an effective dose of 1 mSv per year
2. in special circumstances an effective dose of up to 5 mSv in a single year provided that the
average dose over five consecutive years does not exceed 1 mSv per year
3. an equivalent dose to the lens of the eye of 15 mSv per year
4. an equivalent dose to the skin of 50 mSv per year

The external doses from sources of radiation can be minimized by reducing the period of
the exposure, by increasing the distance to the source and by using appropriate shielding
60

materials.

Internal exposures can be minimized by taking appropriate measures to reduce

radioactive contamination of air, water and food. The floors, walls, table tops etc. in areas where
unsealed radioactive materials are handled should be made water-proof for easy decontamination
and good housekeeping practices should be always followed in handling radioactive materials.
All activities that involve radioactive gases or aerosols should be carried out under a fume hood
to prevent inhalation of the gases. A detailed description of all the methods and technologies
that can be used to minimize exposure to radiation is beyond the scope of this document.

References:
1. United Nations Environmental Programme, Radiation Doses, Effects Risks, United
Nations Publications
2. International Atomic Energy Agency, International Basic Safety Standards for Protection
Against Ionizing Radiation and for the Safety of Radiation Sources - Safety Series No. 115,
IAEA, Vienna (1996)
3. John. R. Lamarsh, Introduction to Nuclear Engineering, Addision Wesley Publishing
Company
4. United Nations Scientific Committee on Effects of Atomic Radiation (UNSCEAR), Sources
and Effects of Ionizing Radiation - 1993 Report to the UN General Assembly, United
Nations (1993)

61

CHAPTER V
NUCLEAR POWER PLANTS
As stated in Chapter I, one of the main applications of nuclear technology is its use in
power generation. The large amount of energy released by the fission reaction makes the
requirement of fuel of a nuclear power plant, much less than that of a fossil fueled power plant.
A 1000 MWe nuclear power plant will require only about 30 metric tons of enriched uranium per
year, compared to about 2 million metric tons of coal per year for the operation of a 1000 MWe
coal power plant.

The small amount of fuel required makes it possible to reduce the

transportation and storage costs of the fuel.

This chapter describes how the energy generated by the fission reaction is utilized to
generated electrical energy in three types of nuclear power plants, and the safety features of
nuclear power plants.
5.1 The Fission Reaction
As described in Chapter II the fission reaction generates a large amount of energy,
releases two or three neutrons and produces radioactive fission products.

The release of

neutrons makes it possible to obtain a chain reaction. But unlike a nuclear weapon, a nuclear
power plant should be able to control the chain reaction. It should also be able to prevent the
radioactive fission products from entering the human environment. The following sections
describe how a nuclear power plant utilizes the energy generated by fission to produce electrical
energy in a controlled manner and how the radioactive fission products are prevented from
entering the human environment.

Energy
The fission of U-235 nuclei releases about 200 MeV of energy per fission in the
following form.

62

Energy (MeV)
Fission fragments

168

Fission product decay

beta-radiation
gamma radiation
neutrinos

8
7
12

Prompt gamma radiation

Fission neutrons

5
Total

200

The energy generated is finally converted to heat which will increase the temperature of
the fissile material. 200 MeV of energy per fission corresponds to about 950 MWd per kg of U235 if all the atoms undergo fission. However, due to a number of reasons the amount of energy
that could be obtained from uranium in a nuclear power plant is about 30,000 MWd/metric ton
which is of the order of 50,000 times more than the amount of energy that can be obtained from a
metric ton of coal.
Neutrons
The fission reaction also produces two or three neutrons which make it possible to obtain
a chain reaction, as the neutrons released by the fission reaction can be absorbed by fissile
material (U-235, U-233 or Pu-239) to cause further fissions as shown below.

U-235

U-235

U-235

U-235

U-235

U-235

U-235

Fig 5.1 - Chain Reaction

63

If all the neutrons released by fissions produce further fissions, the chain reaction will
rapidly multiply releasing a vast amount of energy within a very short period. Although such a
condition is desirable in a nuclear weapon, in nuclear power plants it is necessary control the
chain reaction to obtain a steady rate of fissions. This is possible because all the neutrons do not
induce fissions. Some of them leak out of the nuclear reactor, some of them could be absorbed
by materials other than the fuel and some are absorbed by the fuel without producing fissions.
Only what is left will be absorbed by fuel to induce fissions. For steady operation of the reactor,
it is necessary for the neutrons produced in N number of fissions to cause exactly another N
number of fissions. For example, out of the neutrons produced by 100 fissions only 100 should
be absorbed by U-235 nuclei to produce fissions. Since 100 fissions in U-235 will produce 254
neutrons 154 neutrons should either leak out or be absorbed without inducing fissions.

The ratio of the number of fissions in two successive generations of neutrons is called the
neutron multiplication factor and is denoted by k. In other words, the neutrons produced by N
fissions will induce kN fissions. For steady operation of the reactor, k should be equal to 1. If k
> 1 the fission rate and the power output will increase with time and the reactor is said to be
supercritical. If k < 1 the power output will decrease with time and the reactor is said to be
subcritical. The reactor is said to be critical when k=1. Another parameter that is used is
reactivity (), where = (k-1) / k. The reactor is critical when the reactivity is zero, supercritical
when it is positive and subcritical when negative.

Nuclear reactors are designed with control rods made of strong neutron absorbers which
can be moved in and out of the reactor to control the amount of neutrons absorbed and thereby
the criticality of the reactor.

Fission Products
The isotopes produced when a fissile nucleus is fissioned are called fission products. The
fission products are highly radioactive and should be isolated from human environment while
they are in the reactor and after the removal from the reactor.

64

5.2 The Main Components of Nuclear Power Plants.

Fuel
Two types of fuel is used in nuclear reactors. The materials than can be fissioned by low
energy neutrons are called fissile materials or fissile fuels. It is the mainly the fissile fuels that
undergo fission to produce energy. The fissile fuels used in nuclear reactors are U-235, U-233
and Pu-239. Natural uranium comprise of U-238 (99.3%) and U-235 (0.7%). U-233 and Pu-239
are man-made materials.

Materials that are converted to fissile fuel by absorption of neutrons are called fertile
fuels. U-238 and Th-232 are the fertile fuels used in nuclear reactors. They are converted to Pu239 and U-233 respectively in nuclear reactors in the following manner.

238
92

U +

1
0

232
90

Th +

1
0

Th

239
92

233
90

239
93

Np

233
91

Pa

239
94

Pu

233
92

Both consumption and production of fissile material occur during the operation of a
nuclear reactor. In thermal reactors the consumption is more than the production and therefore,
they are net consumers of fissile fuel. A type of reactors known as breeder reactors are designed
to produce more fissile fuel than what they consume. Breeder reactors can be used to convert the
vast resources of fertile fuel to fissile fuel to be used in other reactors. They are not used on a
commercial scale at present due to economic and other reasons.
Moderator
Thermal reactors use a moderating material to slow down the neutrons to make them
more effective in producing fissions since fission (and absorption cross sections) at low energies
are much higher than the cross sections at the energies of fission neutrons.

The neutrons are

slowed down from an average energy of 2 MeV to an average energy of 0.025 eV, at which the
neutrons are in thermal equilibrium with surrounding materials. These neutrons are called
thermal neutrons and the reactors in which most of the fissions are induced by thermal neutrons
are called thermal reactors.
65

The moderating materials should have a low atomic mass so that the neutrons will lose a
larger amount of energy due to elastic scatterings (see Chapter II). They should have a high
elastic scattering cross section and a low absorption cross section for neutron economy.

The commonly used moderating materials are, hydrogen in the form of H2O (light water),
deuterium in the form of D2O (heavy water) and carbon (graphite). The relevant parameters of
the above moderating materials are given below.

Moderating Material

Atomic Weight
(amu)

Microscopic
Absorption Cross
Section (b)

Hydrogen
Deuterium
Carbon

1.008
2.014
12.01

0.332
0.00053
0.0034

Reactors that use light water as the moderating material require enriched uranium (ie
uranium with the percentage of U-235 increased from the natural level of 0.7%) to obtain
criticality because of the relatively high absorption cross section of hydrogen.

Reactors

moderated by heavy water or graphite can be fueled with natural uranium.

Coolant
All reactors need a coolant to remove the energy generated in the reactor. The energy of
the coolant is transferred to a steam generator to produce steam to run a steam turbine coupled to
an electrical generator. In some reactors (Boiling Water Reactors) steam is produced directly in
the reactor by allowing the coolant (light water) to boil.

A failure in the circulation of the

coolant could overheat the reactor fuel which can melt and release radioactive fissile fuels to the
environment under extreme conditions.
Commonly used coolants are light water (in Pressurized Water Reactors and Boiling
Water Reactors), heavy water (Pressurized Heavy Water Reactors / CANDU reactors), helium or
carbon dioxide (in gas-cooled reactors) and liquid sodium or NaK (in fast breeder reactors).
NaK is an alloy of sodium and potassium.

66

Reflector
The core of the reactor which comprises of the fuel and the moderator is surrounded by a
reflector to improve neutron economy. The purpose of the reflector is to reflect neutrons leaking
from the reactor core back into it. Having a reflector makes it possible to reduce the critical
mass, i.e. the mass of fissile fuel needed to make the reactor critical. Usually, the reflector is just
an extension of the moderating medium as shown below, since the properties required of
reflector is the same as what is required of a moderating medium.

Reflector
Fuel
Moderator

Core

Fig 5.2 - Core and the reflector

Control Rods
Control rods are used to control the criticality of the reactor. During start-up of the
reactor where the power output should be increased from zero to full-power, the reactor should
be supercritical. It should also possible to make the reactor sub-critical for shutting down or for
reducing the power level. During steady operation at constant power output the reactor should
be critical.

The criticality of a reactor is controlled by using control-rods made of strong neutron

absorbers such as boron, cadmium or hafnium. The rods can be inserted or withdrawn from the
reactor core. Insertion of the rods increases neutron absorption and makes the reactor subcritical. Similarly the withdrawal of the rods decreases neutron absorption and makes the reactor
super-critical.
67

Biological Shield
The biological shield which surrounds the reactor reduces the radiation levels for the
protection of plant personnel during the normal operation of the reactor. The shielding material
normally used is borated concrete with steel stampings. While steel and concrete attenuates
gamma radiation, boron will absorb neutrons.
Reactor Containment
The reactors are enclosed in a containment structure to prevent the release of radioactive
materials to the environment due to an accident. The containment structure is made of heavily
reinforced concrete with a stainless steel lining and is designed to withstand the maximum
pressure that can be expected in the worst possible accident.

The following is a description of three commonly used types of reactors, namely, Pressurized
Water Reactors, Boiling Water Reactors and Pressurized Heavy Water Reactors.

5.3 Pressurized Water Reactors (PWRs)

The PWRs which use enriched uranium (enrichment 3 to 4.5% of U-235 ) as the fuel and
light water as the coolant and moderator were developed in the USA initially for the use in
nuclear submarines. The first nuclear power plant of the USA constructed at Shippingport in
Pennsylvania in 1957, was a 90 MW plant based on the reactors designed for submarines. Since
then Westinghouse Co., Babcock and Wilcox Co and Combustion Engineering Co. of the USA
and several companies in other countries under license from these companies have been engaged
in designing and constructing PWR plants. Close to 70% of the plants in operation in the world
today are PWRs.
The Reactor
The fuel in a PWR is in the form of a sintered pellet of enriched uranium dioxide with a
diameter of 0.9 cm and a height of 1.5 cm. These pellets are placed inside 3.7 m long tubesmade
of an alloy of zirconium known as zircalloy and sealed to form fuel rods. The zircalloy tubing
known as cladding is the first physical barrier against release of the fission products produced
inside the fuel pellets. Typically, 204 fuel rods placed in a 15 X 15 matrix from a fuel assembly.

68

The other 21 places of the matrix are reserved for structural supports and for control rods which
are inserted into some of the assemblies. Fig. 5.3 shows a fuel rod and a fuel assembly.

Fig 5.3 - A Fuel rod and a Fuel Assembly.

A large (1100 MWe) reactor contains 193 fuel assemblies containing 39,272 fuel rods
which are arranged as shown in Fig 5.4 to form the reactor core.

69

Fuel Assemblies

Pressure Vessel

Core Barrel

Thermal Shield

Fig. 5.4 The Cross Section of a Reactor Core

The reactor core is placed inside a pressure vessel designed to withstand the maximum
pressure of the coolant. The pressure vessel is filled with light water which functions as the
moderator and the coolant. The core is surrounded by a structure known as the thermal shield
which absorbs the highly intensive radiation generated in the core to protect the pressure vessel
from thermal stresses that could be induced as a result of absorbing the energy of the radiation.
The core barrel is a structure which separates the coolant flowing in and out of the reactor vessel.
The details of the reactor core and the pressure vessel are shown in Fig 5.5. Fig. 5.5
shows the fuel assemblies which are placed in the bottom part of the reactor vessel, resting on the
lower core plate. Fig. 5.5 also shows the inlet and outlet coolant nozzles which are at a higher
level than the reactor core. Although they enter the pressure vessel or the reactor vessel at the
same level, the inlet and outlet flows are kept separated by the core barrel. All openings of the
reactor vessel are above the top level of the core to prevent the core from being uncovered due to
a leak in a coolant pipe. Fig. 5.5 also shows the control rods and control rod drives which are
inserted from the top of the reactor. This makes it possible to use gravity to insert the rods to
shut down the reactor in an emergency.

70

Fig. 5.5 - The Reactor Vessel and the Internal Structures.

Pressurized Water Reactor Plants
Fig. 5.6 shows the schematic of a PWR power plant. Light water at a pressure of 15.5
MPa is pumped through the reactor vessel which absorbs the heat generated in the fuel rod due to
the fission reaction. This volume of coolant which is called the primary coolant is prevented
from boiling due to the high pressure although the inlet and outlet temperatures are typically
290 C and 325 C. The primary coolant is circulated through the tube side of a steam generator
71

as shown in the figure. The shell side of the steam generator contains another volume of water
called the secondary coolant at a pressure of 7.0 MPa. The secondary coolant absorbs heat from
the primary coolant and is converted to steam which drives a steam turbine coupled to an
electrical generator. The spent steam is condensed and pumped back into the steam generator.
Fig. 5.6 also shows the biological shield and the containment structure enclosing the
primary coolant system.

Fig. 5.6 -Schematic of a Pressurized Water Reactor.

A typical PWR plant will have 3 or 4 primary coolant loops with 3 or 4 steam generators
and primary coolant pumps.
Representative Parameters of a Pressurized Water Reactor
Core thermal power
Plant efficiency
Plant electrical output
Core diameter
Core height

3411 MWth
32%
1,110 MWe
3.4 m
3.7 m

72

Core power density

Cladding material
Fuel material
Fuel pellet diameter and height
Assembly array
Number of assemblies
Total number of fuel rods
Control rod type
Total amount of fuel (UO2) `
Coolant flow rate
Coolant pressure
Inlet coolant temperature
Outlet coolant temperature (at full power)
Design fuel burn-up
Refuelling sequence

98 kW/litre
Zircalloy-4
UO2
0.9 cm and 1.5 cm
15 X 15
193
39,372
B4C or Ag-In-Cd in cylindrical rods
98 Mg
17 Mg/s
15.5 MPa
289 C
325 C
32,000 MWd/Te (heavy metal)

Auxiliary Systems
The Chemical and Volume Control System (CVCS) maintains the volume of the coolant
in the primary cooling system and controls the water chemistry.

It removes corrosion and

fission products from the coolant and adjusts the boric acid concentration in the coolant for
chemical shim control.

The Residual Heat Removal System (RHRS) removes the decay heat from the reactor
after it is shutdown. Decay heat is the heat generated in the reactor core after shut-down due to
the decay of short-lived fission products. The decay heat immediately after shut-down is in the
range of 7-10% of the energy generated before shut-down, and could melt the fuel rods if not
removed form the core

The Safety Injection System (SIS) injects borated water to the Reactor Coolant System
(RCS) to limit the fuel clad temperature in the unlikely event of a loss of coolant accident
(LOCA).

The SIS also provides a spray of borated water into the containment building as an

additional heat sink.

About one -third of the fuel in the reactor is replaced with new fuel annually. For the
refueling operation, the reactor has to be shut-down and the primary coolant system should be
73

de-pressurized.

Since spent fuel is highly radioactive, the refueling operation is carried out

under water using remote handling equipment to protect the plant personnel. Water acts as a
radiation shield. The cavity above the head of the reactor (pressure) vessel is filled with water,
and the control rod drive mechanism and the vessel head are removed. The fuel assemblies are
removed one by one and transferred to the spent fuel storage pond through a tunnel which is
opened only during refueling. After removing all the assemblies, they are reloaded to predetermined positions depending on their fuel burn-up, replacing one-third of the removed
assemblies with new fuel assemblies in the process.
All nuclear power plants are equipped with stand-by diesel generators which can start-up
and carry the rated load within 30 seconds of receiving a start-up signal. The function of the
diesel generators is to provide electrical power to safety systems in the event of the failure of onsite (power generated by the plant) and off-site (power drawn from the electrical grid to which
the plant is connected) power.

The power plants will also have battery banks which can

provide electrical power to the critical safety systems for a short period of time, until the diesel
generators are started-up.

Fig. 5.7 A PWR Power Plant

74

5.4 Boiling Water Reactors(BWRs)

Like the Pressurized Water Reactors the Boiling Water Reactors also were developed in
the USA.The main was the General Electric Company. BWRs also use enriched uranium as the
fuel, and the reactor is fueled and moderated by light water. But, unlike a PWR, the steam is
generated in the reactor itself, and hence the name Boiling Water Reactor. The BWR do not
have secondary coolant systems; instead, the steam generated in the reactor is directly transferred
to the steam turbine for power generation. Next to PWRs the BWRs are the most commonly
used nuclear reactors in the world.
The Reactor
The fuel in BWRs is also in the form of sintered uranium dioxide pellets with a height
and diameter of 1.04 cm. Similar to PWRs the fuel pellets are sealed inside 3.8 m tubes of
ziracalloy to form fuel rods. The BWR fuel assemblies contain a 7 X 7 matrix or an 8 X 8 matrix
of fuel rods compared to 15 X 15 in PWRs. Fig. 5.8 shows the cross section of BWR fuel
assemblies.

Fig. 5.8 BWR Fuel Assemblies

75

Unlike PWR assemblies the BWR fuel assemblies are enclosed by zircalloy plates to
prevent cross flow of coolant. The coolant that enters each assembly through an opening at the
bottom, flows upwards, absorbing heat from the fuel rods. The coolant is converted to steam
before it reaches the top of the fuel assembly.
The control rods in the form of a crucifix are inserted in between into fuel rods as shown
in Fig. 5.8, not into the fuel assemblies as in the case of PWRs.

Fig. 5.9 Reactor Assembly of a BWR Plant.

76

Fig. 5.9 shows the reactor assembly of a BWR plant. The fuel assemblies are placed
between the core plate and the top guide. The control rods are inserted from the bottom as the
space above the reactor core is taken up by steam separators and the dryers. The wet steam that
is produced in the fuel assemblies is separated and dried and passed to the steam turbines. Fig.
5.9 also shows the steam outlet and the feed water inlet. The feed water is pumped to the area
below the fuel rods (lower plenum) by re-circulation pumps. The water that flows upwards
through the fuel assemblies absorb the heat generated in the fuel rods and is converted to steam.

Fig. 5.10 - Schematic of a BWR Plant.

The schematic of a BWR plant is shown in Fig. 5.10. The steam produced in the reactor
is passed to the steam turbine coupled to a generator. The spent steam is condensed and pumped
back into the reactor.

77

Representative Parameters of a Boiling Water Reactor Plant

Core thermal power
Plant efficiency
Plant electrical output
Core diameter
Core height
Core power density
Cladding material
Fuel material
Fuel pellet diameter and height
Assembly array
Number of assemblies
Total number of fuel rods
Control rod type

3579 MWth
34%
1,220 MWe
4.9 m
3.8 m
54 kW/litre
Zircalloy-2
UO2
1.04 cm
8X8
748
46,376
cruciform elements containing boron
carbide filled rods.
155 Mg
13 Mg/s
7.0 MPa
216 C
288 C
28,400 MWd/Te (heavy metal)
One-fourth of the fuel per year or
one-third every 18 months.

Total amount of fuel (UO2) `

Coolant flow rate
Coolant pressure
Inlet coolant temperature
Outet coolant(steam) temperature
Design fuel burn-up
Refuelling sequence

Auxiliary Systems
Similar to the PWRs the BWRs also have Reactor Water Clean-up Systems to remove
impurities from the coolant by circulation through filters and through ion-exchange resins to
remove dissolved impurities.
Since gravity cannot be used to insert control rods in an emergency, as in the case of
PWRs, the BWRs have Stand-by Liquid Control Systems (SLCS) to shut-down the plant in an
emergency if the control-rods cannot be inserted.

A SLCS pumps a solution of sodium

pentaborate to the lower plenum of the reactor which is carried into the core by the coolant flow.
All BWRs are equipped with an Emergency Core Cooling System (ECCS) to prevent
damage to fuel cladding due to high temperatures as a result of the failure of the reactor cooling
system. The ECCS comprises of a low pressure coolant injection system, low and high pressure
core spray systems and an automatic depressurization system.

78

Similar to PWRs the BWRs also have Residual Heat Removal Systems (RHRS) to
remove the decay heat from the reactor core.

5.5 Pressurized Heavy Water Reactors (PHWRs)

The Pressurized Heavy Water Reactors were developed by the Atomic Energy Canada
Limited (AECL) under the trade name CANDU (Canadian Deuterium Uranium) reactors. The
PHWRs use natural uranium (un-enriched uranium) as the fuel. Since it is not possible to obtain
criticality with natural uranium and light water because of the higher neutron absorption cross
section of hydrogen, heavy water or the oxide of deuterium is used as the moderator and the
coolant. Next to PWRs and BWRs PHWRs are the most common type of nuclear power plants.
Except for the first power plant, which is a BWR all the other nuclear power plants in India are
PHWRs.

The Reactor
Similar to light water reactor the fuel of PHWRs is also in the form of sintered UO2
pellets with a diameter of 1.21 cm. The fuel pellets are sealed inside zircalloy tubes to form fuel
rods with a length of 49.5 cm. 37 of these rods are assembled together to form a fuel bundle as
shown in Fig. 5.11. The fuel bundles are placed inside the pressure tubes of a cylindrical vessel
known as the calandria.

Each pressure tube contains 12 fuel bundles. The calandria tank is

filled with heavy water which functions as the moderator. Another volume of heavy water is
pumped through the pressure tubes to remove the heat generated in the fuel rods. The calandria
of a 600 MWe PHWR contains 380 pressure tubes/fuel channels. The two ends of each pressure
channel is connected to a header, which in turn is connected to the steam generator or to the
reactor coolant pump. The schematic of a PHWR is shown in Fig 5.12.

79

80

Fig. 5.13 Reactor Building of a PHWR

As shown in Fig. 5.12, the coolant (heavy water) is pumped from the steam generators on
one side of the calandria into the inlet of one-half of the pressure tubes in the calandria. The
coolant flowing through the pressure tube will absorb the heat from the fuel rods and deliver it to
81

the steam generators on the opposite side of the calandria. The coolant leaving these steam
generators is pumped to the second half of the pressure tubes. The coolant flow in adjacent fuel
channels are in opposite directions to obtain a uniform axial temperature distribution of the
calandria.

The moderator which fills the calandria tank is also circulated through a heat

exchanger.

The shell side of the steam generator contains light water which is converted to steam by
absorbing heat from the primary coolant in the tube-side of the steam generator. The steam is
fed to a steam turbine coupled to an electrical generator.

Fig. 5.13 shows the cut-away view of the PHWR reactor building which shows the
location of the calandria, the steam generators (boilers), the coolant pumps, and the moderator
heat exchangers. Unlike light water reactors PHWRs can be re-fueled while in operation.
Refueling is carried out using two remotely controlled refueling machines which lock on to the
two ends of a fuel channel after it is depressurized. One machine pushes in new fuel bundles to
the fuel channel, while the machine on the opposite side receives the spent fuel bundles. As a
result of being able to refuel without shutting down the plant, the PHWRs generally operate at a
higher capacity (plant) factor than the light water reactors.

The steam turbines, the generator and the condenser are located in the separate turbine
building not shown in Fig. 5.13.
Representative Parameters of a Pressurized Heavy Water Reactor Plant
Core thermal power
Plant efficiency
Plant electrical output
Core diameter
Core height
Core power density
Cladding material
Fuel material

2140 MWth
28%
600 MWe
6.3 m
5.9 m
12 kW/litre
Zircalloy
UO2 (natural uranium)

82

Representative Parameters of a Pressurized Heavy Water Reactor Plant (continued)

Fuel pellet diameter
Fuel bundle
Number of fuel channels
Number of fuel bundles
Total number of fuel rods
Control rod type
Total amount of fuel (UO2) `
Coolant flow rate
Coolant pressure
Inlet coolant temperature
Outlet coolant temperature
Design fuel burn-up
Refueling sequence

1.21 cm
37 rods in concentric circles
380
4560
168,720
Variable and adjustable neutron absorbers. Shutdown
by absorbing rods or poison injection.
95 Mg
7.6 Mg/s
10.3-11.1 MPa (outlet and inlet of calandria)
267 C
312 C
7,000 MWd/Te (heavy metal)
On-line continuous refueling.

Auxiliary Systems
PHWRs have auxiliary systems similar to light water reactors for maintaining the purity
and chemical composition of the coolant, for removing the decay heat, for emergency core
cooling etc. In addition, the PHWRs also have heavy water collection and purification systems
to collect and purify heavy water leaking from the coolant and moderator circuits, since heavy
water is expensive.
5.6 Safety Aspects of Power Plants
It is not possible for a nuclear power plant to explode like a nuclear weapon. A runaway
fission reaction is not possible as the reactors are designed with what is known as a negative
temperature coefficient of reactivity. Any increase in the temperature reduces the multiplication
factor which decreases the fission rate, the power output and the temperature. This is essentially
a negative feedback system which makes stable operation possible.

The worst accident that can occur in a nuclear reactor is known as a core melt down. If
the heat generated in the reactor core is not removed from the coolant, it can melt the fuel and the
structural material of the reactor. There is a possibility of this molten mass of material burning
through the bottom of the reactor vessel (pressure vessel), through the foundation of the reactor
building, through the soil and finally coming into contact with the ground water. It has been

83

postulated that this will result in a steam explosion which will release a large amount of
radioactive material to the environment. This scenario is known as The China Syndrome since
there had been a belief that China can be reached by digging right through the earth, starting
from the USA. Such an accident has never occurred in a nuclear reactor, and it is extremely
unlikely such an accident will occur in the future.

A number of measures are taken in design, construction and operation of nuclear power
plants to minimize the probability of an accident and to mitigate the effects of an accident if it
occurs in spite of all the precautions. Some of these precautions are briefly described below.

Nuclear power plants are designed with the following multiple physical barriers to
prevent the escape of radioactive fission products to the environment.
1. The sintered uranium dioxide pellets retain the products of the fission reactions occurring
inside the pellets. A small fraction of the gaseous fission products can escape the pellets at
high temperatures.
2. The fuel cladding (zircalloy tubes) which surrounds the fuel pellets prevent the escape of the
gaseous fission products and confine the fission products produced near the surface of the
fuel pellets.
3. If any fission products enter the coolant due to the failure of the cladding, it is retained in the
primary coolant system since it is a closed system.
4. Reactor vessels, designed, manufactured and tested to meet the highest quality and reliability
standards also function as a physical barrier for the release of radioactivity from the reactor
core which is installed inside the reactor vessel.
5. The containment structure made of reinforced concrete and lined with steel is the final
physical barrier. The structure is designed to withstand the maximum pressure that can be
expected following the postulated worst possible accident (design basis accident).

The Nuclear Regulatory Commission (NRC) of the United States has adopted a concept
based on three levels of safety as its safety philosophy to ensure none of these barriers are
compromised as a result of equipment failure, human error or natural events such as floods and
earthquakes. The three levels of safety are,
84

1. designing of maximum safety in normal operation and maximum tolerance for system
malfunction
2. provision of safety measures assuming accidents will occur in spite of care in design,
construction and operation, and
3. provision of additional safety systems as appropriate based on the evaluation of the effects of
hypothetical accidents (Design Basis Accidents - DBA), where protective systems are
assumed to fail during the accidents they are intended to control.

Examples of the first level of safety are, a) the using the highest standards of engineering
practice in designing and constructing the plant and installing equipment, b) the implementation
of a quality assurance programme to ensure the design, construction and fabrication of
components and their installation is carried out according to the specifications c) designing and
installing key components to permit the periodic monitoring of their status to detect signs of
wear and incipient failure and d) provision of instrumentation and controls with a sufficient
degree of redundancy to enable the plants operators know the status of the plant and have control
over it at all times.
Examples of the second level of safety are a) provision of Emergency Core Cooling
Systems, b) provision of redundant capability of fast shutdown in the event the control rods
cannot be inserted in an emergency and c) provision of redundant sources of electrical power for
key instrumentation and control systems.

The adherence to the safety requirements are ensured through a licensing process. In the
USA the licensing authority is the US Nuclear Regulatory Commission. A comprehensive report
known as the Preliminary Safety Analysis Report (PSAR) should be submitted to the NRC to
obtain a construction permit. These reports are reviewed by the NRC and by an independent
body of experts known as Advisory Committee on Reactor Safeguards. The report is also made
available for public review and public hearing are held to allow the public to express their
concerns. If the approval is granted for construction, another report known as the Final Safety
Analysis Report should be submitted which is also examined through a similar process before a
permit is issued to operate the plant. The lengthy and cumbersome regulatory process has been

85

the main reason why new nuclear power plants have not been constructed in the USA for a very
long period of time, after the initial boom in 1960s and early 70s.

Numerous accidents and abnormal incidents have occurred in nuclear power plants in
spite of these precautions.

Four accidents have resulted in the release of any radioactive

materials to the environment. An accident that occurred in the Windscale Power plant of the UK
during early days of nuclear power due to poor understanding of an effect known as the Wigner
effect in graphite resulted in a fire of the graphite moderator of the reactor. In 1979, an accident
in the Three Mile Island Nuclear Power Plant in the USA, released a small amount of
radioactivity to the environment. The maximum exposure received by the public was not more
than what they would have received in a medical examination. The accident was caused by
multiple equipment failure compounded by the operators failing to correctly understand the
reactor status and shutting of the emergency core cooling system which would have prevented
the partial meltdown the reactor core that occurred.

The worst nuclear accident occurred in the Chernobyl nuclear power plant of the former
USSR in Ukraine in April 1986 during an experiment to check whether the inertia of the
electrical generators will provide power for the vital safety systems while coasting down after the
turbine is tripped. The investigation into this accident identified no less than eight very serious
violations of the operating instructions by the plant operators. The actions of the operators
resulted in a power excursion which over heated the graphite moderator and the resulting
chemical reactions between graphite and water coolant caused a chemical explosion. This plant
did not have a proper containment building and the accident released a very large amount of
radioactivity to the environment. Even though this accident was expected to cause a large
number of deaths and extensive health effects, the report of the Chernobyl Forum comprising
eight UN organizations concluded that up to 2005, only 50 persons have died as a result of this
accident. About 5000 children and adolescents have been diagnosed with thyroid cancer caused
by ingestion of radioactive iodine. They have been successfully treated and the survival rate is
expected to be 99%. In addition, 4000 persons out of the 625,000 persons who were exposed to
the highest levels of radiation are expected to eventually die of cancer. This is a 3-4% increase
of the cancer deaths in this group.
86

A massive earthquake followed by a Tsunami caused an accident at the Fukushima

Power Station in Japan, in March 2011. This power station had six Boiling Water Reactor Units,
and three of them were in shutdown for maintenance and refueling at the time of the accident.
The three power plants in operation scrammed as a result of the earthquake, which also disrupted
off-site power. Following loss of off-site power, the emergency Diesel generators commenced
providing power for shutdown systems that included removal of decay heat from the reactors
cores and the spent fuel storage pools. The 14 m Tsunami which struck the plant one hour after
the earthquake flooded the plant site and disabled the Diesel generators which were located at a
lower level of the plant buildings. The plant had been designed to withstand a Tsunami of 5.7 m.
The battery banks continued to provide electrical power to the critical safety systems for a
limited period of time.

The plant lost all sources of electrical power when the batteries were

fully discharged. The loss of the capability to remove heat from the reactor core resulted in
increase in pressure and temperatures in the reactor core and steam had to be vented to keep the
pressure under control. This also resulted in hydrogen produced in a reaction between water and
zirconium being released to the atmosphere, which formed an explosive mixture with oxygen.
The hydrogen explosions damaged the upper portions of the reactor buildings.

The high

temperatures caused the fuel cladding to melt releasing radioactive contamination. Radioactive
contaminants were released to the environment with the steam released from the reactor vessels
and the contaminated water that was released to the sea. The total amount of radioactive
material released was estimated to be about 14% of the amount released in the Chernobyl
accident. The Japanese authorities evacuated all persons living with a radius of 30 km from the
plant, to minimize exposure to radiation.

References
1. John. R. Lamarsh, Introduction to Nuclear Engineering, Addision Wesley Publishing
Company
2. Anthony V. Nero A Guidebook to Nuclear Reactors , University of California Press
3. Systems Summary of a Westinghouse Pressurized Water Reactor Nuclear Power Plant,
Westinghouse Electrical Corporation, USA
4. General Description of a Boiling Water Reactor Nuclear Energy Division, General Electric
Company
87

5. CANDU Nuclear Power Station - Technical Description of a 600 MW Station Atomic

Energy Canada Limited
6. UNSCEAR 2008 Report to the General Assembly Volume II United Nations Scientific
Committee on Effects of Atomic Radiation
7. The Great East Japan Earthquakes and the Current Status of Nuclear Power Plants - Tokyo
Electric Power Company (TEPCO)

88

CHAPTER VI
NUCLEAR POWER IN THE SRI LANKAN CONTEXT
There is a possibility of having to use nuclear power in order to meet the demand for
electrical energy in Sri Lanka in the future if the conventional thermal power plants and
renewable sources of energy prove to be insufficient to meet the demand.

Although coal power

is the best option at present for large base-load power plants, limitations in available sites for
coal power plants, and environmental and economic considerations could make it necessary to
consider nuclear power as an alternative in the future.

The following constraints would have to

be overcome to use nuclear power for generation of electrical energy in Sri Lanka.
6.1 Constraints
Plant Capacity
Only nuclear power plants with capacities of more than 600 MW can be considered to be
economical and such large plants are not suitable for countries with small grids such as Sri
Lanka, which has a total installed capacity of only about 3000 MW. However, several vendors
are in the process of developing small and economical nuclear power plants for power generation
and for desalination of water and if such power plants become commercially available when Sri
Lanka is in a position to use nuclear power this will no longer be a constraint. One example of
such power plants is the Korean System-Integrated Modular Advanced Reactor (SMART) which
has an output of 330 MW (thermal)

Public Acceptance
Considering the public opposition to some of the other power projects, a strong
opposition of the public can be expected for use of nuclear power in Sri Lanka. Unless this
could be overcome by giving the public accurate and unbiased information on nuclear power in a
manner comprehensible to the public, it would not be possible to use this option even if all
technological problems can be resolved.

89

Availability of suitable sites

In addition to the normal requirements for conventional power plants, several other
factors including the population density in the vicinity of the plant have to be considered in
deciding on a suitable site. The plant would have to be located in a coastal area because of the
cooling water requirements.
In Sri Lanka suitable sites meeting all the necessary requirements for a nuclear power
plant could be limited or may be even non-existent. Suitable sites should exist and should be
available for construction of power plants, for nuclear power to be an option for power
generation in the future.

Waste Disposal
About 1/3 of the fuel in a reactor core (about 30 metric tons) is replaced each year with
new fuel. The spent fuel is highly radioactive since it contains fission products. The fuel
elements are initially stored in pools of demineralized water for a period of time to allow shortlived radioisotopes to decay and nuclear power plants have sufficient capacity in spent fuel
storage ponds to store spent fuel for about 30 years.
There are two options for long term disposal. The spent fuel can be processed in a
reprocessing plant to separate fissile material from fission products or can be disposed of without
reprocessing. Disposal without reprocessing is the policy of certain countries out of concerns on
nuclear proliferation.
In either case the radioactive waste (high level waste) should be deposited in deep stable
rock formations or in salt mines in a manner that would prevent them from entering the human
environment. It is doubtful whether suitable sites for long term waste disposal exist in Sri Lanka.
This constraint can be overcome if countries more advanced in nuclear technology agree to
establish regional waste repositories and accept high level waste from neighboring countries for
long term disposal for a fee.

Availability of uranium resources

The lifetime fuel requirement of a large ( > 1000 MW) light water reactor is about 4300
metric tons of natural uranium. A study conducted by the International Atomic Energy Agency
(IAEA) and the Nuclear Energy Agency (NEA) of the OECD has estimated the reasonable
90

assured uranium resources to be 5 million metric tons. The study also has estimated that there
could be another 4 million metric tons of additional resources and 10-22 million metric tons of
speculative resources.
The reasonably assured resources are sufficient to fuel about 1000 large reactors to the
end of their lifetime and the present total installed nuclear capacity is equivalent to about 350
large reactors. Since it is unlikely that Sri Lanka will be able to use nuclear power before
another 15 years, there is a possibility of a shortage of uranium to fuel the reactors to the end of
their life-time. However this will depend on the expansion of the use of nuclear power in other
countries, the discovery of new uranium resources and the success of breeder reactors which
convert non-fissile materials(such as U-238 and Th-232) to fissile materials (Pu-239 and U-233
respectively). If sufficient indigenous uranium resources are found in the country, this will not
be a constraint.

6.2 Economical And Environmental Aspects

Economical and environmental considerations would be main factors that would have to
be taken into consideration in deciding on the suitability of using nuclear power for base-load
power generation over the other alternatives, if the constraints mentioned above can be
overcome. The need for diversification of energy sources, and the need for self-sufficiency in
energy, also could be reasons for considering the use of nuclear power.

Economics
Cost of generation in nuclear power plants and in coal power plants depends on a number
of parameters that vary from country to country and at present neither has a distinct cost
advantage over the other. While some countries find nuclear power cheaper, coal plants are
cheaper in many other countries. The cost of generation in nuclear power plants is highly
sensitive to the capital cost which in turn depends on the period of construction due to
accumulation of interest during construction and inflation. Generally countries which have been
able to construct nuclear power plants within a period of 6 years have found nuclear power to be
cheaper.

91

Cost of generation in a nuclear power plant is less dependent on the cost of fuel (20-30%)
compared with coal (60-70%) and therefore future increase of cost of fuel will have a lesser
impact on cost of generation in nuclear power plants than in coal power plants. Studies on cost
of generation in nuclear and coal power plants over a period of time has shown that although
nuclear power was more expensive at the beginning of the study period it was lower than coal at
the end of the period.

Therefore it is possible that although nuclear power could be more

expensive than coal at the time of commissioning the plant, the life-time costs could be favorable
for nuclear power.

On the other hand, since the standing charges is a larger component of the cost of
generation in nuclear power plants it is more sensitive to the capacity factor of the plant than coal
power plants. If the plant suffers frequent and lengthy outages due to poor maintenance and
other reasons, it will drive up the cost of generation.

Since neither coal nor nuclear power has a distinct cost advantage over the other at
present, unless the capital cost of nuclear power plants is brought down in the future through
improved technology, it is unlikely that economics will be a main factor in deciding to use
nuclear power over coal.

However, since nuclear power plants do not emit greenhouse gases

there is a possibility of the financial gains under Kyoto Protocol making nuclear power more
economically attractive than coal. There is also a possibility of the introduction of a carbon tax
on a global scale, which could increase the generation cost in coal power plants.

Environmental Effects
During normal operation nuclear power plants release a minimal amount of radioactivity
to the environment. Internationally accepted standards and national regulations on radiation
safety adopted by all countries that use nuclear power and other nuclear technologies, limit the
exposure of the public from these practices to 1 mSv per year which is about 0.5 of the exposure
from natural sources.

The additional number of cancers expected to due exposure of a

population of 1 million to a dose of 1 mSv has been estimated to be 50, compared with about
1700 cancers in such a population due to other causes.

92

However, in the unlikely event of a major accident a large amount radioactive material
could be released, resulting in exposure of the public to higher levels of radiation and
contamination of the environment. Nuclear power plants also produce a relatively small quantity
of high level waste (about 30 metric tons per year) which is highly radioactive and should be
isolated from the human environment for an extended period of time.

In comparison, a 300 MW coal power plant will consume about 2 million metric tons of
coal per year and emit large quantities of greenhouse gases (CO2), carbon monoxide, sulfur and
nitrogen oxides, and produce a large amount of solid waste. Although coal power plants with a
relatively low generating capacity may not cause significant environmental problems,
environmental considerations could prevent expanding coal generating capacity beyond a certain
limit, making nuclear power the only other alternative for economical base-load power
generation.

Energy Security and Energy Diversity

Certain countries with indigenous uranium resources have opted for nuclear power out of
concerns for energy security. Since Sri Lanka has no indigenous energy sources other than
hydro-power, nuclear power will reduce the dependence on imported fuel if sufficient uranium
resources can be found in the country. Preliminary studies have indicated presence of uranium in
Sri Lanka.
Diversification of energy sources also has been a reason to use nuclear power by certain
countries. Even if nuclear power is not the best option, if a need to diversify the energy sources,
to improve the stability of energy supply arises in the future, nuclear power may have to be
considered as an option.

6.3 Reactor Safety

The core of a nuclear reactor contains a large amount of radioactive materials and can
cause extensive damage if released to the environment. As described in Section 5.6, nuclear
power plants cannot explode like a nuclear weapon as conditions for a rapidly multiplying chain
reaction do not exist in nuclear power plants. However, as explained, if the reactor core is not
93

properly cooled it can become overheated and the physical barriers that prevent the radioactive
fission products from entering the environment could be destroyed. The reactor core should be
cooled even after shutting down the reactor as the decay of fission products generates heat.

Extensive precautions are taken in design, construction and operation of nuclear power
plants to make the probability of such an event negligible. The measures normally taken include
a very stringent licensing procedure to ensure that the design of the plant conforms to accepted
safety standards, and quality assurance programmes to ensure that the construction of the plant
and installation of equipment is carried out according to specifications.

The probability of a

major accident is made negligible by providing sufficient redundancy and diversity for all critical
components and systems.

All back-up safety systems are designed so that they can be

periodically tested by the operators. The plants are specifically designed so that they can safely
withstand the worst conceivable accident (design basis accident). It is beyond the scope of this
paper to give a detailed description of all the safety measures taken in nuclear power plants.

However, past experience shows that in spite of all precautions taken, human errors and
natural events can cause accidents. The Three Mile Island Accident, Chernobyl Accident and the
recent accident at Fukushima Power Plant in Japan are examples. The first two accidents were
caused by human error and the third by an earthquake and a Tsunami. Whether a country like Sri
Lanka, where the general attitude toward safety is rather lax and is not at a very high level of
technological advancement, could safety operate and maintain a nuclear power plant which
requires a very high degree of technological competence and strong industrial support, should be
given due consideration.

A new generation of nuclear reactors known as inherently safe reactors is under

development. The Korean SMART reactor previously mentioned is one such reactor. These
reactors are designed so that the even plant operators cannot intentionally cause an accident.
This will cover all possible operator errors and this type of reactors would be more suitable for
countries like ours if they become commercially available.

94

6.4 Planning For Nuclear Power

Planning and implementing a nuclear power project is a highly complex task which
involves a large number of personnel with expertise in nuclear technology and a number of
related non-nuclear fields.

A nuclear power project needs a considerable amount of lead time

since in addition to construction (which could take 6 years or more) other activities such as
feasibility studies, site surveys, contract negotiation, licensing etc. take a considerable amount of
time. Building up the manpower for the project will also require a few years.

The implementation of a nuclear power project should be a well-planned effort. A hastily

planned project could end up being a financial disaster and if this leads to a poor standard of
construction, maintenance and operation, it may not be possible even to rule out the possibility of
an accident. Further, a very high degree of foreign participation would be required for the
project, which will not serve national interests.

Such a scenario could become possible if no

action is taken until it becomes absolutely certain that Sri Lanka would have to use nuclear
power to meet the future demand for electrical energy.
If there is a possibility of Sri Lanka having to use nuclear power in the future, it would be
advisable to commence preliminary activities that would not require a firm commitment to use
nuclear power. This would make the country better prepared to use nuclear power if the need
arises.
Following are some of the activities that can be undertaken, which does not require a firm
commitment to use nuclear power, but would facilitate implementing a nuclear power
programme and will reduce the lead time, if a decision is taken to use nuclear power at a later
stage.

Investigation of the possible sites for a nuclear power programme

Investigation of the availability of indigenous uranium resources

Entering into relevant international treaties and conventions

Identification of the legal and regulatory frameworks that would have to be established

Identification of the requirements for establishing an independent regulatory body

Development of a public awareness programme

Identification of the possible sources of funding

95

Development of the human resources required at planning stages

The International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA) provides assistance and advice to Member
States on nuclear power programmes, and the assistance of the IAEA could be sought in carrying
out these activities.

References.
1. M.P. Dias, Nuclear Power as a Possible Option for Power Generation in Sri Lanka A
Paper Presented at the Seminar on Fuel Options for Power Generation in the Next
Millenium, Institute of Engineers, Sri Lanka November 1999
2. Bulletin of the International Atomic Energy Agency - September 1999
3. Publication of Ministry of Science and Technology of the Republic of Korea on Technical
Cooperation between the IAEA and the Republic of Korea - IAEA General Conference,
September 1999
4.

International Fuel Cycle Evaluation International Atomic Energy Agency

5. Economic of Nuclear Energy L.G. Brooks and H. Motaman, Chapman and Hall
6. Energy, Earth and Everyone, Medard Gabel , Anchor Books
7. Milestones in the Development of a National Infrastructure for Nuclear Power,
International Atomic Energy Agency (2007)

96

CHAPTER VII
NUCLEAR REACTOR ANALYSIS

7.1 INTRODUCTION
A very significant computational effort is required in designing nuclear power plants.
Designing of the reactor core includes the determination of the fuel enrichment, the optimum
diameter of fuel rods and the spacing between the rods, the number, location and the neutron
absorption capacity of the control rods, the dimensions of the reactor core etc. During operation
of the plant periodic computations have to be carried out to determine the status of the core
which will continuously change from one re-fueling to the next, due to depletion of the fissile
fuel by fission, due to production of fissile fuel by conversion of fertile fuel and due to
production of certain fission products with high absorption cross sections. (poisons).

These

computations have to be carried out to determine the level of neutron absorbers to be maintained
in the coolant to compensate for the change in the fissile material, to identify the sequence of
withdrawing the control rods during reactor start-up and for maintaining adequate absorption
capacity of the control rods for shutting down the reactor in an emergency (shut-down margin).
These types of calculations are classified under the heading of neutronics.

Neutronics

essentially involves determination of the neutron flux distribution in the reactor core and the
determination of the conditions for criticality. The fuel burn-up, and the generation of heat in
the reactor core depends on the neutron flux distribution.

In addition to neutronic computations it is also necessary to carry out thermal-hydraulic

calculations. These two types of calculations are inter-related as the generation of heat in the
reactor core will depend on the neutron flux distribution, while the cross sections that are used in
neutronic calculations depend on the temperatures.

As described in Section 6.1 the neutrons in nuclear reactors are produced by the fission
reaction. These neutrons undergo the different kinds of interactions described in Section 2.4.
The elastic and inelastic scatterings make the neutrons lose energy and change the direction of
movement. Neutrons can be removed from the reactor core either due to absorption in the fuel,

97

control rods and structural material or due to leakage from the reactor. During steady operation
a balance is obtained between the production of the neutrons by fission and loss of neutrons due
to absorption and leakage.

A mathematical model known as the neutron transport model accurately describes the
above physical processes that take place inside the reactor. Although the neutron transport
equation is relatively easy to derive, it is very difficult to solve to obtain the neutron flux
distribution and the conditions for criticality. A simplified model based on what is known as
diffusion theory gives sufficiently accurate results for many reactor calculations when used with
certain corrections based on the transport model. This chapter gives a brief introduction to
diffusion theory.

7.2 DEFINITIONS
i) Energy and angular dependent neutron number density [ n(r , E , , t ) ]
A neutron at any point in space in the reactor at a given time will have certain energy and a
direction of movement. The energy and angular dependent neutron number density is given
by the function n(r , E , , t ) where n(r , E , , t ) dE d is the number of neutrons in a unit
volume at point r, at time t, with energies between E and E+dE, and moving into a solid
angle d in the direction of .

n(r , E , , t ) is usually given in neutrons per m3 per MeV

per steradian.

ii) Energy dependent neutron number density [ n(r , E , t ) ]

The energy dependent neutron number density is given by the function n(r , E , t ) where
n(r , E , t ) dE is the number of neutrons in a unit volume at point r, at time t, with energies

between E and E+dE.

n (r , E , t )

n(r , E , , t )d

n(r , E , t ) is usually given in neutrons per m3 per MeV.

98

iii) Neutron number density [ n (r , t ) ]

The neutron number density n (r , t ) is the number of neutrons per unit volume at point r,
and time t.

n(r , E )dE

n(r , t )

allE

n (r , t ) is usually given in neutrons per m3.

iv) Energy dependent neutron Flux [ (r , E , t ) ]

The energy dependent neutron flux is given by,

(r , E , t ) v. n(r , E , , t )d v. n(r , E , t )
4

where v is the velocity of the neutrons corresponding to energy E. The neutron flux is a
scalar quantity and the total neutron flux due to several sources is obtained by algebraic
addition of individual fluxes. As described in Section 2.5, the product of neutron flux and
macroscopic cross sections give the interaction rates per unit volume.

(r , E , t ) is usually given in neutrons per m2 per second per MeV

v)

Energy dependent neutron current [ J (r , E , t ) ]

The energy dependent neutron current is given by,
J (r , E , t )

v . n(r , E , , t )d = v. n(r , E , , t )d

wherev = v is the velocity vector of the neutrons corresponding to energy E. The

neutron current is a vector quantity and the total neutron current due to several sources is
obtained by the vector addition of individual currents.

If

J n J , J is the number of

neutrons crossing a unit area perpendicular to n, in a unit time. J (r , E , t ) is usually given

in neutrons per m2 per second per MeV.

99

Example:
Determine the neutron flux and the neutron current at the point of intersection of the
following mono-energetic beams of neutrons.
Beam 1 : Number density = 1012 n/m3 , velocity 1200 m/s , direction - horizontal
Beam 2 : Number density = 3 x 1012 n/m3 , velocity 1000 m/s , direction - 60 to the
horizontal.
Beam 2
j

60
Beam 1

Neutron flux = n1 v1 + n2 v2 = 1012 x 1200 + 3 x 1012 x 1000 = 4.2 x 1015 n/m2-s

Neutron current = n1v1 + n2v2
= 1012 x 1200 i + 3 x 1012 x 1000 [cos (60) i + sin (60) j]
= 2.7 x 1015 i + 2.6 x 1015j

7.3 CONTINUITY EQUATION

The continuity equation is based on neutron balance since at steady state the production
of neutrons should be exactly equal to neutron loss due to leakage and absorption. Consider an
arbitrary volume V inside a nuclear reactor, with a surface S.

Fig. 7.1
If the neutron flux is at steady state, the number of neutrons produced in this volume with
energies between E and E+dE should be equal to the number of neutrons removed from this
volume and the energy interval. The removal could be due to absorption of neutrons by the fuel
100

or structural material, due to scattering out of this energy interval or due to leakage of neutrons
from this volume. The production could be either due to the fission reaction or due to neutrons
scattering into this energy interval from outside the interval.
If the neutron flux at a point r is (r , E ) and the total cross section t (r , E ) the rate of
removal of the neutrons in the energy interval of dE at E (energies between E and E+dE) from
volume V, due to absorption and scattering = dE (r , E ). t (r , E )dV
V

If the neutron current is J (r , E ) , the rate of leakage of neutrons in the energy interval of
dE at E, from the surface of the volume is = dE n J (r , E )dA , where n is the unit vector
S

normal to the surface.

If the rate of production of neutrons in the energy interval of dE at E, in a unit volume at

r is S (r , E ) , the rate of production of neutrons in volume V = dE S (r , E )dV

V

Hence, from neutron balance,

n J (r , E )dA (r , E )
S

(r , E )dV S (r , E )dV

From the divergence theorem,

n J (r , E )dA J (r , E )dV
S

Therefore,

J (r , E )dV (r , E )
V

(r , E )dV S (r , E )dV
V

Since V is an arbitrary volume,

J (r , E ) (r , E ). t (r , E ) S (r , E )
The above equation is known as the continuity equation.

101

As stated before, the production of neutrons is due to fission and due to neutrons
scattering into the energy interval under consideration. The scattering of neutrons from an
energy interval dE at E to an interval dE at E is illustrated in figure 7.2.

E0
E

dE

dE

0
Fig. 7.2 Neutron Scattering
The number of neutrons scattering into the energy interval dE at E from the interval dE
at E is given by,

dE dE s (r , E E ) (r , E ) .

The total number of neutrons scattering into dE at E from all the energies =
E0

dE s (r , E E ) (r , E )dE . E0 is the maximum energy of the neutrons. It assumed that

E

neutrons do not gain energy in scattering interactions. ie. there no up-scattering.

If the fission cross section is f (r , E ) the number of fissions caused by neutrons at all
E0

energies = dE f (r , E ) (r , E )dE
0

If

each

E0

fission

produces

neutrons,

the

number

of

neutrons

produced

(r , E ) (r , E )dE .

The fission neutrons will have an energy spectrum with an average energy of about 2 MeV. If
(E) dE is the faction of neutrons in the energy interval dE at E, the number of neutrons
E0

produced by fission in this energy interval = dE ( E ) f (r , E ) (r , E )dE .

0

Therefore, the source term S (r , E ) can be written as,

102

E0

E0

S (r , E ) (E ) f (r , E ) (r , E )dE s (r , E E ) (r , E )dE
Now, the continuity equation becomes,
E0

E0

J (r , E ) t (r , E ) (r , E ) (E ) f (r , E ) (r , E )dE s (r , E E ) (r , E )dE
The above equation was derived assuming steady state, i.e. the rate of production of
neutrons to be equal to the rate of removal. If this balance is not maintained, it is not possible to
obtain a steady state. Since beforehand it is not known what conditions have to be satisfied in
order to obtain a steady state, the above equation is modified by dividing the fission source term
by a factor k. The condition for criticality is obtained when k =1. It can be easily shown that
this k is the neutron multiplication factor described in Section 5.1. Therefore, the continuity
equation can be written as,

(E )
J (r , E ) t (r , E ) (r , E )
f (r , E ) (r , E )dE s (r , E E ) (r , E )dE
k 0
E
E0

E0

7.4 DIFFUSION THEORY

It is not possible to solve the continuity equation to determine the neutron flux
distribution and the conditions for criticality due to the presence of two unknown quantities in
the equation, namely the neutron flux and the neutron current J. A relationship between these
two quantities can be derived by making the following assumptions.
1. The medium is infinite
2. The medium is uniform and therefore all cross-sections are constant and independent of the
position
3. There are no neutron sources in the medium
4. Neutron scattering is isotropic i.e. neutrons are uniformly scattered in all directions
5. The neutron flux is a slowly varying function of position and
6. The neutron flux is not a function of time

With the above assumptions it can be shown that,

J ( r , E ) D( r , E ) ( r , E )

103

D is a constant called the diffusion constant and the above equation is known as the
Ficks Law. The diffusion constant has units of m-1.

Although the above assumptions seem to be rather drastic, it can be shown that most of
them could be relaxed. Ficks law is valid in finite media and in media containing neutron
sources in regions away from the boundaries and from neutron sources. It can also be shown that
medium being uniform is not a strict requirement. Certain corrections could be made to account
for anisotropic scatterings (assumption 4).

Assumption 5 is valid in regions away from strong

absorbers and assumption 6 can be relaxed if the rate of change of flux is not very high.
Solutions from Transport Theory are usually used to obtain boundary conditions for diffusion
calculations as Ficks Law is not valid near boundaries.

Diffusion theory is of sufficient

accuracy for most reactor calculations and is widely used in reactor design and analysis.
Using Ficks law, the continuity equation becomes,
D(r , E ) (r , E ) t (r , E ) (r , E )

(E )
f (r , E ) (r , E )dE s (r , E E ) (r , E )dE
k 0
E
E0

E0

The above equation is called the energy dependent diffusion equation.

Multi-group equations
It is obvious that it is not possible to obtain simple analytical solutions to the diffusion
equation. Numerical methods have to be used except for highly simplified unrealistic problems.
The energy dependence is normally treated by discretizing the energy variable. The
energy range is divided into a number of intervals as shown below, and the flux and the crosssections are assumed to be constant in each of the energy intervals.

Group

G-2

G-1

E=E0

G
E=0

Fig. 7.3

Now, the energy dependent diffusion equation can be written as,

104

 Dg (r ) g (r ) t , g (r ) g (r )

g
k

g 1

f ,g

(r ) g (r ) s, g g (r ) g (r )
g 1

for g=1 to G.
The above equation is called the multi-group diffusion equation. The microscopic
scattering, fission and total cross sections of all the materials used in nuclear reactors have been
experimentally determined at different energies and can be used to determine the group cross
sections. Similarly the group diffusion constants can be determined using experimental results.

7.5 ANALYTICAL SOLUTIONS

Analytical solutions to the diffusion equation could be obtained only for highly simplified
unrealistic problems. However, they serve a purpose as a means of understanding the underlying
principles in criticality calculations and in determination of flux distributions.
7.5.1 One Group Diffusion Equation in Uniform Media
As the title implies, the assumptions are,
1. Only one energy group is considered. This is equivalent to assuming neutron flux is energy
independent.
2. The medium is considered to be uniform.

One Dimensional Geometries

The geometries considered are,
1. Infinite slab geometry, where it is assumed that the reactor is in the form of a thin slab with
two dimensions being much larger than the other. The variation of the flux in these two
directions is negligible compared to the variation in the third direction.
2. Infinite cylindrical geometry where the axial length of a cylindrical reactor is assumed to be
much larger than its radius. The variation of the flux in the axial direction is negligible
compared to the variation in the radial direction.
3. Spherical geometry. Because the medium is uniform flux distribution will depend only on
the radius.

105

The one group diffusion equation in a uniform medium can be written as,
D 2 a

f
k

is the Laplacian operator which is given by,

2

d2
2 in infinite slab geometry.
dx
1 d d
r in infinite cylindrical geometry
r dr dr
1 d
d
2 r 2 in spherical geometry.
dr
r dr
2

The solution of the diffusion equation can be obtained by considering the equation,

2 B 2 0
where B is a constant and is called buckling.
Now the diffusion equation becomes,
DB 2 a

f
k

Therefore, the neutron multiplication factor k can be written as,

a
k

k P
2
1 L B
1 L2 B 2
2

Where L2 = D/a. L is called the diffusion length.

k is called the infinite neutron

multiplication factor, and is the neutron multiplication factor in an infinite medium.

It can be

shown that P is the probability of non-leakage of neutrons from the reactor i.e. the fraction of the
neutrons that do not leak out from the reactor. The reactor would be critical when k=1. For
example, if P=0.8 that is if 20% of the neutrons produced by fission leak out, the infinite neutron
multiplication factor has to be 1.25 to make the reactor critical.

106

The probability of non-leakage of neutrons, P depend on the buckling B, which in turn

depends on the dimensions of the reactor and the geometry as seen below. The flux distribution
can be obtained from the solution of the equation,

2 B 2 0
with the appropriate boundary conditions.
From transport theory it can be shown that the neutron flux goes to zero at a certain
distance from the outer boundary of the reactor, called extrapolated distance.

Infinite slab Geometry

physical boundary
Extrapolated distance
-a

Fig. 7.4
As shown in Fig. 7.4 the flux will be zero at an extrapolated distances of +a and -a from the
centre of the slab. The general solution of,
d 2
B 2 0 is,
dr 2

(r ) A cos(Bx) C sin(Bx)
From symmetry, C=0, and since (a)=0, Ba=/2 or B=/2a. Therefore, the probability of nonleakage of neutrons,
P

1

1 L
2a

(r ) 0 cos(Bx)
where0 is an arbitrary constant depending on the power level of the reactor.
Infinite Cylindrical Geometry

107

Let the radius of the cylinder inclusive of the extrapolated distance be R. i.e. (R)=0.
The general solution of,

1 d d
2
r B 0 is,

r dr dr

(r ) AJ 0 (Br ) CY0 (Br )

where J0 and Y0 are the zeroth order Ordinary Bessel functions of the first and second kind. The
first zero of the J0 function is at 2.405 and Y0(x) is infinite at x=0.
Since is finite at r=0 C=0, and since (R)=0, BR=2.405 or B=2.405/R.. Therefore,
the probability of non-leakage of neutrons,
P

1
2.405
1 L2

(r ) 0 J 0 (Br )

Spherical Geometry
Let the radius of the sphere inclusive of the extrapolated distance be R. i.e. (R)=0. The
general solution of,

1 d 2 d
2
r
B 0 is,
2
dr
r dr

(r ) A

sin(Br )
cos(Br )
C
r
r

Since is finite at r=0 C=0, and since (R)=0, BR= or B=/R. Therefore, the probability of
non-leakage of neutrons,
P

1 L
R

(r ) 0

sin(Br )
r

108

Two Dimensional Geometries - Cylindrical Geometry.

The Laplacian in cylindrical geometry is,
2

The solution of

1 d d d2
r
r dr dr dz 2

2 B 2 0 subject to boundary conditions (R,z)=0 and (r,H/2)

where R and H are the radius and the height of the cylinder inclusive of extrapolated distances,
can be shown to be,

2.405r z
cos
R H

(r , z ) 0 J 0
. It can be also shown that the buckling is given by

2.405

B

R
H
2

Example 1
A cylindrical reactor is made from a uniform mixture of U-235 and light water. The ratio of the
number of water molecules to atoms of U-235 is 500.

Determine the optimum critical

dimensions of the reactor. The thermal microscopic fission and absorption cross sections of U235 are 577 b and 678 b respectively. The thermal absorption cross section of hydrogen is 0.332
b and the absorption cross section of oxygen is negligible. The average number of neutrons
emitted per fission of U-235 is 2.44 and the diffusion constant of light water at thermal energies
is 1.6 x 10-4 m. The Avagadros number is 6.023 x 1026 atoms (molecules) per kilo-gram atom
(molecule). 1 b = 10-28 m2. Density of water = 1000 kg/m3 and molecular weight 18.02. The
diffusion constant of the mixture can be assumed to be the diffusion constant of water.

Solution
Assume all the neutrons are thermal neutrons.
The number of water molecules per m3

= 6.023 x 1026 x 1000

18.02
109

=3.35 x 1028
The number of hydrogen atoms per m3

=6.7 x 1028

The number of U-235 atoms per m3

=3.35 x 1028/500
=6.7 x 1025
= 6.7 x 1028 x 0.332 x 10-28 +

The macroscopic absorption cross section

6.7 x 1025 x 678 x 10-28

a

=6.77 m-1

The macroscopic fission cross section

=6.7 x 1025 x 577 x 10-28

= 3.87 m-1

The diffusion length

=D/ a = 1.6 x 10-4/ 6.77

=3.27 x 10-2 m
The infinite multiplication factor

=f/a = 2.44 x 3.87/6.77

=1.395
k = k/(1+L2B2) = 1

For criticality

B2 = (k -1 )/L2
= 12.08 m-2
2.405

In cylindrical geometry buckling is given by, B

R
H
2

Using the Lagrangian method it can be shown that the optimum dimensions, i.e. the
minimum volume for a given buckling is obtained when

R 2.405

H
2

Therefore the optimal critical dimensions are Radius = 0.153 m

Height = 0.283 m

Determination of the absolute flux distribution

The absolute flux distribution depends on the power level at which a reactor operates. As
the reactor is made critical and the power level is increased, the fission rate and the flux will
increase.
If the flux is (r), and the fission cross section f, the number of fissions in the reactor
per unit time = (r ) f dV
V

110

If each fission releases energy of Ef and if a fraction of this energy is converted to

useful power, the reactor power output P is given by,
P E f (r ) f dV .
V

If 0 F (r )

then 0

P
E f F (r ) f dV

Example 2
If the above reactor is operating at a thermal power output of 1 MW, determine the
neutron flux. Assume that 90% of the energy released by fission is converted to useful energy
and each fission releases 200 MeV of energy. (1 MeV = 1.6 x 10-13 J)

Solution

2.405r z
The flux distribution is given by, (r , z) 0 J 0
cos
R H
H/2

The total number of fissions in the reactor per unit time = f

H/2

dz 2rdr (r , z )
0

=0.0222 0
The useful energy produced per second = 0.0222 0 x 200 x 0.9 MeV
Useful power output

=0.0222 0 x 200 x 0.9 x 1.6 x 10-19 MW

Since the power output is 1 MW 0

=1/(0.0222 x 200 x 0.9 x 1.6 x 10-19)

=1.56 x 1018 n/m2-s .

2.405r z
. x1018 J 0
Therefore the flux distribution is, (r , z) 156
cos
R H
7.5.2 Two-Group Diffusion Equation
In a two-group calculationthe neutron energy spectrum is divided into fast and thermal
neutrons. Although more difficult to solve, a two-group approximation gives a much better
accuracy than a one-group approximation.
In two-group calculations it is usually assumed that there are no absorptions in the fast
group as the absorption cross section of fast neutrons is much smaller than the absorption cross
section of thermal neutrons. It is also assumed that all the neutrons produced by fissions are fast
111

neutrons. Thus, neutrons are removed from the fast energy group only due leakage and due to
slowing down to thermal energies as a result of scattering in the moderator. The production of
fast neutrons is due to fissions induced by thermal neutrons. Neutrons are removed from the
thermal group due to leakage and due to absorptions while the production of thermal neutrons is
due to slowing down of the fast neutrons.
Consider a spherical reactor core of radius Rc comprising of a uniform mixture of a fuel
and a moderating medium surrounded by a reflector with a thickness of d r . The following are
the two-group diffusion equations for each of the regions.

The Core

f 2 c 2 c

Group 1 (fast group)

D1c 2 1c s ,1 2 1c

Group 2 (thermal group)

D2 c 2 2 c a 2 c 2 c s,12 1c

The Reflector
Group 1 (fast group)

D1r 2 1r s,12 1r 0

Group 2 (thermal group)

D2 r 2 2 r a 2 r 2 r s,12 1r

The suffix c stands for the core and suffix r for the reflector.

Boundary Conditions at the core-reflector interface:

The neutron fluxes and the neutron currents are continuous across the core-reflector
interface. Therefore,

1c (Rc ) 1r (Rc )

2 c ( Rc ) 2 r ( R c )
J 1c (Rc ) J 1r (Rc ) i.e. D1c
J 2 c (Rc ) J 2 r (Rc ) i.e. D2 c

d
d
1c (R c ) D1r 1r (R c )
dr
dr

d
d
2 c (Rc ) D2 r 2 r (Rc )
dr
dr

Boundary conditions at the outer boundary:

The neutron fluxes at the extrapolated distances from the outer boundary is zero.
112

Therefore, 1r (Rc d r a ) 0 and 2 r (Rc d r a ) 0 where a is the

extrapolated distance.

The group fluxes in the core region are given by,

1c A1

sin( 1 r )
sin( 1 r )
sin( 2 r )
sin( 2 r )
and 2 c A2
C1
C2
r
r
r
r

where1 and 2 are the roots of,

2
( c 2 1)( Lc 2 1) k with c

D1c
L
1 2 c

f 2 c
d 2c
and k
and
a ,2 c
a ,2 c

A1, C1, A2 and C2 are constants.

The group fluxes in the reflector region are given by,

1r E1

2r E2

R d r a 1)
sinh C
L1r

and

( R d r a r )
sinh C
L1r

where L1r D1r

,
12

L2 r

F2

D2 r

( R d r a r )
sinh C
L2 r

a2r

and E1, E2 and F2 are constants.

The values of the constants A1, A2,C1, C2,E1, E2, F1and F2 and the condition for criticality can
be obtained from the boundary conditions.

Calculations based on the above methodology in a spherical reactor with a uniform

mixture of U-235 and light water, with a moderator to fuel ratio (water molecules to U-235
atoms) of 500 and a light water reflector, gives a critical radius of 0.22 m if the thickness of the
reflector is 0.18 m.

The flux distribution of a bare reactor core i.e. a reactor without a reflector are given by,
113

 1c A1

sin( Br )
sin( Br )
and 2 c A2
r
r

where B is the positive real root of ( c B 2 1)( Lc B 2 1) k .

2

The critical radius R=/B is

0.28 m. The reflector reduces this to 0.22m.

The distribution of the thermal and fast fluxes in the reflected reactor obtained using the
methodology developed is shown in Fig. 7.5. The fast neutron flux at the centre of the reactor is
normalized to 1. The absolute distribution will depend on the reactor power output.

NEUTRON FLUX

Flux

0.5

10

20

30

40

Dis tance (cm)

Group 1
Group 2

Fig. 7.5 - Neutron Flux Distribution

7.6 NUMERICAL SOLUTIONS

The accuracy of a diffusion calculation improves with the number of energy groups.
However, the degree of difficulty in solving the equations also increases with the number of
energy groups and it is very tedious to obtain analytical solutions to multi-group equations. It is
also not possible to obtain analytical solutions to the diffusion problem in non-uniform media.
Numerical methods are used to determine the flux distribution and the condition for criticality in
such situations which are more realistic than the simple problems solved using analytical
methods in the previous section. The numerical solutions are usually based on finite difference,
finite element and variational methods.
114

The following is a brief description on the use of the finite difference method in multigroup diffusion calculations in the one dimensional geometries described in section 7.5.1,
However, this method can be easily extended to two and three dimensional geometries.

The multi-group diffusion equation can be written as,

Dg (r ) g (r ) t , g (r ) g (r ) S g where
Sg

g
k

g 1

g 1

f , g (r ) g (r ) s, g g (r ) g (r )

In infinite slab, infinite cylindrical and in spherical geometry with spherical symmetry,

1 d d
Dr
where=0 in slab geometry,
dr
r dr

=1 in cylindrical geometry and

=2 in spherical geometry.
1

r0

r1

r2

i+1

ri-1

ri

N-1

ri+1

rN-2

rN-1

rN

Fig. 7.6

The region in which the diffusion equation is to be solved, is divided to an N number of

intervals or cells as shown in Fig. 7.6 with r0 as the inner dimension (r0=0 in cylindrical and
spherical geometries and in symmetrical slabs) and rN is the outer-dimension. The boundaries of
the cells are known as nodes. The diffusion constants and cross sections are assumed to be
constant in each cell and the flux is assumed to be constant in half a mesh cell on either side of a
node.
Let the neutron flux at node i be i ,

the diffusion constant in region i D (i ) and the

cross sections in region i ( i ) ,

Multiplying the diffusion equation by r and integrating over the region i-1/2 to i+1/2,

115

ri 1/ 2

ri 1/ 2

d g
d

Dg r
dr
dr
dr

Approximating

d
dr

rri 1/ 2

r t ,g g dr

ri 1/ 2

at r=ri+1/2 by

ri 1/ 2

S g dr

ri 1/ 2

( i 1 i )
d
and
i 1
dr

at r=ri-1/2 by

( i i 1 )
where i = ri-ri-1 ,
i
Dg(i )

Ai i 1 (i ) Ai
A
A
g Dg
Dg(i 1) i 1 VLi ig VRi ig1 ig Dg(i 1) i 1 ig (VLi VRi )S gi
i
i
i 1
i 1

with Ai 1 ri

2 ,

VLi

ri 1 ri

i
2

and VRi

r i
2
i

The above equation is of the form, a i i 1 bi i ci i 1 yi

i 1

ri 1

for i = 1 to N, for each

energy group. This is a tri-diagonal matrix that can be easily inverted to determine the values of
the fluxes.

If the tridiagonal matrix for group g is [M]g then the muti-group equation can be written
as,

M g g

G
1 G
N

gg g g L gg g for g=1 to G
k g 1

The above equation can be solved iteratively by making an initial guess for the fluxes and
for the neutron multiplication factor to formulate the right hand side for each energy group and
up-dating the source term using the calculated fluxes.

The equations are,

M g g( n1)
for g=1 to G

1
k (n)

g 1

g 1

g 1

N gg g(n ) L gg g(n 1) L gg g(n)

and

116

k ( n 1) k ( n )

T ( n 1)
g

g 1 g 1
G

g 1 g 1

N gg g( n 1)

T ( n 1)
g

N gg g( n )

where k(n) is the value of the neutron multiplication factor obtained from the nth iteration, g(n)
the vector containing nodal values of the fluxes in group g obtained from the n th iteration, and
gT(n) its transpose. The iteration is terminated when the multiplication factor and the fluxes
converge.

References.
1. John. R. Lamarsh, Introduction to Nuclear Engineering, Addision Wesley Publishing
Company.
2. John. R. Lamarsh, Introduction to Nuclear Reactor Theory, Addision Wesley Publishing
Company.
3. J.J. Duderstadt and L.J. Hamilton Nuclear Reactor Analysis , John Wiley and Sons, Inc.

117

CHAPTER VIII
NON-POWER APPLICATIONS OF NUCLEAR TECHNOLOGY
8.1 INTRODUCTION
Certain properties of radioisotopes and radiation make it possible to use them for a very
wide range of applications in the industrial, medical and agricultural sectors. Although only
about 30 countries use nuclear power, almost all the Member States of the International Atomic
Energy Agency (IAEA) of the United Nations, numbering 151 use nuclear technology for
purposes other than power generation. The fact the Technical Cooperation budget of the IAEA
for non-power applications of nuclear technology is more than the budget for nuclear power also
indicates its global importance. The following sections describe the properties of radiation and
radioisotopes that makes it possible to use them for a wide range of purposes, and contains a
brief description of how they are used in the industrial, medical and agricultural sectors.

8.2 PROPERTIES OF RADIOISOTOPES AND RADIATION

It is possible to very easily detect the presence of even a minute quantity of a radioisotope
by simply measuring the radiation emitted by it. The detection of the presence of a nonradioactive isotope would require an expensive physical process such as mass spectrometry or
atomic absorption. The concentrations of radioisotopes that could be detected is as low as 1 part
in 1014.

It is also possible to identify the radioisotope and measure its concentration using

gamma spectroscopy as described in Section 3.4.

Radioisotopes that emit radiation can be

detected using a detection system known as the Liquid Scintillation Counter (LSC). These
properties make radioisotopes ideal tracers or labels. Radiotracers can be used for monitoring
industrial processes, in medical diagnosis (Nuclear Medicine), for numerous research studies in
agriculture and in environmental monitoring. The isotopes to be used depend on the application
and a wide range of radioisotopes with different half-lives, and energies are commercially
available.

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Ionizing radiation has the ability to penetrate through solid materials. The attenuation of
the intensity of a beam of radiation will depend on the density and the thickness of the material it
passes through. This property makes it possible to detect internal defects in materials using X or
gamma radiation and photographic films. Attenuation of radiation can be used to measure and
control the thickness and other parameters of light materials such as paper.

Heavy doses of gamma radiation can kill microbes, insects and larvae. This property of
gamma radiation can be utilized to sterilize medical supplies such as, surgical gloves, syringes,
catheters etc. and for preservation of food.

Gamma radiation can induce chemical changes in the materials. This can be utilized to
produce new materials with better properties. Gamma radiation also has the ability to change the
genetic structure of living cells and this is being used in plant breeding to produce cultivars with
better yields, higher resistance to diseases etc.

8.3 APPLICATIONS OF RADIATION AND RADIOISOTOPES IN THE INDUSTRIAL

SECTOR
Non-Destructive Testing (NDT)
As the name implies, non-destructive testing techniques makes it possible to detect flaws
in metallic industrial products, machine components, and structures without causing any damage.
The process of testing will not in any way affect the functional capability of the object that is
being tested and NDT technology has a wide range of applications in quality control and in
preventive maintenance. Some of the common applications are, testing of the integrity of welds,
detection of cracks and other flaws, detection of reduction of thickness due to wear during usage,
detection of blockages in pipes, and detection of corrosion.

The use of NDT technology makes it possible to detect the potential for failure of
machinery and structures in advance in order to take preventive measures to avoid major failures.
Such detections are crucial in certain industries such as the aviation industry, where the failure of
a critical component of an air-craft during flight could be disastrous.
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Gamma and X-radiography are two commonly used NDT techniques. Radiography
makes use of the ability of radiation to penetrate through materials and its attenuation depending
on the density and the thickness of the material it is passing through. The method is very similar
to the use of X-radiation to detect the fracture of a bone. The object to be radiographed is kept
between a gamma or an X-radiation source and a photographic film and exposed to radiation for
a prescribed time. The image created on the film can be interpreted by a trained NDT technician
to determine the absence or presence of flaws.

The energy and the type of radiation to be used depend on the density and the thickness
of the object to be radiographed. The energy of X-radiation depends on the potential applied to
the anode of the X-ray tube and can be adjusted to the desired value. The intensity of radiation
can be adjusted by adjusting the amperage.

Objects that are too thick or too dense to be

radiographed using X-radiation, can be radiographed using gamma radiation.

The most

commonly used radioisotopes are Iridium-192 and Cobalt-60. The radioactive source is kept in a
shielded container. When needed, the source can be moved through a long tube attached to the
container by cranking a handle. Radiography is usually carried out in shielded exposure rooms
or in open spaces where a suitable distance between the workers and the source of radiation can
be maintained. The use of an array of detectors in place of the photographic film makes it
possible to digitize the image and it is possible to obtain three-dimensional images by
tomography. Light materials which are transparent to X and gamma radiation can be
radiographed using neutrons.

In addition to radiography there are several non-nuclear NDT techniques. The use of
luminous dyes and developers make it possible to observe cracks on the surface of metallic
objects. Dyes containing magnetic particles together with a magnetizing device also can be used
to detect cracks on the surfaces.

Eddy currents and transmission and reflection properties of

ultrasonic waves also can be used to detect flaws non-destructively.

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Nuclear Tracers
The first recorded use of tracers is by the Chinese who had used coloured corks to trace
the water currents in the Yang-Tseriver. There is also a record of the ancient Egyptians using
large quantities of coloured dyes to trace the currents of river Nile. The ability to easily detect
the presence of even extremely small quantities of radioisotopes makes them superior to any
other type of tracers. Nuclear tracers have a wide range of applications and a few examples are
given below.
Certain industrial products such as paint are made by mixing several ingredients. While
the quality of the product will depend on the uniformity of the mixture, mixing the ingredients
longer than necessary will slow down the production and waste energy.

An accurate

determination of the optimum mixing time will therefore, bring down the cost of production
without reducing the quality of the product.

The optimum mixing time can be determined by

mixing a radiotracer along with the other ingredients and then using a fixed radiation detector to
measure the radiation emitted by the mixture. The radiation level will fluctuate until the tracer is
uniformly mixed with the other ingredients. The time taken for the reading of the detector to
become steady is the optimum mixing time.
Nuclear tracers also can be used to accurately determine the flow rates in pipes or even in
open channels.

A tracer is injected to the flow at a selected point and a detector is kept

downstream at a measured distance from the point of injection. By measuring the difference
between the time of injection and the time the detector produces a signal, the time taken for the
liquid to travel between the two points can be accurately determined and hence the flow rate can
be determined.
The fate of pollutants released to the environment also can be determined using nuclear
tracers. For example, the distribution of sewage released to the sea from an out-fall a few
kilometers from the shore, can be determined by mixing a suitable radiotracer with the sewage.
By collecting water samples at different locations and measuring the radioactivity of the samples,
it is possible to determine the distribution pattern of the sewage, to determine whether the
pollutants are flowing back to the shore with the currents.
Nuclear tracers also are used to detect leaks in dams.

A tracer in the form of solid

particles will be sucked by the currents into the cracks in the dam and will be trapped in the

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cracks. By scanning the surface of the dam for radioactivity using a suitable submersible
detector, the location of the leak can be determined.

Nuclear Gauges and Nucleonic Control Systems (NCS)

A number of physical parameters such as, levels, density, moisture content, and thickness
have to be measured and controlled in many industrial processes.

Radioisotope based gauges

and control systems can be used for these purposes and are being widely used in many industries.
The measurements can be made without the measuring device coming into physical contact with
the material and therefore can be used to measure the above mentioned physical parameters of
even highly corrosive materials. The following examples illustrate the use of nuclear gauges and
control systems.

Shield

Radiation

Detector

Source

Fig. 8.1 Level Gauge

Fig. 8.1 shows a simple level gauge that can be used to maintain the amount of liquid in a
tank at a certain level or to measure the level, when it is not possible to use conventional
methods due to the chemical nature of the liquid. A radiation source and a detector are mounted
on either side of the tank. Since the attenuation of radiation depends on the density of the
material it is passing through, the reading of the detector will vary depending on whether there is
air or the liquid between the source and the detector. By using the signal generated by the
detector to control the inlet valve of the tank, the level of liquid can be maintained at a desired
level. If the need is to determine the level of liquid in a tank, the source and the detector can be
vertically moved at the same rate, and the sudden change in the reading will indicate the liquid
level.

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Nuclear gauges and control systems are commonly used in paper industry to measure and
control the thickness of paper density and moisture content. Nucleonic control systems make it
possible to produce very high quality paper of uniform thickness, moisture content and density.
Similar systems are used in metal industry to control the thickness of sheet metal, in
manufacturing cigarettes to control the density of tobacco, in cement industry and in coal
industry. A typical nucleonic control system is shown in Fig.8.2.
Signal
Processor
Control signal
Detector

Radiation source

Fig. 8.2 Schematic of a Nucleonic Control System

The intensity of the radiation received by the detector will depend on the thickness and
the density of the material between the radiation source and the detector. The output of the
detector therefore, is an indicator of these parameters and can be used to control them. For
example, in controlling the thickness of paper during manufacturing, the signal generated by the
detector can be used to adjust the rate at which the paper pulp is fed.

Nuclear gauges are also used in refinery column scanning. Refinery columns in which
petroleum is distilled to produce liquid fuels such as petrol, kerosene contain a large number of
components such as pipes, valves, trays etc. The pipes can be blocked due to deposits, trays can
get corroded and other types of failures can occur during operation. Since these components are
not visible, the dismantling of the outer covers of the whole refinery column would be needed to
identify the faulty components. This would require a long maintenance period during which
there will be no production. The location of faulty components can be identified more easily and
more quickly by using a radioactive source-detector combination to scan the column. The source
and the detector installed on opposite sides of the column are moved at the same rate from the
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top to the bottom of the column and the detector reading is recorded as a function of the height.
The detector reading will depend on the components located between the source and the detector.
This process can be repeated periodically to observe whether there is a change is the trace of the
detector readings. The heights at which the changes occur will give the locations of the faults.

Radiation Processing
Ionizing radiation in the form of gamma radiation or high energy electrons has the
capability of producing short-lived free radicals which are very reactive. This property can be
used to induce chemical changes in materials to improve their properties. Some of the examples
are vulcanization of natural rubber latex, manufacturing heat shrinkable plastics, improving
cross-linking in electrical cables to increase the insulation resistance, and curing of surface
coatings.

Ionizing radiation is also used to sterilize medical products such as surgical gloves,
syringes, and catheters, to extend the shelf life of food commodities by eliminating bacteria,
insects and larvae and in treatment of sewage.

A simplified diagram of a gamma irradiation plant is shown in Fig. 8.3.

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Concrete shield
Hoist
Conveyor

Radiation
source
(Irradiating position)

Products

Ground
Level

Water pool

Radiation source
(Safe position)

Fig. 8.3 Gamma Irradiation Plant

The radiation source is kept inside a shielded chamber made of concrete of sufficient
thickness to reduce the radiation levels outside the chamber to required levels. The products to
be irradiated are sent into the chamber by a conveyor system and will be exposed to radiation
emitted by the source to a pre-determined time.
The radiation source is in the form of a number of pencils mounted on a rack. Most
commonly used radioisotope is Co-60 which has a half-life of 5.3 years and the activity can
range from 500 kCi to 4 MCi( 1Ci = 3.7 x 1010Bq). The source can be lowered into a deep pool
of water when access to the chamber is required. Water provides the shielding. The position of
the source can be controlled remotely and there is a safety inter-lock system which prevents
personnel from entering the irradiation chamber when the source is in the irradiating position.
This type of irradiators is used for sterilization of medical products and for food
irradiation. The doses of radiation are typically 25 kGy for sterilization of medical products and
1-10 kGy for food irradiation.

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High energy electron beams (EB) also can be used for a number of purposes such as
curing of surface coatings, and sterilization. The electron beams are produced by accelerating
electrons emitted by heated filaments, using electric fields. The electrons are accelerated to an
energy that can range from 500 keV to 10 MeV depending on the type of the accelerator.

Nuclear Analytical Techniques

Nuclear analytical techniques have a wide range of applications and the following is a
brief description of two of the most commonly used methods, namely, X-ray Fluorescence
analysis and neutron activation analysis.
X-ray Fluorescence (XRF) analysis is a rapid, non-destructive, qualitative and
quantitative method of analyzing solids and liquids to determine their elemental composition.
XRF is based on the measurement of wavelengths (wavelength dispersive XRF) or the energy
(energy dispersive XRF), and intensity of X-radiation emitted by a sample, when excited by Xrays from a primary source. The atoms of the sample will de-excite by emitting x-radiation
energies that depend on the differences between the energy levels which are unique to each atom.
Therefore, the atoms can be identified by measuring the energy or the wavelength of the Xradiation emitted. The intensity of X-radiation emitted at a particular energy is proportional to
the concentration of the element that corresponds to that energy and therefore can be used for a
quantitative analysis. XRF cannot be used to identify individual isotopes since all isotopes of the
same element de-excite by emitting X-radiation with same energy.
In energy dispersive XRF systems, the X-radiation emitted by a sample is measured using
a Si(Li) (silicon with lithium as an impurity) detector and analyzed using a multi-channel
analyzer (see Section 3.4). The peaks of the spectrum will correspond to the energies emitted
and therefore can be used to determine the composition of the sample. A quantitative analysis is
also possible since the areas under the peaks are proportional to the concentration of the element.
XRF technique has a wide range of applications since it can be used to detect and
measure extremely small concentrations of elements using a minute quantity of the sample. XRF
analysis can be and is used to determine the trace element concentrations for quality control
purposes in metal industry, in environmental monitoring, in forensic medicine, in archeology and
in many other situations that require detection of minute concentrations of elements.
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Neutron activation analysis (NAA) is based on the principle that nuclei of radioisotopes
de-excite by emitting gamma radiation with distinct energies. As in the case of XRF only a
minute quantity of the sample is required for the analysis. As described in Section 3.4 radioactive
isotopes can be identified by measuring the energies of the gamma radiation emitted using
Gamma Spectroscopy. Non-radioactive isotopes can be made radioactive by exposing to a high
neutron flux from a strong neutron source such as a research reactor. The nuclei of the isotope
will absorb neutrons and will be converted to the next higher isotope which is usually
radioactive. By measuring the gamma radiation emitted by the activation product, both the
product and its parent can be identified.

A quantitative analysis is also possible as the areas

under the photopeaks are proportional to the concentration of the radioisotopes producing them.
Unlike XRF, neutron activation analysis makes it possible to identify the individual isotopes.

8.4 APPLICATIONS OF RADIATION AND RADIOISOTOPES IN THE

MEDICAL SECTOR
Radiotherapy
Radiation and radioisotopes are used in the medical sector for both therapeutic and
diagnostic purposes.

Probably the most commonly known application is the treatment of cancer

by radiation. A cancerous tumour can be destroyed by exposing it to a high dose of radiation

since a malignant tumour contains rapidly multiplying cells which are more sensitive to radiation
than normal healthy cells. About 60% of cancer patients are estimated to require radiotherapy.

The use of radium for cancer therapy is considered to be the first practical application of
nuclear technology which began soon after the discovery of radium my Madam Marie Curie.
With the availability a range of isotopes produced in research reactors and cyclotrons, the use of
radium has been discontinued and the most commonly used isotopes for radiotherapy now are
Co-60 and Cs-137. Radium has the disadvantage of having a very long half-life of 1600 years
compared to 5.3 years for Co-60 and 30 years for Cs-137.

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Two techniques known as brachytherapy and teletherapy are used for treatment of cancer
by radiation. In brachytherapy a radiation source is kept in close contact with the tumour for a
specified period of time. This method is widely used in treatment of cervical cancer and cancer
of other cavities or surfaces. The radiation source is transferred through a tube inserted into a
cavity or surgically implanted, by remote operation in order to prevent the medical personnel
from being exposed to radiation. Sophisticated brachytherapy systems which can deliver the
optimal radiation doses using information obtained from CT scans are now available.

In teletherapy treatment, the patient is exposed to radiation from a source away from his
body. The radioisotope is placed in the shielded head of the teletherapy machine which can be
rotated to any position to target the beam to the site of the tumor. Commonly used radioisotopes
are Co-60 or Cs-137 with an activity of the order of 10 kCi. Teletherapy treatment is carried out
in a shielded room to prevent the medical personnel and others from being exposed to radiation
during treatment. After the beam of radiation is targeted to the location of the tumour using a
laser beam, the shutter in the shielding of head of the teletherapy machine is opened for a
prescribed period of time from a control console located outside the therapy room.

Electron

accelerators (linear accelerators or Lineacs) are also used in many countries for teletherapy.

Cancer of the thyroid gland is treated by administration of radioactive iodine (I-131) to

the patient.

Because of the affinity of the thyroid gland for iodine most of the administered

iodine will be concentrated in the thyroid gland and will irradiate the tumour with radiation. A
dose of about 100 mCi is normally administered and the patient has to be kept in isolation until
the activity of the radioisotope is reduced to a safe level by radioactive decay and by excretion
from the body. Lower doses of I-131 are used for treatment of hyperthyroidism.

More advanced techniques such as proton accelerators, neutron irradiators, heavy-ion

accelerators and treatments based on boron-neutron capture reaction are also used in cancer
therapy.

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Nuclear Medicine
Nuclear medicine is based on the use of minute amounts of radioactive materials of
known biological behavior to trace specific functions or biochemical processes in the human
body. The first application of radiotracers in medicine has been in the determination of the recirculation time of blood by injecting a natural radioisotope of bismuth.

The radiotracers can

be either injected to a patient (in-vivo) or can be added to a biological sample such as blood (invitro) for diagnostic purposes.

The branch of Nuclear Medicine known as Nuclear Imaging is based on injecting a

patient with a radiopharmaceutical containing a short lived radioisotope. The most commonly
used radioisotope is Tc-99m which has a half-life of only 6 hours. Tc-99m required for nuclear
imaging is obtained from the decay of Mo-99 (half-life - 60 days)

and Tc-99m generators

containing the parent material Mo-99 and chemicals for eluting the Tc-99m produced are
commercially available. The pharmaceutical (cold compound) is selected based on the organ to
be scanned.

The pattern of radiation emitted by the organ can be detected using a device known as a
Gamma Camera. A Gamma Camera has a large NaI crystal and a number of photo-multiplier
tubes arranged in a grid. The image of the organ being scanned is constructed and displayed on a
video display unit from the signals received from the photo-multiplier tubes.

Unlike the image obtained from an X-radiograph, which gives information only on the
anatomy of the organ being scanned, a nuclear image will provide information on the functional
status of the organ. For example, it is possible to observe urine being produced by a kidney. By
using appropriate radiotracers it is possible to investigate fourteen different functions of the heart
including biochemical and metabolic processes in different structures. Nuclear imaging also can
be used for early detection of cancer and is commonly used in post-treatment management of
cancer patients. Nuclear Imaging facilities are available at the National Hospital Colombo, the
Lady Ridgeway Childrens Hospital and at Teaching Hospital Peradeniya. Such facilities are
expected to be installed in other main hospitals in the future.

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More advanced method of nuclear imaging such as SPECT (single photon emission
computed tomography) can be used to obtain bi-dimensional images of slices of an organ.
Another advanced imaging technique known as PET (positron emission tomography) makes it
possible to observe most delicate biochemical processes in human body such as interactions
between neuro-transmitters and neuro-receptors in the brain.
The other branch of Nuclear Medicine is called radioimmunoassay (RIA) which is an invitro diagnostic technique. RIA can be used to detect and measure hormones in blood samples
such as, thyroid related hormones (T3, T4, TSH), reproductory hormones, (Progesterone,
Testosterone, Estrogen) and viruses such as the Hepatitis-B virus. RIA also can be used to detect
the presence of certain chemicals known as tumour markers which are released by malignant
tumours. The detection of the presence of the tumour markers makes it possible to detect
malignancies at very early stages and is a very useful tool in management of cancer patients.

RIA makes use of the chemical affinity between anti-bodies and anti-gens. The presence
of an anti-gen can be determined using polystyrene beads, coated with the corresponding antibody obtained from guinea pigs. The anti-gen in the blood samples will bond with anti-body in
the bead to form an anti-body anti-gen complex molecule. When a serum containing human
antibody labeled with the radioisotope I-125 is added a new molecule with the anti-gen
sandwiched between the guinea pig antibody and the human anti-body will be formed. By
measuring the radioactivity of the beads after washing them to remove unbound labeled antibody, the presence or the absence of the anti-gen can be determined.

Radioimmunoassay

facilities are available at the National Hospital Colombo, at Faculty of medicine of University of
Peradeniya and at the Faculty of Medicine of University of Ruhuna.

Tissue Banking and Sterilization of Medical Products

Exposure to radiation is a very effective method of sterilizing human tissues for
transplantation and medical products. Tissues such as bones, skin obtained from cadavers and
sterilized by radiation can be used for transplantation in surgical operations. Sterilized bones are
used to replace bones damaged due to trauma or removed due to malignancy. Skin is used in
treatment of burn victims and those who suffer from severe skin diseases. Another tissue which

130

can be used for treatment of burns is amnion which is the skin of the sack in which a baby is
born. The use of amnion reduces the discomfort to the patient and accelerates the healing
process. Other tissues such as tendons, cartilage, pericardium, dura matter, eye sclera and
fascialata are also processed in this manner.

Tissue Banks established in many countries

including Sri Lanka, process and store such tissues.

Most disposable medical products such as surgical gloves, syringes, catheters are also
sterilized by radiation. It is not possible to use heat to sterilize plastics and the use of chemicals
could leave harmful residues. Use of radiation makes it possible to sterilize the products after
packaging since radiation can penetrate the packaging materials. This prevents re-contamination
during the packaging stage. A large irradiation plant has been constructed by a private company
in Sri Lanka to sterilize locally produced surgical gloves.

8.5 APPLICATIONS OF RADIATION AND RADIOISOTOPES IN THE

AGRICULTURAL SECTOR
Similar to the industrial and medical sectors, radioisotopes and radiation can be used in
the agricultural sector for a wide range of purposes. The following is a brief description of some
of these applications.

Soils Studies
Soil chemistry plays a very important role in agriculture, and studies on the availability of
nutrients to the plants from the soil, provides very valuable data for improvement of the
agronomic practices for increasing agricultural productivity and reducing production costs.
Radioisotopes can be used very effectively as tracers for a number of purposes in soil studies
such as, in determination of the cat ion exchange capacity of soil, in studies on nutrient
movement and supply, in determination of the availability of nutrient elements in soil (A, L and
E values),

studies on soil organic matter introduction,

microorganisms on decomposing of organic matter.

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and studies on

the

effect of

Radioisotopes can be also used for determination of the efficiency of the fertilizer use, to
optimize the fertilizer application practices. The uptake of a fertilizer to a plant can be easily
determined by using a fertilizer labeled with a radioisotope such as P-32 and by measuring the
radioactivity of plant components after the application of the fertilizer. Radioisotopes can also be
used to determine the location and distribution of the active roots of the plants in order to
identify the optimum method of applying fertilizers.

Some of the radioisotopes commonly used in soil science are, P-32, I-131, Sr-85, S-35,
Ca-45, H-3 and Zn-65.

Plant Science
In plant science too, radioisotopes can be used as labels to obtain very valuable
information. They are commonly used for studies on plant metabolism; photosynthesis; carbon
assimilation, translocation and yield components; for studies on ion uptake, distribution and plant
nutrition and in determination of the leaf water status.

The commonly used radioisotopes are C-

14, Tc-99, Pm-147, Kr-85, Tl-204, P-32, K-42, Rb-86, and Na-22. The attenuation of gamma
radiation as it passes through materials can be used to determine the plant density or biomass. A
0.2 mCi Am-241 source is moved at a constant rate along one side of the plot while a
scintillation counter is moved along the opposite side of the plot at the same rate in line with the
Am-241 source. The amount of radiation received by the detector will be a measure of the
density of the plants located between the source and the detector.

Soil Moisture Measurements

Measurement of soil water content is necessary for designing irrigation systems and for
development of practices to improve soil moisture retainment. A device known as the neutron
moisture probe can be very effectively used for determination of the soil moisture content.

As described in Section 2.4, neutrons can be elastically scattered in interactions with

nuclei resulting in the neutron transferring a part of its kinetic energy to the nucleus it is
interacting with. Such interactions are similar to the elastic collision of two particles, with
conservation of kinetic energy and momentum.
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It can be easily shown that the maximum

amount energy is transferred from the neutron to thenucleus, if it is of the same mass as a
neutron. In other words, the maximum energy transfer occurs in elastic scatterings by hydrogen
nuclei. Since the amount of hydrogen in a soil sample depends on its water content, the
effectiveness of slowing down of neutrons by a soil sample is an indication of its moisture
content.

A neutron moisture probe comprises of a fast neutron source, and a proportional counter
containing BF3. Boron interacting with slow (thermal neutrons) produce particles which can be
detected from the ionization of the medium as described in Section 3.2. The output of the
detector will depend on the slow or thermal neutrons striking the detector which depends on the
hydrogen or water content of the medium. Fig. 8.4 shows a soil moisture probe. The soil
moisture content can be determined by lowering the neutron source and the detector attached to a
cable to the required depth through a previously installed access tube.

Counter

shield

Ground surface
Access tube
Pre-amplifier
Neutron source
BF3 detector
Plug

Fig. 8.4 Neutron Soil Moisture Probe

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Plant Breeding
The ability of radiation to induce genetic mutations is now widely used in plant breeding.
The genetic structure of plant tissues can be changed by exposing to radiation. This technique is
known as radiation induced mutation breeding. Plants with improved characteristics such as
higher yields, better resistance to diseases, shorter height etc. can be produced by using this
technique combined with the conventional breeding methods. More than 1500 new varieties of
crops have been produced by this method.

Animal Husbandry
Nuclear techniques are also used in animal husbandry for control of diseases, form
improving nutrition and for improving reproduction. Vaccines against several animal diseases
have been produced by weakening the parasites by irradiation in such a way although they could
still infect the animals they will not cause the disease. Isotopes also have been used to obtain
information on digestive process in animals and the information has been used to develop low
cost nutrients. One example is the Urea Molasses Block (UMMB) which is a cheap substitute
for poonach. Nuclear techniques are also used in diagnosis of animal diseases. Enzyme linked
immonosorbent assay (or ELIZA) is a technique developed using nuclear techniques and is
widely used for diagnosis of a number of animal diseases. Radioimmunoassay (RIA) is used to
determine the progesterone levels in cows to determine the most optimum time for breeding.

References
1. S.M. Rao and K.M. Kulkarni, Isotopes and Radiation Technology in Industry, National
Association for Applications of Radioisotopes and Radiation in Industry, India
2. C. Whiston, X-Ray methods, John Wiley and Sons
3. IAEA Bulletin Vol 36, No.4
4. IAEA Bulletin Vol 33, No.1
5. Nuclear News , Bulletin of the Atomic Energy Authority, Volume 2 No.1
6. P.B. Vose Introduction to Nuclear Techniques in Agronomy and Plant Biology, Pergamon
Press
7. IAEA Bulletin Vol 34, No.4

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8. Nuclear Strategies in Food and Agriculture - 25 years of Progress , Publication of the Joint
FAO/IAEA Division of Nuclear Techniques in Food and Agriculture.

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The Author

Dr. Prinath Dias holds a BSc Engineering degree in Electrical Engineering from University of
Sri Lanka, a Masters degree in Nuclear Engineering and a Doctoral degree from Texas A&M
University, USA.

He is a former Associate Professor in the Department of Electrical

Engineering of University of Moratuwa, Sri Lanka and a former Visiting Associate Professor in
the Department of Chemical and Nuclear Engineering of University of California, Santa Barbara,
USA. He has served as the Chairman of the Atomic Energy of Sri Lanka and as a senior
professional in the International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA) of the United Nations. He is a
recipient of the IAEA Distinguished Service Award.