CEMENT

CENTRE TECHNIQUE
EUROPE CENTRALE

CTEC
Training Handout

GAS HANDLING

By
Wolfgang Kurka

September 2004,
Darica, Turkey

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APPENDIX Page 2 of 57

EXECUTIVE SUMMARY

Objective:
Objective of the training session is to provide operational skills to:
Determine / calculate gas properties using appropriate gas laws
Perform simple heat and mass balances
to systematically approach process
optimization problems
Test and qualify an installed fan performance

INTRODUCTION:
All kind of gases play an important role in our cement manufacturing process. Gases
are uses for several reasons:
Transport (e.g.: pneumatic systems…)
Heat transfer (e.g.: combustion gases, cooling gases…)
Combustion (e.g.: oxygen supply, fuel supply…)
Etc…
The day-to-day work of a process engineer is related to optimize existing systems,
support in design of new systems. In order to be able to further optimize a system it is
important to get to know the system key parameters and its behavior. The „Gas
Handling“-training will focus on the following topics,
Application of Ideal Gas Law, Gas Properties (T, p, V, humidity) + Calculations
Measurement methods (T, p, v, Gas composition,…)
Basics / Review on Thermodynamics
simple heat balances
Fan laws, Fan performance evaluation
in order to provide necessary tools for a systematic approach to a process problem. To
be finally able to perform the typically required steps for a process balance as follows
[1]:
1) Identify the system (boundary limits). In other words define the boundaries around the
system that you intend to study. Choose carefully since you'll need to measure/calculate
everything that crosses the borders.

2) Identify all mass inputs and outputs that cross the boundaries you've just
defined. This includes all solids, liquids and gases. Eventually you will need to know how
much heat each stream carries across the boundary, so plan accordingly. You'll need to know

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the rate, composition, temperature and pressure (where applicable) so that you can eventually
work out how much heat has gone into the control volume and how much has come out.

3) Identify all energy inputs and outputs that cross the same boundaries. This
includes electricity, wall losses, chemical reactions (which is either absorbed or released energy),
including vaporization and burning.

4) Measure mass and energy inputs and outputs, recording the appropriate
temperatures, pressures and other values, as well as sampling to determine
mass compositions where needed - over a period of time when the system is
stable. Sometimes it is useful to make redundant measurements so that you can cross check
values. The cross check will either support your measurements or it will show what values
should not be trusted. For example, the difference between the feed moisture and product
residual moisture should equal the water vapor found in the drying gas stream less its starting
humidity. This is particularly important where direct measurements are impossible and you can
only determine it by inference or by difference.

5) Recognize that we cannot quite measure everything practically, so list all

assumptions you plan to work with. Try not to make too many if possible. Talk with
others who have done this sort of heat balance before especially if you are uncertain as to what is
practical or not.

6) Do a mass balance first. Adjust mass flow measurements within reasonable error limits so
that inputs equal outputs. Does any of the cross-checks work out well? Do you need to make
more assumptions? Usually it is easier if you convert gas flows into mass flows. Does the mass
balance make sense?

7) Finally do a heat balance. Determine the energy carried by each mass flow, using the
results from the mass balance. You'll also need to know the compositions so you'll be able to
figure out the aggregate heat capacity. With temperatures and Cp's you'll be able to calculate
heat flows. Then include the energy inputs and outputs. Again adjust the values within
reasonable error limits until the total inputs and total outputs balance.

8) Does the balance make sense? Recognize that there is more than one way to make
everything balance but only one is right. Often there are erroneous assumptions made. It is
always helpful to make physical observations to support your findings. For example inleakage
must be high if the seal is missing or you could measure a negative pressure above the rotary
feeder. Sometimes knowing the equipment limitations can help rule out certain results as simply
impossible. In other cases comparing results with previous balances or similar studies done at
other plants will shed some light.

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TABLE OF CONTENTS

EXECUTIVE SUMMARY 2
OBJECTIVE: 2
INTRODUCTION: 2

1. FUNDAMENTAL GAS LAWS 6

1.1 “IDEAL GAS LAW” 6
1.1.1 ATMOSPHERIC PRESSURE 7
1.1.2 CONVERSION VOLUME ↔ MOLE ↔ MASS 7
1.2 WATER VAPOR 8
1.2.1 PSYCHOMETRIC CHART 10
2. PROCESS MEASUREMENTS 13
2.1 REQUIREMENTS FOR SAMPLING POINTS 13
2.2 LIST OF RECOMMENDED PROCESS MEASUREMENT EQUIPMENT 14
2.3 PREPARATION OF MEASUREMENT 14
2.4 TEMPERATURE MEASUREMENT 15
2.4.1 PHYSICAL BACKGROUND OF PRINCIPLE 15
2.4.2 PERFORMING THE MEASUREMENT 17
2.5 PRESSURE MEASUREMENT 17
2.5.1 PHYSICAL BACKGROUND OF PRINCIPLE 18
2.5.2 PERFORMING THE STATIC PRESSURE MEASUREMENT 18
2.6 GAS FLOW MEASUREMENT 18
2.6.1 PHYSICAL BACKGROUND OF PRINCIPLE 20
2.6.2 PERFORMING THE MEASUREMENT 22
2.7 GAS COMPOSITION MEASUREMENT 23
2.7.1 MEASUREMENT OF O2, CO, NO 23
2.7.2 MEASUREMENT OF H2O 23
3. THERMODYNAMICS 25
3.1 THE FIRST LAW 25
3.2 ENTHALPY 25
3.3 HEAT CAPACITY 26
3.4 INFLUENCE OF PHASE CHANGES ON ENTHALPIES 28
4. SIMPLE HEAT BALANCE EXERCISES 29
4.1.1 REVIEW OF 3-JUNCTION CONCEPT 29
4.1.2 GROUPWORK “HEAT BALANCES” 30
5. APPENDICES 31

APPENDIX A: SOLUTIONS OF EXERCISES 32

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EXERCISE 1.1 - IDEAL GAS LAW 32

EXERCISE 1.2 - GAS DENSITY 32
EXERCISE 1.3 - MASS FRACTION 32
EXERCISE 1.4 - SIZE OF A DUST COLLECTOR 33
EXERCISE 2.1 – PSYCHROMETRIC CHART 34
EXERCISE 2.2 - CALCULATION OF THE DEW POINT T 35
EXERCISE 3.1 - HEAT CONTENT OF VAPOR 36
EXERCISE 4.1 - HEAT CONTENT OF VAPOR 37
EXERCISE 4.2 – HEAT BALANCE 38
APPENDIX B: PSYCHOMETRIC CHART 41

APPENDIX C: PERIODIC TABLE OF ELEMENTS 42

APPENDIX D: MEASUREMENT POINTS 43

D.1 THE DOWNCOMER AFTER PREHEATER 43
D.2 COOLER EXHAUST STACK 44
D.3 COOLING FANS 44
APPENDIX E: “THERMODYNAMIC FUNCTIONS” ADD IN 45

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1. FUNDAMENTAL GAS LAWS

determine for gas mixtures, using the appropriate gas laws
gas density
mixture molecular weight
convert from mass fraction to volume fraction and vice versa
read a psychrometric chart

1.1 “Ideal Gas Law”

An ideal gas is defined as one in which all collisions between atoms or molecules are
perfectly eleastic and in which there are no intermolecular attractive forces. We can
imagine it as a collection of perfectly hard spheres which collide but which otherwise do
not interact with each other.
An ideal gas can be characterized by three state variables: absolute pressure (P),
volume (V), and absolute temperature (T). The relationship between them is defined as
follows:

p ⋅V = n ⋅ R ⋅ T
p ⋅V
= const
T
p0 ⋅V0 p1 ⋅V1
=
T0 T1
n = number of moles
R = universal gas constant = 8.3145 [J/mol K]
The index 0 refers to normal condition (also called STP for standard
temperature and pressure), which is used widely as a standard reference
point for expression of the properties and processes of ideal gases. The
standard temperature is the freezing point of water and the standard
pressure is one standard atmosphere. These can be quantified as follows:
T0 Standard temperature: 0 [°C] = 273.15 [K]
p0 Standard pressure = 1 [atm] = 760 [mmHg] = 1013.25 [mbar]
Standard volume of 1 [mole] of an ideal gas at normal conditions: 22.4 [l]

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Exercise 1.1- Ideal Gas Law

The flow rate of gas in a kiln stack is measured with 127 300 [m³/h] at a temperature of
325 [ºC] and a relative negative pressure of 50 [mbar] with an atmospheric pressure of
1013.25 [mbar].
Calculate that flow rate at normal conditions.

1.1.1 Atmospheric pressure

In the exercise the atmospheric (=
absolute) pressure was assumed to be
equal to standard pressure. In reality we
will have an influence of the altitude and
weather conditions. For a precise
calculation it is advisable to use the
correct absolute pressure. Best is if the
plant has a barometer, but if not - one way
is to call the weather service for the
absolute pressure related to sea level and
to correct this pressure to the plant
conditions using the following formula.
5,255
 0,0065×h 
p=p o  1− 

 273,15 + T 

1.1.2 Conversion Volume ↔ Mole ↔ Mass

The convertion to normal conditions is necessary to be able to further convert
volumetric flow to molar flow, mass flow respectively to benchmark different processes.
One [kmol] of an ideal gas at normal conditions occupies 22.4 [m³]. If we know the gas
flow in normal conditions and we can assume an ideal gas, we automatically know the
molar flow.

V&N [Nm³ / h]
= n& [kmol / h]
VM [ = 22.4 Nm³ / kmol ]

In a further step we convert molar flow [kmol/h] to a mass flow [kg/h] using the molar
mass of the gas.
MM [kg / kmol ] • n& [kmol / h] = m
& [kg / h]

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Exercise 1.2- Gas Density

Calculate the density of air at 100 [ºC] and a relative negative pressure of 27 [mbar].
(molecular weight of air: 28.966 g/mole)

For minor components use values from standard tables, because they are not ideal gas.
In our day-to-day problems this mainly concerns SO2:
SO2 = M = 64.06 [kg/kmol]
from ideal calculations we would get ρo = 2.86 [kg/Nm³],
but in literature we can find different values ρo = 2.92 [kg/Nm³]. Therefore it is
recommended to use in such cases standard tables especially for environmental
calculations!

Exercise 1.3 - Mass Fraction

The following gas composition, on volume basis, was measured at the back of a kiln.
Calculate it on mass basis.
O2 : 2,99% Ar : 0,74%
CO2 : 30,11% SO2 : 1600 ppm
N2 : 62,18% H2O : 3,82%

Exercise 1.4 - Size of a Dust Collector

The first offer for a new vent air system of a clinker cooler is designed to handle
200 000 [m³/h] at 250 [ºC] and relative negative pressure 20 [mbar] (System A).
During the discussion with the supplier it gets obvious that additionally a 5% (by mass)
air inleakage has to be considered. Is the proposed filtration area (for system A)
sufficient including false air considering an air-to-cloth ratio of 1.2 [m³/(m².min)] (System
B)?
Assume a dust collector inlet temperature of 220 [ºC] and inlet pressure of 7 [mbar].

1.2 Water Vapor

Until now we have only looked at gases, which are more or less one phase in the
temperature range that is relevant in cement manufacture. Water is different. In our
process water will be present in liquid, gaseous form and also in an „intermediate“ state.
For example due to drying of material, conditioning of gas or combusting fuels water will
change its phase.
In the following paragraphs we will try to look at some definitions of properties of
water/water vapor.
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The pressure of a gas can be defined as the sum of the partial pressures created by
each of the components entering in the gas composition. This is DALTON's law.
ptotal = p1 + p2 + ... + pi

with
p1 : pressure created by the component 1 alone
p2 : pressure created by the component 2 alone and so one...

The partial pressure of a pure substance at a given temperature, if it is in equilibirum

with the liquid phase is called the saturation vapor pressure. This pressure value is
the image of the maximum quantity of this substance under its gaseous form which can
be found in a gaseous mixture for a given temperature. One can compare the partial
vapor pressure which is found without the associated liquid phase relatively to the
saturation vapor pressure = RELATIVE HUMIDITY. By measuring the relative humidity,
we compare the actual quantity of water vapor to the maximum quantity of water vapor
which can be found in these conditions of ambient temperature and pressure. Relative
Humidity is the most commonly used measurement in the humidity arena.
However, other ways can be used in order to quantify or describe the humidity
parameter. If the air is gradually cooled while maintaining the moisture content constant,
the relative humidity will rise until it reaches 100%. This temperature, at which the
moisture content in the air will saturate the air, is called the DEW POINT . If the air is
cooled further, some of the moisture will condense.
ABSOLUTE HUMIDITY is the water vapor concentration in the air typically expressed in
[g H2O/kg dry air].
In order to determine the humidity of gas one
way is to measure the so-called – DRY BULB
TEMPERATURE (DBT) and WET BULB
TEMPERATURE (WBT). The DBT is the
temperature of the air. Whereas Wet bulb
temperature (WBT) is measured by a
hygrometer (or psychrometer). This consists of
two thermometers, one measuring the DBT, the
other having its bulb enclosed in a wet wick.
'Wet bulb depression' is noted as the difference
in the temperatures between the wet wick
thermometer and the DBT. The difference
happens as the wet wick thermometer is cooled
down by the evaporation on the wick. The
amount of evaporation is a direct indication of

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the moisture carrying capacity of the

atmospheric air at that temperature and that
lowers the WBT
We will now describe/use a tool, which can help us to define the relationship between all
this definitions.

1.2.1 Psychometric Chart

Very useful tutorial under http://www.uwsp.edu/it/itmm/psychtut/CompleteChart.htm.
The psychrometric chart represents the state of a given atmosphere by a point which
gives the dry-bulb, wet-bulb, relative humidity, specific volume and saturation
temperature of the atmosphere.
The figure below represents a typical psychrometric chart. The psychrometric chart
differs only by altitude or barometric pressure.

PSYCHROMETRIC CHART 13
5
14
0
14
5
15
0
15
5
16
0
40
Sea Level 13 45
0 17
BAROMETRIC PRESSURE 760 mm of Mercury 5
44
12
5 43
35 17
35 0
.96

.98

1.00
12 42
0
41
11 35 16
5 40 5

11 39
0 16
38 0
10
5 35 37
W
ET 15
10 BU 36 5
0 LB
TE 30 35
M
95 PE 34 15
RA 0
T UR HUMIDITY RATIO - GRAMS OF MOISTURE PER KILOGRAM OF DRY AIR 33
E
90
.94

30 -°
C 30 32 14
5
85 31
30 14
AIR

25 0
80 29
RY

VAPOR PRESSURE - MM OF MERCURY

ENTHALPY - KJ PER KG OF DRY AIR

FD

30 28
75 13
5
°C
O

27
KG

E-

26
UR

70
.92
R

13
PE

AT

25 0
SPE
KJ

ER

65 25 24
-

MP

CIFIC

20 25
PY

12
TE

23
AL

5
90%

60
TH

VOLU
TIO

22
EN

RA

55 25 21 12
ME

0
TU

.90
80%

20
m³/kg
SA

50
19 11
5
OF D

20 18
%

45 15
20
70

RY A

17
11
40 0
16
IR
.88
%

20
60

15
35 10
14 5
25 15
13
%

30
50

20 10 10
12 0
15
.86

15
11
%

10
40

10 10 95
10 9
5
10
.84

0 % 8
30 90
-5 5 7
DEW POINT - °C

-1 5 5 6
0
.82

85
-1 0 20% 5
5 0 0
-2 IDIT Y 4
0 HUM
.80

-5
TIVE 80
-2 RELA 3
5 -10 10%
.78

-15 -10 2
.76

-25 -20 1
-20 75
-40
-30 -25 -20 -15 -10 -5 0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 55 60

Linric Company Psychrometric Chart, www.linric.com DRY BULB TEMPERATURE - °C 70

15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 55 60 65

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Psychrometric Terms
The chart might seem a little overwhelming in the number of parameters it represents
and their relationship to one another but we will look at its components individually in
the following order:
Absolute humidity (AH) is the vapor content of
air, given in grams of water vapour per kg of air,
i.e. [g/kg]. Air at a given temperature and
pressure can support only a certain amount of
moisture and no more. This is referred to as the
saturation humidity (SH). If this is plotted on a
graph against the dry bulb (air) temperature
(DBT), we have the basis of the psychromeytric
chart and we get what is called the saturation
humidity line.
Relative humidity (RH) is an expression of the
moisture content of a given atmosphere as a
percentage of the saturation humidity at the
same temperature:
RH = 100 x AH/SH [%]
Relative humidity lines are plotted on the
psychrometric chart by halving each SH ordinate
to obtain the 50 [%] curve, and further
proportionate subdivision gives any
intermediated RH curve.

Wet bulb temperature (WBT)

When the air is saturated, there is no
evaporation, thus the DBT and WBT readings
are identical, the depression is zero. In this way,
the 'status point' is determined at the intersection
of the vertical DBT line and the sloping WBT line
of the psychrometric chart.

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Enthalpy (E) is the heat content of unit mass of

the atmosphere, in [kJ/kg], relative to the heat
content of 0°C dry air. It was omitted from the
psychromteric chart shown above to avoid
confusion which a third set of lines will cause.
The enthalpy lines would almost, but not quite,
conincide with the WBT lines. To avoid the
confusion in representing it, the enthalpy scale is
given at the perimeter of the chart and can be
read by using a straight edge.
For air condition P the enthalpy is read at point
A. The sensible heat component can be read at
point B, corrosponding to the enthalpy of dry air
at the same temperature. The remainder, ie, A -
B, is the latent heat content

Exercise 2.1– Psychometric Chart

What is the absolute / relative humidity of air with a wet bulb temperature of 45 [°C]
and a dry bulb temperature of 64 [°C] ?
Please complete the following table:
Dry-bulb temperature [ºC] 80 120
Wet-bulb temperature [ºC] 45 45
Humidity [kg/kg dry air]
Dew point temperature [ºC)]

Exercise 2.2– Gas Properties + Psychometric Chart

The Process Engineer was able to determine the gas conditions at the back of a long
dry kiln:
1) Flowrate: 80500 [Nm³/h]
2) Temperature: 520 [ºC] (before water spray)
3) Water is injected at the back of the kiln to reduce the gas temperature to 359 [ºC].
4) Water spray: 6823 [kg/h]
5) Composition (before water spray): [% volume]
O2 1.66
CO2 32.43
SO2 0.24
N2 59.50
Ar 0.71
H2O 5.46
Calculate the dew point temperature of the gas after the water spray.

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2. PROCESS MEASUREMENTS
Perform manual process measurements related to gases (flow, velocity,
temperature, pressure, gas composition…)

2.1 Requirements for sampling points

The following “Check list” was elaborated by VDZ (German Cement Association) and
defines the requirements on a sampling point according to German standards. It
represents an ideal sampling point, which is practically not always possible.
Nevertheless it is a good checklist.
Requirements on sampling point:
Good accessibility for people and equipment
Protection against external impacts (Rain, Wind, Heat, Dust, etc)
In accordance with safety requirements
Requirements on sampling platform:
Enough space for equipment manipulation esp. during reference measurements
Minimal loading capacity: 250 [kg/m²]
Depth of platform: 2-3 [m]
Lifting roll for transport of equipment
Power supply (e.g.: Central Europe: 3*220 V/16 A and 3*380 V/32 A
Requirements on openings:
Ducts < 3[m] in diameter: 2 openings (90° displaced) with an internal screw thread
(3”) with socket, one opening with an internal screw thread (1”) with socket
Ducts > 3 [m] in diameter: 4 openings (90° displaced around stack) with an internal
screw thread (3”) with socket
Brick-Stacks: 20*30 cm rectangular opening
Requirements on gas flow:
Undisturbed flow (homogeneous over cross-section)
Vertical flows are to be preferred in comparison to horizontal flows
Flow velocity in cross-section > 5 [m/s]

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Undisturbed entering zone before sampling point: 3* diameter (for rectangular cross
section: hydraulic diameter), undisturbed leaving zone after sampling point:
2*diameter

2.2 List of recommended Process Measurement

Equipment
This list only covers the equipment, which is necessary for the measurements
discussed during the gas handling training.
Temperature
Electronic thermometer (e.g.: TESTO…)
Thermocouples
Thermowire
Pyrometer
Data Logger
Pressure
Electronic pressure measurement device (e.g.: TESTO…)
PITOT tube (long + small)
Probe
Velocity
Anemometer measurement device (e.g.: TESTO…)
Gas composition
Portable analyser (e.g.: TESTO, SENSONIC=MADUR…) with O2, CO, NO at
least
PROBE (high grade steel = low carbon)
water cooled probe for high temperatures
Stopwatch
Metering device

2.3 Preparation of Measurement

Recording the appropriate temperatures, pressures, velocities and other values, as well
as sampling to determine gas compositions where needed - over a period of time when
the system is stable. Sometimes it is useful to make redundant measurements so that
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you can cross check values. The cross check will either support your measurements or
it will show what values should not be trusted. Before doing a measurement we should
re-think several points:
What do we going to measure?
How long/often we are going to measure?
Do we have all necessary equipment (e.g.: measurement equipment: to measure
length, time, temperature, pressure, flow, gas composition,…)?
Is the equipment adequate to the conditions
measurement range?
Is the equipment calibrated accordingly?
Do we have the necessary tools (e.g.: wrench to open measurement point, gloves
for high temperatures, cloth/rubber to plug opening, electrical power for gas
analyser, water for water cooled gas probe, compressed air, marker to mark length
on PITOT tube….)?
How we are going to record the data (electronically, protocol)?
Is it safe to measure (who has to be informed, what has to be locked out,….)?
How will our measurement interfere operation (e.g.: influence on process control
sensors by opening measurement points (pressure)
interlockings!!)
…

2.4 Temperature Measurement

2.4.1 Physical Background of Principle

The measurement of temperature involves observing the properties of solid, liquid or
gaseous materials which change predictably as a function of temperature. The changes
can relate to, for example, the volume, length, electrical properties (resistance) or
optical characteristics of the materials observed.
Expansion thermometer
These devices are based on the thermal expansion of liquids or solids.
In liquid expansion thermometers, the liquid (e.g. mercury, alcohol) is held within a
capillary tube on which a scale is marked. Bimetal thermometers utilize the different
temperature expansion coefficients of two different materials joined together.
Platinum resistance thermometer (DIN EN 6075 1)
The resistance in a platinum conductor is measured in order to determine temperature.
The resistance increases with temperature. The change in resistance is not
proportional to the change in temperature. The display instruments used therefore have
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an integrated linearization system. By using thermo sensors with 3 or 4 wires the

resistance in the connection cables can be compensated.
Pt 100 resistance thermometers are often used. These devices have resistance of 100
Ω at t = O°C and can be used for temperatures ranging from -200°C to 850°C. The
sensor is normally encased in a ceramic body within a stainless steel pipe for extra
protection.
Thermoelectric couples (DIN IEC 584):
Temperature measurement using thermoelectric couples is based on the thermoelectric
effect (Seebeck effect). In a conductive circuit with two different metals, there is a
potential difference between the two contact points for the two metals if they have
different temperatures.
The following are the most common pairs of metals used:
- NiCr/NiAl: K type thermoelectric couple -270 to +1,372 °C,
- NiCrSi/NiSi: N type thermoelectric couple -270 to +1,300 °C,
- Fe/Constantan J type thermoelectric couple -210 to +1,200 °C,
- Cu/Constantan T type thermoelectric couple -270 to 400 °C,
- PtRh 13/Pt R type thermoelectric couple -50 to +1,768 °C.
The thermoelectric voltage is in the region of 10 to 50 µV/K temperature difference
between the reference and the actual measuring point. The voltages are amplified and
linearised by means of measuring transducers. As the measurement result is dependent
on the temperature of the reference measuring point, this is either thermostat controlled
or the measurement discrepancy is compensated electrically. The sensor is normally
encased in a ceramic body within a stainless steel pipe for extra protection.
As thermoelectric voltages can also be generated by extending the thermo element
connection cables, the connections cables may need to be extended by means of
compensation cables specially adapted for the thermoelectric couple used.
Radiation thermometer (radiation pyrometer)
Materials above absolute zero emit electromagnetic radiation, the intensity and
wavelength distribution of which is primarily dependent on temperature. Hot gases emit
in characteristic emission bands. Radiation pyrometers are a no-contact method of
measuring the intensity of these bands in a limited spectral range. Therefore, they are
particularly useful for the continuous measurement of very high temperatures (e.g.
process monitoring: secondary air temperature, kiln inlet temperature, shell
temperature, etc.). The spectral range measured using a radiation pyrometer must be
tailored to the measurement task with respect to gas composition and temperature
range.

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2.4.2 Performing the measurement

Thermoelectric couples
The typical temperature (=“Dry bulb” = gas stream temperature) is measured by a
thermocouple. The thermocouple should be inserted upstream the gas flow, and the
opening has to be plugged (e.g. cloth, rubber…) to avoid air inleakage.
In large duct do traverse temperatures as you do for the flow measurement (see flow
measurement).

Gas Flow

162 oC Leak air

Radiation pyrometer
Adjust the right settings for the pyrometer (normally the manual gives different ε-values
for different surfaces). The pyrometer has to be focused on the point, which is to be
measured. Many pyrometers have a laser pointer to support this focusing.

2.5 Pressure Measurement

The static pressure (pstat) is related to the
force acting against the duct wall. It is
depending on the flow and can be positive
or negative.
The dynamic pressure (pdyn) is the
resistance, which is triggered by an
obstacle in a fluid stream. It is only
existing in case of flow and not depending
on static pressure (e.g.: wind: pdyn > 0; pstat
= 0).

ρ ⋅ v2
p dyn =
2

As the dynamic pressure is linked to velocity, the measurement is mostly an

intermediate step for determining the flow/velocity in a gas stream. Therefore see
further details on dynamic pressure under chapter 2.6.

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Additionally to static and dynamic pressure it is also common to measure the difference
between to static pressures = differential pressure
e.g.: pressure drop due to design,
clogging….).

2.5.1 Physical Background of Principle

The measurement of pressure involves observing the movement of solid, liquid or
gaseous materials by applied pressure which change predictably as a function of
pressure (e.g.: spring, water column….).

2.5.2 Performing the static pressure measurement

Connect pressure hoses correctly to your measurement device. Normally instrument
has an indication “+/-“, whereby the “+” has to be connected to the static pressure end.
Insert a small probe approximately 1/3 of the diameter in to the duct. Plug the port hole,
to reduce effect of leak air. Measurement failure across the duct, is neglectable for static
pressure measurements.
With a PITOT and S-tube (turn it by 90°), unplug the velocity pressure pipe (=”-“) to do
the reading of the static pressure. Reference all static pressures to the same
atmospheric pressure, whereby the absolute static gas pressure ps = pAmbient + ∆ps (∆ps
= measured static pressure).
Trouble may occur just downstream of dampers where the pressure profile may not be
stable.

Gas Flow

- 65 [mbar]
Leak air

2.6 Gas Flow Measurement

The reference document for this part is the ISO-Norm 10780:1994CE especially pages
9-12.
If flow is measured in-situ (PITOT, Anemometer…) it is always related to actual
conditions. For the further processing of the results it is important to be able to convert
this actual flow measurement into standard conditions. Therefore always measure all
standardisation parameters in parallel (pressure – static plus ambient, temperature –

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gas ambient…) because only standard conditions allow us to convert the volumetric
flow into heat flow or molar
mass flow!
The tricky part of flow (=dynamic pressure or velocity) measurements is that the flow is
not equal over the cross-section. Therefore several measurements have to be
distributed over the cross-section. In order to get a representative picture the so-called
“Traverse Points” – concept should be applied.
For circular cross section, the points are The shaded portions
are of equal area. 1
located on two perpendicular diameters and

XI
2
3
at the centroidal axis of equal areas of the
cross section. 4

ΦD
Sampling plane area Duct diameter Minimum number of Minimum number Minimum number
sampling lines of sampling points of sampling points
per diameter per plane
m² m (diameters) Center point Center point
Incl. Excl. Incl. Excl.
0,07 to 0,38 0,3 to 0,7 2 3 2 5 4
0,38 to 0,79 0,7 to 1 2 5 4 9 8
0,79 to 3,14 1 to 2 2 7 6 13 12
> 3,14 >2 2 9 8 17 16
Table 1: Minimum number of sampling points for circular ducts having cross-sectional areas > 0,07 m²

For rectangular cross section, the area is divided

into as many equal rectangular sections as there
are measurement points. The points are located at
the center of the rectangular section.

Sampling plane area Minimum number of side Minimum number of

m² division sampling points
0,07 to 0,38 2 4
0,38 to 1,5 3 9
> 1,5 4 16
Table 2: Minimum number of sampling points for rectangular ducts having cross-sectional areas >0,07m²

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For the training an Excel spreadsheet is prepared, which calculates the distances “xi”
from the inner duct wall for circular cross-sections. The program is based on ISO-Norm
10780:1994CE, where you find more details to this topic.

2.6.1 Physical Background of Principle

Depending on the application flow measurements can be done direct (anemometer:
velocity) or indirect (PITOT/S-Tube: dynamic pressure).
Pressure tubes (e.g.: PITOT measurement)
Pressure tubes are often used for manual flow speed measurements. The advantage of
the use of pressure tubes compared to e.g.: anemometers is that they are applicable in
a higher T-range and up to a certain range of dust load. The most common type of
pressure tube is the PITOT tube. The hook-shaped probe is heading into the flow. The
overall pressure in the flow is recorded through a hole in the middle of the semicircular
or elliptical probe tip. The static pressure is recorded at an annular slot (or alternatively,
at radial holes) behind the probe tip. The pressures are measured using differential
pressure manometers (e.g. U-tube manometer, inclined tube manometer for improved
resolution or electronic micro-manometer).

Beside a PITOT tube also S-tube are used. The S-Tube has smaller dimensions of the
tube head, which helps for narrow measurement points. The “S” type must be corrected
because it gives a higher velocity pressure than the PITOT tube for the same gas
stream. Best is to calibrate the S-tube against a PITOT tube or by an outside company
to know the calibration factor “k”:

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2pd
v=k [m/s]
ρ

The average gas velocity in the duct is determined from the (dynamic pressure
)
velocity measurment at each of the traverse points with a Pitot / S-tube and a differential
manometer.
Anemometer
Propeller anemometers are used for manual flow speed measurement. Propeller
anemometers are sensitive to pollution and humidity (condensation). Their use is also
limited by a maximum operating temperature (applied in e.g.: cooling fans, blowers…),
which is specific to the design of the individual device. The measurement probe is held
in the flow of waste gas. The flow of waste gas drives an impeller wheel, the speed of
which is recorded on a no-contact basis (e.g. inductively). At a constant density of waste
gas, the waste gas speed is proportional to the speed of the wheel..

Velocity calculation
∑ p d
= 0,933
As the velocity is the square root of N
the pressure term, the average
speed v [m/s] has to be either
calculated using the mean of the
square roots for pressure as in the
following example
Measured dynamic pressures:
[mbar]
0,2
0,8
1,6 2
 Σ pd 
1,9   = 0,826
0,7  N 
 
0,4

or calculate the velocity in every measurement point and from this directly the average
velocity.
Flow Calculation:
Knowing the velocity (v in [m/s]) and the cross-section (A in [m²]) we can calculate the
volumetric flow in actual conditions [m³/h].

V& [m ³ / h] = A [m ²] ⋅ v [m / s ] ⋅ 3600 [s / h]

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Other methods to determine flow:

The PIEZO RING measures the static pressure in the
inlet bell of fresh air fan. After calibration the Piezo ring
indicates the flow. Reliable if the ring is kept clean
Q = k*p²

It is not recommended to use the FAN CURVE to 18

Fan Curve (Clinker Cooler Fan)
40

calculate the volumetric flow, because of system effects. 17 36

Static Pressure (inWG)

16 32
Fan curves represent fans under ideal lab conditions at

Power (BHP)
15 28

one temperature. 14 24
13 20

12 16

11 12

10 8
9 Volume (acfm x 1000) 4
8 0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

2.6.2 Performing the measurement

Pressure tubes (e.g.: PITOT measurement)
First it has to be checked if there are leakages of the PITOT tube and lines. Connect the
pressure hoses correctly to the manometer. Zero the manometer. Measure or determine
ambient pressure. Measure the static pressure in the duct once (beginning or end).
Measure velocity pressure at each traverse point. Ensure that the face opening plane of
the tube is maintained perpendicular to the longitudinal axis of the duct heading into the
gas flow, best is to do a marking that is visible during the measurement. Deviations
between the axis of the pressure tube and the direction of flow of less than 10 % have
virtually no impact on the measurement results. Measure the temperature (before/after
the velocity measurement).
Long term measurements can be affected by contamination of the probe holes.
Anemometer:
The anemometer has to be entered/taken out carefully but quickly into/from the duct
taking care not to be too long in the small cross-section of the opening in order to avoid
too high velocities. Inside the duct ensure that the anemometer impeller is maintained
perpendicular to the longitudinal axis of the duct heading into the gas flow. Normally an
indication (e.g.: red dot) is on the anemometer head indicating the right direction, which
should be marked also on a point that is visible during the measurement.

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2.7 Gas Composition Measurement

The most commonly used measurements, which are done by us, cover the gases O2,
CO, NO, dust and H2O. Other are normally more complex to measure or mobile
analysers are too expensive in comparison to contract an external institute.

2.7.1 Measurement of O2, CO, NO

Here we will only mention the practical use of portable units without going into detail
about physical background or different methods. O2, CO, NO can be measured by
standard mobile gas analysers (TESTO, Sensonic…). As different suppliers have quite
different systems we can only refer to the manual.
General importance is to be given to extraction system and to the preparation of the gas
before it enters the analyzer. A filter and a dryer may be required before the pump and
the analyzer. It is important to check the gas extraction system including probe for
plugging and leaking. Additionally the maintenance of the analyzer should be taken
serious (Read the manual carefully!). The electro-cell of the oxygen analyzer needs to
have a certain potential otherwise it gets damaged after a while. Therefore it is
recommended to operate the gas analyzer periodically (even not outside, but in the
office; e.g.: every 2-3 months).

2.7.2 Measurement of H2O

“Wet Bulb” - Temperature
In order to determine the humidity of gas one
way is to measure the so-called – DRY BULB
TEMPERATURE (DBT) and WET BULB
TEMPERATURE (WBT). The DBT is the
temperature of the air. Whereas Wet bulb
temperature (WBT) is measured by a
hygrometer (or psychrometer). This consists of
two thermometers, one measuring the DBT, the
other having its bulb enclosed in a wet wick.
'Web bulb depression' is noted as the difference
in the temperatures between the wet wick
thermometer and the DBT. The difference
happens as the wet wick thermometer is cooled
down by the evaporation on the wick. The
amount of evaporation is a direct indication of
the moisture carrying capacity of the
atmospheric air at that temperature and that

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lowers the WBT

Condensation in condensation trap plus sorption in blue gel or magnesium
perchlorate followed by gravimetry
H2O is extracted, condensed/absorbed, weighed and referenced with the extracted gas
amount. A defined volume of gas is sucked through a condensation trap and afterwards
a cartridge filled with a dried sorption agent. The sorption agent used is blue gel or
magnesium perchlorate (Mg(CIO)). The cartridge is weighed before and after gas
penetration. The humidity content fn is calculated on the basis of the standardized gas
volume and the differential mass of the cartridge.

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3. THERMODYNAMICS
About a hundred years or so ago, J.P. Joule carried out a series of experiments which
are fundamental to the understanding of the first law of thermodynamics. In one of his
experiments, he placed measured amounts of water in an insulated container and
agitated the water with a rotating stirrer. The amount of work done on the water by the
stirrer was measured as well as the temperature changes of the water. He found that a
definite amount of work was required per mass of water for every degree of temperature
rise. The original temperature of the water was then restored through contact with a
cooler object.

The conclusion was that there exists a quantitative relationship between work and heat,
and thus, heat is a form of energy.

The question comes to mind about what happens with this energy between the time it is
added to the water as work and extracted as work. The energy should assume some
form in the water. We define this form of energy as internal energy U.

3.1 The first law

The first law is basically a generalization of the law of conservation of energy.

Although energy assumes many forms, the total quantity of energy is constant =
If energy disappears in one form, it appears simultaneously in other forms.

If we then define a closed system as a system which do not permit the exchange of
mass between the system and its surrounding, the only means of energy transfer is
through heat and work. Assuming no changes in external, potential or kinetic energy,
this simplifies to:

∆U = Q − W
U is internal energy, Q is heat and W is work.

Internal energy has units of Joules, calories or BTU's.

3.2 Enthalpy
If the volume of the system does not stay constant, like in our process, volumetric work
is done and therefore the change in internal energy is no more equal to the added heat.

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In this case the heat of the system is better represented by the enthalpy assuming
constant pressure:

H = U + p ⋅V
Where H is enthalpy, U internal energy, p is pressure and V is volume.

Enthalpy has no absolute value, only changes in enthalpy can be calculated. The
restriction is a closed system with no mass exchange. These processes are rare in
industry. Therefore the introduction of steady state flow came along.

Steady state means that the conditions at all points in the apparatus are constant with
time. Thus all rates must be constant and no accumulation of energy or material may
take place.

For calorimetric measurements, the normal base that is selected is that H = 0 [J/kg],
[J/Nm³] at 0 [°C].

3.3 Heat Capacity

As mentioned in the introduction, a definite amount of heat is necessary to increase the
temperature of a unit mass of material by 1 degree. We'll call this the heat capacity of
the substance. We could express this mathematically as dQ = m ⋅ c ⋅ dT (m being the
mass, c heat capacity per unit mass and dT the temperature raise involved). In this form
the heat capacity is path dependent, just like heat. However, we can define 2 common
paths: constant pressure and constant volume. These we will call cp and cv and are
material properties.

Remembering that heat at constant pressure is better expressed by enthalpy we can

also write related to one unit of mass: ∆H = ∫ c p ⋅ dT = Q

Heat capacity is the amount of energy required to raise the temperature of a unit mass
or mol of substance by one degree.

Not to be mixed up with specific heat (although often used interchangeably with heat
capacity) is the ratio of the heat capacity of a substance over that of a reference
substance.

Practical application

Heat capacities are often expressed as a power series such as

cp = a + bT + cT2 + dT-2

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This form is also used by Lafarge (EXCEL process calculation spreadsheets,

Thermodynamic functions – Add In, Vademecum..) This equation is given for specific
temperature ranges (for example between 298 and 999 K, then the following between
1000 and 3299 K and another one between 3300 and 3600 K).

This is how to properly use these equations.

Base Equation:
Cp = a + bT + cT2 + dT-2

Remember, Temperatures are always expressed in Kelvin in this equation.

example: Find the Cpmean for Carbon dioxide @ 2400 K
Material Temp limit (K) a b c d
0-799 1.49625E-1 2.42420E-4 -9.77776E-8 -1.01938E3
CO2 800-1799 2.6043E-1 6.27757E-5 -1.38167E-8 -1.43928E4
1799-3999 3.32286E-1 3.92911E-6 -9.13715E-11 -4.80845E4

General integrated form:

T
T 2 − T0
2
T 3 − T0
3
1 1
∫T c p ⋅ dT a(T − T0 ) + b 2 + c 3 − d  T − T 
cpmean = 0 =  0 

T − T0 T − T0
Since we are looking for a Cp at 2400 K (i.e. the 1800 to 3999 range) the integral has
to be split up into three parts:
799 1799 2400

∫ cp
273 .15
( 273 −799 ) ⋅ dT + ∫ cp
800
( 800 −1799 ) ⋅ dT + ∫ cp
1800
(1800 −2400 ) ⋅ dT =

= 128.6015 + 307.4963 + 204.4684 = 640.5392 [kcal / kg ]

640.5392
⇒ c p mean = = 0.3011[kcal /( kg ⋅ K )]
2400 − 273
If you try this yourself, you'll find another reason to be thankful for computers.

And if you think the precision is a bit ridiculous consider this:

If your cp is off by .01 and you're doing a kiln heat balance involving 20 t/h of CO2 flow
(not unusual), just that small difference would cause an errror of ~3 [%]in your
calculation, with today's computing power readily available to anyone, there is no longer
a valid reason to take these shortcuts
Therefore in Lafarge we have an EXCEL „Add
In“ doing such calculations (see
Appendix E:).

However, the following graph illustrates the difference between the straight equation
and the longer way of doing things.

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Point Cp vs Mean Cp

0.3000

0.2500 mean Cp

0.2000

0.1500 Point Cp
0.1000

0.0500

0.0000
20

80

140

200

260

320

380

440

500

560

620

680
Temperature (C)

Calculation of the specific heat capacity of a mix

For mixtures of gases, given the fact that we're assuming an ideal gas (i.e. no molecular
interactions) we can add the individual components Cp's proportionally to their
percentage of the mixture

c pmix = x1 ⋅ c p1 + x 2 ⋅ c p 2 + x 3 ⋅ c p 3
Where x refers to the mass/molar percentage, depending of the unit of Cp’s ([kJ/(kg K)],
[kJ/(Nm³ K)], [kJ/(kmol K)]…). All the preceding also applies to solids and liquids with
the appropriate cp equations.

3.4 Influence of phase changes on enthalpies

Heat is transferred from the surrounding to a substance when phase changes take
place without temperature changes. The most commonly occuring phase changes are:
heat of fusion = condensation, heat of vaporization, heats of transition = change from
one solid state to another takes place. Various equations have been proposed to
calculate these heats. From a practical point of view, the latent heat of vaporization is
the most important. Therefore the thermodynamically exact equation is according
dp sat
Clapeyron: ∆H = T ⋅ ∆V ⋅ .
dT

For practical use the latent heats of vaporization of water have been extensively
tabulated in various steam tables and other references (also Lafarge EXCEL process
calculation tools….).
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Don't forget to add or subtract this latent heat when you're calculating enthalpies !

The latent heat is quite often more significant than the sensible heat required to get the
liquid to boiling temperature or from boiling to the temperature you're evaluating the gas
at.

GROUP DISCUSSION:

1 [kg] of liquid water at 20 [°C] is vaporized to a gas at 80 [°C]. What is the quantity of
heat required per [kg] ?
First elaborate theory than calculate by using the VADEMECUM, finally calculate by
using the EXCEL Add In “Thermodynamic Functions”

4. SIMPLE HEAT BALANCE EXERCISES

4.1.1 Review of 3-junction concept

Mass balance: Heat balance: Component balance

m1 + m2 = m3 m1h1 + m2h2 = m3h3 m1c1 + m2c2 = m3c3

In order to solve a 3-junction problem it is sufficient to know only e.g. mass flow, but
knowing one property of all 3 flows (e.g.: heat, O2 content, BLAINE). As this is a very
simple and well-known concept lets try an exercise together:

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Exercise 4.1 – 3 junction problem

In Fredonia, the air for the coal mill is taken from the kiln hood. To prevent excessive
temperature to the mill, some cold air is mixed with that hot air with a bleed-in damper.
The only location where the air flow could be measured is after that bleed-in damper.
On one occasion, the combined flow was 12611 [Nm³/h] and its temperature was 110
[°C]. The air from the kiln hood was at 450 [°C] and the ambient air 25 [°C]. Calculate
the air flow from the kiln hood.

kiln hood coal mill

450°C 110°C

cp=1,0339 kJ/kg.K cp=1,0071 kJ/kg.K

ambiant air
25°C

cp=1,0057 kJ/kg.K

4.1.2 Groupwork “Heat Balances”

After having covered “Fundamental Gas Laws” and “Thermodynamics” lets try to solve
a process related design problem.

EXERCISE 4.2 – Heat Balance (Fresh Air Cooling, Water Quenching, Gas Mixing,
Defining Boundary Limits)
Malogozscz plant in Poland is planning to build a Cl-Bypass, where part of the kiln inlet
gas is extracted, cooled by fresh air in a mixing chamber and de-dusted in a bag filter.
In parallel the plant is executing a second project which covers the complete re-design
of the gas conditioning tower (hereinafter called GCT) plus a new kiln filter. The clean
bypass gas is mixed with the preheater exit gas after ID fan before GCT. The mixed
gases are conditioned in the GCT and de-dusted in the kiln filter before going to the
stack.
The bypass system is well sized, but the kiln filter and GCT need to be mathematically
checked, if the proposed water amount for injection is sufficient (11 [m³/h]) for the
proposed bag quality (P84: continuous operation temperature 220 [°C]) and the
proposed filtration area (6400 [m²]) is sufficient for an air to cloth ratio of 1 [m³/(min m²)].
All relevant values to start the calculation will be worked during the discussion, how to
understand this exercise.

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5. APPENDICES
APPENDIX A: SOLUTIONS OF EXERCISES 32

APPENDIX B: PSYCHOMETRIC CHART 41

APPENDIX C: PERIODIC TABLE OF ELEMENTS 42

APPENDIX D: MEASUREMENT POINTS 43

APPENDIX E: “THERMODYNAMIC FUNCTIONS” ADD IN 45

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Appendix A: Solutions of Exercises

Exercise 1.1 - Ideal Gas Law
The flow rate of gas in a kiln stack is 127 300 [m³/h] at a temperature of 325 [ºC] and a
relative negative pressure of 50 [mbar] with an atmospheric pressure of 1013.25 [mbar].
Calculate that flow rate at normal conditions.
p1 = 1013.25 – 50 [mbar] = 963.25 [mbar]
T1 = 325 + 273.15 [K] = 598.15 [K]
V1 = 127 300 [m³/h]
p1 ⋅ T0 963.25[mbar ] ⋅ 273.15[K ]
V0 = V1 ⋅ = 123700 [m ³ / h] ⋅ = 53701[Nm³ / h]
p 0 ⋅ T1 1013.25[mbar ] ⋅ 598.15[K ]

Exercise 1.2 - Gas Density

Calculate the density of air at 100 [ºC] and a relative negative pressure of 27 [mbar].
(molecular weight of air: 28.966 [g/mole])
p ⋅ M (101325 − 2700)[N/m²] ⋅ 28.966[g/m ole]
ρ= = = 921 [g/m³]
R ⋅ T 8.31434[Nm /mole.K] ⋅ (100 + 273.15)[K]

If calculating the molecular weight of air by 32*0.21+28*0.79
ρ=917 [g/m³]

Exercise 1.3 - Mass Fraction

The following gas composition. on volume basis. was measured at the back of a kiln.
Calculate it on mass basis.
O2 : 2.99% Ar : 0.74%
CO2 : 30.11% SO2 : 1600 ppm
N2 : 62.18% H2O : 3.82%
Please remember!
%volume = %mole (1 kmole = 22.414 Nm³)
vol%=mole% MW [kg/kmole] mass [kg] mass [%]
O2 2.99 31.9988 95.676412 2.92%
CO2 30.11 44.0098 1325.13508 40.50%
N2 62.18 28.02 1742.2836 53.25%
Ar 0.74 39.948 29.56152 0.90%
SO2 0.16 64.0588 10.249408 0.31%
H2O 3.82 18.0154 68.818828 2.10%
3271.72485

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Exercise 1.4 - Size of a Dust Collector

The first offer for a new vent air system of a clinker cooler is designed to handle
200 000 [m³/h] at 250 [ºC] and relative negative pressure 20 [mbar] (System A).
During the discussion with the supplier it gets obvious that additionally a 5% (by mass)
air inleakage has to be considered. Is the proposed filtration area (for system A)
sufficient including false air considering an air-to-cloth ratio of 1.2 [m³/(m².min)] (System
B)?
Assume a dust collector inlet temperature of 220 [ºC] and inlet pressure of 7 [mbar].

Cooler Bag Filter

+5% 220 °C; -7 mbar 200000 m³/h @ 250 °C, 20 mbar

System A (first offer)
Va = 200000 [m³/h]
Ta = 250 [ºC] = 523.15 [ºK]
pa = 1013.25-20=993.25 [mbar] = 99325 [Pa]
Va 200000 [m ³ / h] / 60 [min/ h]
Aa = = = 2778 [m ²]
r 1.2 [m ³ /(m ² min)]

p aV a M 99325 [N / m ²] × 200000 [m³/h] × 28 . 966 [ g/mole]

ma = =
RT a 8 .31434 [N m/(mole K)] × 523 . 15 [ º K]
m a = 132289 [kg/h]
System B (including 5 [%] false air)
Infiltration minleakage = 0.05 × 132289 = 6614 [kg/h]
Air to dust collector mb = ma + minleakage
mb = 132289 + 6614 = 138903 [kg/h]
Tb = 220 [ºC] = 493.15 [ºK]
pb = 1013.25-7=1006.25 [mbar]=100625 [Pa]

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m b RT b
Vb =
p bM
138903 [ kg/h] × 8.31434 [N m/(mole K)] × 493.15 [º K]
Vb =
100625 [N/m²] × 28.966 [ g/mole]
V b = 195378.4 [ m³/h]

r = 1.2 [m³/(m².min)]

Vb 195378.4 [m³/h]
A = = = 2713 [m²]
r 1.2 [m³/(m².mi n)] x 60 [min/h]
Dust collector size: 2713 [m²]

The design area is bigger as the demanded area. Therefore the existing system is able
to handle the 5 [%] air inleakage (by mass).

Exercise 2.1 – Psychrometric Chart

Question A Question B
Dry-bulb temperature (°C) 80 120
Wet-bulb temperature (ºC) 45 45
Humidity (kg/kg dry air)
Dew point temperature (ºC)

Complete the above given table using the psychometric chart.

100% relative 55ºC WB 0.10

humidity
0.09
Moisture content (kg/kg dry air)
50ºC WB
0.08
50%
25% 0.07
45ºC WB
10% 0.06
5% relative 0.05
40ºC WB
humidity
0.04

30ºC WB 0.03
0.02
20ºC WB
0.01
0.00
20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 110 120
Dry bulb Temperature (ºC)

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Question A Question B
Dry-bulb temperature (°C) 80 120
Wet-bulb temperature (ºC) 45 45
Humidity (kg/kg dry air) 0.05 0.032
Dew point temperature (ºC) 40 33

Exercise 2.2 - Calculation of the Dew Point T

The Process Engineer was able to determine the gas conditions at the back of a long
dry kiln:
1) Flowrate: 80500 [Nm³/h]
2) Temperature: 520 [ºC] (before water spray)
3) Water is injected at the back of the kiln to reduce the gas temperature to 359 [ºC].
4) Water spray: 6823 [kg/h]
5) Composition (before water spray): [% volume]
O2 1.66
CO2 32.43
SO2 0.24
N2 59.50
Ar 0.71
H2O 5.46

Calculate the dew point temperature of the gas after the water spray.
Gas composition:
% volume Nm³/h kg/h
Total 100.00 80500.0 118135.7
O2 1.66 1336.3 1907.8
CO2 32.43 26106.2 51260.2
SO2 0.24 193.2 552.2
N2 59.50 47897.5 59864.1
Ar 0.71 571.5 1018.6
H2O 5.46 4395.3 3532.8

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Composition after water spray:

kg/h Nm³/h % volume
(dry basis) (dry basis)
Total 124958.7 76104.7 100.00
O2 1907.8 1336.3 1.76
CO2 51260.2 26106.2 34.30
SO2 552.2 193.2 0.25
N2 59864.1 47897.5 62.94
Ar 1018.6 571.5 0.75
H2O 10355.8
Molecular weight of dry gas:
MW = 0.0176 × 31.9988 + 0.3430 × 44.0098 + 0.0025 × 64.0588
+ 0.6294 × 28.0135 + 0.0075 × 39.948
MW = 33.7500

mH2O 10355,8
Humidity: ω = = = 0.0904 [ kg H2 O/kg dry gas]
m dry gas 124958.7 − 10355.8

From psychometric chart: dew point temperature = 51 [ºC]

From “DewPoint” function: dew point temperature = 53.5 [ºC]

Exercise 3.1 - Heat Content of vapor

What is the heat content of water vapor at 200°C using 0°C as the reference
temperature?
Evaporation at 100°C

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Heat (kJ/kg)
vapor

evaporation
liquid

0 100 200

Temperature (°C)

heat to raise liquid water from 0 to 100 [°C] 419,98 [kJ/kg]

heat to evaporate water 100 [°C] 2255,43 [kJ/kg]
heat to raise vapor from 100 to 200 [°C] 191,29 [kJ/kg]
total heat 2866,70 [kJ/kg]

Exercise 4.1 - Heat Content of vapor

In Fredonia, the air for the coal mill is taken from the kiln hood. To prevent excessive
temperature to the mill, some cold air is mixed with that hot air with a bleed-in damper.
The only location where the air flow could be measured is after that bleed-in damper.
On one occasion, the combined flow was 12611 [Nm³/h] and its temperature was 110
[°C]. The air from the kiln hood was at 450 [°C] and the ambient air 25 [°C]. Calculate
the air flow from the kiln hood.

kiln hood coal mill

450°C 110°C

cp=1,0339 kJ/kg.K cp=1,0071 kJ/kg.K

ambiant air
25°C

cp=1,0057 kJ/kg.K

3-point junction: balance around three points

kiln hood ambient air coal mill Balance check
T [°C] 450 25 110
cp [kJ/(kg K)] 1,0339 1,0057 1,0071
V [Nm³/h] 2454 10157 12611
m [kg/h] 3171 13127 16298 0
h [kJ/h] 1475467 330037 1805503 0

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Exercise 4.2 – Heat Balance

Malogozscz plant in Poland is planning to build a Cl-Bypass, where part of the kiln inlet
gas is extracted, cooled by fresh air in a mixing chamber and de-dusted in a bag filter.
In parallel the plant is executing a second project which covers the complete re-design
of the gas conditioning tower (hereinafter called GCT) plus a new kiln filter. The clean
bypass gas is mixed with the preheater exit gas after ID fan before GCT. The mixed
gases are conditioned in the GCT and de-dusted in the kiln filter before going to the
stack.
The bypass system is well sized, but the kiln filter and GCT need to be mathematically
checked, if the proposed water amount for injection is sufficient (11 [m³/h]) for the
proposed bag quality (P84: continuous operation temperature 220 [°C]) and the
proposed filtration area (6400 [m²]) is sufficient for an air to cloth ratio of 1 [m³/(min m²)].

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Step 1: Bypass Gas Extraction + Cooling + De-dusting

Only Fill yellow cells and pull down menus! 72732.7134

clinker rawmix
Bypass gas
Input Bypass Gas Fresh Air
dust Output Gas Solid

Type bypass gas 1 bypass gas 1 Air 4 Air 4 2clinker 1rawmix Type Mix Mix
Vol Flow [Nm³/h] 4000 38000 Flow [Nm³/h] 42000
Mass Flow [kg/h] 5471 0 48917 0 1600 Mass flow [kg/h] 54388 1600
T [°C] 1200 30 1200 T [°C] 200 200
O2 [vol%] 3.00% 3.00% 20.94% 20.94% O2 [vol%] 19.2%
N2 [vol%] 65.00% 65.00% 79.06% 79.06% N2 [vol%] 77.7%
CO2 [vol%] 22.00% 22.00% 0.00% 0.00% CO2 [vol%] 2.1%
H2Ov [vol%] 10.00% 10.00% 0.00% 0.00% H2Ov [vol%] 1.0%
O2 [Nm³/h] 120 0 7957.2 0 O2 [Nm³/h] 8077
N2 [Nm³/h] 2600 0 30042.8 0 N2 [Nm³/h] 32643
CO2 [Nm³/h] 880 0 0 0 CO2 [Nm³/h] 880
H2Ov [Nm³/h] 400 0 0 0 H2Ov [Nm³/h] 400
O2 [kg/h] 171 0 11360 0 O2 [kg/h] 11532
N2 [kg/h] 3250 0 37557 0 N2 [kg/h] 40807
CO2 [kg/h] 1728 0 0 0 CO2 [kg/h] 1728
H2Ov [kg/h] 321 0 0 0 H2Ov [kg/h] 321
O2 [kcal/h] 51630 0 74690 0 O2 [kcal/h] 515072
N2 [kcal/h] 1059260 0 280158 0 N2 [kcal/h] 2032078
CO2 [kcal/h] 572964 0 0 0 CO2 [kcal/h] 75303
H2Ov [kcal/h] 394075 0 0 0 H2Ov [kcal/h] 0
H2O [kcal/h] 0 0 H2O [kcal/h] 219908
Solid [kcal/h] 473032 0 Solid [kcal/h] 63448
Heat Losses [kcal/h]
Total Heat In 2905810 Total Heat Out 2905810
Total Mass In 55988 Total Mass Out 55988
Difference in Heat in/out 0

Step 2: Bypass Gas + PHT Exit Gas

Only Fill yellow cells and pull down menus! 407685.8881

rawmix rawmix
clean gas
Input from bypass
PHT exit gas PHT exit dust Output Gas Solid

Type PHT exit 2 Air 4 Air 4 1rawmix 1rawmix Type Mix Mix
Vol Flow [Nm³/h] 42000 150000 Flow [Nm³/h] 192000
Mass Flow [kg/h] 54388 213180 0 0 22500 Mass flow [kg/h] 267568 22500
T [°C] 200 330 330 T [°C] 307 307
O2 [vol%] 19.23% 4.00% 20.94% 20.94% O2 [vol%] 7.3%
N2 [vol%] 77.72% 60.00% 79.06% 79.06% N2 [vol%] 63.9%
CO2 [vol%] 2.10% 28.00% 0.00% 0.00% CO2 [vol%] 22.3%
H2Ov [vol%] 0.95% 8.00% 0.00% 0.00% H2Ov [vol%] 6.5%
O2 [Nm³/h] 8077.2 6000 0 0 O2 [Nm³/h] 14077
N2 [Nm³/h] 32642.8 90000 0 0 N2 [Nm³/h] 122643
CO2 [Nm³/h] 880 42000 0 0 CO2 [Nm³/h] 42880
H2Ov [Nm³/h] 400 12000 0 0 H2Ov [Nm³/h] 12400
O2 [kg/h] 11532 8566 0 0 O2 [kg/h] 20098
N2 [kg/h] 40807 112510 0 0 N2 [kg/h] 153317
CO2 [kg/h] 1728 82467 0 0 CO2 [kg/h] 84195
H2Ov [kg/h] 321 9637 0 0 H2Ov [kg/h] 9958
O2 [kcal/h] 515072 644864 0 0 O2 [kcal/h] 1400969
N2 [kcal/h] 2032078 9326837 0 0 N2 [kcal/h] 11792472
CO2 [kcal/h] 75303 6257306 0 0 CO2 [kcal/h] 5886095
H2Ov [kcal/h] 219908 7190348 0 0 H2Ov [kcal/h] 0
H2O [kcal/h] 0 0 H2O [kcal/h] 7318440
Solid [kcal/h] 1707438 0 Solid [kcal/h] 1571178
Heat Losses [kcal/h]
Total Heat In 27969154 Total Heat Out 27969154
Total Mass In 290068 Total Mass Out 290068
Difference in Heat in/out 0

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Step 3: Gas Cooling in Gas Conditioning Tower

Only Fill yellow cells and pull down menus! 362649.2352 6044.15392
rawmix rawmix
GCT inlet Water to
Input gas GCT
PHT exit dust Output Gas Solid

Type PHT exit 2 Air 4 Air 4 1rawmix 1rawmix Type Mix Mix
Vol Flow [Nm³/h] 192000 Flow [Nm³/h] 205697
Mass Flow [kg/h] 267568 0 0 0 11000 22500 Mass flow [kg/h] 278568 22500
T [°C] 307 20 307 T [°C] 208 208
O2 [vol%] 7.33% 4.00% 20.94% 20.94% O2 [vol%] 6.8%
N2 [vol%] 63.88% 60.00% 79.06% 79.06% N2 [vol%] 59.6%
CO2 [vol%] 22.33% 28.00% 0.00% 0.00% CO2 [vol%] 20.8%
H2Ov [vol%] 6.46% 8.00% 0.00% 0.00% H2Ov [vol%] 12.7%
O2 [Nm³/h] 14077.2 0 0 0 O2 [Nm³/h] 14077
N2 [Nm³/h] 122642.8 0 0 0 N2 [Nm³/h] 122643
CO2 [Nm³/h] 42880 0 0 0 CO2 [Nm³/h] 42880
H2Ov [Nm³/h] 12400 0 0 0 H2Ov [Nm³/h] 26097
O2 [kg/h] 20098 0 0 0 O2 [kg/h] 20098
N2 [kg/h] 153317 0 0 0 N2 [kg/h] 153317
CO2 [kg/h] 84195 0 0 0 CO2 [kg/h] 84195
H2Ov [kg/h] 9958 0 0 0 H2Ov [kg/h] 20958
O2 [kcal/h] 1400969 0 0 0 O2 [kcal/h] 937269
N2 [kcal/h] 11792472 0 0 0 N2 [kcal/h] 7964389
CO2 [kcal/h] 5886095 0 0 0 CO2 [kcal/h] 3840862
H2Ov [kcal/h] 7318440 0 0 0 H2Ov [kcal/h] 7574030
H2O [kcal/h] 219578 0 H2O [kcal/h] 6856606
Solid [kcal/h] 1571178 0 Solid [kcal/h] 1015577
Heat Losses [kcal/h]
Total Heat In 28188732 Total Heat Out 28188732
Total Mass In 301068 Total Mass Out 301068
Difference in Heat in/out 0

With 11 [m³/h] water injection the inlet gas to the filter will be 206000 [Nm³/h] @ 208 [°C]

363000 [m³/h] = 6050 [m³/min]
6040 [m²] filtration area would be sufficient to reach
air to cloth ratio of 1 [m³/(m² min)]. Also the Tmax of the bags is sufficient.

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Appendix B: Psychometric Chart

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Appendix C: Periodic Table of Elements

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Appendix D: Measurement Points

The measurements will be performed in three groups, whereby each group will measure
all points (organisation of measurements by groups themselves), which are:
the downcomer after preheater
the cooler exhaust stack
the cooling fans

D.1 The downcomer after preheater

The measurement point is located 25 [m] above ground level. About 2,5 meters above
the measurement point the plant has been installed a water spraying, which should be
checked if in use before during the measurement.

25
m

Two flanges in 90° angle are located

around the downcomer duct and can be
opened by a wrench.

The Exercise 5.3 is to measure gas flow including all relevant parameters for
standardisation and the oxygen/NO/CO content in the exit gas.

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D.2 Cooler Exhaust Stack

Measurement point exist on cooler exhaust stack after the cooler ESP fan. The
measurement point is on a small platform. Therefore special attention is to be put on
safety (dropping of equipment/tools, working on heights,....).
Location of measurement points. (Two holes are located in duct and can be opened)

The Exercise 5.2 is to measure gas flow including all relevant parameters for
standardisation.

D.3 Cooling Fans

Every cooling fan was equipped with 2 holes (d = 20 [mm]) for Anemometer
measurement on the suction side of the fan. Darıca Plant changed 7 old cooler fans that
have low efficiency with high efficiency fans. Totally 9 fans exist in Darıca cooler (1 IKN
fan).
Location of the measurement points on each fan

The Exercise 5.3 is that each group takes 3 of the totally 9 cooling fans and measures
the flow by anemometer plus pressure. Finally all cooling fan flows + pressures should
have been measured.

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Appendix E: “Thermodynamic Functions” Add In

Thermodynamic Functions
The Thermodynamic add-in contains functions that calculate various thermodynamics
properties. The functions are used the same way as other EXCEL functions:
Examples
=function(parameter1,parameter2)
=DewPoint(750,0.5)
They are accessed the same way as any other EXCEL function: by a click of the fx on
the toolbar. The functions will appear under "User Defined Function Category". The
functions can also be used as the parameter of another EXCEL function:

AcidDewPoint
Calculates the acid dew point temperature. This is the highest temperature where one
of the acids that are present in the gas will condense. The function considers sulfuric
acid (H2SO4) and hydrochloric acid (HCl).
Parameters
Input: Water fraction by volume (m³ water/m³ gas or no unit)
SO3 fraction by volume (m³ SO3/m³ gas or no unit)
HCl fraction by volume (m³ HCl/m³ gas or no unit)
Absolute gas pressure, unit: mm Hg
Output: Acid dew point temperature (ºC)
Note
If the SO2 fraction in the gas stream is known but not the SO3, assume a conversion
rate of SO2 to SO3. According to Ganapathy, 2% is a typical conversion rate. This is
by mass. To get the SO3 fraction from the SO2 fraction and the conversion rate,
multiply the conversion rate by the SO2 fraction and then by the ratio of molecular
weight of SO2 to SO3.

Example

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A flue gas at 749 mm Hg contains, by volume, 12% water, 1% hydrochloric acid and 1%
SO2. The conversion rate of SO2 into SO3 is 2%, by mass. Calculate the temperature
where acid will start to condense.

=AcidDewPoint(0.12,0.00016,0.1,749) returns 168.0384

The condensation will start at 168.04ºC.

AtmPressure
Calculates the standard atmospheric pressure at the specified altitude
Parameters
Input: Altitude (elevation above sea level), unit: meter
Output: Standard atmospheric pressure, unit: mm Hg
Example
=AtmPressure(150) returns 746.58
The atmospheric pressure at 150 meters above sea level is 746.58 mm Hg.

Cpgas

Calculates the mean heat capacity of a given gas at the specified temperature.
Cpgas is simply calling the Cpmean function. It is there only for compatibility reasons
with the old Cpgas macro used in many spreadsheets. Using Cpgas or Cpmean strictly
gives the same result.
Parameters
Input: Gas name, between quotes (“ “), no unit
Gas temperature, unit: ºC
Output: Gas mean heat capacity, unit: kcal/kg.ºC
Examples
=Cpgas(“O2”,125) returns 0.2213
The mean heat capacity of oxygen (O2) at 125ºC is 0.2213 kcal/kg.ºC.
=1250*Cpgas(“CO2”, 220)*220 returns 60534.266
The heat content of 1250 kg of CO2 at 220ºC is 60534.266 kcal
Note
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1 kcal/kg.ºC = 1 btu/lb.ºF

Cpmean

The mean heat capacity is defined as the heat required, by mass unit, to raise the
temperature of a substance from 0ºC to a specified temperature. It differs from the heat
capacity in the sense that it considers the full integration path to get to that temperature.

The mean heat capacity can be used to calculate the enthalpy of a material (gas, liquid
or solid) at a given temperature:

Since it returns the heat change between 0ºC and T, there is only one temperature to
specify. The heat difference between two temperatures, T1 and T2, is obtained by
subtracting one enthalpy from the other:

Parameters
Input: Material name, between quotes (“ “), no unit
Material temperature, unit: ºC
Output: Material mean heat capacity, unit: kcal/kg.ºC
Examples
=Cpmean(“O2”,125) returns 0.2213
The mean heat capacity of oxygen (O2) at 125ºC is 0.2213 kcal/kg.ºC.
=100*(Cpmean("SiO2",600)*600-Cpmean("SiO2",150)*150) returns 11805.209
The heat required to warm up silica from 150ºC to 600ºC is 11805.209 kcal
Note
1 kcal/kg.ºC = 1 btu/lb.ºF

Cpmat
Calculates the mean heat capacity of a given solid at the specified temperature.

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Cpmat is simply calling the Cpmean function. It is there only for compatibility reasons
with the old Cpmat macro used in many spreadsheets. Using Cpmat or Cpmean strictly
gives the same result.
Parameters
Input: Material name, between quotes (“ “), no unit
Material temperature, unit: ºC
Output: Material mean heat capacity, unit: kcal/kg.ºC
Examples
= Cpmat("Clinker",920) returns 0.2341
The mean heat capacity of clinker at 920ºC is 0.2341 kcal/kg.ºC.
=500*Cpmat(“CaCO3”, 300)*300 returns 34824.523
The heat content of 500 kg of CaCO3 at 300ºC is 34824.523 kcal
Note
1 kcal/kg.ºC = 1 btu/lb.ºF

Enthalpy

Returns the enthalpy of a material, either a gas, a liquid or a solid, at the specified
temperature. Since the reference temperature is 0ºC, it is the heat required to raise the
temperature of the material from 0ºC to the specified temperature. The Enthalpy
function uses the Cpmean function and applies the temperature to calculate the
enthalpy directly.
Parameters
Input: Material name, between quotes (“ “), no unit
Material temperature, unit: ºC
Output: Material enthalpy, unit: kcal/kg
Examples
=Enthalpy("O2",125) returns 27.6574
The enthalpy of oxygen at 125ºC is 27.6574 kcal/kg.
The heat required to raise oxygen temperature from 0ºC to 125ºC is 27.6574 kcal/kg.
=Enthalpy("C3S",950) returns 221.6072
The enthalpy of C3S at 950ºC is 221.6072 kcal/kg.
The heat required to raise C3S temperature from 0ºC to 950ºC is 221.6072 kcal/kg.

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Note
For the inverse calculation, that is the temperature of a material from its enthalpy, use
the function Temperature.

GasDensity

Returns the gas density for a gas at a given temperature and pressure.
Parameters
Input: Gas name, between quotes (“ “), no unit
Gas temperature, unit: ºC
Absolute gas pressure, unit: atm
Output: Gas density, unit: kg/m³
Example
=GasDensity("Air",125,912) returns 1.0639
The density of air at 125ºC and 912 mm Hg is 1.0639 kg/m³

HvapWater

Returns the heat of vaporization of water at a given temperature.

Parameters
Input: Temperature, unit: ºC
Output: Heat of vaporization of water, unit: kcal/kg
Example
=HvapWater(240) returns 410.61
The heat of vaporization of water at 240ºC is 410.61 kcal/kg

Pressure conversion factors

Some conversion factors for pressure:
1 atmosphere (atm) = 760 mm Hg
= 101.325 kPa
= 1.01325 bar
= 10342.61 mm H2O
= 14.69595 psi
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= 407.1894 in. H2O

= 29.92126 in Hg
1 mm Hg = 133.322 Pa
= 0.53578 in H2O
1 kPa = 0.01 bar
= 7.50062 mm Hg
= 0.2953 in Hg
= 4.01865 in H2O
1 psi = 6.89476 kPa
= 51.7149 mm Hg
= 2.03602 in Hg
= 27.7076 in H2O

GasViscosity

Returns the viscosity of a gas at a given temperature.

Parameters
Input: Gas name, between quotes (“ “), no unit
Gas temperature, unit: ºC
Output: Gas viscosity, unit: cP (centipoise)
Example
=GasViscosity("air",150) returns 0.02316
The viscosity of air at 150ºC is 0.02316 cP
Note
1 P (poise) = 1 g/cm.s
1 cP = 0.01 g/cm.s

Temperature

Returns the temperature of a material (solid, liquid or solid) from its enthalpy.
Parameters
Input: Material name, between quotes (“ “), no unit

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Material enthalpy, unit: kcal/kg

Output: Temperature, unit: ºC
Example
=Temperature("Air",149.21) returns 595.06
The temperature of air having an enthalpy of 149.21 kcal/kg is 595.06ºC.
Note
Enthalpy is based on a reference temperature of 0ºC.

ThermalConductivity

Returns the thermal conductivity of a gas at a given temperature.

Parameters
Input: Gas name, between quotes (“ “), no unit
Gas temperature, unit: ºC
Output: Gas thermal conductivity, unit: cal/s.m.ºC
Example
=ThermalConductivity("N2",191) returns 0.008726
The thermal conductivity of nitrogen at 191ºC is 0.008726 cal/s.m.ºC

List of available gases for Cpmean (and Cpgas)

The Cpmean and Cpgas functions can be calculated for the following gases:
O2 oxygen
N2 nitrogen
CO2 carbon dioxide
H2 hydrogen
CO carbon monoxide
SO2 sulfur dioxide
NO nitrous oxide
H2Ov water vapor
Ar argon
CH4 methane (273.15 to 1500°K)
C2H6 ethane (273.15 to 1500°K)
C3H8 propane (273.15 to 1500°K)
Air standard air
For all those gases, unless noted otherwise, the allowable temperature range is 0 to
5727ºC (273.15 to 6000°K). If the specified temperature is outside that range, the
function returns a value of –1.

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List of available solids for Cpmean (and Cpmat)

The Cpmean and Cpgas functions can be calculated for the following solids:
Temperature range Temperature range
(ºC) (ºC)
SiO2 0 to 2727 K2SO4 0 to 2727
Al2O3 0 to 3727 Na2SO4 0 to 1727
Fe2O3 0 to 2227 CaSO4 0 to 1127
CaO 0 to 3727 CaSO4.2H2O 0 to 727
MgO 0 to 3727 KCl 0 to 1727
K2O 0 to 1727 NaCl 0 to 2227
Na2O 0 to 3227 CaCl2 0 to 2727
TiO2 0 to 3727 CaF2 0 to 2427
P2O5 0 to 427 C3S 0 to 2327
Mn2O3 0 to 1077 C2S 0 to 2130
CaCO3 0 to 927 C3A 0 to 2227
MgCO3 0 to 727 C4AF 0 to 2227
Clinker 0 to 2727 Coal 0 to 2227
RawMix 0 to 927
If the specified temperature is outside the allowable temperature range, the function
returns a value of –1.

List of available liquids for Cpmean

The only liquid available for Cpmean is:

H2OL Liquid water
The allowable range goes from 0ºC to 350ºC .

Standard Air
The standard composition of the air is:
% volume % mass
N2 78.09 75.53
O2 20.95 23.15
Ar 0.93 1.28
CO2 0.03 0.04
with a molecular weight of 28.966 g/gmole.
At normal conditions (0ºC, 760 mm Hg), the density is 1.2923 kg/Nm³.

Mass

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Calculates the mass of a gas having a specified molecular weight, at specified

temperature and pressure.
Parameters
Input: Gas volume, unit: m³
Molecular weight of the gas, unit: g/gmole
Gas temperature, unit: ºC
Absolute gas pressure, unit: mm Hg
Output: Mass of gas, unit: kg
Example
=Mass(55,18.0154,210,912) returns 29.99126
The mass of 55 m³ of water water (molecular weight: 18.0154), at 210ºC and 912 mm
Hg is 29.99126 kg.
=Mass(25148,MolecularWeight("CO2"),450,950) returns 23314.35
The mass of 25148 m³ of carbon dioxide (CO2) at 450ºC and a pressure of 950 mm Hg
is 23314.35 kg.

Volume

Calculates the volume of a gas having a specified molecular weight, at specified

temperature and pressure.
Parameters
Input: Mass of gas, unit: kg
Molecular weight of the gas, unit: g/gmole
Gas temperature, unit: ºC
Absolute gas pressure, unit: mm Hg
Output: Mass of gas, unit: m³
Example
=Volume(120,31.9988,49,699.2) returns 107.75
The volume of 120 kg of oxygen (molecular weight: 31.9988), at 49ºC and 699.2 mm Hg
is 107.75 m³.
=Volume(15000,MolecularWeight(“Air”),200,950) returns 16084.32
The volume of 15000 kg of air at 200ºC and 950 mm Hg is 16084.32 m³.

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DewPoint

The DewPoint function returns the dew point temperature of a mixture of gas and water.
The dew point is the temperature where water of the mixture starts to condense. It
depends on the humidity of the mixture and the absolute pressure.
Parameters
Input: Absolute pressure of the gas mixture, unit: mm Hg
Humidity of the gas, unit: kg water/kg dry gas
Molecular weight of the gas: g/gmole
Output: Dew point temperature, unit: ºC
Example
=DewPoint(760,0.45,28.966) returns 77.3367
The dew point temperature of a gas/water mixture of 0.45 kg water/kg dry gas, for a gas
having a molecular weight of 28.966 (air) at a pressure of 1 atmosphere (760 mm Hg) is
77.3367ºC. It means that water will not condense until the temperature of the mixture is
above 77.3367ºC.

VaporPressure
Returns the vapor pressure of water at a given temperature.
The function is valid from 0 to 374.2ºC. If the temperature is larger 374.2ºC, then the
function returns the value 99999.
Parameters
Input: Water temperature, unit: ºC
Output: Vapor pressure, unit: mm Hg
Example
=VaporPressure(120) returns 1492.18 mm Hg
The vapor pressure of water at 120ºC is 1492.18 mm Hg.

MolecularWeight
This function returns the molecular weight of a gas from the name of that gas. A
reference to a cell containing the name of the gas can also be used.
Parameters
Input: Gas name, between quotes (“ “), no unit

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Output: Gas molecular weight, g/gmole or kg/kgmole or lb/lbmole

Examples
=MolecularWeight(“O2”) returns 31.9988
The molecular weight of oxygen (O2) is 31.9988 g/gmole.
With the value of CO2 (no quotes) in the cell A31:
=MolecularWeight(A31) returns 44.0098
The molecular weight of CO2 is 44.0098 g/gmole.

List of available gases for MolecularWeight

The MolecularWeight function can be used for the following gases:

O2 oxygen
CO carbon monoxide
CO2 carbon dioxide
H2O water vapor
SO2 sulfur dioxide
SO3 sulfur trioxide
NH3 ammonia
H2 hydrogen
N2 nitrogen
Ar argon
Air standard air
CH4 methane
C2H6 ethane
C3H8 propane

VelocityPressure

Calculates the velocity pressure of a gas with a given density and a given velocity.
Parameters
Input: Gas density: kg/m³

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Gas velocity: m/s

Output: Velocity pressure: mm H2O
Examples
=VelocityPressure(1.1973,2.5) returns 0.3819
The velocity pressure of a gas having a density of 1.1973 kg/m³ and a gas velocity of
2.5 m/s is 0.3819 mm H2O.

=VelocityPressure(GasDensity("air",185,779),1.89) returns 0.1440

The velocity pressure of air at 185ºC and a pressure of 779 mm Hg with a velocity of
1.89 m/s is 0.1440 mm H2O.

WetDryBulb

Calculates the absolute humidity of a air / water vapor mixture from wet bulb and dry
bulb temperatures.
Parameters
Input: WBTemp: wet bulb temperature (ºC)
DBTemp: dry bulb temperature (ºC)
Pressure: absolute pressure of gas (mm Hg)
Output: WetDryBulb: absolute humidity (kg water / kg dry air)
Example
=WetDryBulb(55,125,760) returns 0.0815
The absolute humidity of a wet air when the wet bulb temperature is 55ºC, the dry bulb
temperature is 125ºC and the absolute pressure 760 mm Hg, is 0.0815 kg water/kg dry
air.

Humidity
Calculates the absolute humidity of a air / water vapor mixture from the relative humidity
of the mixture, its absolute pressure and temperature.
Parameters
Input: RelativeHumidity: relative humidity of mixture (fraction or %)
Pressure: absolute pressure of mixture (mm Hg)
Temperature: temperature of gas (ºC)

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Output: Humidity: absolute humidity (kg water / kg dry air)

Example
=Humidity(0.70,760,40)returns 3.4213
The absolute humidity when the relative humidity is 70%, the atmospheric pressure 760
mm Hg and the temperature 40ºC is 0.034213 kg water/kg dry air

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