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DOI: 10.1039/C5FD00062A

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Accepted 00th January 20xx
DOI: 10.1039/x0xx00000x
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Catalytic Dehydrogenation of Propane by Carbon Dioxide: A

Medium-Temperature Thermochemical Process for Carbon
Dioxide Utilisation
a

a*

X. Du, B. Yao, S. Gonzalez-Cortes, V. L. Kuznetsov, Hamid AlMegren, T. Xiao, P. P. Edwards,

a*

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Page 1 of 14

The dehydrogenation of C3H8 in the presence of CO2 is an attractive catalytic route for C3H6 production. In studying
the various possibilities to utilise CO2 to convert hydrocarbons using the sustainable energy source of solar thermal
energy , thermodynamic calculations were carried out for the dehydrogenation of C3H8 using CO2 for the process
operating in the temperature range of 300-500. Importantly, the results highlight the enhanced potential of C3H8
as compared to its lighter and heavier homologues (C2H6 and C4H10,respectively ). To be utilised in this CO2 utilisation
reaction The Gibbs Free Energy (
) of each reaction in the modelled, complete reacting system of the
dehydrogenation of C3H8 in the presence of CO2 also indicate that further cracking of C3H6 will affect the ultimate
yield and selectivity of the final products. In a parallel experimental study, catalytic tests of the dehydrogenation of
C3H8 in the presence of CO2 over 5wt%-Cr2O3/ZrO2 catalysts operating at 500, atmospheric pressure, and for
various C3H8 partial pressures and various overall GHSV (Gas Hourly Space Velocity) values. The results showed that
an increase in the C3H8 partial pressure produced an inhibition of C3H8 conversion but, importantly, a promising
enhancement of C3H6 selectivity. This phenomenon can be attributed to competitive adsorption on the catalyst
between the generated C3H6 and inactivated C3H8, which inhibits any further cracking effect on C3H6 to produce byproducts. As a comparison, the increase of the overall GHSV can also decrease the C3H8 conversion to a similar
extent, but the further cracking of C3H6 cannot be limited.

1. Introduction
In an attempt to ameliorate the burgeoning growth in
greenhouse gas emissions, there are currently intense efforts,
world-wide, aimed at the utilisation of CO2, particularly in its
1,2,3,4,5,6,7
conversion to fuels and high-value chemical products
.
Chemical processes aimed at the utilisation and conversion of
CO2 are, of course, driven in a thermodynamic sense by the
difference in Gibbs Free Energy between the resulting final chemical
products, and CO2 and the targeted reactants at the relevant
experimental conditions. However CO2 being a highly stable
molecule will require a substantial amount of energy, effective
catalysts and effective reaction conditions for any chemical
conversion processes of CO2 into fuels or high-value chemical
products.
Thus probably all chemical reactions for CO2 conversion and
utilisation are endothermic and will consume considerable amounts
of energy. If such energy is provided by fossil fuels, the net effect
based on any well-to-wheels analysis of the process will invariably

a.

King Abdulaziz City of Science and Technology (KACST) - Oxford Centre of

Excellence in Petrochemicals, Inorganic Chemistry Laboratory, Department of
Chemistry, University of Oxford, Oxford, OX1 3QR, United Kingdom. E-mail:
[email protected]; Tel: +44(0)1865 272660; Fax: +44(0)1865 272690
b.
SINOPEC Shanghai Petrochemical Company LTD., Shanghai, 200540, China
c.
Petrochemicals Research Institute (PRI), King Abdulaziz City of Science and
Technology (KACST), .Riyadh, Saudi Arabia, P.O. Box 6086, Riyadh 11442, Saudi
Arabia

result in a net production of CO2; this situation could only be

deemed beneficial from a climate mitigation perspective if the
necessary input process energy is provided from renewable or
sustainable sources.
The motivation behind this work, therefore, is to identify and
develop specific chemical utilisation processes for CO2 that can be
achieved by the application of relatively easily-accessible solar
thermal energy and associated thermochemical processes, using
so-called "Low and Medium Temperature Thermochemical
Processes", typically operating for temperature ranges of T ~250
8
and T ~250-500, respectively.
Utilising solar thermal energy at these lower temperatures for
thermochemical processes than the widely-utilised High
9
Temperature Process regime (T~1000) creates highly interesting
and important challenges for catalysis science. Coupling and
optimising the catalyst chemistry of CO2 chemical reactions in the
temperature/energy range of ca 300-500 with the engineering
challenges of cheap, solar thermal collectors may allow the
prospect of accessible, sustainable CO2 utilisation. These coupled
challenges therefore provide a high level of opportunity for modern
catalysis science and engineering.

As an improved reaction of the dehydrogenation of C3H8, the

dehydrogenation of C3H8 in the presence of CO2 (
) has been heavily studied over the last
10,11,12,13,14,15
decade.
In this promising reaction, CO2 acts as a mild
oxidant to combine the dehydrogenation of C3H8 with a reverse

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Page 2 of 14
Faraday Discussions

water gas shift (

), and hence, the
equilibrium of the dehydrogenation of C3H8 can be shifted to the
product side. Moreover, CO2 may also reduce the coking effect of
catalyst by coke gasification (
). Competitive
adsorption among C3H8, CO2 and generated gaseous water can also
explain the relatively lower initial conversion of C3H8, the reduced
coking effect, and higher stability of catalysts in the CO2
[16]
atmosphere.

needed for their dissociation and subsequent reduction. Similarly,

the entropy term (
) typically makes little or no contribution to
View reaction.
Article Online
the thermodynamic driving force for any CO2 utilisation

In this paper, the advantages of specifically selecting C3H8 as

the feedstock for CO2 utilisation are advanced for the lower
temperature requirements, as compared to both its lighter and
heavier alkane homologues, C2H6 and C4H10, respectively.
Furthermore, in seeking the possibility to convert alkanes with the
energy source from accessible solar heating technology, the
temperature range to be targeted in thermodynamic calculations
has been localised in the range 300-500 which can be easily
achieved, for example, by high pressure steam from a solar
heating system.

From Figure 2, however, the attractive option that that the

Gibbs free energy changes of CO2 reaction becomes increasingly
favourable by moving to higher members of the alkane homologous
series. One notes, of course, that a ready solution for CO2 utilisation
is its conversion to the more reactive CO via the reverse water gas
shift reaction (
), and subsequent use of
syngas chemistry to yield the desired products. However, this
attractive route clearly needs a ready source of H2 and ideally a
source of sustainable H2 derived from non-fossil fuel routes. In the
absence of hydrogen from low cost, low (zero) carbon sources, this
process will yield a net CO2 emission for the total wheel-to-wheel
analysis.

The shift of the equilibrium state by CO2 in the

dehydrogenation of C3H8 has been identified from a
17,18,19
thermodynamic analysis.
However, the reaction systems
modelled previously rarely take into consideration the competing
side reactions and by-products, The dehydrogenation of C3H8 in the
presence of CO2 can be significantly affected by various competing
side reactions which are deleterious to the targeted C3H6 yield,
selectivity and indeed to the stability of the operating catalyst.
Hence in this paper, the thermodynamic analysis was operated
across a more comprehensive reaction system which covered all the
possible by-products together with the generation of carbonparticularly important in a consideration of catalyst operating
lifetimes
When considering the side reactions for the dehydrogenation
of C3H8 in the presence of CO2, the major cause of by-products is
20
the further cracking effect on C3H6 , and the competitive
adsorption from CO2 is claimed to be an effective way to inhibit that
16
process. Our analysis reveals that the availability of active sites on
the catalyst surface does indeed play a critical role in the reaction
system. To observe the different performance properties of a
catalyst when reactants are saturated, to the availability of active
sites, the reactions were operated over a ZrO2-supported Cr2O3
catalyst with careful control of the various partial pressures of C3H8
but keeping a constant C3H8/CO2 ratio. The reaction results
exhibited high C3H6 selectivity by inhibiting the selectivity of byproducts, which is promising result if these processes are to be
applied in any larger, scale up industrial process.

2. Thermodynamics and (selected) chemical

reactions of carbon dioxide
In Figure 1 we illustrate the underlying thermodynamic
considerations for the chemical utilisation of CO2, where the Gibbs
free energy of formation of CO2 and various related substances are
shown for comparison. Any attempt at utilising CO2 as a chemical
reactant must therefore take account of the relative stability (Gibbs
free energy) of the CO2 utilisation reaction products, as compared
to CO2 and the other reactant(s)

DOI: 10.1039/C5FD00062A

Faraday Discussions Accepted Manuscript

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Paper

The resulting Gibbs free energy of the CO2 chemical utilisation

reaction, , provides information as to the ultimate yield of
reaction products at equilibrium, through the relationship
.

Our research, then, looks in detail at the thermodynamics of

the dehydrogenation of C3H8 by CO2 as a potential prospect for CO2
utilisation in temperature and reaction conditions where the
ultimate application of solar thermal energy may be a promising
technology. This is a specific example of the broader challenge
facing any CO2 utilisation technology ; namely due to the inevitable
input energy required to convert CO2 to useful products, reducing
CO2 emissions through CO2 utilisation will only be possible if the
energy inputs are from renewable sources. We believe that Low-to
Medium Temperature Solar Thermochemical processes offer
considerable opportunities in that regard and the research outlined
here-setting out the complete thermodynamic analysis together
with a catalytic chemistry study - may present a way forward for
CO2 utilisation

3. Thermodynamic calculations and simulations

3.1 Methods

In order to fully understand the thermodynamic basis of the

dehydrogenation of C3H8 in the presence of CO2, in connecting also
with the solar thermal technology which is normally set close to 500
in the form of high pressure steam, the standard change of reaction
in Gibbs free energy
, of the dehydrogenation of C2-C4 alkanes
with CO2 utilisation (
) were calculated in the temperature range of 300-500. The
cracking of C1-C4 alkanes and olefins to form carbon (
) were also included in these calculations in this
temperature range to indicate the potential coking ability on
operating catalysts of each substances.
Here,
of each single reaction in the temperature range of
300-500 was calculated as following:

Both contributing terms (

and
) for the Gibbs free
energy are not favourable in converting CO2 to other molecules.
The carbon-oxygen bonds are strong and substantial energy is

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In the functions above,

is the standard molar enthalpy of
formation,
is the standard molar entropy, while
is the
parameters of molar heat capacity at constant pressure. The
property parameters can be looked up from the chemical
properties hand books, and these parameters of the related
substances are list in Table 1 below.

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3.2 Thermodynamic advantages of the dehydrogenation of

C3H8 in the presence of CO2
Figure 3 exhibits the standard change of reaction in Gibbs free
energy (
) of the reactions being compared. In the temperature
range of 300-500, all dehydrogenation reactions show a similar
trend. The highest
is found for the process to dehydrogenate
C2H6 with CO2 indicating that it is much harder to operate this
reaction as compared to other low-n alkanes at 300-500.
Importantly, ,
does not keep falling as the carbon number of
alkane increases, and to dehydrogenate C3H8 with CO2 appears
more feasible than some C4 reactions, for example
The
of alkane and olefin cracking to generate carbon and
H2 are shown in Figure 4, The C4 alkanes have multiple curves
because of their constituent isomers. In general, the lower
indicates a higher possibility of cracking. Hence,
the olefins show much higher cracking possibility than any alkanes,
which imply that the selectivity of target products will be greatly
affected by further cracking of olefins. For instance, C3H6 will be
further cracked to lower level hydrocarbons or even carbon, so the
selectivity will be reduced. It is also obvious that CH4 has the highest
resistance to coking, and as a sequence of stepwise mechanism of
hydrocarbon decomposition, it will be a major by-product in these
reaction systems when looking at olefins only, it is obvious that the
carbon number is the most important indicator of the cracking
possibility. With the similar
of dehydrogenation of alkane
with CO2, C3H6 has much higher resistance to cracking than any
isomers of butene. Although C2H4 has even higher resistance to
subsequent cracking, it is even more difficult for C2H6 to be
activated with CO2 when the temperature is kept below 500.
From this analysis, , the dehydrogenation of C3H8 in the presence of
CO2 is recognisably the best alkane to be targeted for a chemical
utilisation process for CO2 operating in this temperature range,-a
range specifically chosen for ready-availability of solar heating
technology for these conditions

3.3 Modelled calculations of the dehydrogenation of C3H8

in the presence of CO2
In reality, of course, the dehydrogenation of C3H8 in the
presence of CO2 is not a simple single reaction but a multiple
reaction system, as shown in Table 2, mainly coupling the
traditional dehydrogenation of C3H8 (reaction 1) and reverse water
gas shift (reaction 2).

the contrary, the decomposition of CH4 is not favoured in this

temperature range. Considering C3H8 is the feedstock in this system
Viewdecomposed,
Article Online
and the stepwise mechanism of hydrocarbons to be
DOI: 10.1039/C5FD00062A
the generation of CH4 can be an important indicator to measure the
degree, and extent of side reactions during the reaction process.
CO2, as a mild oxidant, is not favoured to gasify the formed carbon
deposition. Hence, CO2 is always applied in order to shift the
equilibrium without increasing the temperature. It is obvious that
all other reactions in this system depend strongly on the conversion
of C3H8 in reaction (1). Thus, when considering only reaction (1), this
is a decomposition reaction which is favoured under lower partial
pressure of C3H8. With the equilibrium constants calculated from
at the temperature range of 300-500, the conversions of
C3H8 under different partial pressure is calculated as shown in
Figure 6.

Faraday Discussions Accepted Manuscript

Page 3 of 14

The C3H8 conversion is observed to be significantly affected by

the partial pressure of C3H8 within the temperature range of 300500,It is for this reason that the dehydrogenation of C3H8 in the
presence of CO2 should be operated with very low partial pressure
of C3H8 when designing experiments.
Apart from the improvement of catalysts, higher C3H6
selectivity can also be achieved by changing the conditions of
reaction. A general way to inhibit the reaction extent is to limit the
contact time of reactants on a catalyst surface by increasing the
21
space velocity of gas flow. As a comparison we model this and also
increase the partial pressure of reactants operating under these
conditions.

4. Experimental
4.1 Catalyst preparation

To prepare the 5wt% of Cr2O3/ZrO2 catalyst by precipitation

2
method, ZrO2 (Alfa-Aesor, 90m /g, 99%) was pre-heated at 600 for
6 hour before being grinded and sieved to 125m in particle size.
Then, Cr(NO3)3-9H2O precursor (99%, Sigma Aldrich) was dissolved
into distilled water, and this solution was mixed with the
groundZrO2 support and stirred at room temperature for 24 hours.
To achieve Cr2O3-ZrO2, the as prepared suspension was dried to
obtain a slurry or paste, which was finally calcined at 600 for 6
hours in a muffle furnace using a heating ramp of 10 C/min. The
solid sample was ground to obtain fine particles 125m.

4.2 Catalyst Characterisation

All the samples, including ZrO2 support, were characterized

with high resolution X-ray Diffraction (XRD) using a PANalytical
XPert PRO diffractrometer with CuK radiation (45kV, 40mA).
When being scanned, samples were flat loaded in the custom-built
In this system, (1) and (2) are the main reactions considered; (3) sample holders and scanned from 20to 302with a step size
and (4) are further cracking of C3 species where lighter by-products of 0.0084and a scanning speed at 0.017778s-1.
are formed; (5) is the reaction to gasify the carbon deposition.
The amount of carbon deposition on the spent catalyst was
The
of reaction (1), (2), (3) and (5) are shown in Figure 5, measured via the thermo gravimetric analysis (TGA). The
while the ones of hydrocarbons cracking (reaction 4) are already instrument employed was a TA Instrument, SDT Q-600, using
displayed in Figure 4. From 300-500, only the cracking of C2 and flowing air at 100ml/min from 50 to 1000 with a ramp rate of
C3, including reaction (3), can reach to a negative value of
, 10/min. The TGA curves were also derived as D-TGA to show the
which means these reactions are thermodynamically favoured. On rate of weight losses of samples

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The stability test of C3H8 dehydrogenation in the presence of

CO2 was operated in an M-R-10A micro-reactor (KUNLUN YONGTAI
Company, China) over the Cr-based catalyst prepared as above. All
tests were operated under atmospheric pressure and 500 for 5
hours, and the C3H8/CO2 mixture, whose mole ratio was kept at
C3H8/CO2 =1:2. As shown in Table 3, the conditions of tests differed
from each other by two variables, the mole fractions of C 3H8 (and
CO2) and overall gas hourly space velocity (GHSV). N2 balance was
applied to dilute the gas mixture. Considering that the reactions
were operated under atmospheric pressure, the partial pressure of
C3H8 in R-4800x2 and R-4800x3 was increased, and the GHSV of
C3H8 was changed to the same level as R-9600 and R-14400
respectively.
The composition of outlet gas was tested by an online Gas
Chromatography (PerkinElmer, Clarus 580 GC), and the conversions
of C3H8 and CO2, the selectivity of products, and the carbon balance
in gaseous products can be determined with the following
equations:

hydrocarbons, which indirectly exhibits the extent of further

cracking effect on C3H6 during the reaction.
View Article Online

5.2 Discussion on the changes of C3H6DOI:

selectivity.
10.1039/C5FD00062A

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4.3 Catalyst Testing

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Page 4 of 14

The conversion of reactants and the mass balances of carbon

and oxygen elements are shown in Table 4. In contrast to the high
stability of the C3H8 conversion, the CO2 conversions dropped
drastically over the first 5 hours. This may be due to the various and
different sites for C3H8 and CO2 to be adsorbed on the catalyst
surface respectively; C3H8 is usually attached to Cr species while CO2
can be adsorbed at the interface between Cr2O3 dopant and ZrO2
22
support. The high level of C-Balance indicates the low generation
of solid and liquid C-containing product,; this confirms the high
stability of C3H8 conversions in each test. The O-balance, which was
higher than 100% at the end of the test, indicates additional,
extraneous oxygen must have entered into the gaseous phase
during the reaction, and the oxygen source can be attributed to the
6+
5+
reduction of high valance state chromium species (Cr /Cr ) on the
23
24
6+
catalyst surface. Weckhuysen et al. claimed that Cr plays as a
precursor for the Cr dehydrogenation centres, and the reduction of
Cr species is assumed to be one of the primary deactivation
mechanisms.
Table 5 is a compilation of the selectivity of gaseous products.
The reduced level of C2Hx production as compared to that of the
selectivity of CH4 was observed). This experimental trend matched
the prediction (highlighted in Figure 4) that CH4 is much more
difficult to be thermally cracked at 500 than corresponding C2
molecules. The decrease of CO yield was not as much as the trend
of CO2 conversion; we believe this is due to the carbon gasification
6+
5+
by reducing the chromium species (Cr /Cr ) on catalyst surface,
which matches the observed increasing O-balance.

The XRD patterns of 5wt%-Cr2O3/ZrO2 before and after the

catalytic tests are displayed in Figure 9, and the pattern of the ZrO2
support is also shown here as reference. The peak at 2=36.18is
corresponds to the 1-1-0 phase of Cr2O3 with rhombohedral crystal
symmetry. No peak shift or new peaks were observed from the
post-reaction catalyst, which indicated that no phase change
occurred during the catalytic test. Importantly, this also matched
the high stability of C3H8 conversions, as shown in Figure 7.

5. Results and Discussion

5.1 Catalytic test results
The C3H8 conversion and C3H6 selectivity of the reaction under
different C3H8 partial pressures and overall GHSV are shown in
Figure 7. The results reveal effective C3H8 conversions at each
specified condition while the C3H6 selectivity drops at the beginning
of reactions. The results with different mole fractions of C3H8 were
displayed with solid symbols and the conclusion drawn from the
data in these figures is an inhibition of C3H8 conversion, but also an
improvement in C3H6 selectivity. However, with the same increase
of C3H8 fractional GHSV (by increasing the overall GHSV), the C3H8
conversion was inhibited to a similar extent while the C3H6
selectivity decreased also. These comparative results indicate that
even though the C3H8 conversion was similarly inhibited via the two
routes to increase the C3H8 fractional GHSV, the underpinning
mechanisms were fundamentally different.
Figure 8 exhibits the production of CH4, the main by-product.
The initial selectivity of CH4 was decreased from 6% to 3% as an
increase of C3H8 fractional GHSV. The CH4 selectivity can roughly
indicate the cracking capability of catalyst on higher level

Thermo gravimetric analysis (TGA) results and the

corresponding derivative weight -to - temperature (D-TGA) plots are
displayed in Figure 10. The weight loss starting from 200 we
attribute to the combustion of amorphous carbon in air. The
integrated area of the derivative weight equals to the weight loss,
which displayed more coke formed with an increase of the C 3H8
fractional GHSV.
In general terms, the mechanism of C3H8 dehydrogenation in
the presence of CO2 involves the primary activation of C3H8 on the
catalyst surface, while CO2 provides a contribution to the reaction
equilibrium shift by oxidising H2 generated from the C3H8
dehydrogenation (via the reverse water gas shift reaction,
). From the macro perspective, the average
contact time for each C3H8 molecule is shortened with the higher
C3H8 fractional GHSV, and this is the cause of a decreased C 3H8
conversion by optimising both methods to modify the C3H8
fractional GHSV. However, the observed changes of C3H6 selectivity
indicate that only increasing the partial pressure of reactants can
effectively inhibit the further cracking of C3H6. This arises because
the competitive adsorption between C3H6 and other substances are
strengthened from the micro perspective

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Conclusions

References

Published on 26 June 2015. Downloaded by New York University on 31/08/2015 20:17:49.

With the aim of attempting to (ultimately) correlate the

dehydrogenation of C3H8 in the presence of CO2 with the energy
source from solar heating technology, thermodynamic calculations
were operated for chemical processes operating in the temperature
range 300-500. An important outcome is the great potential of
C3H8 as compared to its lighter and heavier homologues (C2H6 and
C4H10, respectively) from both the perspective of CO2 activation and
also coking resistance across this temperature range. The
of
each reaction in our thermodynamic modelling
of the
dehydrogenation of C3H8 in the presence of CO2 also indicated that
neither the reverse water gas shift nor the coke gasification with
CO2 are favoured at 300-500
A series of catalytic tests were carried out over 5wt%Cr2O3/ZrO2 at various C3H8 partial pressure and overall GHSV. It was
shown that the increase of C3H8 partial pressure is highly beneficial
for the enhancement of C3H6 selectivity. Meanwhile, the C3H8
conversion was sacrificed due to the competitive adsorption
between the produced C3H6 and inactivated C3H8 molecules, which
was the major reason for the inhibition of further cracking of C3H6.
As a comparison, the increase of the overall GHSV can also decrease
the C3H8 conversion to the similar extent. However, the further
cracking of C3H6 cannot be limited because only the contacting time
of C3H8 on the catalyst surface was shortened from this micro
perspective.
From the aspect of the ultimate application of this particular
CO2 utilisation processes, we believe that the enhancement of
selectivity of the (target) C3H6 product, whilst sacrificing some of
the reactants ultimate conversion is acceptable. The efficiency can
be improved by a cycle system involving the reuse of the
unconverted feedstock by separating from the outlet mixture and
subsequently cycling back to the inlet mixture. It is recognised that
this kind of cycle system is beneficial to the reactions with low
conversion but very high selectivity. The high thermo-stability of the
present catalyst makes it attractive to scale-up to a moving bed or
even a fluid bed reactor for catalyst regeneration.
We believe that the results presented here are promising in
terms of the underpinning catalyst science for establishing the
potential industrialisation of the process of CO2 utilisation through
C3H8 dehydrogenation. This type of CO2 utilisation, operating in the
relatively low temperature range of 300-500 - and easily
accessible by solar thermochemical routes, could help shift the
focus of CO2 interest from the disposal of an inconvenient byproduct typified by the process of Carbon Capture and Storage
(CCS) - towards the production and use of CO2 as a commodity
chemical in Carbon Capture and Utilisation (CCU). However, one
must stress again that any proposed CCU process to be realistic for
emission reduction potential can only be beneficial if any necessary
energy input is from renewable sources. As noted here, our view is
that solar thermal chemical processes for CO2 utilisation, accessible
across these temperature ranges, offer very considerable potential
in that important regard.

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Acknowledgements
We thank the China Scholarship Council (CSC) for financial
support to X. Du and KACST and EPSRC for their continued support.

This journal is The Royal Society of Chemistry 2015

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Please do not adjust margins

Page 6 of 14

Catalytic Dehydrogenation of Propane by Carbon Dioxide: A

View Article Online

DOI: 10.1039/C5FD00062A

Medium-Temperature Thermochemical Process for Carbon Dioxide

Utilisation

a*

X. Du, B. Yao, S. Gonzalez-Cortes, V. L. Kuznetsov, Hamid AlMegren, T. Xiao, P. P. Edwards,

Published on 26 June 2015. Downloaded by New York University on 31/08/2015 20:17:49.

a*

, King Abdulaziz City of Science and Technology (KACST) - Oxford Centre of Excellence in

Petrochemicals, Inorganic Chemistry Laboratory, Department of Chemistry, University of Oxford,

Oxford, OX1 3QR, United Kingdom.
b, SINOPEC Shanghai Petrochemical Company LTD., Shanghai, 200540, China
c, Petrochemicals Research Institute (PRI), King Abdulaziz City of Science and Technology
(KACST), .Riyadh, Saudi Arabia, P.O. Box 6086, Riyadh 11442, Saudi Arabia

* Corresponding Author.
P. P Edwards, Tel: +44(0)1865 272646; Fax: +44(0)1865 272656;
E-mail address: [email protected].
T. Xiao, Tel: +44(0)1865 272660; Fax: +44(0)1865 272690
E-mail address: [email protected]

Faraday Discussions Accepted Manuscript

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Page 7 of 14

Faraday Discussions

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1
1
Standard molar enthalpy of formation(f Hm
) , standard molar entropy(Sm
) and parameters
DOI: 10.1039/C5FD00062A
of molar heat capacity at constant pressure(Cp,m )2.

f Hm
(298.15K)
(K J 1)

(298.15K)
Sm
(J 1 1)

A( 100 )

B( 103 )

C( 105 )

D( 108)

E( 1011 )

H2

130.684

2.883

3.681

-0.772

0.692

-0.213

CO

-110.53

197.67

3.912

-3.913

1.182

-1.302

0.515

CO2

-393.51

213.74

3.259

1.356

1.502

-2.374

1.056

H2O

-241.82

188.83

4.395

-4.186

1.405

-1.564

0.632

CH4

-74.81

186.26

4.568

-8.975

3.631

-3.407

1.091

C2H4

52.26

219.56

4.221

-8.782

5.795

-6.729

2.511

C2H6

-84.68

229.6

4.178

-4.427

5.660

-6.651

2.487

C3H6

20.42

267.05

3.834

3.893

4.688

-6.013

2.283

C3H8

-103.85

269.91

3.847

5.131

6.011

-7.893

3.079

1-C4H8

-0.13

305.71

4.389

7.984

6.143

-8.197

3.165

cis-2-C4H8

-6.99

300.94

3.689

19.184

2.230

-3.426

1.256

trans-2-C4H8

-11.17

296.59

5.584

-4.890

9.133

-10.975

4.085

i-C4H8

-17.10

295.29

3.231

20.949

2.313

-3.949

1.566

n-C4H10

-126.15

310.23

5.547

5.536

8.057

-10.571

4.134

i-C4H10

-134.73

291.82

3.351

17.883

5.477

-8.099

3.243

Substance

Published on 26 June 2015. Downloaded by New York University on 31/08/2015 20:17:49.

Cp,m = A + BT + CT 2 + DT 3 + ET 4

Faraday Discussions Accepted Manuscript

Table 1: Standard thermodynamic properties of chemical substance:

C (graphite)*
0
5.74
-0.977
9.458
-1.118
0.739
-0.207
*: The parameters of Cp,m are calculated by regressing the molar heat capacity at various temperature in handbook.3

Table 2. Modelled reaction system for the dehydrogenation of C3H8 in the presence of CO2
Reaction Number

Reaction Formula

(1)

C3 H8 C3 H6 + H2

(2)

H2 + CO2 H2 O + CO

(3)
(4)

C3 H8 C2 H4 + CH4
m
Cn Hm nC + H2
2

(5)

C + CO2 2CO

Table 3. Mole fractions of C3H8 ( ), overall GHSV and C3H8 GHSV of the coded reactions
Reaction code

X C3H8 (mol%)

GHSV (ml h1 g 1
cat )

GHSV of C3H8 (ml h1g1

cat )

R-4800

4800

240

R-4800x2

10

4800

480

R-4800x3

15

4800

720

R-9600

9600

480

R-14400

14400

720

Faraday Discussions

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products over 5wt%-Cr2O3/ZrO2 at various C3H8 partial pressure and overall GHSV; 500
and
DOI: 10.1039/C5FD00062A
C3H8/CO2 = 0.5.
CC3H8 (%)
CCO2 (%)
C3 H8 Partial
BC (%)
BO (%)

Pressure (atm)

0h

5h

0h

5h

0h

5h

0h

5h

R-4800

15.09

16.37

6.95

1.80

99.27

99.17

96.64

103.80

R-4800x2

9.52

11.03

4.62

2.79

99.90

99.30

97.80

103.16

R-4800x3

8.28

8.05

3.29

1.78

99.99

99.91

99.04

101.45

R-9600

9.77

10.35

5.15

1.51

98.65

98.87

96.93

102.42

R-14400

9.57

10.00

4.50

1.19

98.55

98.80

97.30

101.78

Table 5. Yield of CO () and Selectivity of hydrocarbons ( ) over 5wt%-Cr2O3/ZrO2 at various

C3H8 partial pressure and overall GHSV; 500 and C3H8/CO2 = 0.5.
SCH4 (%)
SC2Hx (%)
SC3H6 (%)
C3 H8 Partial
YCO(%)
Pressure (atm)

0h

5h

0h

5h

0h

5h

0h

5h

R-4800

3.59

3.54

6.06

3.76

1.32

1.00

83.23

64.30

R-4800x2

2.43

2.42

5.07

3.13

1.52

1.36

92.75

72.47

R-4800x3

1.94

1.89

4.74

2.48

1.66

1.88

94.56

80.30

R-9600

2.08

1.80

5.17

2.88

1.50

1.33

76.81

62.31

R-14400

1.80

1.57

3.26

1.68

1.46

1.35

75.91

61.53

References
1.

P. Atkins and J. de Paula, Atkins' Physical Chemistry, 7th Edition, 2002.

2.

J. Kunesh, The Properties of Gases and Liquids, Fifth Edition by Bruce Poling, John Prausnitz
and John O'Connell, 2002.

3.

W. M. Haynes, CRC Handbook of Chemistry and Physics on DVD, Version 2012, 2011.

Faraday Discussions Accepted Manuscript

Table 4. Conversion of reactants ( , ) and balance of elements ( , , ) in gaseous

Faraday Discussions

Catalytic Dehydrogenation of Propane by Carbon Dioxide: A

View Article Online

DOI: 10.1039/C5FD00062A

Medium-Temperature Thermochemical Process for Carbon Dioxide

Utilisation

a*

X. Du, B. Yao, S. Gonzalez-Cortes, V. L. Kuznetsov, Hamid AlMegren, T. Xiao, P. P. Edwards,

Published on 26 June 2015. Downloaded by New York University on 31/08/2015 20:17:49.

a*

, King Abdulaziz City of Science and Technology (KACST) - Oxford Centre of Excellence in

Petrochemicals, Inorganic Chemistry Laboratory, Department of Chemistry, University of Oxford,

Oxford, OX1 3QR, United Kingdom.
b, SINOPEC Shanghai Petrochemical Company LTD., Shanghai, 200540, China
c, Petrochemicals Research Institute (PRI), King Abdulaziz City of Science and Technology
(KACST), .Riyadh, Saudi Arabia, P.O. Box 6086, Riyadh 11442, Saudi Arabia

* Corresponding Author.
P. P Edwards, Tel: +44(0)1865 272646; Fax: +44(0)1865 272656;
E-mail address: [email protected].
T. Xiao, Tel: +44(0)1865 272660; Fax: +44(0)1865 272690
E-mail address: [email protected]

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Page 10 of 14

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DOI: 10.1039/C5FD00062A

Figure 1 f Gm
of CO2 and related substances at normal temperature and pressure (NTP).

Figure 2 r Gm
of the reactions between CO2 and other substances at 400 and normal
pressure.

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DOI: 10.1039/C5FD00062A

Figure 3 r Gm
of the dehydrogenation of light alkane in the presence of CO2 at 300-500.

Figure 4 r Gm
of the alkanes (left) and olefins (right) cracking to generate carbon and H2 at
300-500.

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DOI: 10.1039/C5FD00062A

Figure 5 r Gm
of reaction (1), (2), (3), (5) in the modelled system, at 300-500.

Figure 6 Calculated C3H8 conversions (mole %) at equilibrium state, considering reaction (1) only;
various C3H8 partial pressure; 300-500.

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DOI: 10.1039/C5FD00062A

Figure 7 C3H8 conversion and C3H6 selectivity over 5wt%-Cr2O3/ZrO2 upon operation time at
various C3H8 partial pressure and overall GHSV; 500 and C3H8/CO2 = 0.5.

Figure 8 Dependence of the CH4 selectivity with time on stream over 5wt%-Cr2O3/ZrO2 at various
C3H8 partial pressure and overall GHSV; 500 and C3H8/CO2 = 0.5.

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DOI: 10.1039/C5FD00062A

Figure 9 X-ray Diffraction (XRD) results over the catalysts both before (pre-5wt%-Cr2O3/ZrO2) and
after (post-5wt%-Cr2O3/ZrO2) the catalytic tests, with ZrO2 support as reference.

Figure 10 TGA (solid lines) and D-TGA (dot lines) results over 5wt%-Cr2O3/ZrO2 at various C3H8
partial pressure and overall GHSV; 500 and C3H8/CO2 = 0.5.

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