Wattle and Daub: Craft, Conservation

and Wiltshire Case Study

A dissertation submitted by

Tony Graham

towards the degree of Master of Science in the Conservation

of Historic Buildings at the University of Bath.

Department of Architecture and Civil Engineering.

Session 2003/4.

Contents
Synopsis ..........................................................................................................4
List of Illustrations ............................................................................................5
List of Tables....................................................................................................8
Acknowledgements..........................................................................................9
1 Introduction .............................................................................................10
2 History ....................................................................................................12
3 Craft........................................................................................................18
3.1
Diversity of Style ..............................................................................18
3.2
Frame Preparation...........................................................................20
3.3
Panel Types.....................................................................................22
3.4
Staves..............................................................................................23
3.5
Withies and Laths ............................................................................24
3.6
Daub ................................................................................................27
3.7
Decoration .......................................................................................30
4 Material Characteristics ..........................................................................32
4.1
Soils.................................................................................................32
4.1.1
Constituents .............................................................................33
4.1.2
Plasticity ...................................................................................33
4.1.3
Strength....................................................................................37
4.1.4
Field Testing.............................................................................37
4.1.5
Selection...................................................................................38
4.2
Dung ................................................................................................39
4.2.1
Evaluation of Dung Ingredients ................................................39
4.2.2
Lignin........................................................................................40
4.2.3
Urine.........................................................................................41
4.2.4
Microbial Debris........................................................................41
4.2.5
The Role of Dung .....................................................................41
4.3
Fibre ................................................................................................41
5 Conservation...........................................................................................43
5.1
The Value of Wattle and Daub.........................................................43
5.2
Defects and Decay ..........................................................................44
5.2.1
Decay of Daub and Plaster.......................................................44
5.2.2
Decay of Withies, Lath and Staves...........................................47
5.2.3
Maintenance.............................................................................48
5.3
Repair ..............................................................................................49
5.3.1
Partial Renewal ........................................................................55
5.3.2
Removal of Impermeable Paints and Coatings ........................58
5.4
Replacement ...................................................................................60
5.4.1
Brick Infill ..................................................................................60
5.4.2
Renewal ...................................................................................60
5.5
Building Regulations ........................................................................68
6 Wattle and Daub in Wiltshire...................................................................73
6.1
Documentary Evidence....................................................................73
6.2
Geology and Land Use ....................................................................76
6.3
Fieldwork .........................................................................................76
6.4
Surveyed Buildings..........................................................................77
6.5
Evaluation........................................................................................82
6.6
Wiltshire Conclusions ......................................................................85

7 Conclusion ..............................................................................................86
Bibliography ...................................................................................................88
Appendix 1: The Composition of Cow Dung ..................................................94
Appendix 2: Template for the Recording of Wattle and Daub ........................96
Appendix 3: List of Suppliers .........................................................................99
Appendix 4: Supplementary Detail from Wiltshire Buildings Survey ............102
Appendix 5: Analyses of Wiltshire Daubs ....................................................104
Appendix 6: Sieve Mesh Conversion ...........................................................110

Synopsis
This study examines the nature of wattle and daub in English building and the
techniques required for its conservation. The intent was to combine disparate
literature sources so to provide a coherent and comprehensive guide on the
craft. Additionally, to assist conservation work in parts of the country devoid of
wattle and daub research, a study of one such area, Wiltshire, was
undertaken.
It was evident from existing research that significant variation in wattle and
daub resulted from a complex interaction of multiple factors such as geology,
land use, woodland coverage and species. Documented techniques for
conservation were found to be sparse and therefore an attempt was made to
broaden them, in some instances by adapting methods established for the
conservation of other materials.
Conservation principles were applied, thereby illustrating that wattle and daub
need not be stripped if decaying or where structural investigations and repairs
are required. An examination of the material characteristics helped explain the
behaviour and durability of wattle and daub, including the development of a
hypothesis that the lignin in dung may explain its role.
It was established that the craft varied enormously in England, the dominating
factors being panel shape and local availability of materials. The research of
Wiltshire tradition showed a predominance of hazel withy and oak staves, the
latter often crudely nailed to the frame where access during construction was
restricted. Daubs were of local soils, chiefly calcareous due to the geology of
the county, using hay and hair as the fibre in addition to the commonly
specified straw. The case study identified new evidence that is directly
applicable to the conservation of the countys timber framed buildings.
This study has been successful in so far as creating a platform that conveys
all aspects of the wattle and daub craft, yet much continuing research is
warranted, especially in the identification, categorisation and geographic
mapping of regional variation. This may be accomplished through an
increased interest in the subject that, in turn, may hopefully be stimulated by
this work.

List of Illustrations
Figure 1. Iron Age wattle used flat as a track, c.1800 B.C. From Brunning
(2001). ....................................................................................................12
Figure 2. The principal method of wattle and daub walling, established by the
Iron Age. From Bowyer (1973)................................................................12
Figure 3. Lopping and topping from coppice woods. 15th Century. From
Nicholson and Fawcett (1988). ...............................................................15
Figure 4. A 15th century artisan plasterer completing infill panels after the
carpenter had finished his work. From Binding (2001)............................16
Figure 5. Interacting factors affecting the type and style of wattle and daub..18
Figure 6. Complexity of wattlework in arch-brace panel was avoided here by
nailing three laths diagonally onto the staves (top-most lath is missing). 19
Figure 7. A lattice formed by weaving withies diagonally. South
Cambridgeshire, c.1700 (Courtesy G. Murfitt). .......................................19
Figure 8. Soffit stave hole types: auger (a); augered mortice (b); chiselled
mortice (c); V-groove either as a mortice or continuous (d). ...................20
Figure 9. Studs with V-grooves, 1531. From Salzman (1952)........................20
Figure 10. Variety in panel shape required different techniques to infill. From
Mercer (1975). ........................................................................................21
Figure 11. Configuration of staves and wattle in a braced panel. From Reid
(1989). ....................................................................................................22
Figure 12. A braced panel wattled by altering the angle of the withies. .........22
Figure 13. Decorative panel bracing applied in front of wattle. Adapted from
Reid (1989). ............................................................................................22
Figure 14. Method of stave insertion. From Harris (1997)..............................24
Figure 15. Wattle fencing in Hampshire, as used by sheep farmers. From
Edlin (1949). ...........................................................................................26
Figure 16. Halving of withy ends to fit grooves in studs. ................................27
Figure 17. A 17th century illustration of a lath-makers froe. From Holme
(1972). ....................................................................................................27
Figure 18. Evidence of string used to tie withies. From Rackham (1976). .....27
Figure 19. The daub of sheltered internal partitions was often crudely finished,
with cracking left unattended. .................................................................29
Figure 20. 16th Century wall painting of a daub panel and surrounding frame.
From Weald & Downland Open Air Museum (2002)...............................30
Figure 21. Medieval daub decorated with combed pattern, Sussex. From
Warren (1999).........................................................................................30
Figure 22. Incised pargetting, Suffolk. From Clifton-Taylor (1962)................30
Figure 23. Raised pargetting. The Ancient house, Clare, Suffolk. From CliftonTaylor (1962). .........................................................................................30
Figure 24. Shrinkage potential of clay............................................................34

Figure 25. Clay moisture content versus volume. From BS 1377-2:1990. .....35
Figure 26. Vane test for soil strength. (Adapted from BS 1377-7:1990).........36
Figure 27. Shear box soil test. (From BS 1377-7:1990).................................36
Figure 28. Compact packet sieves for field use. (Courtesy of Endecotts Ltd) 37
Figure 29. Temporary support for wattle panel, enabling repair of upper rail.
Timber boards are temporarily screwed to frame. ..................................50
Figure 30. Removal of bottom rail for repair by providing temporary vertical
support for wattle.. ..................................................................................50
Figure 31. Cross-section showing repair of delaminated daub by tying. ........51
Figure 32. Lead flashing repair may trap water against the frame causing
accelerated rot. Adapted from Reid (1989). ............................................54
Figure 33. A flowchart for the analysis of daub. .............................................61
Figure 34. Insertion of a stave into a test panel. ............................................62
Figure 35. Weaving of withies. .......................................................................62
Figure 36. Mixing of daub by heeling............................................................65
Figure 37. Treading straw into daub. .............................................................65
Figure 38. Knocking up a cat in the hand.......................................................66
Figure 39. Cats form a homogenous daub.....................................................66
Figure 40. Consolidating the daub surface and edges of cats using a damped
pad..........................................................................................................66
Figure 41. Using a piece of lath to bring the daub up against the frame edges.
................................................................................................................66
Figure 42. Panel upgrade using central sheepswool fibre. Adapted from Reid
(1989). ....................................................................................................70
Figure 43. Upgrading with rendered woodfibre board and sheepswool
insulation. Adapted from Reid (1989). ....................................................70
Figure 44. The geology of Wiltshire. From Geddes (2000). ...........................75
Figure 45. Predominant building materials of Wiltshire. From Slocombe
(1989). ....................................................................................................75
Figure 46. Woodland density shown by circles at 10 times map scale, with
Wiltshire and the west mapped by a 10km grid and south eastern districts
by county. From Rackham (1976)...........................................................75
Figure 47. Density of coppice woodland, showing Wiltshire rich in underwood.
From Rackham (1976)............................................................................75
Figure 48. Locations of inspected wattle and daub. Several buildings were
surveyed in some locations.....................................................................77
Figure 49. Wattle tensioned in a narrow two-stave panel by entwining pairs of
withies.....................................................................................................78
Figure 50. Sparrow-pricking to an internal panel............................................78
Figure 51. Outer staves nailed against soffit of frame....................................79
Figure 52. Smoke-blackened wattle and daub at apex of cruck.....................80
Figure 53. Cross-section of a stave. ..............................................................80

Figure 54. Wattle of whole and split withy (a) and enlargement of sparrowpricking (b). .............................................................................................81
Figure 55. Staves attached to soffit of principals, whole withies and smokeblackened daub, c.1480..........................................................................81
Figure 56. Particle size analyses of daub samples ........................................83
Figure 57. Chestnut may have existed on the southern fringes of Wiltshire
since Roman times. From Rackham (1976)............................................84
Figure 58. Cross-section dimensions of surveyed riven staves: (a) average;
(b) deepest; (c) widest.. ..........................................................................84
Figure 59. Withy diameters: minimum, average and maximum.. ...................85
Figure 60. Ruminant digestive system. ..........................................................94
Figure 61. Composition of cow faeces. ..........................................................95
Figure 62. Dimensions of withies. ................................................................103
Figure 63. Daub particle size distribution graphs. ........................................105
Figure 64. Plots a-g of Figure 63 combined for comparison. .......................106

All figures by the author unless otherwise stated.

List of Tables
Table 1. Field test for strength of fine soils (from BS 5930:1999) ..................38
Table 2. Comparison of acid detergent fibre in traditional and modern cattle
feeds. Adapted from Stanton (2004).......................................................40
Table 3. The visual inspection of wattle and daub. ........................................48
Table 4. Example daub mixes shown as ratios of constituents......................64
Table 5. Details of Wiltshire buildings surveyed...........................................102
Table 6. Sieve comparison table..................................................................110

Acknowledgements
The assistance of Ian Lund, Kennet District Council Conservation Office, Pam
Slocombe and Dorothy Treasure of the Wiltshire Building Record, Joe
Thompson of the Weald and Downland Open Air Museum and Greg Pullen
Estate Agent and Surveyors has been much appreciated. By far the most
significant support has been provided by my wife, Anne, who has helped
provide me with that most valuable resource time.

1 Introduction
Wattle and daub epitomises vernacular construction. Its continuous use for at
least 6000 years owes much to cheapness and abundance of raw materials. It
starts with primitive building and spans the entire history of England until the
crafts demise during the 18th century. The craft was used across the world but
the scope here is confined to English traditions.
There is a plethora of minor references to the craft and history of wattle and
daub, yet extensive research, such as that published by Salzman (1952),
Bowyer (1973) and Forrester (1959), is scarce. A primary objective of this
dissertation was therefore to consolidate and contrast these isolated
references with the intention of producing a consolidated and comprehensive
guide that explores the materials used in wattle and daub, where it was used,
diversity of form and to define the factors influencing variation.
Wattle and daub is dependant on the various styles of surrounding timber
frame. However, brevity limits discussion of framing to only those factors
directly affecting the craft. Styles such as close-studding and decorative
panelling are only briefly introduced: a fuller comprehension can be acquired
from sources such as Brunksill (1985), Clifton-Taylor (1962) and Mercer
(1975).
The only title dedicated to the conservation of wattle and daub is the brief
pamphlet by Reid (1989). Short chapters in Ashurst and Ashurst (1988a) and
Wright (1991) are also valuable and supplemented by even briefer
discussions of wattle and daub within the wider subject of earth building, (e.g.
Houben and Guillaud (1994), Minke (2000) and Harrison (1999)). It is
therefore unsurprising that academic understanding of the wattle and daub
craft, its performance and preservation are poor in comparison to other
historic building materials. Indeed, many surveyors and architects specialising
in historic buildings still take the view that it is of secondary importance to the
value of an historic building. As a result, wattle and daub is often
unhesitatingly replaced where damaged and readily removed to facilitate a
structural inspection or an alteration. A further intent of this dissertation was
therefore to appraise the values of wattle and daub and thereby establish
criteria for methods of repair and conservation. This necessitates a
comprehension of the material characteristics of wattle and daub. For
example, why was the inclusion of dung habitually specified and what was its
active ingredient? What factors influence the cracking of a new daub and what
are the likely consequences with respect to its durability?
Through a preliminary literature review, it also became apparent that most of
the studies of wattle and daub relate only to specific areas of the country.
From the authors viewpoint, living in Wiltshire, conservation using the
techniques of local tradition would be made troublesome due to the lack of
regional knowledge. Indeed, Wood (1965) in her review of wattle and daub,
concluded that, much research, however, needs to be done in local methods
of building, and the literature review demonstrated that this statement is still
valid today. The final objective was therefore an appreciation of the craft as

10

practiced in the County of Wiltshire. Sources included regional publications

such as the journal of the Wiltshire Archaeological and Natural History Society
and Victoria County History of Wiltshire, which were combined with case
studies comprising site visits, recording and sample analyses.

11

Figure 1. Iron Age wattle used flat as a track,

c.1800 B.C. From Brunning (2001).

Figure 2. The principal method of wattle and

daub walling, established by the Iron Age.
From Bowyer (1973).

2 History
The origins of wattle and daub stem from
the primitive buildings, where huts were
constructed of poles and earthen walls.
Archaeology shows the techniques were
numerous and their boundaries illdefined. Earth walling could be used
simply as a base for a roof, or higher
walls could be formed to raise the roof
away from the ground. The walls could be
made
with
wattles,
woven
from
brushwood or withies (thin wands)
coppiced from nearby woodlands. These
wattle walls, bearing no significant
difference to the construction of hurdles,
used the same technique as fencing for
boundaries, penning, wind-resistance and
privacy and those laid flat as tracks
[Figure 1].
The filling of these wattle walls to improve
wind resistance could be achieved with
anything that came to hand, but most
frequently may have been straw, moss,
leaves and earth. For easy layering, the
use of turf and topsoil was common, but
for binding into wattles, it was easier to
use soil that could be pressed into
position and would remain in place. This
common form of wattle and daub walling
was being practiced at least as early as
the Iron Age. Archaeology from Meare
near Glastonbury in Somerset shows
structural vertical poles were driven into
the earth and the wall completed with
wattles and clay.1 Occasionally the daub
was burnt, either accidentally or
deliberately, which hardened the surface
like fired pottery. In areas rich in timber, a
more sophisticated construction was
used whereby a stone or timber cill
provided a firm base for split timbers and
holes for the staves provided a positive
location for the wattles that may have
kept them from bowing or coming
detached in high winds [Figure 2].

Bowyer (1973), pp.48-51.

12

The arrival of the Romans into Britain did little to affect the use of wattle and
daub since it was developed into their own Romano-British styles of
construction. As indigenous materials they were highly suitable, yet, as
Vitruvius describes, it was not the preferred method in their native Rome, 2
As for "wattle and daub" I could wish that it had never been
invented. The more it saves in time and gains in space, the greater
and the more general is the disaster that it may cause; for it is
made to catch fire, like torches. It seems better, therefore, to spend
on walls of burnt brick, and be at expense, than to save with "wattle
and daub," and be in danger. And, in the stucco [plaster] covering,
too, it makes cracks from the inside by the arrangement of its studs
and girts [rails]. For these swell with moisture as they are daubed,
and then contract as they dry, and, by their shrinking, cause the
solid stucco to split. But since some are obliged to use it either to
save time or money, or for partitions on an unsupported span, the
proper method of construction is as follows. Give it a high
foundation so that it may nowhere come in contact with the broken
stone-work composing the floor; for if it is sunk in this, it rots in
course of time, then settles and sags forward, and so breaks
through the surface of the stucco covering.
The bases of Anglo-Roman walls may often have been embedded in concrete
and the surfaces plastered. Remains of daub from Verulamium, Hertfordshire,
show herringbone keying of the daub surface that indicates it had a plaster
finish.3 Chopped straw, hay, vegetable materials and dung were added to the
daub to improve binding and reduce shrinkage cracking.
The method prevailed through the Saxon period. A quantity of a Saxon plaster
has been recovered from various sites in Wiltshire that has impressions of
wattles and timber beams.4 Excavations at Thetford found wattle and daub
used in the 9th century building although evidence from excavations of 7th and
10th century buildings shows that the Saxons may have preferred planking.5
Wattle and daub was also widespread throughout many other countries, such
as used by the Normans prior to their 11th century invasion of England.
Although the surviving Anglo-Norman buildings are of stone, the majority were
timber framed and so continued to utilise wattle and daub. These structures
have all but gone although much archaeological evidence has been found,
including a daub probably consisting wholly of animal dung.6
As the craft of the English carpenter evolved, so did the form of timber-frame
construction. In areas with cruck construction, vertical walls were created by
2

Vitruvius (1960), pp.57-58.

Davey (1961), p.40-41.
4
In the 1970s, Roy Canham of Wiltshire County Council excavated Saxon plasters which are
now preserved in the Swindon Museum stores.
5
Wood (1965), p.212.
6
Macphail, Cruise, Allen, Linderholm, Reynolds (2004).
3

13

creating panels dropping below the level of the cruck spurs and these were
then finished with wattle and daub. In these and other areas of the country,
the initial abundance of wood allowed the structural framing to include a large
number of supporting posts.7 These close-timbered or close-studded walls
required a different form of infill to their narrow panels. Instead of wattling,
straight laths were held in place by channels formed in the sides of the posts
and these were then daubed. The infill was always (and unfortunately still is)
considered secondary to the timber posts and studs. It was only the scarcity of
timber from the 16th century onwards that increased the ratio of infill to timber
walling.8 Ironically, the wider panels required intermediate support between
studs, and therefore the use of staves and woven wattlework returned once
more to substantial houses.
Also during the 16th century, it became common for new houses to have a
fireplace rather than central hearth. This was formed by a smoke bay in which
two trusses were extended downwards or by provision of a timber framed
smoke hood, both filled with wattle and daub.9
Most histories of construction in England focus on the developing crafts of the
yeomans house and the great buildings of the wealthy: only cursory mentions
of the cottage homes of the peasantry are provided. This is mainly due to the
limited archaeological remains but it is clear that wattle and daub invariably
completed the walls of the true cottages that existed throughout the country
down to the 19th century.
In all buildings, a disadvantage of wattle and daub has always been its
vulnerability to damp. If not kept dry, the wattles would rot or be attacked by
beetles and the daub would crack and lose key due to wetting and frost. This
would be worse along the bottom of the external walls and it has been
suggested that the jettied frame evolved as a way to keep the walls drier. The
effects of rain were retarded by the usual limewash finish but could be further
reduced by finishing the panel with a lime plaster. This provided a more robust
surface and sealed the cracks in the underlying daub. However, the inherent
flexibility of the frame and the shrinkage of earth and lime materials meant
that not even the finest work could seal the joint between panel and its
surrounding frame. Compared to masonry walls, wattle and daub buildings
were draughty and the panels required frequent repair or renewal. In the east
of England improved weather resistance of both frame and panels came from
plastering the entire wall, often accompanied by decorative plaster known as
pargetting.
Salzman (1952) gives a comprehensive account of references to wattle and
daub through the ages: it is also referred to as ruddle and dab and wattle

Greensted Church, probably dating from before the Norman conquest has adjacent timber
posts which avoided the need for any intermediate beame fillyng. However, according to
Salzman (1952) p.192, it is likely such a construction would be beyond the reach of most
owners and that some infill, to a lesser or greater extent, would be required in all buildings.
8
Bowyer (1973), p.53.
9
Slocombe (1988), p.36.

14

and dab.10 The withy or wreathing rods are mentioned in 1223 at Winchester
as ad walduram, in Monmouth in 1370 as wyndend and at Bath in 1435 as
watyll. In 1441 there is pro vrethying et dawbying and in 1535 frithying
roddes.
At York, in 1327, is recorded the mixing of earth with straw and stubble for use
by a torcher or dauber. The term torching was often applied to the process
of covering and was applied to walls as well as the insides of roofs and
chimney linings (parging). The daubing was often referred to as rudyng or
simply as earthing or terrying (from latin terrand) but most frequently as
daubing (dauband or daealband).11
In primitive and peasant building the
wattle and daub work would have been
done by the house owner.12 The peasant
would construct his home from slender
timbers and use the early customary right
to lopping and topping to provide wood,
often oak or ash, for wattling [Figure 3].
From the 11th century, managed
coppicing would secure a supplier of
these underwoods. This may have been
daubed with earth, straw and dung. Chalk
or lime may have been added where
available. For wealthier owners, the work
may have been done by a dauber
Figure 3. Lopping and topping from
th
(torcher), the workmen often referred to
coppice woods. 15 Century. From
as daubatores or dealbatores.13 The
Nicholson and Fawcett (1988).
position of the dauber within the crafts
was well established, as illustrated as
early as 1212 in a list of maximum daily wages,14
Carpenters 3d. and their food or 4d. without food; Masons and
tilers, the same; Freemasons, 2 d. or 4d.; Plasterers, daubers,
and puggers 2d. or 3d.; their assistants, 1 d. or 2d.
and by the 1351 Statute of Labourers,15
tilers 3d., and their mates 1 d.; plasterers and other workers of
mud walls, and their mates, likewise.

10

Reid (1989) states that ruddle and dab was a reference to the stud and mud of the
northwest of England rather than wattle and daub: the former more accurately being a merger
of wattle and daub and structural cob construction. Bankhart (1908) refers to the term dab
which was in use in Kent at the turn of the twentieth century.
11
Salzman (1952), pp.188-189.
12
Nicholson and Fawcett (1988), p.34.
13
Salzman (1952), p.190, states that the term dealbatores more commonly referred to
whitewashers.
14
Ibid., p.68.
15
Ibid., p.72.

15

This also shows that whilst considered skilled craftsmen, the plasterers and
daubers were less well regarded than the carpenters and masons who may
have designed the house as well as constructed it [Figure 4].
These skills were always in short supply and this meant that daubers would
often travel. In 1487 at Urchfont, Wiltshire, there is reference to a dauber that
came from outside the village,16
William Dicial for daubing walls for 30 days at 4d. per day.
The craft of wattling was also close to
that of the thatcher and generally
grouped as helyers (helliers) or
cooperatores. It is therefore likely
that the crafts could be combined, as
suggested by the payment of 17d. in
1500 at Grendon for new spars and
wattling, although the latter could
have been used under thatch rather
than for walls.17 The thatcher required
coppice wood for spars and liggers,
as did the plasterer for staves and
withies. Both also most commonly
used straw.
The demise of the craft of daubing
was driven by several compounding
factors. Firstly was the replacement
with brick nogging.18 Secondly, timber
framing, using either new or reused
timbers, diminished during the 17th
and 18th centuries due to the inherent
fire risk and the subsequent move to
Figure 4. A 15th century artisan plasterer
stone and brick: construction of halfcompleting infill panels after the carpenter
had finished his work. From Binding
timbered buildings had almost ceased
(2001).
by the turn of the 18th century. Thirdly,
as half-timbering became less
respectable through the 18th century
Palladians desire for stone or brick faades, timber walls were frequently
modernised by full plastering or by hiding behind mathematical tiles.

16

Urchfont Parish Millennium Group (2001), p.113.

Bowyer (1973), p.171.
18
As brick production became increasingly economic during the 16th century, it became a
common replacement for decayed wattle and daub panels and, in some districts, it was also
used as infill for new timber buildings. The bricks would be laid either at an angle, in a
herringbone pattern, but more commonly would be laid horizontally (Reid, 1989). The skill
required to replace with brick was considerably less than wattle and daub, as has remained
the case to the present day. However, a single brick thickness is draughtier than wattle and
daub as it sits relatively loosely between the timber frame and is probably less resistant to the
passage of moisture.
17

16

The poor image of wattle and daub was even conveyed through law: it is said
that the term breaking and entering comes from the ease with which
criminals were able to enter a building by breaking through the infill.19
More recently, as new materials became abundant during the 20th century,
many creative ways of replacing or improving wattle and daub have been
tried. Where the timbering remains exposed, panels have often been repaired
with a cement render. Further, where not controlled by listed buildings
legislation, instead of replacing with brick there has been a trend for using
fibre board, expanded metal lath and similar backing materials.
It is remarkable that this method of walling remained one of the most common
and unchanging forms of walling from primitive building down to its gradual
demise during recent centuries. Throughout these periods of great changes
and innovation, the craft remained almost entirely unaltered despite the huge
developments in the carpentry of timber framing that surrounded each panel.
Not only did the methods used for wattle and daubing remain consistent, but
also did the majority of the materials used.

19

Hanawalt (1986), p.34

17

3 Craft
The craft technique can best be described by reviewing the materials
component parts and by exploring the various forms the wattle and daub had
to take.
3.1 Diversity of Style
Identifying the origins of variation in wattle and daub is complicated by the
multitude of influencing factors and their interactions. In fact, it was found that
writing a full description was so prohibitively complex that the map of Figure 5
was depicted. Only a few of the secondary interactions (dashed lines) are
shown, with others excluded for clarity.20

Figure 5. Interacting factors affecting the type and style of wattle and daub.

In considering some of the principal interactions, the dominating factor for

wattle and daub style is panel type. This is primarily influenced by the type of
construction, whether built during pre-framing or timber-framing eras and by
the availability of timber. Access to suitable timber was regional, dependent
on geology and past land use. The material chosen for rebuilding was
increasingly influenced by availability of good building stone versus the
scarcity of timber and the reluctance to timber due to fire risk. The distribution

20

For example, climate also affects geology, such as the landscape of northern England
being influenced by glacier action and deposits, but has been excluded for clarity.

18

of todays wattle and daub styles is compounded by the probability of building

survival and, in turn, this is dependent on the eminence of the building.21
Where wattle and daub does survive, the materials used are dependent on
the landscape and its historic uses. For example, the underlying geology not
only determines whether a daub might contain chalk rather than other
aggregate, but also determines the agricultural use of the land, such as
shepherding on the downs versus woodland in the vales. Further, the
availability of chalk or limestone would affect the likelihood of a daub being
gauged with lime. It also follows that these factors affect demography, for
example through the skill of hurdle-making for sheep penning, and is also
recursive since the materials for penning take the sequence back to a
dependence for coppice.
The availability of coppice woodland versus timber trees would also influence
the use of withies versus riven (split) lath, but the latter is preferable for infill of
close studding and hence selection is entwined with panel type.

Figure 6. Complexity of wattlework in archbrace panel was avoided here by nailing

three laths diagonally onto the staves (topmost lath is missing).

Figure 7. A lattice formed by weaving

withies diagonally. South Cambridgeshire,
c.1700 (Courtesy G. Murfitt).

Variation of wattle and daub is also affected by the multitude of methods

available to the individual dauber or peasant cottage builder, even within a
single locality. This may therefore mask the identification of regional variation
since subtleties are difficult to identify without increasing the sample size of
inspected buildings. Unfortunately, the scarcity of exposed wattle and daub
makes studies difficult and the return on investment in time taken to increase
21

Brunskill developed a model titled the vernacular zone that describes the survival of
historic buildings in terms of their status and age.

19

sample size by seeking out additional examples becomes increasingly poor.

However, on the positive side, it is because of this diversity of methods and
materials that it is still common to find new variations when investigating infill
panels in historic buildings [Figure 6 and Figure 7].

Figure 8. Soffit stave hole types: auger (a); augered

mortice (b); chiselled mortice (c); V-groove either as a
mortice or continuous (d).

Figure 9. Studs with V-grooves, 1531. From

Salzman (1952).

3.2 Frame Preparation

Before the dauber could carry out his craft, it was necessary for the carpenter
to provide the correct detailing to his frame in order to accept the staves of the
wattle panel. The bottom timber would be either part of a cill beam, mid rail
(bressumer) or nogging and, before construction, the carpenter would gouge

20

a long continuous groove along the centre-line of its upper face. The top of
the panel may similarly have been formed by a mid rail or wall plate, onto
which the carpenter would use an auger to prepare holes spaced
approximately 250-450mm apart, ensuring that one was placed 0-50mm in
from each end. Less commonly, the stave holes were made into rectangular
mortices, rough v-groove mortices or a continuous v-slot gouged on the soffit
(underside) to match the lower rail [Figure 8].22 Sometimes, the end staves
were run into the same mortice as the adjacent structural timber.23 The
carpenter frequently provided additional grooves along the inside faces of the
posts or studs to accept laths or, occasionally, the ends of withies [Figure 9].

Figure 10. Variety in panel shape required different techniques to infill.

From Mercer (1975).

22

The grooves and stave holes often provide archaeology that indicate where a wattle and
daub panel has been removed or where a timber has been reused for another purpose.
23
Thompson (2003), p.2.

21

Figure 11. Configuration of staves and

wattle in a braced panel. From Reid
(1989).

Figure 12. A braced panel wattled by

altering the angle of the withies.

Figure 13. Decorative panel

bracing applied in front of wattle.
Adapted from Reid (1989).

3.3 Panel Types

The form of a wattle backing is chiefly determined by the shape and size of
the spacing between the frame since it is necessary for the panel to be
sufficiently rigid against physical damage such as from wind and being leant
upon. Most were rectangular, such as the majority in post and truss and box-

22

frame constructions: non-rectangular panels required special consideration.24

The dauber would need to be able to fill a great variety of panel shapes,
depending on location within the frame, decoration, bracing and panel size
[Figure 10].
Narrow panels either result from close studding or where a stud, such as for a
window or door jamb, breaks a larger panel. Two approaches to the infill were
either to rotate the construction so that the staves were horizontal and withies
vertical or, more frequently, especially for close studding, was to use lathing
instead of wattle. The laths were either sprung into grooves made in the sides
of both studs or nailed to fillets of oak which themselves were nailed to the
sides of the studs.
Where the latter technique was used the daub was often absent, replaced
with a haired plaster applied directly to the laths.25 The reason for omitting the
daub may have been due to the laths being nearer to the surface of the frame,
being located on the faces of the fillets rather than in the grooves on the frame
centre-line. Alternatively, this method may have been coexistent with a
regional preference to use only plaster instead of daub.
Braces introduced tapering and curved panel edges that caused complexities
in the wattling. Where laths were used, the nailed fillets could simply follow the
line of the brace with varying length of lath applied between them. However,
where staves were used, they needed to be short near the corners and
consequently their insertion required much skill, as did the wattling if it were to
be fit tightly and to fill the full height of the panel [Figure 11]. Many other
methods of providing a compact wattlework were used, such as running the
withies diagonally, following the line of the brace [Figure 12]. The thicknesses
of struts (non-structural decorative timbers) used in ornamental bracing were
often less than the thickness of the structural frame. Where wattled, the
staves would often be in a plane behind the struts, thereby keeping the staves
and wattling simple [Figure 13].
3.4 Staves
The staves were usually oak, but hazel, holly, birch, alder and ash were also
used.26 Chestnut was quite durable but use was limited since supply was
generally restricted to the southeast. The staves were either selected as
coppice in the round or riven from the heartwood of larger timbers.
For wattle panels it was important that the staves were of the correct
thickness so that the withies or laths could be easily worked around them
without splitting or creating a panel that was too thick, as this would protrude
too closely to the surface of the frame. Riven oak staves were usually 1525mm deep by 60-90mm wide whereas hazel staves were typically 20-30mm
diameter. Bark was often removed to reduce the risk of beetle attack. To
24

Clifton-Taylor (1962) provides a comprehensive explanation of differences between postand-truss and box-frame construction. Superficially, both may appear similar externally, with
rectangular panels, but differ in the structural load paths.
25
Reid (1989), p.3. However, Clifton-Taylor (1962), p.320 states that laths were covered with
daub.
26
Wright (1991), p.97.

23

assist weaving, the outside pair of staves was often thicker and shaped to a
truncated wedged section and intermediate staves shaped to a truncated
diamond section. This allowed each withy or lath to lie more flatly against the
side of the stave, rather than touching just the protruding corners of an
unshaped rectangular-sectioned stave. If nailed laths were to be used, the
staves needed to be thicker, typically 50mm by 75mm and looking more like
studs.27
The tops of all staves were prepared to fit the underside of the rail. For an
augered hole, they were roughly pointed by chamfering on all four sides or
chamfered on just two sides to fit the width of a mortice. The bottoms were
shaped to fit the groove in the lower rail by chamfering the front and back to
almost a point, and the sides just slightly chamfered to allow the stave to be
swung more easily into position [Figure 14].

Figure 14. Method of stave insertion. From Harris (1997).

3.5 Withies and Laths

The malleable twig withies (or wandys) were woven around the staves in the
same manner as a hurdle or a basket weave, their direction of entry
alternating with each course. The elasticity of the green withies provided
stiffness to the panel. Green cleft oak lath could be woven in a similar
manner, as could thin bark strips.28 Wattle panels were initially of withies,
used in the round or split into halves or slats. Evidence suggests that laths
may not have been used until the 14th or 15th century and such early use may
27
28

Thompson (2003), p.1.

Reid (1989), p.3.

24

have been a Wessex practice, although withies also continued to be used

wherever the craft prevailed.
For buildings that survive today, the predominant withy material found is
hazel. This may not have always been the only wood routinely used. There is
evidence that the use of willow (sallow / osiers) was also common, together
with a variety of other slender rods of ash, birch, lime and almost any other
flexible green woods that were to hand. Reed was also utilised and was
particularly suited to close studding.29
Laths from the middle ages were usually of oak or beech.30 During the reign of
Edward III, the size was regulated by statute as 1 x and again by statute
in 1528 as 5 x 2 x but are often as wide as 4. Briggs (1925) states early
lathing was nailed on to the frame surface and daubed so the timbers were
not on show, but evidence of this practice is not given. Where the laths were
nailed to thick staves or studs, the daub was often applied like plaster and the
panels were therefore hollow. The void was often filled with straw or bran.

29

Clifton-Taylor (1962), p.320, suggests that originally willow (osier), reed, unbarked hazel or
ash were all used. He also suggests that laths took over from withies at widely varying dates
between the 15th century, possibly earlier, and the 19th century. Bowyer (1973), p.53, says
that for square panels (after the demise of close studding around 1550), early work used laths
and later work used hazel or ash withies. Wood (1965), p.226 and Salzman (1952), p.188,
describe evidence of lathing as early as 1347 at Clare, Essex, Paignton and Winchester and it
may have been primarily a Wessex practice at that time. Salzman also offers small braches,
hazel rods, osiers, reeds, thin strips of wood, or other pliant material. Rackham (1994), p.45,
observes that hazel and sallow (willows) are commonest in surviving buildings and has also
found elm, aspen, birch, maple and lime. Thompson (2003) has evidence of laths of oak,
Scots Pine, and withies of hazel and many other materials including birch, ash, etc. Wright
(1991), p.97, has evidence of reed used for close studding.
30
Briggs (1925), p.233.

25

The supply of withies from coppice woods was often in the form of underwood
that shared space with timber trees. Managed coppicing was well established
by the middle ages, especially in areas of intensive sheep farming such as
Hampshire, Wiltshire, West Sussex and Dorset where hurdles were used as
fencing [Figure 15].31 Whilst it is generally accepted that large timbers may
have been transported significant distances for the construction of the more
substantial house, coppice wood may also have been transported to supply

Figure 15. Wattle fencing in Hampshire, as used by sheep farmers.

From Edlin (1949).

woodless areas, even during the medieval period when the coverage of
woodland was not significantly declining. Where managed woods were not
available, a local source may have been found from great lengths of
hedgerow.32 The coppice cycle was typically four to eight years, although
underwood may also have been taken when required. Growth of
approximately seven years was ideal for producing withies. Since a practical
width is approximately 12 to 25mm, large sections could be quartered and
small sections or the finer ends could be used whole. The wood was best cut
during the winter since there was less sap which weakened it and made it
prone to insect and fungal attacks.33 However, it needed to be used before it
seasoned, otherwise it became too stiff to weave and would snap when bent.
On cold days the withies could be softened by warming over a fire.34 The
removal of bark might have been to further reduce the risk of rot and beetle
attack, but frequently it was retained.
The withies were often worked using a spar hook (or spar knife), a smaller
version of a billhook. It has a thin blade which is easier to position within
narrower withies. The tool has almost completely vanished, except for a few
thatchers and hurdle makers who prefer them to the larger family member.
31

Moir and Letts (1999), p.87.

Rackham (1994), pp.40-45.
33
Moir and Letts (1999), p.87.
34
Wright (1991), p.97.
32

26

Where a groove was provided in the sides of the posts, the ends of the wider
withies may have been reduced to fit by cutting diagonally or removing half of
the section using the spar hook or axe [Figure 16].

Figure 16. Halving of withy ends to fit

grooves in studs.

Figure 17. A 17th century illustration of a

lath-makers froe. From Holme (1972).

Figure 18. Evidence of string used to tie

withies. From Rackham (1976).

Lath was riven using a drawknife or a

lath-makers froe, also known as a lath
axe [Figure 17]. Where laths were
secured by nailing, a gap was required
between adjacent laths to provide a key
for the daub. However, when woven,
they would be packed tight against each
other, as were the withies, since gaps
would be created naturally within the
weave thickness. Clifton-Taylor (1962)
suggests that laths were always nailed
yet Rackham has observed the bast
fibres (phloem) from lime used as
string.35 Thompson (2003) suggests that
both nails and string may have been
used to secure laths to the staves.36
Contradictorily, Wright (1991) says the
presence of nails, string or wire indicate
later repairs, but evidence of tying both
laths and withies suggests otherwise
[Figure 18].
3.6 Daub
The term to daub derives from the Old
French term dauber meaning to plaster,
paint or whitewash: the roles of plasterer
and whitewasher were closely related.
The modern meaning of to dab is
probably derived from the act of daubing
clay earth onto buildings. The modern
sense of doing a job clumsily or crudely
is not without relation to the processes
of daubing infill panels since the initial
placement of the clay onto the wattle is
not a precise craft. Success is more
reliant
upon
careful
preparation,
detailing and aftercare of the daub.

As an unbaked earth, daub shared much

in common with solid earth walling such as cob, pis and clay lump, yet the
primary difference was that daub is non-structural and hence was less
35
36

Alec Clifton-Taylor (1962), p.97; Rackham (1994), p.45.

Thompson (2003), p.1.

27

precise. There were, however, variants that fell between the two such as stud
and mud walls. These had vertical timber studs between which solid earth
was rammed to provide load-bearing assistance to the structural timbers.
However, only daub is considered here.
Daub was principally earth. Not any earth was suitable, since it had to be
generally free from organic topsoil, contain some clay as a binder, yet also
contain sandy aggregate so not be too clayey, as otherwise the daub would
shrink excessively. It is generally accepted that the dauber would use the
earth immediately surrounding the building and so the daub mirrored the local
geology. Since the practice spanned many geological areas, the types of
earth varied greatly. However, Warren (1999) claims that if the earth was
unsuitable then materials may have been transported significant distances.
To enhance the performance of a daub it was usual for the dauber to add
dung, fibre and to mix various earth types. The determining factor in selection
of materials was probably more related to what was readily available rather
than any specific regional variation. In 1530 it was written,
daubing may be with clay onely, with lime plaster, or lome that is
tempered with heare or strawe.37
The desire to strengthen the daub with fibre seemed to be sufficiently
important for materials to be bought in.38 The straw, hay, or occasionally flax
stick reed, was usually chopped to enable workable amounts to be extracted
from the mass. Fibre may also have helped reduce the weight of the
material.39 Straw was the most usual, flax stick being more frequently adopted
in the Midlands. The stick was the inner stem that remained after removal of
the outer fibre that was taken to produce linen.40
The daub was mixed by foot or by ox hoof.41 Manure was commonly added to
make the earth workable in preference to water that would result in excessive
shrinkage. It has been said that the introduction of dung may have been
accidental as a result of using oxen, but since its use was so regular and is
frequently mentioned in historic texts it is likely that its inclusion was
intentional. A few references are made to the use of horse manure, but this
variation may only have developed as the use of horses in agriculture became
widespread during the 17th and 18th centuries.42 The addition of salt to retard
drying and gauging with lime are also known.43
37

Salzman (1952), p.190.

Forrester (1959), p.35. Also, in 1286 white straw was bought for Cambridge Castle; in
1375 eight loads of straw for Leeds Castle; in 1477 at Bath the churchwardens of St.
Michaels bought hay and straw for daubing; and in 1491 at St. Mary-at-Hill in London they
bought strawe to make mortere with to the dawbere. (Salzman, 1952: 191).
39
Wright (1991), p.98.
40
Powys (1929), p.66.
41
This is widely stated, such as by Wright (1991), Salzman (1952), Harrison (1999) and
others.
42
Horse manure is mentioned by Thompson (2003) and inferred by Ashurst and Ashurst
(1988a).
43
Ashurst and Ashurst (1988a), p.117.
38

28

To apply the daub, it was common for a small palm-full, or cat, to be pushed
into the wattle. This work would usually be done from both sides of the wall
simultaneously. Alternatively, a wetter daub could be thrown onto the wattle in
a similar way that a render was often hurled rather than trowelled.
The finish to panels varied greatly.
The simplest was nothing more
than a limewash. In this case the
surface of the daub was either
slightly recessed at the edges of
the panel or finished flush and its
surface crudely smoothed. For
exterior work, the inevitable
cracking would have to be
reworked whilst semi-dry or filled
with
extra
daub
before
Figure 19. The daub of sheltered internal
limewashing.
Durability
was
partitions was often crudely finished, with
frequently
improved
by
coating
cracking left unattended.
with plaster since it filled any
cracks and could be worked into
the gaps which would consistently
appear around the panel edge due to shrinkage of the daub. The surface of
the daub was often keyed using a lath scratcher or dimpled with the end of a
lath or withy. The plaster applied to this varied by region, either being plain
sand:lime, with gypsum or earth-based and may have also included dung, hair
or straw.44 Invariably the panel was finished with limewash.
Where the work was hidden and was not to be exposed to the weather, such
as in roof truss partitions, the evidence of large cracks suggest the dauber
readily accepted the crude finish and did little to rework the panels [Figure 19].
The above descriptions of daub arise from historic texts or visual
interpretation. Scientific analyses of the constituents of historic daub are
sparse with the only reliable published results coming from English Heritages
Research Technical and Advisory Services (RTAS) of the mid 1980s in which
samples from the Weald were investigated.45 The results, although of small
sample size, provide details of the types of earth and additives used in that
region. All earths analysed were found to contain a small proportion of clay (510%), mainly comprising silts and fines and some with larger aggregate
including flint and chalk. Additives found were dung, grass (hay) and animal
hair. There was no evidence of gauging with lime.

44
45

Reid (1989), p.2.

Ashurst and Ashurst (1988a), pp.121-126.

29

Figure 20. 16th Century wall painting of a daub

panel and surrounding frame. From Weald &
Downland Open Air Museum (2002).

Figure 21. Medieval daub

decorated
with
combed
pattern, Sussex. From Warren
(1999).

Figure 22.
Incised pargetting,
Suffolk. From Clifton-Taylor (1962).

Figure
23.
Raised
pargetting. The Ancient
house, Clare, Suffolk. From
Clifton-Taylor (1962).

3.7 Decoration
Although most daub work was left plain, decoration was common across
many regions and could be either painted or profiled. Simplest was the
colouring of the limewash with either a cow dung tint, a richer pigmentation
using ox blood or earth-based pigments.
Internally, the panels may also have been pigmented, but wealthy house
owners sometimes had the completed panels decoratively painted. Examples
of medieval work survive including floral patterns, chequers and heraldic
30

detailing. Repeating patterns could be extended over the timbers so that the
whole wall was covered [Figure 20].46
Panels may have been given interest by lightly combing the finished surface
prior to limewashing [Figure 21]. From the 16th century, external walls were
frequently decorated with incised patterning, a rudimentary form of pargetting
also known as stick-work or combed work. The patterns would have been
formed by crude wooden combs, a stick or large nail [Figure 22].47 Gypsum
was used for plasterwork where available, such as the Isle of Purbeck, around
Knaresborough in Yorkshire and the Trent Valley. Since its properties were
conducive to modelling (raised work), it is not surprising that ornamented
pargetting was developed. It became particularly fashionable from the 16th
century and into the 17th century, especially in East Anglia where the whole
frame would be covered and intricately decorated. [Figure 23].48

46

Slocombe (1992), pp. 77-78 and Weald & Downland Open Air Museum (2002), p.51.
Clifton-Taylor (1962), p.358.
48
Ibid., pp. 252-354.

47

31

4 Material Characteristics
The craft of grading and mixing daub materials, such as by listening for the
crunching of well-mixed clay and aggregate under foot, has all but gone.49
However, the loss of skill can to some extent be compensated for by the
application of science. With conservation of historic buildings positioned
centrally between engineering and the arts, daubing also falls between these
disciplines.
The selection of materials for daub is not so critical as for solid earth walling
since wattle and daub is not structural. However, an appreciation of the
materials and their characteristics provides many benefits: it is the basis for an
understanding and appreciation of historical methods; it is required for the
analysis of historic materials in archaeology and in conservation work; and is
helpful in maximising the reliability and repeatability of repairs and new work.
The description of the soil content of a historic daub or of an earth that is to be
sampled for new daub is an important part of an investigation, firstly because
the description may form the only evidence on which an archaeological record
is based, long after any samples have been lost. Secondly, descriptions of
soils help conservators to share their knowledge of daubs in a meaningful way
and classification may assist in predicting the subsequent behaviour of a
particular soil. Samples can be taken from historic daub and from the ground.
A rigorous approach to sampling and the description of soils is given by BS
5930:1999.
4.1 Soils
The physical characteristics of a daub are primarily dictated by its main
constituent the earth. It is therefore important to understand this material
and its basic properties. The soil properties that are key to the performance of
daubs are:
constituents and particle sizes
plasticity, as a modulator of linear stability 50
strength
These properties may be measured on-site (in the field) or in a laboratory and
can be used to understand the historic selection and mixing of soils or in the
specification and selection of materials for new daub.

49

The crunching of aggregate was noticed during hand-mixing at Bowhill, Devon. Whether
this was a rediscovery or an entirely new observation may never be known. Harrison (1999),
p.20.
50
Unlike solid earth construction, the key characteristics of the clay in a daub panel can be
described by two dimensions. Since the orientation, i.e. height and width, of effects such as
cracking are of little relevance, the properties can be described most simply through a linear
shrinkage characteristic.

32

4.1.1 Constituents
The essential components can be crudely described as aggregate and binder.
The binder is the clay, but requires water to enable it to become mobile so
that it may coat the particles of aggregate.
The term soil is frequently used, but it must be stressed that daub generally
excludes organic soils such as topsoil and peat. Soils with greater than ~20%
organic matter have altered characteristics and must be treated differently.
The reference to daub as clay is common, but a soil that is predominantly
clay is not widespread and in any case would be undesirable because of
shrinkage problems.
Soils are generally distinguished as being one of two types, either cohesive or
granular. After removal of an initial compressive load (such as squeezing a
sample), an undrained cohesive soil tends to bind together due to a
combination of friction between the particles and the negative pore pressure
produced by the water content. A granular soil has no such inherent
compressive strength.
A soil is never composed entirely of a single particle size, but has a
distribution of sizes. This is best described as continuous rather than discrete
and has particles ranging from clay (of diameters 2 m), through silts (2 60m) and sands (60m -2mm) up to gravels (2mm) 51. The attributes of a
soil depend greatly on this distribution.
Because a soil is most likely to contain particles that are both cohesive and
non-cohesive, its properties cannot be described by any one particle size: it is
the combined effect of the various particle sizes that will determine the overall
behaviour. To overcome this problem the terms coarse and fine are also
applied to a soil as whole. If a soil contains fine particles that fill the voids
between the coarse particles, then this soil as a whole is described as fine.
More analytically, a coarse soil can be distinguished from a fine soil as having
the majority of particles having a diameter greater than 60m. 52 A particle size
of 60m also happens to be the approximate point at which particles become
visible to the naked eye.
Within the fine soils, the boundary between clay and silt is also significant to
its performance. Other than particle size, clay differs from silt in that it is
primarily a hydrous silicate of aluminium.53 Clay has further specific
considerations that affect the performance of a daub.
4.1.2 Plasticity
The effects of water on the physical properties of a clay can be seen in the
form of cracks in almost all contemporary and historical daub panels. It is also
important that a daub, after any cracking, must have a residual strength in the
51

The scale continues up to cobbles and boulders, but in the context of soils for daubs these
are of no concern.
52
The accepted boundary is 65% coarse particles and 35% fine particles, although this is not
a reliable predication of soil behaviour.
53
combined with other impurities such as iron oxides, magnesia and lime.

33

clay that resists failure. Where a daub may be considered to have failed
locally due to a crack or within its structure in the form of micro-cracks, the
overall panel strength is assured by the added fibres such as straw or hair.
The amount of shrinkage of a pure clay can be characterised using two
laboratory variables the liquid limit and the plastic limit. The liquid limit is
the point at which the water content is sufficient for the clay to flow as a liquid.
This cannot be determined visually, since the point is at a transition between
solid and liquid. However, definitions have been set and a standard test is
defined in the BS 1377-2:1990 standard.54 The plastic limit is defined as the
moisture content that causes a clay to transition from being malleable to being
friable. The test is based on controlled experiments where samples are rolled
down to a breaking diameter of approximately 3mm. The limit is the moisture
content at which the sample shears rather than remaining intact at this

Figure 24. Shrinkage potential of clay.

diameter. These data can be used to derive a plasticity index, which is simply
the liquid limit minus the plastic limit. This can then be plotted to show the
potential for the clay to shrink [Figure 24]. Most clays fall close to the line.

54

The cone penetrometer method defines the liquid limit as the water content at which the
cone penetrates a soil sample to 20mm.

34

A direct characterisation of shrinkage can also be performed. This requires

measurement of the shrinkage limit, defined as the moisture content below
which a clay ceases to shrink, and the shrinkage ratio, which is defined in
terms of the volumetric change versus change in moisture content.55 The
linear shrinkage is also particularly relevant to the cracking of daub panels.
Figure 25 shows a typical relationship between volume change and water
content for a clay. Below the shrinkage limit, air replaces the voids that had
been filled with water. Above the shrinkage limit the clay is said to be
saturated. This means that the voids are full of water and have displaced all
the air. In this context, saturation does not mean the maximum water content,
as the soil will continue to take on water until it becomes a slurry (above the
liquid limit). A dry daub is generally kept below the shrinkage limit and so
contraction and expansion is negligible after the initial drying.

Figure 25. Clay moisture content versus volume. From BS 1377-2:1990.

55

BS 1377-2:1990, p.14.

35

Figure 26. Vane test for soil strength. (Adapted from BS 1377-7:1990)

Figure 27. Shear box soil test. (From BS 1377-7:1990)

36

4.1.3 Strength
A weak daub may fail if it has insufficient cohesive strength to prevent it
delaminating from the wattle or from failure within the body of the clay. In a
vertical panel the critical stress is shear. The strength of a soil sample can be
measured in the laboratory using either the vane method or small shear box.56
After application, a daub is not under a compressive load and will therefore
fail in shear if its apparent cohesion is exceeded.57
4.1.4 Field Testing
Samples of dry historic daubs need to be removed from the site in sample
bags and analysed in the laboratory.58 However, a reasonable
characterisation of a soil can be readily performed on-site where a quick
assessment is required or where laboratory tests are not justified.
Coarse and fine soils can be distinguished by whether a damp soil sticks
together. The sample may require drying in the palm of the hand or wetting in
order to perform this test.
The sand/silt boundary can be judged by comparing the particles that are
visible with the naked eye versus the proportion that become visible only with
a loupe magnifier.59
Gravels and sands are distinguishable
visually, since particles sizes of 2mm
can be roughly judged by eye. The
critical dimension of an elongated
particle is its smallest diameter, which
determines whether is may pass
through a 2mm sieve.
The proportion of fines can be judged
by spreading a sample and inspecting
with a loupe magnifier. A more detailed
field test can be done using a set of
pocket sieves. Similar to their larger
counterparts used in the laboratory,
Figure 28. Compact packet sieves for
field use. (Courtesy of Endecotts Ltd)
they can quickly grade the gravels,
sands and silts of a small soil sample
on-site [Figure 28].
A sand can be identified by attempting to roll a thread in the hands. Since
sand is not cohesive, it will not be able to form a thread with any residual
strength.
A cohesive soil can be identified by squeezing a damp sample in the palm of
a hand. If it forms a firm mass with residual strength then it is cohesive. It is
56

BS1377-7:1990.
The apparent cohesion can be determined as the y-intercept from a graph of peak strength
versus normal (compressive) stress.
58
The ethics of conservation must be considered. Historic fabric should not be removed
unnecessarily or where it affects the character of the building. Removal might be justified only
after careful consideration to the objectives of the investigation.
59
An eye lens.
57

37

the requirement of firmness that is important here since the ability to hold a
shape (without strength) is a test of coarseness, as described above.
Plasticity of a soil is demonstrated by its ability to deform to some extent
without cracking.
Both silts and clays may act plastically. The presence of clay can be
determined by smearing a damp sample with the finger. Clays tend to bind to
the skin and leave a stain. A further test that distinguishes a mainly silt/sand
soil is its dilatancy. This is performed by taking a moist flattened sample in
the palm of the hand and jarring it against a wall or other hand until water
forms a film on the top. If the sample dulls again when pressed with a finger,
followed by stiffening and eventual crumbling, then this indicates the
predominance of silt/sand rather than clay.60
The approximate strength of fine soils can be determined on site using
Table 1.
Table 1. Field test for strength of fine soils (from BS 5930:1999)
Test

Term

Easily moulded or crushed in

the fingers
Can be moulded or crushed
by strong pressure in the
fingers
Finger easily pushed in up to
25mm
Finger pushed in up to 10mm
Thumb makes impression
easily
Can be indented slightly by
thumb
Can be indented by thumb
nail
Can be scratched by thumb
nail

un-compact

Approximate Strength
(kNm-2)
0

compact

very soft

<20

soft
firm

2 to 40
40 to 75

stiff

75 to 150

very stiff

150 to 300

Hard (or very weak mudstone)

>300

4.1.5 Selection
The soil often varies across a site or by depth. If an unsuitable soil is found by
excavating at a specific location, a better soil may be located either above or
below it or elsewhere on the site. Soils of varying properties can be selected
in this way for blending to give the desirable properties for a daub. If a suitable
earth cannot be created from materials on site, then appropriate materials can
be bought in. Suitably graded aggregates can be selected using an
appropriate guide, such as the English Heritage Directory of Building Sands
and Aggregates.61

60
61

BS 5930:1999, p.116.
Chapman and Fidler (2000).

38

4.2 Dung
Cow dung was habitually used in daub and so one may suppose there were
particular benefits in its inclusion. Unfortunately, there appears to be no
historic reference as to the properties of dung that encouraged its
specification. Recent publications suggest that dung may improve workability
and durability or may act as an additional binder, but supporting evidence is
not given.62
Knowledge has also been lost as to whether fresh, old or weathered dung
was used.63 Since there is no historic reference to the dung being old or
weathered, it is conceivable that this is a recent invention resulting from
modern attitudes toward odour and hygiene. In any case, dried and fresh
dung differ mainly in the water content and so are likely to effect only the
amount of water, if any, added during mixing of the daub.
Additionally, it has recently been proposed that the mucus in cow dung has
two effects on earth used for walling: it reacts with lime to form a gel,
increasing strength prior to carbonation of the lime and it stabilises clay.64
However, most cobs and daubs do not contain lime and so the formation of a
gel seems unconvincing as to why the dung was added.
This illustrates how the literature is unclear as to the active dung component
in daub. Therefore, as an attempt to identify the active constituent(s) of dung,
a more thorough review of this topic was undertaken, the results of which are
presented below.
4.2.1 Evaluation of Dung Ingredients
The digestion of ruminants and the composition of cow faeces are explained
in Appendix 1. Most ruminants have similar digestive function and therefore it
is likely that horse and cow dung have many comparable properties. The main
constituent of cow dung is debris from cells within the digestive tract and
secretions from the body such as salts, sloughing of animal cells and mucus.
Faeces also include undigested diet comprising cellulose and lignin,
originating from the cell walls of the plants. In the analysis of dung, it should
also be considered that cowpats and slurry often contain urine as well as
faeces. In an attempt to identify the components of dung that may be
beneficial to daub, possible candidates were selected for review, namely
lignin, urine and microbial debris.

62

Ashurst and Ashurst (1988a), p.117 suggest dung was added to improve workability and
durability. Pearson (1992), p.6, and Holmes and Wingate (1997), p.163, both suggest dung
modifies plasticity, acts as a binder and so improves durability. Wright (1991), p.98, also
offers benefits as being improved strength and resistance to damp. Minke (2000). pp.44-46
states that manure and urine improve binding, undigested fibre acts as reinforcement and
ammonia compounds are a disinfectant..
63
Ashurst and Ashurst (1988a), p.117 suggest old or weathered dung was used, yet fresh
dung is stated by Reid (1989) and Forrester (1959), p.37. Minke (2000), p.45, suggests dung
should be left one to four days to ferment but does not state a historical precendent.
64
Ashurst and Ashurst (1988a), p.96.

39

4.2.2 Lignin
The modern study of lignins has identified many useful properties and they
are increasingly being used in modern manufacturing. Two of the uses are as
a binder and a dispersant. One such use of lignins binding properties
includes the stabilisation of soils. Dispersants attach themselves to particle
surfaces and so prevent the particles from being attracted to each other. As a
result, a dry mix requires less water than would otherwise be needed to make
the material workable. For example, lignin may be used in cement mixes as a
dispersant.65
The fraction of lignin in cow faeces is dependent on the feed. Historically, the
predominant fodder was pasture and hay, which recently has been estimated
to have a lignin content of approximately 2 to 8%. Legume fodder often has a
higher lignin content of up to approximately 12%. The lignin is almost wholly
indigestible and so is passed directly into the faeces.66
In considering the analysis of dung and the qualitative evaluation of the
effects of lignin on daub, it must be realised that modern cattle feeds are often
different to those used historically. Where cattle graze on pasture, the modern
perennial ryegrass has been bred from improved strains developed by the
Ministry of Agriculture Fisheries and Foods during the 1950s.67 As fast
growing species, these are likely to have less lignin that historical ryegrass.
The desire to maximise digestible content of cattle feeds has also led to the
reduction in the fraction of indigestible cellulose and lignin. The Acid
Detergent Fibre (ADF) laboratory test represents a measure of the nondigestible feed and comprises some of the cellulose and nearly all of the lignin
from the food. Since ADF figures are readily available and ADF has a
reasonable correlation to lignin content, these data may therefore be used to
identify possible trends in lignin content. Table 2 shows how modern feeds
have a lower ADF content than traditional feeds.
Table 2. Comparison of acid detergent fibre in traditional and modern cattle feeds. Adapted
from Stanton (2004).
Feedstuff
Barley straw (modern strains)
Wheat straw (modern strains)
Orchard grass hay (improved
strains)
Oat hay
Linseed meal solvent
Corn gluten meal
Soybean meal

Traditional or
modern feed
Traditional
Traditional
Traditional
Traditional
Modern
Modern
Modern

Typical ADF (Acid detergent fibre) / %

57
56
40
38
18
9
6

Therefore, in the evaluation of advantages of adding dung to daub, this

downward trend of lignin content should be considered: if lignin led to the
65

Lignin Institute (1992).

Van Soest (1982), pp.43-44.
67
Farm Direct (2001).

66

40

benefits observed by historic daubers then the same effect may not be
reproducible using dung resulting from modern feeds.
4.2.3 Urine
As well as faeces, dung also frequently contains urine. The main component
of urine is urea, which is broken down in the soil into ammonia gas or is
mineralised.68 This may increase the acidity of a soil but does not constitute a
benefit to a daub.69
4.2.4 Microbial Debris
The microbial debris makes up the majority of the faeces. It has been
established that such organic matter helps bind soil aggregates, yet an
organic soil also has the undesirable property of being volumetrically unstable
and so may shrink in a manner similar to clay.70 It is possible that the faecal
microbial debris in daub is prevented from decomposition by becoming
biochemically-protected (chemical compounds that are not subject to
decomposition), silt- and clay-protected, or microaggregate-protected
(physically protected), although the function of the latter is known to
predominate. However, a soil may become saturated with organic material
due to limits of these protection mechanisms. Therefore, if too much dung is
added to a soil it is likely that a proportion of the organic matter will be
unprotected and may then decompose and damage the daub.71 Protection
mechanisms therefore assist a soil to stabilise added microbial debris (i.e. to
nullify the affects of organic matter) but do not represent a benefit in their
addition to a daub.
4.2.5 The Role of Dung
This brief review suggests that the small proportion of lignin present in cow
dung may represent a beneficial additive to a daub. Unfortunately, it was not
possible to establish the benefit conclusively through a literature review due to
the complexity of this multi-discipline topic. However, the process has served
to demonstrate its suitability for further research.
Until the interaction of cow dung and soil is scientifically characterised, it
would be prudent to include dung in conservation work due to the evident
durability of historic daubs that incorporate it.
4.3 Fibre
The primary role of fibre is to provide reinforcement of the daub, which is
usually required due to the volumetric instability of the clay. Cracks that are
68

Petersen, Simek, Stamatiadis and Yamulki (2003).

Minke (2000) suggests that urine may act to disinfect a soil against microorganisms, but
since growth is likely to arise mainly from the addition of dung, this represents no net benefit.
70
New Zealand Ministry of Agriculture and Forestry (2004).
71
Six, Conant, Paul and Paustian (2002).
69

41

able to form across the total thickness of the daub would jeopardise the
structural stability of the panel if not compensated by the inclusion of fibre.
The role of steel rod in reinforced concrete is a good analogy to the primary
role of fibre in a daub.
It has been proposed that the fibre also helps by dissipating the shrinkage of
daub during drying.72 This may be likened to bed joint reinforcement of
masonry walls and functions by embedding a ductile material within the fabric.
Under a tensile stress, the reinforcement deforms (strains) uniformly along its
length rather than at a single point. This results in micro-cracking of the
surrounding fabric along the length of the reinforcement, rather than causing a
visible crack at a single location.
Minke (2000) has shown that straw may decrease linear shrinkage by
approximately 25% per 1% of added fibre. However, it has also been
demonstrated that the addition of fibre in large proportions (i.e. 6-8%) may
cause a decrease in compressive and tensile strengths.73 There is therefore
an optimum proportion of added fibre of approximately 2-4%.

72

In the context of conservation, Harrison (1999), p.102, documents a theory originating from
Duncan (1947), p.124, that straw, takes up the shrinkage in the wall and distributes it about
the mass of the wall, so that no exterior cracks are caused. In the context of new work, Minke
(2000), p.44, Houben and Guillaud (1994),p.82, also support this.
73
Houben and Guillaud (1994) showed fibre affects compressive and tensile strengths,
whereas Minke (2000) discusses only a decrease in compressive strength.

42

5 Conservation
The archaeology of timber-framing has been extensively studied by
architectural historians as antiquities important to the English landscape and
our social history. However, with the evolution of conservation ethics
throughout the twentieth century, we have now arrived at a situation where
the great knowledge of timber-framing is disproportionately great against the
scant knowledge of the wattle and daub panels that wee used to transform
every frame into walling.74 The relatively recent development and recognition
of the buildings archaeologist has partly addressed this imbalance, yet our
understanding of wattle and daub is mediocre in comparison. This is
disappointing since it has been claimed that, wattle and daub often contains
more archaeological evidence than the timber frame.75 For example,
Rackham (1994) has found that withies are often, excellently preserved,
down to the very lichens which grew on the rods when they were alive.
Additionally, the blackened surface of daub may provide evidence of an open
hearth, the location of a smoke-bay or the remnants of a smoke hood.
5.1 The Value of Wattle and Daub
The historic value of a building is often realised not only by recognition of its
architectural style, but also the superimposed effects of patina and decay,
manifested as an age-value.76 Wattle and daub may emanate this value by
way of its cracked and undulating surface, partial decay that exposes its
underlying core of withies or by way of its soft limewashed finish. This lies in
stark contrast to the flatness of a cement rendered panel, producing a
lifelessness that appears disturbingly rigid within the flowing distortions, grain
and shakes of the enclosing timbers.
UK legislation serves to protect these values as part of the special character
of listed buildings, yet much damage is still done through insensitive repair by
contractors and owners. Unfortunately, many conservation architects and
surveyors (and perhaps a proportion of conservation officers) also fail to
appreciate the contribution made by wattle and daub to the special character
and so share the blame through their inappropriate specifications of work. It is
therefore important that government guidance should be adhered to, stating
that, 77
traditional fixing and repair methods should be perpetuated.
Proper attention should be given to the in-filling panels which are
an integral part of any timber-framed building.

74

The claim that knowledge is scant is supported by the oft-conflicting accounts presented
by the authors in the attached bibliography.
75
Bouwens (1997).
76
Ruskin (1880), pp.189-190 describes how age-value thrives on historic decay through his
definition of the picturesque as parasitical sublimity.
77
Planning Policy Guidance Note PPG-15, paragraph C.16.

43

5.2 Defects and Decay

Wattle and daub has a reputation for being friable and unable to endure the
damp British climate, yet this is something of a myth: it is generally the lack of
respect for the fabric which has led to neglect and lack of maintenance.
Where sheltered, wattle and daub may last almost indefinitely, as
demonstrated by intact 14th century panels. Even when in exposed locations,
a daub panel will survive indefinitely if appropriately maintained.
The proper diagnosis of defects should form a part of an ordered appraisal of
the structure as a whole. It is extremely important to note that where a timber
frame has deteriorated, the load paths may have altered. Stability of the
building may have become dependent on one or more vertical staves taking a
vertical load. Where such a stave is subsequently removed there is a risk of
structural instability or collapse. It is therefore imperative that this matter is
considered as part of the appraisal process, when choosing repair options
and when writing schemes of works.
5.2.1 Decay of Daub and Plaster
The most significant cause of daub decay is caused by water absorption and
erosion.
Erosion
An unprotected daub is essentially exposed soil. Direct contact with rain may
therefore cause the clay matrix to be dissolved. The loss of binder may then
lead to the remaining aggregate rapidly falling away. A daub that is
predominantly sand/silt has characteristics making it especially prone to such
erosion.78 Wind may also contribute to loosening unbound aggregate. A daub
is protected by the shedding effects of a limewash, but the lime additionally
provides a binder to the surface of the daub in the form of calcium carbonate.
A lime render also protects daub from erosion.
Erosion by water may be significantly accelerated by run-off from impervious
materials situated above exposed daub such as impermeable modern paints
and cement renders.
Water Penetration
The action of absorbed water is probably the single most damaging cause of
daub failure. The linear and volumetric expansion and contraction of the clay
causes cyclical fatigue of the daub, leading to increased cracking and
eventual failure. Cracks may run either perpendicular to the plane of the panel
surface or parallel to it. The former are visible on the surface and will
themselves allow increasing levels of water penetration into the daub.
Cracking parallel to the surface is manifested as delamination. This may occur
within the bulk of the daub (especially at residual interfaces remaining from
where cats were melded together) or where the daub protrudes between the
withies (or as nibs between laths).

78

Robson (1999), pp.32-33.

44

At the base of a panel, the groove to accept the staves can act as a water trap
if maintenance is neglected. If cracks are left unattended or impervious
materials used, water may accumulate in the groove and cause accelerated
rot of the timber. The problem is avoided by appropriate maintenance of the
wattle and daub so that rain cannot penetrate into cracks or into gaps
adjacent to the surrounding timber frame. By filling the gaps with daub or lime
mortar, any accumulating moisture is quickly reabsorbed into the bulk of the
panel and is removed by evaporation through its large surface area.
It is imperative to the conservation of wattle and daub that a survey or routine
inspection correctly identifies the source of the damp. The universal moisture
tester based on electrical resistance is not a reliable guide since it only
measures surface conditions and is affected by changes in electrical
conductivity caused by any natural or added salts in the daub. The presence
of moderate moisture levels is also not automatically indicative of a problem
unless decay is evident.79 For example, moisture content will be higher after
rainfall or during the winter months. Damp is often caused by the trapping of
moisture, such as by the use of impermeable paints, cement renders
(including repair patches), proprietary wood treatments to the surfaces of
timbers, or by excessive moisture due to poor detailing or maintenance of
rainwater goods, flashings, etc.
Frost Action
At temperatures of 0C and below, water within the pores of a daub will freeze
and expand, forcing the daub apart. This may appear as cracking or spalling
(blowing of daub by an outward force). Once this type of decay has started,
water may accumulate within the cracks and cause the process to accelerate.
Organic Growth
The effect of plant growths on wattle and daub may vary from those that add
interest and patina, through plants that have little effect, to those that cause
complete failure of a panel.
Growth of algae and lichen may occur where local conditions are favourable.
There is potential for harmless growth on a limewash surface due to casein or
tallow proteins added to some limewashes, but is often counteracted by the
causticity of limewash. Regular limewashing is likely to minimise growth.
Lichens are unlikely to cause harm. Small quantities of moss are also likely to
be harmless but, where excessive, they may trap moisture and should be
removed. Fungal growth may be an indication that decomposition is occurring
due to excessive dung or organic matter within the daub and excessive levels
of moisture.
The sprouting of small plants from the daub is also an indication of excessive
moisture and there is a risk that their root systems may cause fragmentation
of the daub. The underlying problem should be rectified and the plants
removed. Larger plants, especially ivies and creepers, should not be planted
in the proximity of wattle and daub. Such plants easily find their way into
crevices between daub and frame or into cracked daub, the root system
79

A thorough discussion of the monitoring and assessment of damp is presented by Ashurst

and Ashurst (1988a), pp.1-21 and by Oxley (2003), pp.137-157.

45

quickly establishing within the daub and around the withies. The roots are
likely to breakdown the daub and cause delamination from the wattle. Existing
growth should not be forcibly removed since this will cause further damage.
Instead, the plant should be killed by severing the main stem at its base and
removing a 2-3cm section to prevent it regrafting. Dead growth may be
carefully removed where loose, but where it remains bonded to the daub it
should be left and limewashed over.80
Mechanical Damage
The strength of wattle and daub tends to decrease with time due to localised
decay, but usually retains sufficient strength to support its own weight.
Imposed lateral loads may damage a panel by cracking or deformation. A
typical cause is that of leaning of ladders onto a panel, such as by contractors
or window cleaners. Weak, but otherwise sound panels may be damaged by a
person leaning their hand on them. Damage can be prevented by informing
contractors of the risk and ensuring ladders are rested only on the timber
frame.81
The effects of ground and air-borne vibration have been assessed for
masonry and plasters, but not for daubs. Vibration is of legitimate concern due
to the large number of historic buildings that were built close to the highway
and due to the increasing levels of passing traffic. Other sources include
nearby railways, mine-blasting and nearby building works, especially pile
driving and on-site use of jackhammers.82 Nailing, such as during the repair of
laths, also presents a significant concern. The risk is of cracking or failure of
the panel by debonding with the wattle and since the effects are cumulative,
exposure should be minimised.
Animals
Rats and mice may find their way into panels, but are likely to do little harm to
wattle and daub compared to solid earth walls.83 However, an infestation
should be eradicated since rodents may damage electrical wiring and thatch.
Masonry bees are unlikely to significantly harm a panel since the relative
thinness of daub makes an unattractive home. The occasional hole can be
repaired with lime plaster.

80

Ashurst and Ashurst (1988b), pp.20-24.

Ladders may also damage the surface of a timber frame, especially where frassy or where
shakes lie close to the timber edges. A stout lateral board should be attached to the top of the
ladder side rails to prevent excessive pressure on the timbers.
82
Hulme (1985) summarises recent research on vibration and concluded that traffic is unlikely
to cause significant damage to masonry and plasters. Snider (2003) similarly concludes that
the effects of blasting are several orders less than the thermal effects of the weather.
However, daubs are weaker than lime renders and plasters and so published research cannot
be directly applied to the performance of daubs.
83
Rat runs in earth walls can cause structural damage. Ashurst and Ashurst (1988a), p.98.
81

46

5.2.2 Decay of Withies, Lath and Staves

The wood within the panel is susceptible to fungal rot and beetle attack. The
surrounding frame may be similarly affected.84
Dry Rot
Dry rot is most likely to affect softwoods and usually only encroaches into
hardwoods where conditions are particularly damp. Any fungus is likely to be
localised to the wattle or stemming from carpentry within the building.
Wet Rot
Wood must have moisture content above 20% for the development of wet
rots. The withies and staves are therefore likely to have been affected by a
wet rot only if they have been exposed to prolonged periods of damp. In new
wattle work or repairs, the risk of wet rot can be reduced by the use of
preservatives, but such treatment does not address the root cause of damp.
The benefits of treating withies and staves with preservative are therefore
questionable. To compound matters, wet rot causes a structural change in the
timber making it more susceptible to attack by Death Watch Beetle.
Wood-boring Insects
In the case of attack by wood-boring insects, it is essential to correctly
diagnose the level of activity and the type of beetle.85 The most common
infestations are Furniture Beetle and Death Watch Beetle.86 In historic wattles,
it is unlikely that the infestation is still active due to the limited source of wood
unless recent neglect has led to renewed dampness of the wattle or frame.
Reducing the level of moisture should be the first course of redress. If there is
no sign of recent activity, treatment is unlikely to be required. Furniture Beetle
is more commonly found in softwoods, whereas Death Watch Beetle is at
home in most hardwoods.
Death Watch Beetle can attack wood for many years, often unseen, and can
cause severe damage to structural timbers, staves or lath before any
infestation is apparent. The level of moisture in an external wattle and daub
panel may enable a colony to survive until the total decay of wood exhausts
their supply of nutrients. The presence of Death Watch Beetle is via the
evidence of frass and flight holes. In the case of wattles, the simple technique
of prodding them with a screwdriver is probably adequate to determine their
condition.87
Common Furniture Beetle can survive at lower moisture levels than Death
Watch Beetle and will attack the sapwood of most of the species of wood from
which wattles and pole staves have traditionally been made. Diagnosis is by
84

Descriptions of rots and beetle attack are adapted from course work previously submitted
by the author.
85
Description of beetle type and its treatment are discussed in Ridout (2000).
86
Lander (1992), pp.198-203.
87
A control process that correlates moisture levels to beetle activity is useful in addressing
the problem. Chemical treatments are available but their effectiveness is often dubious and
has considerable environmental considerations. Also, the treatment of historic wattle is almost
impossible without complete destruction of the panel. Where diagnosis suggests chemical
treatment may be effective, recent developments using deep-penetrating mayonnaise may
be considered. For further information see Demaus (1995).

47

the same manner as Death Watch Beetle. Eradication is difficult without the
use of chemicals and therefore an infestation localised to the wattle should
probably be left to run its course. Failure of the panel is unlikely to occur due
only to wood-boring insects since a residual proportion of wattle left after
decay may still be sufficient to secure the daub.
Corrosion of Lath Nails
Nails that hold laths to fillets or to the frame may eventually corrode. If
sufficient laths become detached from the frame, the whole panel may
become loose. The problem is often not easily rectified and should be
addressed using the repair techniques discussed in Section 5.3.
5.2.3 Maintenance
The conservation of wattle and daub relies on the traditional performance of
buildings, as described by Oxley (2003). In practical terms, the primary
consequences of this approach are the need for buildings to breathe and to
enable flexing of materials.88
Table 3. The visual inspection of wattle and daub.
Observation
Flaking, thin or missing limewash
Cracked panel surfaces

Missing render and/or daub

Daub projecting beyond the surface of the

frame89

Cement render or patches

Modern impervious paints or coatings
Use of impervious gap fillers such as
expanding foam or mastic sealants
Dampness

Organic growth

Defect
Lack of regular limewashing
Localised or general failure of render or
daub.
Damp
Poor workmanship of new work
structural movement of the timber frame
Local failure of daub
Damp, frost damage or erosion
Delamination or physical damage.
Delamination, i.e. debonding from wattle
or lath
Failure of wattle or lath
Poor workmanship
Physical damage
Inappropriate materials
Inappropriate materials
Inappropriate materials

88

Water or moisture due to other building

defects.
Loss of traditional performance.
Inappropriate planting or lack of weeding
around footings.
Damp

Traditional performance, conservation philosophy and the use of limes are each large
subjects. Further information is available from Oxley (2003), pp.71-95, Thomas, Williams and
Ashurst (1992) and Homes and Wingate (1997).
89
Exposed daub edges allow accelerated wetting of the daub, especially at the top of the
panel, leading to accelerated decay.

48

Table 3 provides a guide to the identification of problems. Minor defects

should be quickly remedied as part of an ongoing building maintenance
programme. This scheme of regular inspection ensures minimal loss of
historic fabric and reduces the long-term maintenance costs. Where buildings
are in public ownership or managed by large organisations, there should be a
documented property maintenance policy and the criteria for inspecting wattle
and daub should be annexed to it.
It is essential to note that the identification of a defect does not automatically
require remedial action in every case. For example, cracked daub in a
sheltered internal location is unlikely to cause problems nor decay further and
so may be left.
5.3 Repair
Poor understanding of the values, materials and techniques for conserving
wattle and daub all too often leads to the unnecessary replacement of partially
decayed panels, or even the removal of intact panels to improve access for
frame repairs. In part, this is due to the lack of respect for the material and
these views are still common within the conservation industry. More
frequently, those that specify and carry out the works on daub have little
understanding of the principles of conservation. What they have in common is
the poor realisation that values change over time: the value of wattle and
daub today may (hopefully) be different to its value in the future, especially as
it becomes increasingly scarce. The principles therefore demand that every
effort should be made to preserve wattle and daub. For successful care of the
buildings, this approach must be understood not only by the primary custodian
but also by all those involved in identifying problems, specifying the need and
type of repair and the execution of those repairs. The principles governing the
repair of wattle and daub may therefore be summarised as: 90
1. Purpose of repair: to eliminate the causes of decay in daub, wattle or
lath and to stabilise the present condition of the panel as a whole.
2. The need for repair: to prevent further decay threatening the stability of
the panel; to insure against its failure damaging other fabric, such as
pargetting or wall paintings.
3. Avoid damage: bias towards repairing the existing wattle and daub
fabric rather than replacement - preferably by minimal disturbance or
removal of historic fabric.
4. Use proven techniques: endeavour to match the traditional methods
used in the original construction of the panel.
A disciplined approach to conserving wattle and daub will help to ensure
implementation of good conservation practice.
Recording
Prior to starting any work, it is important to record the existing fabric. Where a
building, historically, was of social importance, then good records of the
90

A full discussion and categorisation of the principles is found in Brereton (1995).

49

structure might be available. Plans, sketches and details of past repairs (e.g.
schedules of work and invoices) may exist that assist with appraisal. Such
items might be available from the owner, land registry, local study groups,
county records office (tithe maps, court rolls, estate records, etc.) and the
National Monuments Record. Appendix 2 includes a template for the
recording of wattle and daub.
Opening Up
The degree to which intact daub and wattlework can decay is often an
unnecessary cause of alarm: if the panel is still doing its job of closing the gap
between the frame then, by definition, it is functioning correctly. In this case,
the stripping of the daub is unwarranted and must be avoided since, once
started, it is often impossible to replace the daub without first renewing much
of the wattlework.
Impact of Timber Frame Repairs on Panels
When considering structural repairs to a timber frame, the choice of repair
method should consider the disturbance to the wattle and daub. For example,
steel straps, braces and ties fixed to the surface of the frame will avoid
disturbing the infill panel and may be more reversible. However, where it is
necessary for structural stability to take precedence over conservation of
historic fabric, it may be essential to remove frame members that surround
wattle and daub or access frame parts hidden by the panel. In these
circumstances, removal or temporary support of the intact wattle and daub
may be possible, and in any case should always be attempted.

Figure 29. Temporary support for wattle

panel, enabling repair of upper rail. Timber
boards are temporarily screwed to frame.

Figure 30. Removal of bottom rail for repair

by providing temporary vertical support for
wattle. L-shaped metal sheets are pushed
inwards between bottom of wattle and frame
and screwed to upper rail.

As temporary bracing, a scheme of lateral support or shuttering may be

devised to fasten the infill in position [Figure 29]. It may be necessary to
support the panel on both faces. Where the bottom rail or cill is to be
removed, a system of bent aluminium or steel cramps screwed to the upper
rail can be assembled [Figure 30].

50

Where whole sections of the frame are to be dismantled, daub panels may be
sandwiched between shuttering prior to disassembly of the frame. After
recording the locations of each panel and tagging each one for later
identification, the wattle and daub may be removed for safe storage in a dry
storeroom. The carpentry of repaired or replacement frame members must
precisely reproduce the position of staves and groove(s) in order that refitting
of the wattle and daub requires zero insertion force. Any attempt to adjust the
position of staves or wattle will damage the daub. Some cracking may be
expected by the disturbance, but can usually be repaired using the methods
discussed below.
Cracks
The causes of cracking in historic daubs and plaster have already been
discussed in Section 5.2. Cracks in the faces of external panels must be
repaired as soon as possible using like materials (e.g. a lime plaster) to
prevent water penetration. Internal faces may be repaired in the course of
routine maintenance.
Delamination of Daub.
Most historic panels have small areas of delamination and should not be
cause for concern. Where large areas of the panel have delaminated there is
a risk that the daub may fall away. In this situation, the following repair options
should be considered:
1. If there is no risk of water penetration and further decay, the fault may
be left to run its course. Replace missing daub if or when it falls away.
2. Small areas of loose daub can be removed and replaced using new or
recycled material.
3. Tying in of large sections of loose daub.
4. Grouting to re-bond large delaminated areas.

Figure 31. Cross-section showing repair of delaminated daub by tying.

51

Daub that has delaminated across a limited area of the panel can be resecured using ties. The methods used to re-attached the daub should be
selected based on each particular scenario and should not be prescriptive.
The method will also be guided by the type of backing and whether access is
available from both sides. A typical repair is shown in Figure 31. The fixing for
the loose daub can be either the wattlework, one or more staves, or plaster on
the opposite face of the panel. It is important to spread the load of the fixing
across as large an area of daub as possible to prevent the daub cracking and
the tie pulling through. Suitable candidates for tie end plates are large
washers, rigid metal lath or gauze of a non-corrosive material such as brass
or stainless steel.91
If several large areas of a panel have become delaminated where the use of
tying is impractical, there have been reports of successful attempts to reestablish the integrity by grouting.92 Suitable methods are grouting by injection
or by hand.
To inject grout, holes should be drilled through one face of the panel into the
top of each area of delamination. A suitable grout is made from a hydraulic
lime and pulverised fly ash (PFA). This should be mixed to a suitable
consistency for application by injection gun. Drill-holes are then made good by
plugging with a lime mortar.

91

The cutting to size of galvanized sheet exposes unprotected areas of steel that are prone to
corrosion. This may eventually weaken the gauze or cause further delamination due to
corrosion jacking. Where the cut gauze is near the surface of the panel, rust stains may spoil
the finish.
92
Harrison (1999), p.80.

52

Hand grouting has the benefits of not disturbing the faces of a panel, which
may be desirable where decorated. However, there is a significant risk that
escaping grout may spoil the finish. It also relies on access to the void at the
top of the panel. A suitable procedure is shown below.93

1. Cover timber frame with plastic sheeting, with a run-off provided at

the base of the panel and attached as far as possible to the inside
face of the timber frame. A clear mastic may be used on sound
timber as a temporary fixing to avoid grout running underneath the
run-off.
2. Lateral support in the form of shuttering should be provided for
large areas of delamination to prevent bulging. Boards fixed across
the timber frame on both sides, padded out with timber wedge offcuts perform well.
3. Rinse loose dust from inside the cavity by using a controlled
quantity of water. Saturation must be avoided.
4. Grout using a slurry of hydraulic lime and PFA. Propriety grouts
may also be used where their composition has been checked as
suitable: cement grouts must not be used.
5. Feed grout into the top of the panel, paying close attention for
leaking grout and to the quantity used.
6. Where grout seeps from the bottom edges, these should be
stopped with clay until the grout has set.
7. Grouting continues up the panel, stopping the edges with clay, until
the panel is full.
8. Shuttering can be removed once the mortar has set.

Treatment of Edge Gaps

The intrinsic shrinkage of clay results in a narrow gap at the interface between
daub and timber frame. This has always been stated as a weakness of wattle
and daub. However, where a panel is correctly finished flush or recessed
within the frame, then the probability of rain penetration is minimal. The
remaining concern is therefore primarily one of draughts. The gap may
therefore be filled with a suitable material. Where panels are not plastered,
daub may be used as the filler if small quantities are available to hand. The
subsequent shrinkage of the filler may require two or three iterations of the
process in order to completely close the gap. Alternatively, the gaps may be
closed by first dampening the edges of the daub and timber, then filling with a
sacrificial lime mortar (e.g. 1:3 lime:sand mix using a non-hydraulic lime and
well-graded fine but sharp aggregate). This may be used for both bare daub
or plastered panels.
Seasonal movement of the frame may be caused by thermal expansion,
changing moisture content of the timber, settling or cyclical movement of soils,
93

Adapted from Beckmann (1995), Ashurst and Ashurst (1988b), Ashurst and Ashurst
(1988c) and Feilden (1982).

53

or by live loads such as wind or snow. It is therefore highly likely that such
movement will result in the edge gaps returning and so requiring ongoing
remedial action. This should be considered an aspect of routine maintenance.
The use of mastics or expanding foams is not recommended. Such materials,
being impermeable to water, can result in moisture being trapped inside the
edges of a panel or against the timber frame exacerbating decay.
Detailing
The base of an infill panel is particularly vulnerable to the trapping of water.
Where a panel is recessed from the frame on all four sides, water may collect
on the top surface of the timber. If the water is then conveyed inwards, it may
result in fast decay of the timber and the base of the staves.

Figure 32. Lead flashing repair may trap water against the frame causing
accelerated rot. Adapted from Reid (1989).

A system of using a timber fillet and lead flashing has been proposed to expel
water from the base [Figure 32]. Unfortunately, any moisture finding its way
under the lead may cause decay of the underlying timber and may block
deep-penetrating water that falls behind the timber fillet (such as via cracks or
missing daub). Moisture on the underside of the lead, including that caused by
condensation, may cause it to corrode if organic acids are also present from
the timber.94

94

Bordass (1998).

54

An alternative approach is use a sacrificial fillet of mortar to dress the edge of

the panel so that it forms a run-off to the vertical face of the timber. During
rainfall, the mortar is likely to allow more water ingress than a lead flashing but
will quickly re-absorb moisture via capillary action and then expel it into the
atmosphere during drying. These wetting-drying cycles are likely to cause
early failure of the mortar fillet, but if accepted as being sacrificial, it is easily
replaced from time to time and secures the longevity of the historic wattle and
daub and frame.
5.3.1 Partial Renewal
The most frequent repair scenarios are cases where a significant proportion of
a panel remains sound. The failed parts may require remedial work to the
wattlework, lath, daubs, renders or, most commonly, a plaster top coat.
Plaster Coat
Where only a top coat of plaster has become loose, it may be replaced as
follows:

1. Remove cracked and loose plaster using a scraper or small trowel,

being careful not to pull off secure plaster or daub.
2. Remove dust and organic matter.
3. Where the daub is smooth, provide a key on the daub surface by
dampening with a sprayer or brush, then lightly scratch with the
corner of a trowel or comb scratcher.
4. Dress ragged edges of intact plaster using a sharp knife.
Undercutting is not essential.
5. Prime the daub and exposed edges of plaster with limewater or a
thin slurry made from fine stuff.
6. Prepare new plaster to match existing, with sufficient hair (or straw
or hay, etc) for strengthening.
7. Dampen daub with a hand sprayer or brush. Apply plaster and
finish to match existing (e.g. with wooden float, leaving an opentextured surface). Cover with sacking or cloth. Evaporation and
absorption of moisture by the daub may require further dampening
to ensure slow drying and proper carbonation.
8. Dry plaster should be finished with limewash to match the existing
work.

Where the plaster had been decorated, several principles of conservation can
conflict. On the one hand, it is recommended that the historic decoration
should not be imitated where the craft has been lost and so the plaster is left
plain or an impression of the decoration is used. Conversely, such detailing
of buildings is often important to their appearance and one should endeavour
to employ crafts such as decorative plastering and pargetting so they are not
lost. In this case, one might re-instate the decoration, perhaps dating it to
prevent confusion with regards to authenticity.

55

Wattlework
Withies and woven lath are often friable due to decay. However, the principles
for the repair of wattlework are as follows:
the need for repair is limited to situations where wattle decay is the
underlying cause of daub failure or where it is unable to withstand the
applied forces during subsequent redaubing.
repairs should endeavour to be like-for-like: hazel withies should be
repaired with green hazel; cleft oak replaced with similar.
the use of modern materials should be limited to only those situations
where traditional methods would cause greater loss of historic fabric.
Where decay is localised, new sections of withy or lath should be slipped in
to the existing wattle so to avoid unnecessary stripping of sound daub:

1. Test the soundness of each area of wattle using a very light

pressure on the palm of the hand to emulate the forces during
subsequent redaubing. Unusable wattle will either fall into dust or
will crack.
2. Evaluate remaining sound wattlework for suitability for redaubing.
The occasionally spaced missing withy is unlikely to affect the
soundness of a repair and may be left as found.
3. For unsound areas of wattle, prepare replacement withies with
matching materials. Repair sections should be cut to length:
a. Where there is access across the full width of the wattle,
new withies of full length can be threaded through from one
end.
b. Where access across the wattlework is limited by sound
daub, access for new withies is limited to the side. The
minimum length of withy that can then be used is guided by
the spacing between staves. The maximum length is
determined by: the access to the hollow daub tube
remaining after removal of the decayed withy; the lateral
access for feeding the flexed withy into to the existing
wattlework; the spacing between two adjacent staves.
4. Tying-in should not be required If the repair withy is of sufficient
length to be held in tension between staves and adjacent withies.
5. Where a repair withy is short and loose, it should be tied into
adjacent wattle work and onto staves using twine or copper wire.

When introducing new wattle or lath to a building, there is a risk of introducing

a new infestation of wood-boring beetle. Where a previous infestation has
been found and there are no signs of recent activity, it is likely that that the
remaining timber has become unsusceptible: either the conditions are
unfavourable or vulnerable wood has already been attacked and the beetles
supply exhausted. However, where a timber frame might remain vulnerable to
56

attack, pre-treatment of the new wood with insecticide represents a sensible

precaution. With withies and laths, pre-treatment should be highly effective
since the slender sections can be saturated with the active insecticide. In this
situation, the treatment is perfectly targeted and the (valid) concerns relating
to the treatment of historic timber are not applicable. There are many
proprietary formulae, commonly using permethrin as the active ingredient,
which may be water or solvent based and suitable for brush or spray
application.
Lath
The approach to repairing lath is similar to that of wattlework in that
replacement is limited to the need for forming a sound backing to failed daub
or render. Repairs should be from similar material to existing. Sound laths that
have loosened due to corroded nails can be reattached. It is essential that the
laths are not re-nailed since the vibration may cause daub or friable plasters
to crack. Instead, they should be secured using brass or stainless-steel
screws. Splitting of the laths is not a concern in new work but movement of
laths may disturb attached daub. Therefore, the drilling of pilot holes in the
lath is recommended.
Daub
Cracked or loose daub should be conserved as far as practicably possible. If
external daub has cracked, eroded or delaminated from its backing, then
attempts to secure it should first be tried before considering replacement.
Where decay only affects part of a panel, replacement can be limited to the
unsound area. Cracked daub, where otherwise sound, can be consolidated
using a lime mortar:

1. Prepare the crack by removing fragments of loose daub and dust.

2. Thoroughly dampen the edges of the crack with a sprayer or brush.
3. For hairline cracks, fill with pure lime putty. Wider cracks to be filled
with fine stuff (1 part non-hydraulic lime to 3 parts well-graded fine
sand.). Large cracks can be filled with haired coarse stuff or new
daub.

Where a regular programme of limewashing is established, hairline cracks

may be left: the cracks are likely to be filled as part of the cycle in which a
limewash of creamy consistency should be used (e.g. 1 part mature lime
putty to 5 parts water).
Where large pieces of daub have become detached, they should be replaced
like-for-like using daub, rather than filling the void with lime mortar. If mortars
are used habitually to replace daub then the cumulative effect will be the loss
of integral wattle and daub panels and may encourage the demise the craft of
daubing.

57

Where the detached daub has been salvaged, it can be reused to avoid
unnecessary labour. It should be prepared by breaking into pieces and
saturating in a bucket of water, stirred, and then left to resettle. The scum of
old straw, hair and dung should be removed from the top. The daub should
then be laid out until its water content is suitable for use. Hair or chopped
straw and cow dung may then be added and the mix reapplied.
The preparation of new daub is described in Section 5.4.2. When replacing
onto historic wattles, it may be wise to prepare the mix so it is a little wetter
than compared to a daub for new work. This should make it more malleable
and help prevent damage to friable withies. The risk is increased cracking of
the daub, but this may be simply rectified by reworking the surface when
green.95
After considering all repair options, it may occasionally be decided that a
panel cannot be saved due to the poor condition of its wattlework. In this
case, a panel may require complete renewal.
5.3.2 Removal of Impermeable Paints and Coatings
It is often found that wattle and daub panels have been covered with
impervious coatings such as exterior emulsions, masonry paints and highbuild construction paints. This may cause rapid decay of wattle and daub and
it is therefore desirable to remove them and replace with limewash.
Modern paints will often delaminate after approximately five to ten years after
application. They may then be removed by carefully lifting off with a small
trowel or scraper.
Where modern paint remain firmly bonded to the plaster or daub, the choices
are either to leave the paint and attempt to monitor the condition of the wattle
and daub or to use a more aggressive method of removal. Latterly, there has
been much research into the removal of paint for the conservation of stone
and brick. The industry has developed its experience in the use of chemicals,
dry abrasives and poultice strippers. Unfortunately, there is very little
experience in paint removal from earth materials such as wattle and daub and
cob.96

95

The term green refers to a state during drying where a daub or render has firmed up but
still appears damp. It is also the state where the material is still workable with a pallet knife or
modelling tool without causing the surface to break up, but does not cause the bulk of the
material to shift.
96
There is no published reference to active paint removal from wattle and daub. Enquiries to
well-established operators dealing with chemical and dry-abrasive solutions indicated they
had no experience of wattle and daub.

58

Paint Removal Case Study

A timber frame building in Wiltshire had been modernised during the 1980s. The
panels were of hazel wattle, daub and a lime plaster top coat. Some panels had
been painted using an exterior emulsion, some with a high-build construction
paint and some coated with proprietary textured wall coating. The following
conservation work was performed during 1999 and 2000:

The emulsion had become flaky. Small sections were easily peeled away
with a scraper, but many areas remained bonded. The thinness of the paint
made it difficult to position a blade underneath without damaging the panel.
The construction paint appeared intact but had delaminated in large areas.
Once a pallet knife was under the paint, large areas were easily removed.
Some areas remained tightly bonded to the plaster. The wall coating was
thick and remained well bonded to the plaster.

Chemical stripping of the two paint types was attempted. Firstly, the timbers
were protected to avoid bleaching and staining. The formula selected was a
combination of solvent and caustic strippers comprising methylene chloride
and ammonia, which was applied by brush. A scraper was used for the
cleaning, followed by hand rinsing with water using a sponge. A water lance
was not used. The dwell time was adapted so that the resulting jelly could
easily be scraped away, but not left so long that it began to dry. The method
was particularly successful on both paints. No residue was noted and the
panels readily accepted a limewash. The stripper had no effect on the wallcoating.

A caustic poultice stripper based on sodium hydroxide was tested. Removal

of both paints was successful. However, the residue was harder to rinse
away than the chemical product and it left an odour in the panel that
indicated a residue had been left in the plaster. These panels also accepted
a limewash after priming with limewater. There was no effect on the wallcoating.

Dry-abrasive was thought to be a possible candidate for sensitive removal of

the paints. Careful control by skilled operators can often remove coatings
without damaging the substrate. It was felt that limited damage to the plaster
could be tolerated since it could be easily repaired. This method was not
tested and so its capabilities on wattle and daub remain unproven.

The wall-coating had been used only on the upper storey of the leeward side
of the building and where the panels were sheltered under the eaves of
thatch. It was decided to take a pragmatic approach by leaving the wallcoating on. The panels would be monitored for dampness. It was decided
that if, in the future, decay was noted, the coating could be removed along
with the plaster and refinished.

59

5.4 Replacement
The basis of renewal should be like-for-like replacement using traditional
materials and methods: wattle and daub should not be substituted by
materials that are more commonly understood by modern contractors, such as
lath and plaster. Various schemes involving the introduction of modern
materials have been suggested by certain conservation publications, but the
justification for these is usually unfounded.97 The only scenario under which
upgrading wattle and daub is warranted is a change of use of an unlisted
building. In this case, the upgrading may be required to meet the
requirements of the building regulations (See Section 5.5).
5.4.1 Brick Infill
Brick nogging is often found to have replaced earlier wattle and daub. This
frequently occurred due to the wattle and daub craft waning during the 17th
century and brick becoming increasingly cheap and freely available. It should
be noted that some brick infill may be original or may enhance the
appearance of a building in which case every effort should be made to
preserve it. However, it may be found that the replacement brick infill was of
poor workmanship and may hold water against the timbers, especially if the
top edge of the nogging protrudes beyond the face of the frame. In these
situations, restoration may be appropriate if all the following conditions are
met:
1. The majority of other panels in the same building retain their historic
wattle and daub, the appearance of which will be enhanced by the reinstatement of the remaining panels.
2. Archaeology is available to prove that the panels had originally been
filled with wattle and daub (e.g. stave holes and groove).
3. The replacement infill does not contribute to the special character of
the building, is of poor quality and requires remedial action.98
Where restoration is being considered, consent will be required if the building
is listed. Conservation officer advice should be sought before any work is
started. An appraisal of the structure must be performed before removal of the
nogging to ensure that it has not become load-bearing. Where this work
represents an alteration rather than repair, the labour and materials may
presently be zero-rated for VAT where certain criteria are met.
5.4.2 Renewal
Before a panel is renewed, it is important to first record the existing infill. This
should include: the wattle type, including wood species, sections and type of
weave; the carpentry to the frame for attaching the wattle; the type and
spacing of laths including the method of fixing; an analysis of the daub

97

An analogy would be to consider replacing the base of a decayed but hidden historic timber
post with a reinforced concrete column since it improves durability of the structure as a whole!
98
Criteria for re-instatement are presented in PPG15, Section C.6

60

including its constituents; the type of plaster, if any; panel detailing or

decoration.99
Analysis of Daub
The analysis of a daub creates a record for archive and provides information
required to specify new work. However, analysis can prove expensive and so
the level of detail sought may be guided by the importance of the building. A
thorough analysis is performed using a combination of field tests for soils (as
described in Section 4.1.4), microscopy, sedimentation, particle size analysis
and chemistry. A suitable procedure is illustrated in Figure 33.100

Figure 33. A flowchart for the analysis of daub.

The quantitative results can be displayed diagrammatically either by plotting

as a cumulative distribution chart as per BS 1377-2:1990 or using a stacked
bar graph. This should be accompanied by a description of the daub: visual
inspection (colour(s); additives; appearance (e.g. cracks)); strength (breaking
sample); sedimentation observations; constituents identified after sieving;
plasticity (how thin a length could be rolled before breaking); summary.

99

From Ashurst and Ashurst (1988a), p.119.

Adapted from Ashurst and Ashurst (1988a), p.121.

100

61

After the appraisal process is complete, including a structural evaluation and

recording, the panel may be stripped in preparation for renewal.
The Wattle
A backing of withies is formed by the following process:

1.
2.
3.
4.
5.

Prepare staves by splitting heartwood of oak using a froe.

Sharpen tops to fit stave holes.
Bevel the bases to fit the groove.
Insert staves by sliding base sideways [Figure 34].
To provide the withies, coppice and split sufficient hazel rods,
preferably during winter when there is less sap.
6. Ensure correct length by weaving a reference withy. Prepare
remaining withies by cutting to same length as the reference.
7. Narrow the ends if fitting into stud grooves.
8. Weave withies, alternating the side of the staves with each row
[Figure 35].101
9. Tamp down withies to base of panel to make compact.
10. Complete insertion of withies up to the top of the panel.
11. Leave the panel to season. Tamp down and add additional withies
to fill any resulting gap at the top.

Figure 34. Insertion of a

stave into a test panel.

Figure 35. Weaving of withies.

Preparation of Daub
The earth should ideally be cut from the grounds of the building to avoid
unnecessary transport. For a small number of panels, digging may be done by
hand using only a spade. Topsoil should be stacked separately so that it may
101

Unlike hurdle fencing, the flat face of split withies may face both directions to provide even
keying of daub on both sides.

62

later be returned to the top after the hole is filled in. Suitably well-graded earth
is most frequently found at the transition just below topsoil and above
underlying heavy clay or chalky beds.
Prior to removing the required quantity of earth for the daub, a sample should
be taken. This should be compared with any analysis performed on the
historic daub using the tests already described. Where a match is not
required, the objectives of the sample tests are to ensure the daub will have
the appropriate properties to ensure easy application and a durable daub that
is free from significant defects: i.e. to keep the clay content as low as possible
so to avoid cracking but to produce a mix that binds. For new work, an
approximate guide to a suitable earth is: 102
Clay
Silt
Sand
Gravel

5-15%
20-55%
20-55%
0 to 20%

Excavated soils that are overall suitably graded may contain a small number
of coarse gravel particles and the occasional cobble. The maximum
aggregate size is defined by the need to form cats of workable size, the ability
to drive a daub through the gaps in the withies or lath, and ensuring
aggregate particles do not project beyond the surface of the daub. Ideally, the
largest gravel and cobbles should be removed from the earth prior to mixing,
although this is not vital since they can continue to be picked out during
mixing, whilst forming cats or when being pressed into the backing.103
A suitable working area must be found. This will depend on whether the daub
is to be mixed by hand (and foot) or mechanically. For hand mixing, it is
preferable, albeit not a necessity, to create a wooden frame to enclose the
daub so it is not gradually dispersed and lost. The frame can also be used to
scrape material from boots and tools. For mechanised mixing, the expense of
losing material is not so high in terms of effort and therefore can be mixed on
the open surface of a yard or track. Because of the imprecise nature of the
constituents of daub, a small amount of contamination, such as topsoil, is
unlikely to cause a problem. Therefore, a suitable mechanical method is
simply to squash it on the ground by tractor tyre, fork-lift truck, roller,
caterpillar track, etc. Where available, a pug mill is stated to be ideal.104 The
traditional method of using cattle could be tried if there is a farmyard nearby to
the building, although there seems to be no documented cases where this has
been recently attempted. The use of a drum cement mixer has been tried for
mixing cob on several occasions but runs into the same limitations as has
102

Due to the imprecise nature of the material, the suggested constituents vary: Thompson
(2003), p.2 suggests percentages for clay:silt:sand:gravel as 5-10:20-50:20-50:0-20; Ashurst
and Ashurst (1988a), p.119, suggest 5-15:20-55:20-55 (sand and gravel combined). Reid
(1989), p.12 reports a specification as simply a, stiff sandy clay.
103
Since earth for a few panels does not require much soil, the hole may often be filled in later
using spare material from the grounds. Alternatively, hardcore may be used. The stacked
topsoil should then be replaced.
104
Ashurst and Ashurst (1988a), p.120.

63

been found more frequently with lime renders: the constituents are mixed
superficially but the binder is not well integrated with the aggregate. This
results in a friable mix that will yield poor results if not processed further. Drum
mixing followed by hand mixing was tried and this was more successful but
the advantages of this appear minimal compared to other processes. Adding
extra water has also been tried but this then introduces new concerns with
shrinkage cracking or necessitates controlled drying before use.105
Before mixing in, straw may require chopping with an axe if it is very long,
whereas animal hair may be added directly. These days, hair is often bound
or packaged when bought and the fibres must be separated so not to create
knots in the mix. This can be done by beating the hair with a stick whilst it is
laid upon the surface of the daub.
Cow and horse dung might behave similarly in daub, but handling of the latter
is wholly undesirable due to its overpowering odour that lingers on the wall,
tools, boots and hands for many weeks: cow dung has a sweeter smell which
is less tenacious. Conservators, especially those employing operators, should
note that safe handling of dung and daubs containing dung require the use of
protection due to the potential health risks such as ingestion of E. Coli.
Overalls and gloves should be worn at all times. Additionally, boots and eye
protection should be used when handling fresh dung.
The constituents of a daub should complement the soil and will depend on
locally available materials. However, some example mixes are shown in
Table 4.
Table 4. Example daub mixes shown as ratios of constituents.
Constituents /parts
soil
12
106
8
4
107
12
108
2
109
12
7-9
111
1

cow
dung
1
1
1
1
1
110
1
1

Source

straw (dense)

hair

lime

chalk

1
1
2
1
2
yes
yes

yes
-

1
2
1

3
-

105

Ashurst and Ashurst (1988a), p.120

Reid (1989), p.12.

Wright (1991), p.100.

Thompson (2003), p.2.
Lander (1986), p.210.

Harrison (1999), pp.24-26.

Stiff sandy clay soil.
107
6 parts clayey soil plus 6 parts sharp sand. Dung specified as fresh.
108
1 part clay soil plus 1 part sand.
109
6 parts clayey earth (<15% clay) plus 6 parts sharp sand.
110
cow or horse dung.
111
stated as being a repair mix.
106

64

Mixing should preferably be done in a single batch to avoid unnecessary

labour and to give a consistent product. Large projects may necessitate
batching to avoid uneven mixing. A suitable hand method is shown below:
1. Place the earth into the mixing frame.
2. Pick out any coarse gravel.
3. Add additional aggregate or clay, as necessary, distributed evenly across
the surface.
4. Mix thoroughly by treading with the heel of the boot [Figure 36]. When
compacted, the daub should be lifted and turned using a shovel or cobpick. Continue treading and turning.
5. Inspect the daub at regular intervals during treading: the result should be
a well-mixed sandy clay.
6. A little water may be required to permit the clay to coat the aggregate and
to make the daub workable, but the daub must be kept as dry as
possible.
7. Add cow dung and mix by treading. Add only sufficient dung to make the
daub feel plastic.
8. Fibre, such as hair, chopped straw or hay is scattered evenly onto the
earth.
9. Further treading and to complete the mixing [Figure 37].

Figure 36. Mixing of daub by heeling.

Figure 37. Treading straw into daub.

An alternative sequence is to include the fibre at the beginning so that some

of the straw may be laid under the earth prior to mixing.112 However, this is
likely to make the initial turning and mixing more difficult. It would appear that
both have benefits and disadvantages and so should be regarded as a matter
of preference.
A daub may be stored, but should be covered with plastic sheeting or placed
in sealed containers to avoid drying out. Storage life of a completed daub is
112

The process is described by Harrison (1999), p.22-23.

65

limited to a few weeks because of the risk of decay of straw or other fibre. If
storage is anticipated, the addition of the fibre may be delayed until
immediately prior to application. After storage, a daub will require knocking
up by way of a final mix during which the straw may be incorporated.

Figure 38. Knocking up a cat in

the hand.

Figure 39. Cats

homogenous daub.

Figure 40. Consolidating the

daub surface and edges of cats
using a damped pad

form

Figure 41. Using a piece of lath to

bring the daub up against the
frame edges.

Application of Daub
Prior to daubing an historic building, it is advisable to create test panels with
which to verify the performance of a daub. Alternatively, a single panel should
be used to evaluate the materials and workmanship prior to carrying out large-

66

scale works. Application was either by throwing or by placing of cats.113 From

the evidence of large cracks in historic daub, throwing of a wetter mix may
indeed have been a common technique but, for conservation work, it would be
judicious to choose the dryer mix, placed as cats, so to minimise cracking and
maximise strength.
The method by which daub cats are applied to a wattle or lath backing is as
follows: 114

1. Thoroughly dampen the withies or lath with a sprayer. They should

not be dripping with excess water.
2. Form a cat of daub in the hand and kneed it to knock it up [Figure
38].
3. Working from the base of the panel, press the cat in and down into
the wattle so to ensure the daub is well keyed into the backing.
4. Work along the panel, then upwards, merging each cat with
adjacent ones so to form a homogeneous mass [Figure 39].
5. Build up additional layers of cats to the thickness of the timber
frame.
6. Roughly flatten the surface using a damp (but not wet) sponge
wrapped in chamois leather [Figure 40]. Alternatively, a bagger
can be used.115
7. Using the end of a piece of lath or a suitable modelling tool,
compress the outer 20mm of the panel against the timber frame
[Figure 41].
8. Finish the panel to the local tradition before drying commences:
a. If panels are not to be plastered, add detail or decoration.
b. To accept a plaster, key surface of daub with a comb
scratcher.

Cracking of new daub is not a sign of poor workmanship but is caused by

drying of the clay. Large cracks, those greater than, say, 2mm, may be a
result of a highly shrinkable clay, excessive fines in the soil, or indicative of
too much added water. Even so, lateral cracking does not necessarily mean
poor bonding to the wattle: cracks are likely to be reinforced by the fibre and
may therefore be considered as cosmetic. They may subsequently be filled
either by reworking the re-dampened surface of the daub or by filling with
fresh daub after rewetting the cracked edges. Where panels are to be
plastered, cracks in the daub will subsequently be filled and may be
considered positively in providing an additional key.
Evidence of intermixing at the interface of plaster and daub has been found,
suggesting that plastering was sometimes done immediately after daubing.
Experiments to duplicate this method at Bowhill gave satisfactory results, with
113

Lander (1986), p.210, suggests throwing a daub that has been made soft using plenty of
water.
114
Thompson (2003), p.3.
115
Harrison (1999).

67

few cracks transmitted up through the plaster. It was concluded that the lime
might stabilise the daub at the interface, thereby inhibiting cracking.116
Suppliers
Supply of materials and tools to the conservation industry has much improved
over the past decade and now most items required for wattle and daub
renewal and repair are available from multiple sources. A guide is provided in
Appendix 3.

5.5 Building Regulations

The legislation defines building work as including extensions, material
alterations (substantial changes that make matters less satisfactory) and
changes of use and such work must comply with the Building Regulations.117
They are particular relevant to wattle and daub in the requirements relating to
Part A (structure), Part B (fire safety), Part C (resistance to moisture), Part E
(resistance to the passage of sound) and Part L (conservation of fuel and
power).118 Fortunately, Parts B, E and L have specific provision for historic
buildings, defined in the approved documents as: listed buildings; buildings
situated in conservation areas; buildings which are of architectural and
historical interest; those which are referred to as a material consideration in a
local authority's development plan; buildings of architectural and historical
interest within national parks, areas of outstanding natural beauty, and world
heritage sites. Most importantly, recent amendments to approved documents
have extended the definition to include vernacular buildings of traditional form
and construction. This, therefore, embraces all construction in which wattle
and daub is likely to be found or specified. However, the phrase is presently
limited to Parts E and M (access).

Additional UK legislation protects listed buildings and, due to the nature of the
listing criteria, most timber framed buildings which survive in anything like their
original condition will be listed.119 Superficially, these two sets of legislation
appear to conflict, but when properly understood they provide capacity for the
proper conservation of wattle and daub. Therefore, when planning work, it is
important for the architect, owner or conservator to understand the
compensations for historic properties within the legislation so that the special
character of a building is not harmed. The majority of circumstances under

116

Harrison (1999), pp.88-89 suggests that further experiments would be help test this
hypothesis and characterise the effect.
117
A full definition can be found in the legislation, The Building Regulations 2000, paragraphs
3 - 6.
118
The relevant part of the requirement is to limit the amount of heat lost through the building
fabric.
119
These criteria are described in PPG15, Paragraph 6.11. In a situation where work on an
unlisted building of unknown origin results in discovery of timber framing, ethics suggest that
work should cease and the local conservation officer be consulted.

68

which the building regulations need to be considered can be categorised

as: 120
1.
2.
3.
4.

Repairs requiring substantial replacement of existing wattle and daub.

Reinstatement of wattle and daub infill to a listed building.
New build (including an extension to an existing property).
Change of use of an unlisted building.

An overview of the considerations is presented below, although a working

knowledge of the approved documents and PPG15 is required for a full
appreciation.121
Repair
In considering Part L, the approved document states that the requirement can
be met, 122
when substantially replacing complete external walls or replacing
their internal renderings and plaster, [by] providing a reasonable
thickness of insulation and incorporating reasonable sealing
measures.
The key is the phrase substantial replacement, meaning that all minor repairs
may continue to use the traditional craft methods. The provisions for all
historic buildings means they should also continue to use craft methods so
not to jeopardising the buildings character or its long-term durability.
Consequently, the need for improved wall insulation is limited to substantial
replacement of infill in those few properties not presently within the Part L
definition of an historic building.
With regards to Part A, replacing staves must not reduce the structural
performance of the building. This must be borne in mind when assessing the
load-bearing role that staves may have adopted in the event of the poor
condition of a timber frame.

120

Work that triggers application of the regulations is outlined by English Heritage (2002), p.7.
Approved Documents are available from the Office of the Deputy Prime Minister (ODPM).
122
Approved document L: Conservation of Fuel and Power, ODPM.

121

69

Figure 42. Panel upgrade using central sheepswool fibre. Adapted from Reid (1989).

Figure 43. Upgrading with rendered woodfibre board and sheepswool insulation. Adapted
from Reid (1989).

70

Reinstatement
The restoration of wattle and daub into an historic building is likely to be
straightforward from a regulations perspective due to the provisions for such
buildings in the approved documents to Parts B, E and L. The requirements
regarding Part A outlined for repairs also apply to the removal of brick infill.
New Build and Change of Use of Unlisted Buildings
In these circumstances, it is frequently a challenge to find ways in which
wattle and daub can be made to meet the requirements of the building
regulations.
Part A should not be problematic if a new timber frame is properly designed:
the wattle and daub bares no structural consideration.
For Part B, a fire engineering approach, i.e. a solution designed specifically
for the individual building, is most likely to be needed in order to get a building
incorporating traditional wattle and daub to meet the requirements.
The fourth requirement of Part C (for walls to resist the passage of moisture to
the inside) is often troublesome for traditional buildings. However, since the
requirement is, limited to securing the health and safety of persons, a timber
frame building may still be able to meet the requirement through its reliance
on traditional performance (i.e. allowing the walls to breathe): wattle and daub
panels that are properly maintained are unlikely to conduct excessive
moisture to the inside of a building. The main considerations for this
requirement lie not with the elevated wattle and daub panels, but with the
brick or stone footings.
Since Part E, as amended and effective from 1st July 2004, now has added
provision for all vernacular buildings of traditional form and construction, the
performance of wattle and daub should not inhibit its retention or specification.
Part L presents the most troublesome issues since the thermal conductivity of
wattle and daub is almost certainly relatively high and it hence has a poor Uvalue.123 There appears to be no published research on the thermal properties
of wattle and daub and so remains an area that would benefit from further
study. A few tests have been performed on cob, but, unfortunately, wattle and
daub and cob are too dissimilar for an extrapolation of thermal performance to
be valid.124 It may be possible to compensate for the thermal performance in
other aspects of the building design so that the requirement can be met.
However, if this is not feasible, then the panel design may need to be
upgraded. It is under these circumstances that the use of modern materials
can sometimes be justified. Several methods are described by Reid (1989),
two of which are shown in Figure 42 and Figure 43 having been modified to
use sustainable materials.

123

U-values are a measure of the transmittance of thermal energy for a given wall material of
given specification (e.g. of a particular thickness). The present minimum requirement for new
construction of exposed walls is 0.45 Wm-2K-1.
124
The thermal performance of wattle and daub is reliant on the composite performance of
the earth with the wattle and may also be modulated by edge-effects at the outside of a panel.
Preston (1991) reports an evaluation of a cob wall with a U-value of 1.49 Wm-2K-1. Pearson
-2 -1
-2 -1
(1992), p.54, reports U-values of 1.12 Wm K and 0.67 Wm K for cob walls of 300mm and
600mm, respectively.

71

Where a change of use is being considered, the principles of conservation

may lead to a more radical solution: it may be preferable for the long-term
survival of the historic wall fabric to dry-line and insulate the walls internally,
leaving the wattle and daub as is. The dry-lining is here considered a
reversible measure to meet present regulations. The disadvantages are the
closing-in of the frame and loss of character, but since regulations change
and technology improves, this approach may buy extra time for the historic
fabric.

72

6 Wattle and Daub in Wiltshire

From the viewpoint of a West Country timber building conservator, the
national knowledge base on wattle and daub cannot immediately be applied
since its relevance to the region is not usually stated. This problem does not
arise when working in The South, East or West Midlands since much
information is explicitly stated as applying to one or many of those areas. For
this reason, it is useful to study an area such as Wiltshire in order to validate
the applicability of national knowledge, reject other nationally-based data and
add local knowledge based on new discoveries.
The intent of this study was to look at variations of wattle and daub across the
county. Different styles were anticipated due to the diversity of geology,
density of woodland and agricultural practice and social development.
An initial l review of the literature indicated that detailed information did not
exist and therefore fieldwork would be necessary. In the absence of any
guiding factors, a random sample of buildings was planned, for which any
exposed wattle and daub would be recorded and analysed. To assure a
comprehensive and consistent method of description, use was made of the
recording template (Appendix 2).
Where samples of loose daub could be taken (i.e. where they had fallen from
the wattle), these would be analysed by the methods described in
Section 5.4.2 and so provide a more detailed understanding of the material.
Further, if sufficient samples were available, it might be possible to test the
opposing hypotheses stating, on the one hand, that soils from around the
building would be used, and, on the other, that transportation of materials was
frequently practiced. This could be tested by looking for a correlation between
daub soil types with the underlying ground, the latter established using
geology maps. To allow for localised deviation from the maps, such as caused
by outwash, the house owner was also asked for a description of the soil.
6.1 Documentary Evidence
Information on the history of building in Wiltshire is increasingly
comprehensive, with new material frequently published. A primary source
remains the Victoria County History of Wiltshire. Surveys, such as by the
Royal Commission on the Historical Monuments of England (RCHME) and
books focussing on specific towns or villages are also available. Other
sources investigated were the records of the archaeology department and
museum objects of Wiltshire County Council Library and Museum Services,
Wiltshire Archaeological and Natural History Society (together with their
journal Wiltshire Archaeological Magazine) and private archaeological
businesses in the county. Unfortunately, these all stop short of providing
documentary evidence of any detailed construction methods and so give little
insight into the use of wattle and daub beyond stating where it was used as
infill.
However, the county is fortunate in having the Wiltshire Building Record
(WBR), an archive invaluably organised by location, accompanied by three

73

books by Pamela Slocombe published in association with The Record. These

books provide an invaluable insight into the development and regional
variation of Wiltshires buildings. Unfortunately, they do not provide specifics
on wattle and daub, other than stating that during the 17th century a few
buildings appear to have used decorative brick nogging as the original infill,
often in a herringbone pattern.125
A review of the WBR records were found to be limited with respect to wattle
and daub in that only a cursory mention is provided, if any. However, the
record was useful in identifying buildings that represented likely candidates for
the retention of the material and so formed a basis for organising the
fieldwork.

125

Slocombe (1988), p.9.

74

Figure 44. The geology of Wiltshire. From

Geddes (2000).

Figure 45. Predominant building materials

of Wiltshire. From Slocombe (1989).

Figure 46. Woodland density shown by circles

at 10 times map scale, with Wiltshire and the
west mapped by a 10km grid and south
eastern districts by county. Amesbury (marked
A) was unique in owning woodland in other
parts of the county. From Rackham (1976).

Figure 47. Density of coppice woodland,

showing Wiltshire rich in underwood. From
Rackham (1976).

75

6.2 Geology and Land Use

Wiltshire has a diversity of geology and this reflects historic differences in land
use.126 The northern parts of the county are at the edge of The Cotswolds
within the belt of oolitic limestone, incorporating the Bath Stone of the west,
around Bradford-on-Avon and Box. To the southeast of the limestone belt lies
an area of sands and clay before reaching the chalk of the Marlborough
Downs and Salisbury Plain. Chalk is also the predominant rock of the
southern parts, although the southwest also includes an area of Jurassic
rocks. These areas are cut through by vales containing river deposits such as
the Avon in Salisbury and Amesbury and the Wylye in Wilton [Figure 44].127
Much rebuilding in stone occurred in the county, with vast quantities of
limestone used in the north and west, chalk clunch in the south and brick
refacing throughout the county [Figure 45]. These materials often disguise
timber framing, making it difficult to predict where wattle and daub might be
found. Surviving structural frames exist throughout the county, although the
majority are clustered in areas where stone was not initially available, such as
to the east in the Pewsey Vale and the towns of Marlborough and Devizes.
The medieval City of Salisbury also has a large number of surviving frames.
This information was used to ensure fieldwork covered all main geological
areas of the county.
It was explained in Section 3.1 that the timber-framing and materials used in
wattle and daub reflect the distribution of timber trees and coppice in the
vicinity. Domesday records show that Wiltshire had a high density of
woodland in the north-western and south-eastern parts and varying amounts
in others: the county was not as wooded as areas such as the Weald and
West Midlands but neither was it devoid of timber [Figure 46]. However,
Wiltshire was rich in coppice woodland, probably due to its use for sheep
penning as well as fuel [Figure 47]. The predominance of coppice over timber
woodland may be used to predict that withy would be more common than lath
in the wattle and daub of Wiltshire buildings and could be tested by the
fieldwork.
6.3 Fieldwork
The extent of the work was limited by time: two weeks allocated to
preparation, two weeks in the field and one week to assemble apparatus and
perform analysis of daub samples. It was anticipated that coverage would be
limited by the speed at which the county roads could be traversed.
Preparation included identifying suitable timber buildings and their location.
The WBR records were used in conjunction with the list descriptions of listed
buildings. Whilst a local dataset would have been preferred, this was not
available. However, the Images of England web site provides a manner of
126

The phrase chalk and cheese originates in Wiltshire from distinct districts of farming
practice. These reflected the suitability of the chalk and Cotswold hills to sheep and corn
farming versus the clay and sand Avon Vale to dairy cattle farming.
127
A detailed description of rock throughout the county is given by Geddes (2000).

76

basic online search.128 The query used was defined by county and
administrative district together with the keyword daub in the list description
text. This provided a list of buildings that were known to contain wattle and
daub at the time of listing survey or resurvey, although due to the limitations of
the listing process it was expected that this would represent a small proportion
of the buildings in the county containing wattle and daub.

Figure 48. Locations of inspected wattle and daub. Several buildings were surveyed in some
locations.

6.4 Surveyed Buildings

Figure 48 shows the locations of surveyed wattle and daub. A full inspection
of the panels was only possible in a limited number of cases due to a variety
of factors: often the daub had been removed or, where the panels were
complete, the wattle was not visible. Included in the survey were daub and
withy museum objects that were from a known origin and so could be studied
in context with the frame from which they had been removed. Appendix 4
128

Images of England (2004) is intended as an online photographic record of listed buildings.

However, the system also incorporates the list descriptions of all listed buildings and, for
registered users, searchable fields include building materials (i.e. timber), locality, address
and free text. Unfortunately, due to the nature of web pages, the output is flat (i.e. the
organisation by field name is lost) and the full list description is only viewable after user input
on the individual records retuned by the query. A dedicated online database of listed buildings
was stated by the Department of Culture, Media and Sport (DCMS) in July 2004 as, Phase
One - making the database available to the general public will take place sometime in 2003.
However, as of 1st August 2004, all references to these plans have been removed from the
DCMS website. The future of an online listing system therefore seems uncertain.

77

presents the extent to which each wattle and daub panel could be surveyed.
Appendix 5 provides details of the analysis of eight collected daub samples.
Highlights from the fieldwork are described below.
Watsons (William Russels House), Queen St., Salisbury
Originally an open hall dating from 1306, of post and truss construction. There
is exposed wattle and daub in one of the side walls that now abuts the later
structure of The House of John A Port, but the external face of this archbraced panel remains intact between the two building frames.
The outer face had a top coat of approximately 1mm and disaggregation
indicated that it consisted of sharp sand, lime and cow hair. The internal face
was similarly plastered, but with a red ochre limewash, possibly only covering
parts of the panel, which would then indicate the remains of a wall painting.
The wider panel of those under the arch brace was wattled by gradually
inclining the hazel withies until parallel with the soffit of the brace. The withies
were widely spaced, even where the panel narrowed on the right hand side.

Figure 49. Wattle tensioned in a narrow

two-stave panel by entwining pairs of
withies.

Figure 50. Sparrow-pricking to an

internal panel. (The pegs in
adjacent panels were to provide a
key for plaster block work, now
removed.)

The daub was reddish-brown, with patches of dark brown. It was of moderate
strength and consisted of a very clayey fine sand with chalk and flint. Organic
matter consisted entirely of dung residue. Analysis found that no fibre had
been incorporated into the mix. The geology under the medieval city is
complex. From maps, it is likely that the building rests on Brickearth and

78

Valley Gravel, which would correspond with the daub characteristics.129

However, Alluvium, Plateau Gravel and Lower Chalk are also close by, any
one of which may also have been used in the daub.
The soffit of the brace had augered holes for the staves, with a continuous Vgroove along the bottom rail. A lower panel utilised a short stave nailed to the
soffit of the brace where access made the use of an auger hole troublesome.
This and the adjacent narrow panel had sufficient width for only two staves
that alone cannot provide tension in a wattle. The problem was overcome by
entwining pairs of withies as shown in Figure 49. Whilst not a documented
technique, it appears to form an effective and efficient solution for narrow
panels.
A further example of wattle and daub present in the building was a panel of an
early false hammer-beam truss spanning the centre of the hall. Believed to be
in its original form, both the plaster top coat and surrounding timber was
decorated with sparrow-pricking [Figure 50].

Laburnum Cottage, Stanton St.

Bernard.
The cottage is a post and truss
structure, probably early- to mid-17th
century. The half-hipped roof contains
a usable attic. A central truss holds
wattle and daub panels that form a
partial partition, which may at one
time have completely closed the truss.
The remaining wattle and daub forms
triangular panels between principals
and diagonal braces and rectangular
panels below rails.
Both panels inspected were found to
contain a mix of whole, halved and
quartered hazel withies woven around
oak staves. The outer staves of the
triangular panels were affixed by
nailing against the soffits of the
principal rafter and brace. Staves
Figure 51. Outer staves nailed against
were secured into the base timber
soffit of frame.
using V- mortices. The position and
detailing suggests these panels were
probably added after the original
construction. No plaster was evident.
The daub was light grey with chalk particles mainly of 1-2mm diameter and
straw in lengths up to 30mm. It was of moderate strength. A full analysis could
not be performed due to a small sample size.
129

Ordnance Survey (1903).

79

Figure 52. Smoke-blackened wattle

and daub at apex of cruck.

Figure 53. Cross-section of a stave. Other evidence

indicated this was intentionally chamfered rather than
representing the wany edge of the riven timber.

Church Farmhouse, Urchfont

The house, previously a farmhouse, is cruck-framed and dates from c.1450
with later alterations. A central truss was found to have been closed with
wattle and daub between the blades down to tie-beam level. Only a small
area was plastered, possibly an indication of a repair. The remainder of the
partition was roughly finished with daub and, since it was heavily smokeblackened, may have formed part of the original construction [Figure 52]. The
wattle was of whole hazel withies woven around long staves running the full
length between blade and tie-beam. In places, these had been roughly
chamfered, which was most visible where staves had been cut to enable
access along the roof space [Figure 53].
The daub was a creamy-beige with very few cracks and was extremely
difficult to break by hand. There was no indication of chalk or lime particles
and the only fibre visible was straw of 10-27mm lengths. Particle size analysis
showed the daub to be a clayey sand with straw, hay and evidence of dung.

80

(a)

(b)

Figure 54. Wattle of whole and split withy (a) and enlargement of sparrow-pricking (b).

Retreat Inn, Milford Street, Salisbury

Room No. 4 of the 15th century inn retains encased wattle and daub, probably
an external panel dating from the time of construction. Visual inspection
showed the external face to have plaster of approximately 5mm, with the
appearance of a lime:sand mix. Internally, there was no evidence of plaster
and the surface of the daub had been decorated with sparrow-pricking,
spaced randomly and approximately 5-8mm apart [Figure 54]. The daub was
light brown and contained visible particles up to approximately 10mm
diameter, although most where 2mm. Straw fibre was noted.

Figure 55. Staves attached to soffit of principals,

whole withies and smoke-blackened daub,
c.1480.

81

66 St. Anne Street, Salisbury

The post and truss structure,
probably dating from c.1480, has
wattle and daub remaining within
a central truss above collar level.
There was no evidence that the
daub had been plastered and
was
smoke-blackened.
The
seven staves were oak, or
possibly chestnut and their tops
were nailed to the soffit of the
principal
rafters.
Evidence
showed that the outer-most
staves
were
orientated
diagonally, being nailed along
the soffits. The stave bases were
held by the collar using a
continuous
V-groove.
No

evidence of stave chamfering was visible. Withies were of whole hazel [Figure
55]. The daub was light brown with a rough surface and quite friable. Analysis
showed it to be a clayey sand with chalk, straw, a little hay and dung.
6.5 Evaluation
A comprehensive evaluation of Wiltshire practices was precluded by the small
sample size of the study. However, consistency in certain limited aspects of
the study did allow the following deductions to be made.
Decoration
Whilst most panels were plain, one external and two internal faces had
sparrow-pricking an incised stick-work decoration.130 The external work had
been subsequently covered by plaster and it was initially considered that the
indentations could have been a key for plaster. However, the orientation of
incision was inappropriate for such a function so it was concluded that the
external daub of The Crofts was decorated with sparrow-pricking prior to the
later addition of a plaster top coat.
Two internal plastered panels were observed to have been washed with red
ochre. It was not possible to determine if these formed a part of the original
scheme, although this may have been determinable through paint analysis.
Plaster Top Coats
From twelve internal partitions, eight were unplastered and the others, mainly
in living areas, had coats varying from a thin skim of <1mm up to 7mm. It is
therefore possible that living spaces were generally plastered and other
partitions such as attic storage would mostly be left plain.
The difficulty in studying external panels was that the detailing of most were
necessarily hidden, repaired or replaced. Since only two panels inspected
were known to have survived in their original form one daub plastered and
the other plain it was impossible to infer any regional tradition.
All top coat plasters appeared to be lime:sand mixes, although fibres included
any one or a mix of hay, straw and, most commonly, animal hair.

130

Innocent (1916), p.199, states that sparrow is a Surrey word for a thatching spar.

82

Figure 56. Particle size analyses of daub samples.

Daubs
The characteristics of the daubs varied greatly in both appearance and
composition. Some were heavily crazed and held together mainly by the fibre,
whilst others had few cracks.
The soils were, on average, clayey sands, the mean clay content being 7%
and a mean sand component of 57% [Figure 56]. These figures are consistent
with those presented in the literature as being suitable for repairs, as
discussed on page 63. The strongest sample had no aggregate larger than
2mm and conformed to the recommended proportions for repairs. However,
the sample from William Russels House demonstrated that a durable and
mainly crack-free daub could be created from a soil with high clay content
(19%) and using no fibre. The three most friable samples corresponded to
those with the highest proportions of gravel. These were noted to be outside
the 20% upper limit for gravel recommended by the literature.
All samples contained a significant proportion of calcium carbonate, although
its form calcareous aggregate, chalk or lime could not be determined
using the available apparatus. Visual inspection showed four of the seven
samples to contain chalk, abundant in many parts of Wiltshire. Lime would
have been readily available throughout the limestone and chalk districts that
together dominate the countys geology.
In order to determine whether the soils were from the building site or
transported (see Section 3.6), a comparison was made between daubs and
geological survey maps. It was found that soils for the daubs in most cases

83

could have been excavated from the site of construction and in all cases from
within a radius of 2km. Due to the suitability of all soils observed in this study,
it was neither possible to validate nor invalidate the hypothesis made by
Warren (1999) that soils were readily transported large distances to areas
lacking suitable materials.
Analysis found that in addition to straw and hair, grass, probably dried as hay,
was commonly incorporated. This corresponds to analyses of daubs from the
Weald, as described by Ashurst and Ashurst (1988a). The proportion of dung
could not be determined using the available apparatus.
Staves and Frames
Nearly all staves were found to be
riven oak. One panel, from a
Salisbury building, may have used
chestnut. Whilst apparently unusual
for Wiltshire, there is evidence that
chestnut was at some time grown in
the area, but its use may have been
restricted to the south of the county
[Figure 57].
Dimensions of staves varied greatly,
with little attention, if any, given to
chamfering the corners [Figure 58].
For simple panelling, the only
detailing of stave holes in the soffits
of the frame were augered holes or
chiselled mortices, the former being
the most common. For nonrectangular panels, such as closedtrusses and bracing, staves were
often crudely nailed to the nonorthogonal frame member.

Figure 57. Chestnut may have existed on the

southern fringes of Wiltshire since Roman
times. From Rackham (1976).

Figure 58. Cross-section dimensions of surveyed riven staves: (a) average; (b) deepest; (c)
widest. Approximate scale 1:1.

84

Wattles
Hazel is clearly the prevalent material in
Wiltshire for wattle work. One example of
birch was also noted. No riven lath wattling
was found. This is compatible with the
hypothesis that choice was determined by
local availability of coppice versus timber
woodland.
Diameters of withy in a single panel were
Figure
59.
Withy
diameters:
on average 13.5mm and typically varied
minimum, average and maximum.
between 9mm and 20mm, which is not at
Approximate scale 1:1.
odds with the 12-25mm suggested by the
literature (Section 3.5) [Figure 59].
However, extremes of 5mm and 30mm
131
were observed. The hazel was frequently used unsplit, but often mixed in a
panel with halved or quartered stems. There was no evidence that any
attempt was made to remove the bark from the withies to reduce risk of
decay.
6.6 Wiltshire Conclusions
Wattle and daub in the county largely comprised oak staves, hazel wattle and
plain daub. Daubs were of local soils with hay, straw and occasionally hair. All
were calcareous, due either to the nature of the aggregate, chalk or the
inclusion of a lime binder. Plaster top coats may have been more commonly
used for living spaces and external faces of panels. Decoration included
incised stick-work, to either plain daub or plastered finishes.
This study of wattle and daub was limited chiefly by the ability to locate and
gain access to exposed panels. Knowledge could be enhanced through
continued and systematic recording of wattle and daub using a methodology
similar to that described above and by striving to record temporarily exposed
external panels during repair.
A fuller understanding of the relationship between daubs and the soils
surrounding a building could be gained through soil samples being taken at
each site together with a larger sample of buildings. Additionally, more
detailed soil analyses, including identifying the form of calcium carbonate,
may have been possible if a soil mechanics laboratory service could have
been used.

131

Full details of withy dimensions are illustrated in Figure 62 of Appendix 4.

85

7 Conclusion
The study found that wattle and daub was a craft extremely resilient to the
evolving pattern of timber construction, possibly more so that any other
building material or technique. Examination of previous works showed the
most widespread form in England was a woven wattle covered with a plain
daub, practiced since the Iron Age and prevailing to the end of the Tudor
period, after which it suffered a slow demise. The infill often comprised oak
staves and hazel withies with daub routinely consisting of soil, dung and fibre.
Frames of close-studding demanded the adaptation of the wattle to suit, such
as the introduction of lath, and further changes were required for braces and
decorative framing. However, during the course of the research it was
established that the craft is described better by its diversity than by its
regularity: the complexity in categorising and describing this variety was an
underestimated aspect of the study. For example, illustrating the variations
using geographical distribution maps might have assisted the reader.
The forms of nave decoration had been d escribed thoroughly by the main
works: raised pargetting, incised work, and internal wall painting. However,
little attention had been given to describing the applicability of each form to
those areas of the country less renowned for timber building yet still rich in
surviving buildings. This topic remains worthy of future examination.
The examination of material characteristics was found to provide a deeper
insight into explaining the choice of materials, historically and with regards to
conservation work. Soil mechanics were used to demonstrate how clayey
soils were chosen for daub to provide a workable and strong fabric. However,
shrinking clay invariably caused cracking and it was shown how the inclusion
of fibre acted as reinforcement as well as dispersing large cracks within the
daub. The reasoning behind the ubiquitous specification of dung was more
illusive. Several hypotheses had been documented as to the beneficial
properties, yet little supporting evidence was provided to substantiate them.
A study of the ruminant digestive system resulted in the development of a new
hypothesis: that the indigestible lignin in cattle feed, originating from plant cell
walls and passed into the faeces, improves the stability and workability of a
daub. However, as a field unfamiliar to the author, it is acknowledged that the
treatment of this topic was somewhat crude and so remains an area requiring
further research. In addition, since access to and handling of cow dung is
being increasing controlled by legislation, its continuing use in conservation
work is being threatened. It is therefore becoming increasingly urgent to verify
the reasons for its inclusion and whether modern alternatives exist.
It was found that discussion of the values and the principles of conservation
specific to wattle and daub is not well attended to by existing works. A
description in terms of patina, decay and age-value was therefore defined. In
association with these values, it was shown how UK legislation operates to
encourage the retention of historic wattle and daub. Within this framework,
principles for conservation were established and causes of decay and
methods of repair explored. The action of absorbed water was noted to be the

86

singly most damaging cause. It was illustrated how most wattle and daub can
be conserved using carefully chosen traditional methods and thereby
demonstrating that replacement with other infill material is usually unjustified.
The Wiltshire case study showed a great diversity of methods was used in the
county. It revealed previously undocumented variations such as a method that
enables withies to be woven using only two staves and a robust 14th century
daub that contained no fibre. Most panels were based on hazel withy woven
around oak staves. A frequent solution for placing staves within braced panels
or within trusses was to simply nail them to the soffits of the sloping timber.
Further work is required to establish the extent to which Chestnut was used,
especially in the southern part of the county.
Wiltshire daubs were found to be clayey sands and calcareous, due to either
the use of chalk or the addition of slaked lime. The soils in proximity to the
building or within easy carting distance were used. There was no evidence of
long-distance transportation of earths.
Examples of decoration were minimal. However, the three examples, from
14th, 15th and 17th centuries, were all of the same style and so it is reasonable
to conclude that that sparrow-pricking was probably common in the region.
All aspects of the case study were limited primarily by the scarcity of existing
and exposed work. This illustrates the need for ongoing and systematic
recording. Adopting the recording template developed for this study, or a
similar tool, would help integrate data from disparate sources and so assist in
identification of regional variation.
Through this investigation, the following practical observations for
conservation work in Wiltshire were identified:
1. Wattle and daub repairs should aim to use only materials from the vicinity
of the building.
2. Care is needed to avoid incorrectly identifying incised daub decoration as
keying for a plaster top coat.
3. Staves may be nailed or screwed to the soffits of the frame where access
is limited, as long as vibration will not damage historic daub.
4. The most durable of Wiltshires calcareous daubs tend to have a small
proportion of gravel (0-10%).
5. Strength of a daub may be improved without causing cracking problems,
by increasing the clay content up to 19% (or above, subject to further
research).
This study demonstrates the current inadequacy of professional knowledge
within the conservation industry and highlights the lack of interest in one of the
most historically widespread building techniques. If nothing else, it has been
shown that many a conservation professional concerned with timber framed
construction is missing out on an essentially unexplored subject in which
further research is likely to be very rewarding. One might say, If you dont
look, you dont know what youre missing. If the current custodians of historic
buildings incorporating wattle and daub fail to take an interest then we will
leave nothing of this tradition for future generations.

87

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93

Appendix 1: The Composition of Cow Dung

Cow dung is described by the study of ruminant anatomy and the nutrition of
cattle. Ruminants such as cattle, horses, sheep and goats are herbivores able
to digest plant material and are often seen chewing which forms part of the
digestion process [Figure 60].

Figure 60. Ruminant digestive system.

The four stomachs of the cow include the reticulum, rumen, omasum and
abomasums. The digestion of plant cells starts in the rumen, where
microorganisms break down the feed by fermentation. These microorganisms
eventually pass through the gut and are expelled, mainly dead, in the
faeces.132 The reticulum works to sort the contents of the rumen, passing on
digested feed to the third stomach. The stems of plants and grasses contain
fibre for rigidity and are composed of complex sugars such as cellulose and
hemicellulose. These are mostly digestible, but cells walls also contain lignin,
mainly insoluble, that is passed into the faeces.
The omasum recovers minerals and water and feeds these back into the
rumen. The abomasums is similar to the stomach of non-ruminants in that it
contains a strong acid and digestive enzymes. The small intestine secretes
digestive enzymes for the digestion of carbohydrates, proteins and lipid and
also absorbs some water, minerals and products of digestion (glucose, amino
acids and fatty acids). The large intestine absorbs water and contains a small
quantity of microbes that ferments the unabsorbed products of digestion. The
remains are formed into faeces.133
132

133

Hungate (1966), pp.1-7.

Wattiaux and Howard (2000).

94

The main constituents of faeces are metabolic excretions (from living tissue)
and undigested diet. The majority of these excretions include microbial debris
(from microorganisms within the rumen and includes insoluble and soluble
nitrogenous matter) and endogenous secretions (from the body of the cow)
that include salts, sloughing of animal cells and mucus. The insoluble
nitrogenous matter comprises cellulose and lignin that originate from the cell
walls of the plants [Figure 61].134

Figure 61. Composition of cow faeces.

134

Van Soest (1982), p.39 and p.47.

95

96

O.S. Grid Ref: _____________________

r
cruck
r
post and truss
Frame Type
r
box-frame
Approx. date of construction: _______________
Recorded panel type (s):
Close Studding
Basic
r
Tension bracing
Arch bracing
r
Arch
tension
Scissor bracing
r
bracing
Parallel bracing
Small framing
r
Truss partition
Close panelling
r
Ornamental panelling

Panel Location:

Recorded By: ___________________________

Location in Building of Recorded Panels [sketch]

r
r
r
r
r

Internal (partition) r

External r
Comments

Plaster Top Coat

Thickness (approx): ______mm

Description:
Type: Lime-Sand r
Daub r
Decoration: (e.g. colour-wash,
interior wall-painting, scratch
pattern, pargetting): ___________

Daub

Fibre Type:
Straw r Hay r Animal Hair r

Description (In-Situ):

Appendix 2: Template for the Recording of Wattle and Daub

Recording Sheet Reference Number: ________________

House name and address:

Wattle

97

Staves

Sample Lab. Analysis?

Yes r, Ref. Number: ________
No r
Owners or custodians description of subsoil:
Type:
Material: ________________
Lath r
Withy r
(e.g. hazel)
Withies debarked?
Withy ends halved?
Yes r
No r
Partly r
Yes r
No r
Some r
Withies split? (tick multiple): Whole (round) r Halved r
Quartered r
Orientation
Diameter (mm)
Vertical r
Min. __________
Horizontal r
Max. __________
Diagonal r
Avg. ___________
Number of Staves:
Stave Type:
0 r 3 r 4 r other: ___
Poles (round) r
Riven r
Shape (x-section), if riven:
End Staves:

Width: _____

Timber Frame

Central Staves:
Depth: _____

Distance between post and first stave: ______

Material: ____________________
Stave bottoms
Stave tops
[sketch]:
[sketch]:
Soffit stave holes:
augered hole [a]
augered mortice [b]
V-mortice [c]
chiselled mortice [d]
Other: _______________
V-Grooves for withy/lath ends?
Yes r
No r
Bottom V-groove:
Continuous r Other: ________________

r
r
r
r
r

Visual Inspection of Disaggregated Sample [10x magnification]:

Sedimentation Analysis

98

Water (g): _______

Organic:
Clay:
Silt:
Sand/Gravel:

Volume (ml)

Fraction (%)

Sieve analysis
Weight (g)

Fraction (%)

Total:
Passing 4.0mm sieve:
Passing 2.0mm sieve:
Passing 500m sieve:
Passing 250m sieve:
Passing 125m sieve:
Passing 63m sieve:
Lime test [10% HCl] Effervescence: None (<1% CaCO3 ) r
Visible (>1% CaCO3) r
Violent (>20% CaCO3) r
Plasticity [Hand Test results:]
Summary:

135

See BS 5930:1999, pp.113-121.

Laboratory Analysis of Daub

Sheet Ref. Number: ____________

Panel Recording Sheet Ref: Number: ________
Visual Inspection [Description of sample, 1x and 10x magnification, colour, cracking, additives, particles, breaking strength]:135

Appendix 3: List of Suppliers

The most sustainable approach to the supply of woodland products is to
uphold the tradition of local coppicing. Staves, withies and riven lath may be
purchased from a woodman or, having sought prior permission from the
landowner, hazel is easily coppiced by the conservator from local woodland
and hedgerows. Coppice products are also available from conservation
suppliers, but it is important that withies and lath are supplied green so to be
sufficiently pliant. Local earths should always be used where suitable graded,
thereby continuing the tradition and avoiding unnecessary transportation. The
use of pre-mixed daub should be limited to those few situations where local
material is no longer accessible, such as where valuable ornamental gardens
now cover the whole site. The most sustainable and traditional source for fibre
and dung is a local farm.
Tools required for the conversion of wood and the preparation of daub are all
available from general hardware suppliers or specialist conservation suppliers,
but with one exception: the spar hook. They can no longer be purchased new,
but can occasionally be located second-hand. Alternatively, a billhook can be
used, but its thicker blade makes controlling the split of narrow withies more
taxing.
Some materials and equipment may need to be bought in, such as from the
sample of suppliers shown below.

Tools
Spar hooks, billhooks, cob-picks; axes and froes with high quality steels:
Pennyfarthing Tools Ltd
26, Pennyfarthing Street
Salisbury
SP1 1HJ
http://www.pennyfarthingtools.co.uk

The Old Tool Store

The Red Lion Inn
East Kirkby
Spilsby
PE23 4BX
http://www.oldtools.free-online.co.uk

Also online auctions, e.g. http://www.ebay.co.uk

99

Test sieves are readily available in the UK conforming to BS 410-1:2000.

However, the cost of these certified sieves may be prohibitive where only
occasional use is anticipated. As an alternative, a set of economy sieves may
be purchased, presently available only from U.S. manufacturers and
distributors. These conform to U.S. ASTM standard mesh sizes, but relate to
equivalent sizes in European and British standards. Appendix 6 provides a
means of conversion between standards.
Endecotts Ltd (Manufactuerer).
9, Lombard Road
London
SW19 3TZ
http://www.endecotts.com

A. Daigger & Co. (International

distributor)
620 Lakeview Parkway
Vernon Hills, IL 60061
U.S.A.
http://www.daigger.com

Glenammer Engineering Ltd

Glenammer
Dalrymple
Ayrshire
KA6 6AP
http://www.glenammer.com

Hubbard Scientific (Manufacturer).

401 W. Hickory Street
P.O. Box 2121
Fort Collins, CO 80522
U.S.A.
http://www.hubbardscientific.com

Ready-mix Daub
Old House Store
Hampstead Farm
Binfield Heath
Henley-on-Thames
RG9 4LG

Chalk Down Lime Ltd

102, Fairlight Road
Hastings
TN35 5EL

Riven Lath
Carpenter Oak and Woodland Co. Ltd
Hall Farm
Thickwood Lane
Colerne
Chippenham
Wiltshire
SN14 8BE

Mike Wye & Associates

Buckland Filleigh Sawmills
Beaworthy
Devon
EX21 5RN

Coyle Timber Products Ltd.

Bassett Farm
Claverton
Bath
BA2 7BJ

The Lime Centre

Long Barn
Morestead
Winchester
SO21 1LZ
http://www.thelimecentre.co.uk/

Chalk Down Lime

Old House Store

100

Animal Hair
Potmolen Paint
27, Woodcock Industrial Estate
Woodcock Road
Warminster
BA12 9DX

Chalk Down Lime

The Lime Centre

Old House Store

Mike Wye & Associates

Aggregates
Local builders merchants should be able to help locate local sources of
aggregate. Sharp sand for daubs may be termed grit sand or concreting
sand but must be washed (in case of salt) and selected on the basis of
sharpness and grading.
A catalogue of national aggregates that are particularly suited for conservation
work is provided by Chapman and Fidler (2000).
The Lime Centre (address as above) also supplies a small selection of
suitable aggregates.

Infill Upgrade Insulation

Green Building Store
Huddersfield Road
Meltham
Holmfirth
HD9 4NJ
http://greenbuildingstore.co.uk

Natural Building Technologies Ltd

The Hangar
Worminghall Road
Oakley
HP18 9UL
http://naturalbuildingproductscouk.ntitemp.com

Ty-Mawr Lime Ltd

Ty-Mawr Farm
Llangasty
Brecon
Powys
LD3 7PJ
http://www.lime.org.uk/

Other suppliers exist. Inclusion does not indicate recommendation.

101

Table 5. Details of Wiltshire buildings surveyed.

Salisbury
Salisbury
Salisbury
Salisbury

Stanton St. Bernard

Steeple Ashton
Tilshead
Urchfont
Warminster

Name/Address
Burdens Cottage
White Rose Cottage
Maslens Farm
Cocks Thatch
East Marsh Farm
Daubeneys
Norrie Cottage

Frame type
Post and Truss
Post and truss
cruck
Post and truss
Post and truss
Cruck
Cruck

date of construction
c.1600 + later
th
?17
th
Late 14
th
Late 17
c.1500.
th
c.1270 + late 14
c.1500

51, Long Street

Orchard Farm
Little Talboys
Langley Green House
10, Coxhill Lane
Porch House
The Crofts
The Old House
4, Guilder Lane
66, St. Anne St.
Cloisters (formerly The
Bell and Crown)
Retreat Inn, Milford St.
(Room No. 4)
The
Kings
House
(Vestibule)
Watsons, Queen St.
(House of John A Port)
Watsons, Queen St.
(William
Russels
House)
Liburnum Cottage
3, Church St.
Primrose Cottage
Church Farmhouse
10, Vicarage St.

Post and truss

Post and truss
Cruck
Cruck
Cruck
Post and Truss
Post and Truss
Post and truss
Post and Truss
Post and Truss
Post and Truss

?17
th
16
th
? 14
? 15th
Early 16th - early 17th
15th
Late 17th
Late 16th / early 17th
?15th
c.1480
C14th

Lath and plaster sample, possibly earthen; photographs

Wattle sample only
section of wattle and daub excluding staves and frame
Photographs
Photographs (chimney)
Full
Inspection from distance
Photographs
Inspection from distance
Full
Panel excluding daub

Post and Truss

15th

Full, excluding frame

Post + truss

c.1600

Panel excluding daub

Post and Truss

1425

Full

Post and Truss

1306

Full

Post and Truss

Box-frame
Post and Truss
cruck
Post and truss

Early/mid 17th
Mid 16th + 17th
?
c.1450 + later
?

Full
description and daub sample
Frame and staves only
Full
Photographs

th

Extent of recording
.
Wattle and daub section museum object
Full, excluding frame
Daub and withy samples, written building survey
Daub sample and photographs
Photographs and written description
Photographs and sample

Appendix 4: Supplementary Detail from Wiltshire Buildings Survey

102

Building location
All Cannings
All Cannings
Alton Barnes
Ashton Keynes
Bratton
Colerne
Collingbourne
Kingston
Devizes
East Kennet
Keevil
Langley Burrell
Potterne
Potterne
Potterne
Rushall
Salisbury
Salisbury
Salisbury

Figure 62. Dimensions of withies.

Appendix 5: Analyses of Wiltshire Daubs

The analysis of daub samples was carried out in accordance with the
procedure described in Section 5.4.2. However, BS1377-2:1990 recommends
that the plot of cumulative percent passing versus particle size should be
completed using an s-curve to join the data points. For several daub samples,
such a curve was not a good fit. This could be expected if the soils had been
modified (e.g. by adding aggregate or clay) during construction. Graphically,
adding aggregate may shift one or more data points. A smoothed line was
therefore chosen instead of an s-curve so that these effects were
appropriately preserved.
Eight samples were analysed, the results of which are summarised below.

104

a. Church Farmhouse

b. The Crofts

c. Norrie Cottage

d. 3 Church Street

e. Watsons William Russels House

f. 66 St. Anne Street

g. Watsons House of John A Port

Figure 63. Daub particle size distribution graphs.

105

Figure 64. Plots a-g of Figure 63 combined for comparison.

Church Farmhouse, Urchfont

The daub was a creamy-beige with very few cracks. It was extremely difficult
to break by hand. There was no sign of chalk or lime particles and the only
fibre visible was straw of 10-27mm lengths. Water used in the sedimentation
test was turned a browny-orange colour. Hydrochloric acid caused violent
effervescing, indicating a significant quantity of calcium carbonate. The
plasticity test showed long threads of less than 2mm diameter could easily be
rolled. When slightly dried so to break at 3mm, a thread failed only by
applying a notable force, suggesting it was moderately plastic.
Sieve and sedimentation analysis showed the daub to be a clayey SAND,
lacking any gravel, with straw, hay and evidence of dung [Figure 63a].
The underlying soil is Upper Greensand (containing calcareous rock), with
Lower Chalk and Gault Clay both available within approximately 0.5km of the
building.

The Crofts, Potterne

The daub was a pale creamy-grey with a large degree of cracking. The daub
was friable and so easily crumbled by hand. A significant amount of straw and
hay was visible. Within the fines was some large aggregate up to 22mm
diameter. Disaggregating revealed straw in lengths up to 70mm and many
shorter lengths, plus hay, seedpods and a little animal hair. Larger aggregate
was found to be cream coloured and could be scratched with the fingernail,
albeit it with difficulty. Microscope inspection showed it to have a grainy

106

structure, possibly oolites. It was identified as probably being a soft limestone.

Water was turned greeny-yellow. Sieve and sedimentation analysis showed
the daub was heavily fibred (5% by volume) with evidence of dung [Figure
63b]. Hydrochloric acid showed a large quantity of Calcium Carbonate to be
present.
A moistened sample was easily rolled into threats of less than 2mm. When a
fibreless sample was made sufficiently dry to break at approximately 3mm it
was found to initially stretch and required notable force to cause failure. It was
therefore determined to be very plastic ( very clayey).
It was concluded that the daub comprised a very clayey gravelly SAND, wellgraded and mixed with lime or crushed chalk, plus straw, hay and a little
animal hair.
The underlying soil is known to be Gault Clay and sandy silt alluvium. The
building is sited very close to a source of Upper Greensand and a source of
Lower Chalk is available within 2km.

Norrie Cottage, Collingbourne Kingston

The daub was a creamy colour, with little cracking and significant amounts of
visible straw but no sign of hair or hair. Larger aggregate (2-5mm) was
embedded within the surface. The daub was easily crumbled by hand.
After disaggregation, a little animal hair became apparent, together with two
pieces of flint, the largest being 12mm diameter.
Particle analysis showed the daub to be well-graded, with evidence of dung
and a large quantity of straw, mainly in lengths of 10-15mm [Figure 63c].
Water was turned pale greeny-yellow/cream.
Hydrochloric acid caused violent effervescing.
Long threads of moistened daub were easily rolled to diameters of less than
2mm. 3mm threads broke only with moderate force clayey.
The daub was concluded to be a clayey sandy fine GRAVEL. It was wellgraded, possibly chalk, was highly fibred using straw and had a little hair and
probably had only a small proportion of dung.
Norrie Cottage lies on River and Valley Gravel and Middle Chalk but has
nearby areas of Lower Chalk, Upper Chalk and Clay-with-Flint (superficial
deposits).
No. 3, Church Street, Steeple Ashton
The daub was a light orangey-brown with patches of brighter orange and had
small particles (<500um) visible in the surface. Straw and hay were visible.
The daub was difficult to break by hand: only larger lumps could be broken.
Inspection of the disaggregated sample showed hair fibres bound within the
white particles and so they were concluded to be lime. The test for CaCO3
supported this, showing violent effervescing.
Sedimentation showed little evidence of dung. The water was turned a midbrown colour. Particle analysis showed the daub to be well-graded [Figure
63d]. A moistened sample retained its orangey-brown appearance and felt
sticky. 3mm threads were easily formed and were tough.

107

The daub was concluded to be a clayey SAND. It was well-graded with lime,
straw and hay. There was little evidence that any significant amount of dung
had been incorporated.
Steeple Ashton lies on Corallian Beds (oolitic limestones, sands, sandstones
and some iron stone) and situated close to Oxford Clay which often weathers
to a deep brown.

Watsons (William Russels House), Queen St., Salisbury

The daub sample was reddish-brown, with patches of dark brown. Large pale
aggregate was visible. The daub was of moderate strength, broken by hand
using moderate force. Inspection of the disaggregated sample showed the
larger particles were flint (up to 15mm) with smaller particles of chalk (mainly
1-2mm). No fibre was visible. The daub was noted to effervesce violently with
hydrochloric acid solution, causing pitting and so confirming areas of high
CaCO3 content as chalk. Sieve and sedimentation analysis showed the daub
to be a very clayey fine SAND with chalk and flint, but poorly graded [Figure
63e]. The organic matter consisted entirely of the residue of dung and it was
therefore confirmed that the daub had no fibre.
It was not possibly to determine if the daub was extracted from underlying
soils due to the complexity of the soils in the city area. Available data, taken
primarily from the Ordnance Survey geological maps, showed the soils are
most likely to comprise of Valley Gravel or Brickearth, but Alluvium, Plateau
Gravel and Lower Chalk are also close by.136 There are also nearby chalk
pipes filled with orange-brown plateau gravel.137

66 St. Anne Street, Salisbury

The daub was light brown with a rough surface. Rounded white particles of 15mm diameter were visible. The sample was easily broken by hand. The
particles were confirmed to be chalk by further visual inspection and by the
hydrochloric acid test. Straw fibres were visible, with lengths up to 55mm. The
daub was of low plasticity, being difficult to roll into a thread of less than
15mm without crumbling. The sedimentation test left the water stained orange
with evidence of dung, straw and hay forming the organic matter. The analysis
showed the daub to be a clayey SAND with chalk, straw, some hay and dung
[Figure 63f].
It was not possible to evaluate how the daub corresponded to the underlying
soils due to the complexity of the local geology (alluvium, valley gravel, chalk,
river terrace deposits, plateau gravel).
Watsons (House of John A Port), Salisbury
The daub was a creamy-beige with a rough and open surface. Very few fibres
were visible, limited to a few lengths of hay (7-12mm) and animal hairs. The
136
137

Ordnance Survey (1903).

Geddes (2000).

108

sample was friable and so was easy to break by hand. After disaggregating,
visual inspection found that the course sand and gravel particles appeared to
be mainly chalk (up to 14mm). Hydrochloric acid confirmed the presence of
chalk. The sample also included a single piece of red clay (10mm), possibly
being a fragment of fired brick or tile.
Sieving and sedimentation showed short straw had been incorporated but
were only in lengths up to 4mm [Figure 63g]. Very little fibre was noted. The
water was turned a greeny-brown with evidence of dung.
Rolling a thread of moist daub was difficult: it was cohesive, but a minimum
diameter of 15mm was reached before it would fracture. The daub was
bordering only clayey and silty.
The daub was a gravelly SAND of low plasticity. Much of the aggregate was
chalk with a small but undetermined proportion of brick, with little fibre
comprising hay and short fragments of straw.
The soils in this part of Salisbury may include alluvium, valley gravels, chalk
and river terrace deposits, as discussed above.

Laburnum Cottage, Stanton St. Bernard.

A visual inspection was made of the daub but the sample was of insufficient
mass to perform a full analysis. It was light grey with white particles (1-2mm)
and could be broken by hand using moderate force. Further inspection
showed two red 2mm particles, possibly fired clay but representing a
negligible proportion of the aggregate. Straw of up to 30mm was observed.
The owner described the soil as brown clay on chalk which is reflected by
geological surveys. In addition, maps show areas of Upper Greensand and
Clay-with-flint lie within 1km of the site. However, it is likely the clayey chalk
underlying Stanton St. Bernard was the source of the observed daub.

109

Appendix 6: Sieve Mesh Conversion

Table 6. Sieve comparison table.
ISO 565:1987 DIN 4188:1977 US Std/ASTM E-11-1987
mm
mm
US Mesh
Inch
3" .
2".
26,5
25
1.06"
25
22,4
1"
22,4
20
7/8"
19
18
3/4"
16
16
5/8"
13,2
14
0.530"
12,5
12,5
1/2 "
11,2
11,2
7/16"
9,5
10
3/8"
9
8
6,7
6,3

8
7,1
6,3

5,6
4,75

5,6
5
4,5
4
3,55
3,15
2,8
2,5
2,24
2
1,8
1,6
1,4
1,25
1,12
1,0
Microns (m)
900
800
710
630

4
3,35
2,8
2,36
2
1,7
1,4
1,18
1
Microns (m)
850
710
600
500
425
355
300

560
500
450
430
400
355
315

5/16"
0.265"
1/4"
Mesh #
3
4
5
6

Tyler
BS 410:1986
Mesh Equivalent BS Mesh
Inch

1.05".
0.883"
0.742"
0.624"

0.441"
0.371"
Mesh
2.5
3

3.5

3
3

4
5

7
8

6
7

10
12

10

8
10

14
16

12
14

12
14

18

16

16

20
25

20
24

22

30

28

25

35

32

30

40

35

36

45

42

44

50

48

52

18

110

ISO 565:1987 DIN 4188:1977 US Std/ASTM E-11-1987 Tyler

280
250
250
60
60
212
224
70
65
200
180
180
80
80
160
150
100
140
125
125
120
115
106
112
140
150
100
90
90
170
170
80
75
200
200
71
63
63
230
250
53
56
270
270
50
45
45
325
325
38
40
400
400
36
32
32
450
450
25
25
500
500
20
20
635
635
16
16
10
10
Source: International Starch Institute (1999).

111

BS 410:1986
60
72
85
100
120
150
170
200
240
300
350
400
440