publication 400-012

Nutrition and Feeding of the Cow-Calf Herd:

Production Cycle Nutrition and Nutrient

Requirements of Cows, Pregnant Heifers and Bulls
John B. Hall, Extension Animal Scientist, Virginia Tech
William W. Seay, Extension Agent, Animal Science, Virginia Tech
Scott M. Baker, Extension Agent, Animal Science, Virginia Tech

Developing diets and feeding strategies for the cowherd is facilitated by a basic understanding of the production cycle of the cow and her changing nutrient
requirements. By knowing and anticipating the changing nutritional needs of the cow, producers can plan
their feeding programs and lower feed costs. Cows use
the nutrients provided to them for bodily processes in
the following order: 1) maintenance keep alive and
moving, 2) lactation providing milk for the calf, 3)
growth including weight gain, and 4) reproduction.

Beef cow production cycle

For nutritional and most management purposes,

the annual production cycle for the beef cow can be
divided into 4 phases: Pre-calving, Postpartum, Lactating and Pregnant, and Gestation. Each one of these
phases is physiologically unique and each has its own
set of nutritional requirements (Figure 1). Calving is
the event on which all of these periods are based, so
thats where we will start.

energy requirements decrease about 13% and protein

needs about 8% compared to the postpartum period.
During the lactating and pregnant period, cows reach
peak lactation and then decrease milk production.
Cows are pregnant, but the limited fetal growth does
not add much to requirements. However, activity is
still high, and two and three year-olds must continue
to grow. Cows usually lose some weight during this
period.
Gestation is the 100-110 day period immediately after
the calves are weaned. Nutritional requirements are
at their lowest because lactation has ceased. Energy
needs are 23% less than the previous period and protein
requirements drop by 36%. This is the best time to put
Pre-calving
Gestation

Postpartum (after calving) is the 80 to 90 day period

that begins at calving. It is the period of greatest nutritional demand (Table 1 & 2). Cows must lactate, repair
their reproductive tracts, resume heat cycles, breed,
increase activity and, if young, grow. All these processes put considerable strain on the cow. However,
her voluntary feed intake, how much feed she will eat,
is highest during the postpartum period. If she is not
fed to meet her nutritional demands, she will fail or be
delayed in rebreeding and lose weight.
Lactating and Pregnant is a period of 120 to 130
days. Nutritional requirements are still high. However,

Calving

60

Postpartum

100

82
123

Lactating & Pregnant

Figure 1. Nutritional & Management phases of the annual
cow production cycle.

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weight back on thin cows and increase body condition to BCS

5 or 6. Cows are pregnant, but growth of the developing calf
is still slow and activity decreases; however, heifers still need
to gain 1 to 1.5 lbs per day. The cows voluntary feed intake is
lowest during this period.

such as a month of cold weather, moving to a hilly pasture, or the last third of pregnancy.
Maintenance. The maintenance component includes all
the nutrients required for the animal to breath, move,
digest food, keep warm, repair tissues, and maintain
body weight. Weight, age, breed, physiological status,
activity, and environmental conditions are the primary
variables impacting maintenance requirements. The
larger the animal, the greater its maintenance requirement, especially energy and protein. Extremely heavy
muscled breeds will have greater maintenance requirements than light muscled breeds. Pregnancy and lactation
increase basal metabolism, so maintenance requirements
are altered accordingly. Heavy milking breeds have an
increased maintenance requirement. Increased activity
or rough terrain will increase maintenance energy needs
as will extremely cold, hot, wet, or muddy conditions.

Pre-calving is the period 50 to 60 days immediately before

calving. This is the most critical period of the year. Cows must
reach or preferably maintain body condition score 5 or 6 during this period. Cows must calve in body condition score 5 or
greater to have healthy calves and breed back quickly (Figure
2). Energy and protein needs increase by 20% or more compared to gestation (Table 1 and 2). Fetal growth is rapid. The
calf may gain 60 lbs during pre-calving, and the placenta is also
growing. Cows need to gain 1 to 1.25 lbs per day, while heifers and young cows need to gain 2 to 2.5 lbs per day. Along
with fetal and placental growth, cows are preparing for lactation. Late in this period feed intake may decrease because the
fetus and associated structures take up space normally occupied
by the rumen.

Even though all nutrients are needed for maintenance,

only energy requirements are divided into maintenance
and non-maintenance portions. This division is made
because energy is used more efficiently for maintenance
than for other body processes such as growth. When
net energy (NE) requirements are used instead of TDN,
you will notice that there are separate requirements for
NEm (maintenance), NEg (gain), and NEl (lactation).
Furthermore, the NEm values for feeds are greater than
those for NEg.

Factors affecting nutrient requirements

The nutrient requirements of beef cows can be broken

down into four principal components: Maintenance, Lactation, Growth, and Reproduction. From these components,
requirements for energy, protein, minerals, and vitamins are
calculated. By understanding the different factors that affect
requirements, producers can make adjustments to changes

Lactation. Nutrient requirements for lactation are based

on the amount of milk at peak lactation and the composition of the milk. Cows that produce more milk, and
milk with more fat and protein, will have higher nutrient requirements.

100
80

Growth. Requirements for growth are determined by

actual weight, average daily gain (growth rate), weight
at maturity, and composition of gain. Composition of
gain simply means whether cattle are putting on more
muscle or more fat. For example, protein requirements
will be higher for young cattle because they are gaining
more muscle than fat. When cows need to gain weight
to increase their body condition score, this is also considered growth.

60
40
20
0

Reproduction. Adjustments to requirements for reproduction are based on expected calf birth weight and
stage of gestation. Usually, pregnancy does not significantly affect requirements until the last three months of
pregnancy when the fetus is growing rapidly.

BCS<5
BCS<5
BCS>5
BCS>5
Maintain Wt. Gain Wt. Maintain Wt. Gain Wt.

Figure 2. The effects of body condition at calving and postpartum gain on conception rates in heifers.

How to use requirement tables

or calculate requirements

partum, etc). 3) Locate the average body weight of the

animal and read across. This gives you the animals
daily nutrient needs in pounds per head per day. 4)
Look at the required nutrient density line at the bottom of the requirements for that particular production
period. This gives you the minimum nutrient density
or concentration of nutrients needed in the diet.

There are two ways to determine the nutrient requirements of beef cows and calves. The first and most useful for most producers and Extension personnel is to use
pre-calculated tables of nutrient requirements derived
from the Nutrient Requirements of Beef Cows (NRC,
1996). Except for unusual circumstances, these tables
give sufficiently accurate requirements for beef cows,
heifers, and young calves. Tables 1-4 contain simplified tables for the major classes of cattle and nutrients.
More detailed tables in terms of milk production and
physiological status are available from the Arkansas
Cooperative Extension Service (Publication MP 391).
Tables 1-4 will provide sufficient accuracy to design
feeding programs for most producers. Note that the
diet nutrient density requirements in the tables are on a
dry matter (DM) basis.

Either an Animals Daily Nutrient Needs or Diet Nutrient Density can be used to design diets to meet the nutritional needs of beef cattle. Because cows are generally
allowed to eat all they want, the Diet Nutrient Density
Requirements in dry matter are most useful. Basically,
if a cow eats all she can consume of a diet containing the
required percentage of a nutrient, she will consume the
needed amount of that nutrient each day.
Tables 1-4 also indicate a dry matter intake requirement
or figure. This figure is a guide to how much 100% dry
feed an animal could or should eat. It is not the total
pounds of feed in its normal or as fed form an animal
could eat.

The second method is to use the new Nutrient Requirements of Beef Cows computer program. Nutrient
Requirements of Beef Cows (NRC, 1996) brought about
dramatic changes in the power, flexibility, and accuracy of determining the nutrient requirements of beef
cows. The new formulas and computer program can
take into account many factors including breed, weight,
body condition, physiological stage, milking ability and
composition, environment, etc. Although very powerful, this new program is very complex and cumbersome
for producers and Extension personnel who have not
had extensive nutritional training or training with the
program. If you are interested in using this program,
you should contact a trained Extension professional or
nutritionist to assist you.

For example, an 1100 pound cow in the pre-calving

period would need to eat 22.7 lbs (dry matter basis) of a
feed that was 54.6 TDN and 8.6% crude protein to meet
her requirements. You have hay on farm that was 85%
DM, 55% TDN, and 10% CP. This meets her needs for
energy and exceeds her need for protein; so how much
do you need to feed her? Use the following formula:
Lbs DM required
= Lbs of feed needed
% DM of the feed
22.7 Lbs. DM
.85

To use Tables 1-4 to determine nutrient requirements

of cows use the following steps: 1) Locate the table
with the type of animals you want requirements for
(i.e. Mature Cow, Pregnant Heifer, etc). 2) Pick the
production period of the animal (i.e. Gestation, Post-

so you would feed

her 26.7 or 27 lbs of hay.

For more assistance with calculating diets or evalua

ting feeds, contact your County Extension Animal Science Agent.

Reviewed by Scott Greiner, Extension specialist, Animal and Poultry Sciences

Example Diets for Beef Cattle

Late gestation cows (1200 lb. Last 60 days of gestation)
1. 30 lbs good quality hay*
2. 30 lbs fair quality hay* plus 1 lb corn
3. Stockpiled fescue
4. 25 lbs 80% poultry litter 20% corn plus 5 lbs poor hay
5. 60 lbs corn silage plus 1 lb protein supplement
6. Good quality fall pasture
Lactating cows (1200 lb. Average milking ability)
1. 32 lbs good hay plus 1 lb corn plus 1 lb protein supplement
2. 32 lbs fair hay plus 5 lbs corn gluten pellets
3. Spring pasture, good quality summer pasture or excellent stockpiled fescue
4. 28 lbs 80% poultry litter 20% corn plus 5 lbs hay
5. 68 lbs silage plus 4 lbs protein supplement
Gestating cows (Mid Gestation)
1. Stockpiled fescue
2. Moderate quality pasture
3. 25 lbs average quality hay
4. Grazing corn stalks plus 1 lb cottonseed meal
Pregnant replacement heifers (Late Gestation)
1. Good quality grass legume pasture
2. 21 lbs good quality hay plus 6 lbs cracked corn and 1 lb soybean meal
3. 21 lbs good quality hay plus 7 lbs barley
4. 40 lbs corn silage plus 4 lbs whole cottonseed
Pregnant heifers (Mid Gestation)
1. Good quality pasture
2. Stockpiled fescue
3. 22 lbs good quality grass hay plus 3 lbs barley
4. 34 lbs corn silage plus 2 lb soybean meal plus hay
Lactating 1st calf heifers
1. 24 lbs good hay plus 3 lbs corn plus 2 lbs soybean meal
2. 24 lbs good hay plus 6 lbs corn gluten pellets
3. Abundant spring pasture
Young herd bulls (12-24 months)
1. High quality pasture plus 12 lbs corn
2. 20 lbs grass legume hay plus 12 lbs corn
3. 80 lbs corn silage plus 2 lbs protein supplement
Mature herd bulls
1. High quality pasture plus grain if needed
2. 30 lbs of good quality hay plus grain if needed
3. 70 lbs corn silage plus 1.5 lbs protein supplement
* Good quality hay = >56% TDN; >10% CP
Fair quality hay = 50 - 55% TDN; 8 - 9% CP

Table 1.

Daily Nutrient Requirements and Diet Nutrient Densities for Mature Cows
Post Partum - Early Lactation Through Breeding

Body Dry Matter Lb Per Animal Per Day

Weight Intake, (lb) TDN
NEm
CP
Ca
1100
26.2
15.5
15.7
2.75
0.08
1200
27.6
16.2
16.3
2.82
0.08
1300
29.1
17.0
17.2
2.91
0.09
1400
30.4
17.6
17.6
3.01
0.09

Required Diet
Nutrient Density

% TDN
59.2

NEm
0.60

% CP
10.5

% Ca
0.30

P
0.05
0.06
0.06
0.06
%P
0.20

Lactating & Pregnant - Late Lactation to Weaning

Body Dry Matter Lb Per Animal Per Day

Weight Intake, (lb) TDN
NEm
CP
Ca
1100
25.1
13.8
13.3
2.18
0.06
1200
26.5
14.5
14.0
2.28
0.06
1300
28.0
15.2
14.8
2.35
0.07
1400
29.4
15.9
15.3
2.44
0.07

Required Diet

Nutrient Density

% TDN
55.1

NEm
0.53

% CP
8.7

% Ca
0.24

P
0.04
0.05
0.05
0.05
%P

0.17

Gestation - Weaning to 60-90 Days Before Calving

Body Dry Matter Lb Per Animal Per Day

Weight Intake, (lb) TDN
NEm
CP
Ca
1100
21.3
10.1
8.7
1.41
0.03
1200
22.8
10.8
9.3
1.50
0.04
1300
24.3
11.5
10.0
1.60
0.04
1400
25.6
12.1
10.5
1.69
0.04

Required Diet

Nutrient Density

% TDN
47.4

NEm
0.41

% CP
6.6

% Ca

P
0.03
0.03
0.03
0.03
%P

0.17

0.13

Body Dry Matter Lb Per Animal Per Day

Weight Intake, (lb) TDN
NEm
CP
Ca
1100
22.7
12.3
20.7
1.93
0.06
1200
24.4
13.2
22.2
2.07
0.06
1300
25.8
14.1
23.5
2.22
0.07
1400
27.3
14.9
25.1
2.35
0.07

P
0.04
0.04
0.04
0.04

Pre-Calving 60 - 90 Days Before Calving

Required Diet

Nutrient Density

% TDN
54.6

NEm
0.92

% CP
8.6
5

% Ca
0.26

%P

0.16

Table 2.

Daily Nutrient Requirements and Diet Nutrient Densities for 1st Calf Heifers
Post Partum - Early Lactation Through Breeding

Estimated
Dry
Mature
Matter Lb Per Animal Per Day

Weight Intake, (lb) TDN
NEm
CP
Ca

1100
22.4
13.6
13.9
2.35
0.07

1200
23.7
14.3
14.7
2.44
0.07

1300
25.0
15.0
15.5
2.53
0.08

1400
26.2
15.7
16.2
2.62
0.08

P
0.04
0.05
0.05
0.05

Required Diet

%P

Nutrient Density

% TDN
60.6

NEm
0.62

% CP
10.5

% Ca
0.31

0.19

Lactating & Pregnant - Late Lactation to Weaning

Estimated
Dry
Mature
Matter Lb Per Animal Per Day

Weight Intake, (lb) TDN
NEm
CP
Ca

1100
22.1
12.6
12.4
1.97
0.06

1200
23.5
13.4
13.2
2.07
0.06

1300
24.8
14.1
13.9
2.16
0.06

1400
26.1
14.8
14.6
2.24
0.07

P
0.04
0.04
0.04
0.04

Required Diet

%P

Nutrient Density

% TDN
57.0

NEm
0.56

% CP
8.9

% Ca
0.25

0.17

Gestation - Weaning to 60-90 Days Before Calving

Estimated
Dry
Mature
Matter Lb Per Animal Per Day

Weight Intake, (lb) TDN
NEm
CP
Ca

1100
20.5
10.4
9.4
1.48
0.04

1200
21.9
11.1
10.3
1.60
0.05

1300
23.3
11.8
11.0
1.70
0.05

1400
24.6
12.5
11.6
1.80
0.05

P
0.03
0.03
0.03
0.04

Required Diet

%P

Nutrient Density

% TDN
50.9

NEm
0.47

% CP
7.3

% Ca
0.22

0.15

Estimated
Dry
Mature
Matter Lb Per Animal Per Day

Weight Intake, (lb) TDN
NEm
CP
Ca

1100
21.8
12.6
12.4
1.94
0.06

1200
23.3
13.5
13.5
2.10
0.07

1300
24.8
14.4
14.4
2.23
0.07

1400
26.2
15.3
15.2
2.36
0.08

P
0.04
0.04
0.04
0.05

Required Diet

%P

Pre-Calving 60-90 Days Before Calving

Nutrient Density

% TDN
58.3

NEm
0.58

% CP
9.0
6

% Ca
0.30

0.18

Table 3.

Daily Nutrient Requirements and Diet Nutrient Densities for Pregnant

Replacement Heifers
Early Gestation - Breeding through Preg Check (1 lb Gain/Day)
Estimated
Dry
Mature
Matter Lb Per Animal Per Day

Weight Intake, (lb) TDN
NEm
CP
Ca

1100
18.5
9.3
8.5
1.33
0.041

1200
19.8
10.0
9.1
1.42
0.046

1300
21.0
10.6
9.8
1.52
0.049

1400
22.3
11.3
10.5
1.61
0.054
Required Diet
Nutrient Density

% TDN
50.8

NEm
0.47

% CP
7.2

% Ca

P
0.032
0.036
0.038
0.040
%P

0.24

0.18

Estimated
Dry
Mature
Matter Lb Per Animal Per Day

Weight Intake, (lb) TDN
NEm
CP
Ca

1100
20.1
10.4
9.7
1.48
0.044

1200
21.5
11.1
10.3
1.58
0.047

1300
22.9
11.8
11.0
1.68
0.050

1400
24.2
12.5
11.6
1.78
0.054

P
0.034
0.037
0.041
0.044

Mid Gestation (1-1.25 Lb. Gain/Day)

Required Diet
Nutrient Density

% TDN
51.7

NEm
0.48

% CP
7.4

% Ca
0.22

%P

0.18

Late Gestation - Pre-Calving (1.5-2.25 Lb. Gain/Day)

Estimated
Dry
Mature
Matter Lb Per Animal Per Day

Weight Intake, (lb) TDN
NEm
CP
Ca

1100
22.2
12.7
12.6
1.95
0.069

1200
23.7
13.4
13.2
2.05
0.073

1300
25.2
14.2
13.9
2.17
0.076

1400
26.6
15.0
14.7
2.27
0.081
Required Diet
Nutrient Density

% TDN
56.2

NEm
0.55

% CP
8.0

% Ca
0.30

P
0.050
0.053
0.056
0.059
%P

0.22

Table 4.

Daily Nutrient Requirements and Diet Nutrient Densities for Breeding Bulls
1700 Lb Mature Weight Bull Gaining 1.5 Lbs/Day

Dry
Current Matter
Weight Intake, (lb) TDN
1300
30.7
18.4
1400
32.4
19.4
1500
34.1
20.5
1600
35.8
21.5

Required Diet
Nutrient Density

% TDN
60.0

Lb Per Animal Per Day

NEm
NEg
CP
10.6
4.6
1.85
11.2
4.9
1.88
11.8
5.1
1.92
12.4
5.4
1.95

Ca
.057
.057
.058
.059

P
.037
.039
.040
.041

NEm

% Ca

%P

Lb Per Animal Per Day

NEm
NEg
CP
12.4
1.36
1.84
13.0
1.42
1.91

Ca
.054
.052

P
.039
.040

NEm

% Ca

%P

Ca
.066
.066
.066
.067
.068

P
.043
.044
.046
.047
.047

% Ca

%P

Ca
.063
.063

P
.047
.047

% Ca

%P

0.61

NEg
0.35

% CP
6.0

.19

.12

1700 Lb Mature Weight Bull Gaining 0-0.5 Lbs/Day

Dry
Current Matter
Weight Intake, (lb) TDN
1600
33.9
17.0
1700
35.8
17.8

Required Diet
Nutrient Density

% TDN
50.0

.45

NEg
.20

% CP
5.5

.16

.12

2000 Lb Mature Weight Bull Gaining 1.7 Lbs/Day

Dry
Current Matter
Weight Intake, (lb) TDN
1500
34.1
20.5
1600
35.8
21.5
1700
37.5
22.5
1800
39.1
23.5
1900
40.8
24.5

Required Diet
Nutrient Density

% TDN
60.0

NEm
11.8
12.4
13.0
13.5
14.0
NEm
0.61

Lb Per Animal Per Day

NEg
CP
5.1
2.10
5.4
2.10
5.6
2.15
5.9
2.18
6.1
2.2
NEg
0.35

% CP
6.0

.19

.12

2000 Lb Mature Weight Bull Gaining 0-0.5 Lbs/Day

Dry
Current Matter
Weight Intake, (lb) TDN
1900
36.6
19.3
2000
37.2
20.1

Required Diet
Nutrient Density

% TDN
50.0

NEm
14.1
14.6
NEm
0.46

Lb Per Animal Per Day

NEg
CP
1.54
2.10
1.60
2.10
NEg
0.20
8

% CP
5.5

.16

.12