Chapter 1

Introduction to Simulation

Prof. Dr. Mesut Gne Ch. 1 Introduction to Simulation

1.1

Contents

Introduction
Some examples
What is a simulation and how it is done?
What is a system?
What is a model?
Other simulation paradigms
Steps in a simulation study

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Introduction to Simulation

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Introduction to Simulation
Given a system, how do you evaluate its performance?
System

How to evaluate?

Measurements

Analysis

Simulation

Use existing
instance of the
system to
perform
performance
measurements.

Develop a
mathematical
abstraction of the
system and
derive formulas
which describe
the system
performance.

Develop a
computer
program which
implements a
model of the
system. Perform
experiments by
running the
computer
program.

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1.4

Introduction to Simulation
How to study a system?
Measurements on an existing system
What to do, if system does not exist in reality?
What to do, if changes are very expensive or time consuming?
What to do, if system is not available?

Mathematical analysis
Good solutions, but only feasible for simple systems.
Real world systems are too complex, e.g., factory, computer, network, etc.

Simulation
Build the behavior of a system within a program

The content of this course is described better as ...

Modeling and performance analysis of ...
by means of discrete-event simulation

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Introduction to Simulation
There are many open questions
What is a system?
What is a model?
What is performance and how to measure it?
On what does performance depend?
How to build a model?
How to numerically evaluate it?
How to interpret such results?

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1.6

Some examples

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Introduction to Simulation
Simulation is used to imitate the
real world

Wooden mechanical horse simulator

during WW1

It is not as new as we think ;-)

According to Elmaghraby [1968]

Aid to thought
Communication
Training/Education
Experimentation
Predicting

A soldier in a heavy-wheeled-vehicle
driver simulator

Entertainment (this is a new

application)
Video games
Serious games

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Introduction to Simulation

A storehouse with n loading berths

Several 100 trucks daily to serve
Loading time of a truck is 50 minutes
Goal: Cost-effective loading and short

waiting time

Truck

Truck

Truck

Truck

Usually 2 customer types

Storehouse

Type 1: Full load with only one product

Type 2: Load consisting of several
products

Proposals
Truck

Truck

Truck

Fast loading berth for Type 1 customers

Special berth for Type 2 customers

Problem

Cannot experiment, changes are

expensive!

Prof. Dr. Mesut Gne Ch. 1 Introduction to Simulation

Park Slots
1.9

Introduction to Simulation
Experiment
Sliding of a ladder on the wall
A ladder is at the wall
We draw the bottom of the
ladder and the top of the ladder
is leant on the wall and slides
down.

Top

Question: Which shape draws

the center of the ladder?
Concave
Convex

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Introduction to Simulation
Variant: The ladder falls down from the wall
The resulting shape is convex

Top

Top

Experiment 1: Ladder falls down from the wall

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Introduction to Simulation
One intuitively thinks the driven shape will be concave.
However, the resulting shape is also convex.
Astonished?

Top

Top

Experiment 2: Ladder slides down on the wall

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Introduction to Simulation
Clients request some service from
a server over a network.

Client = user and web browser

Service = web page
Server = web server
Network = local network,
Internet, wireless network

Client 1

Analysis
Performance of the server
Performance of the network

Network
(Internet)

Server
Client k

Attention

In this example the

server as well as
the network is
depicted very simple!

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Introduction to Simulation

Large computer networks like the Internet

Topology
Routing
Traffic

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Introduction to Simulation
Mobile multi-hop ad-hoc
network (MANET)

Wireless network consisting of

mobile nodes
No infrastructure, i.e., no
Access Points or Base Stations
Two nodes can communicate if
they are in their mutual
communication range
Typically, the source and
destination nodes of a
connection are several hops
away
Thus, all nodes have to forward
data for others
Mobile node
Communication range

Prof. Dr. Mesut Gne Ch. 1 Introduction to Simulation

Source node
Relay node
Destination node

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Introduction to Simulation
For the analysis of a MANET

a mobility model is needed

Assumption
Movement area: Rectangle
without obstacles

Simple model: Random-

Waypoint mobility model

A node selects uniformly a
point on the simulation area
p = (x, y)
Velocity v [vmin, vmax]
Pause time tpause
The node moves to the point p
with velocity v
Stays for tpause time units on p
and restarts movement

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Introduction to Simulation
What about the probability
that a node is on point
p = (x,y) on the movement
area?
Uniformly distributed?
Since x and y are uniformly
selected.

Are some areas preferred?

What's about the influence of

the parameters?
Velocity
Pause time

Although simple to describe,

it is hard to get a closed form

formulae f(x,y).

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What is a simulation and how it is done?

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Introduction to Simulation
What is a simulation?
A simulation is the imitation of the operation of a real-world
system over time.

S0

S1

S2

Time

What is the method?

Generate an artificial history of the system
Draw inferences from the artificial history concerning the
characteristics of the system

How it is done?
Develop a model
Model consists of entities (objects)
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When is simulation appropriate?

Simulation enables the study of experiments with

internal interactions
Informational, organizational, and environmental changes
can be simulated to see the models behavior
Knowledge from simulations can be used to improve the
system
Observing results from simulation can give insight to
which variables are the most important ones
Simulation can be used as pedagogical device to
reinforce the learning material
Simulations can be used to verify analytical results, e.g.,
queueing systems
Animation of a simulation can show the system in action,
so that the plan can be visualized

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When is simulation not appropriate?

When problem is solvable by common sense

When the problem can be solved mathematically
When direct experiments are easier
When the simulation costs exceed the savings
When the simulation requires time, which is not
available
When no (input) data is available, but simulations need
data
When the simulation can not be verified or validated
When the system behavior is too complex or unknown

Example: human behavior is extremely complex to model

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Advantages of simulation
Policies, procedures, decision rules, information flows can be

explored without disrupting the real system

New hardware designs, physical layouts, transportation
systems, protocols, computer systems, and network
architectures can be tested without committing resources
Hypotheses about how or why a phenomenon occurs can be
tested for feasibility
Time can be compressed or expanded
Slow-down or Speed-up

Insight can be obtained about the interaction of variables

Insight can be obtained about the importance of variables to

the performance of the system

Bottleneck analysis can be performed to detect problems
Simulation can help to understand how the system operates
rather than how people think the system operates
What if questions can be answered

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Disadvantages of simulation
Model building requires training, it is like an art.
Compare model building with programming.

Simulation results can be difficult to interpret

Most outputs are essentially random variables
Thus, not simple to decide whether output is randomness or
system behavior

Simulation can be time consuming and expensive

Skimping in time and resources could lead to useless/wrong

results
The disadvantages are offset as follows
Simulation packages contain models that only need input data
Simulation packages contain output-analysis capabilities
Sophistication in computer technology improves simulation times
For most of the real-world problems there are no closed form
solutions

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Application areas of simulation

Manufacturing applications
Semiconductor manufacturing
Construction engineering and project management
Military applications
Logistics, supply chain and distribution applications
Transportation models and traffic
Business process simulation
Health care
Call-center
Computers and Networks
Games, Entertainment
...

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What is a system?

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Systems and System Environment

System
A system is a group of objects that are joined together in
some regular interaction or interdependence toward the
accomplishment of some purpose.

Example:
Automobile factory
Machines, parts, and workers operate jointly to produce a vehicle

Computer network
User, hosts, routers, lines establish a network

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Systems and System Environment

System environment
Everything outside the system, but affects the system

Attention
It is important to decide on the boundary between the
system and the system environment
This decision depends on the purpose of the study

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Components of a System
In order to understand and analyze a system, we need
some terms
General Terminology
Entity
Attribute
Activity
System state
Event
Endogenous
Exogenous

Object of interest in the system

Property of an entity
A time period of specified length
Collection of variables required to describe
the system at any time
An instantaneous occurrence that might
change the state of the system
Activities and Events occurring within the
system
Activities and Events in the environment
(outside the system) that affect the system

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Components of a System: Examples

System

Entities

Attributes

Activities

Events

State Variables

Banking

Customers

Checkingaccount
balance

Making deposits
Draw money

Arrival;
departure

Number of busy
tellers
Number of waiting
customer

Rapid rail

Riders

Source
Destination

Traveling

Arrival at
station
Arrival at
destination

Number of riders
at each station
Number of rider in
transit

Production

Machines

Speed
Capacity
Breakdown rate

Welding
Stamping

Breakdown

Status of
machines

Communications

Messages

Length
Destination

Transmitting

Arrival at
destination

Number of waiting
messages to be
transmitted

Inventory

Warehouse

Capacity

Withdrawing

Demand

Levels of
inventory

Mobility model

Node

Position
Velocity

Travel

End of
movement

Position
Velocity

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Discrete and Continuous Systems

State variables change only
at discrete set of points
Examples
Bank, Grocery
Router, Host
Jobs in queue

Customers waiting

Discrete Systems

Time

State variables change

continuously over time
Examples
Head of water behind a
dam
Temperature

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Head of water

Continuous Systems

Time
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What is a model?

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Model of a System

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Model of a System

http://www.princeton.edu/~asce/const_95/ayasofya.html
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Model of a System

http://www.crystalnebulae.co.uk/sunmodel.html
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Model of a System

http://www.windows2universe.org/earth/Water/ocean_atmosphere_coupled_models.html
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Model of a System
What is a model?
A model is a representation of a system for the purpose of
studying the system.

Approach

Input

System

Output

Consider only
those aspects of the
system that affect the
problem under investigation

Problem
Granularity of details
Models are not unique

Prof. Dr. Mesut Gne Ch. 1 Introduction to Simulation

I(t)

Model

O(t)

1.36

Model of a System

The tendency is nearly always to

simulate too much detail rather than
too little. Thus, one should always
design the model around the
question to be answered rather than
imitate the real system exactly.
Shannon, 1975

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Model of a System
Physical model
Prototype of a system for the purpose of study.

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Model of a System
Mathematical model
A mathematical model uses symbolic notation and
mathematical equations to represent a system.

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Model of a System

Today's scientists have substituted

mathematics for experiments, and
they wander off through equation
after equation, and eventually build
a structure which has no relation to
reality.
Nikola Tesla(1857 - 1943),Modern Mechanics and
Inventions, 1934

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Model of a System
System

How to study?

Experiment with the actual system

Experiment with a model of the system

Mathematical Model

Analytical Model

Prof. Dr. Mesut Gne Ch. 1 Introduction to Simulation

Physical Model

Simulation

1.41

Model of a System

Essentially, all models are wrong,

but some are useful.

George E.P. Box

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Model of a System: Mobility

Movement
Model: d = v t
Assumptions: Constant velocity v over the whole time t
Advantage: Simple formulae and intuitive
Disadvantage: Seldom valid for a whole travel (human, car,
planes)

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Model of a System: Radio Propagation

Radio signal propagation
Free-Space-Model
Model:

Gt Gr 2

PLdB (d ) = 10 log
2 2
(4 ) d

Assumptions:

Advantages:

Simple asymptotic formulae for open

space

Disadvantages:

Not really useful for indoor and city

environments

Prof. Dr. Mesut Gne Ch. 1 Introduction to Simulation

-25
strong signal
-30

received signal strength [dBm]

Direct line of sight (LOS) between

communication peers
No obstacles

measured mean signal strength

theoretical signal strength

-35

-40

-45

-50

-55
weak signal
-60

10
15
20
distance from access point [m]

25

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Model of a System: ISO/OSI Network Model

Application
process

Application
process
Application Protocol

Application Layer

Presentation Protocol

Presentation
Layer

Session Protocol

Session Layer

Transport Protocol

Transport Layer

Application Layer
Presentation
Layer
Session Layer
Transport Layer

Data Link Layer

Network
Layer
Data Link
Layer

Network
Layer
Data Link
Layer

Data Link Layer

Physical Layer

Physical Layer

Physical Layer

Physical Layer

Network Layer

Host A

Router A

Router B

Network Layer

Host B

Internal Protocols
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Model of a System: TCP/IP Reference Model

Application Layer
Presentation Layer
Session Layer

Application Layer
Dont exist

Transport Layer

Transport Layer

Network Layer

Internet Layer

Data Link Layer

Physical Layer
ISO/OSI

Prof. Dr. Mesut Gne Ch. 1 Introduction to Simulation

Host-to-Network Layer
TCP/IP

1.46

Model of a System: Six-level Computer Model

Level 5

Problem-oriented language level

Translation (Compiler)

Level 4

Assembly language level

Translation (Assembler)

Level 3

Operating system machine level

Partial interpretation (operating system)

Level 2

ISA (Instruction Set Architecture) level

Interpretation (microprogram) or direct execution

Level 1

Microarchitecture level
Hardware

Level 0

Digital logic level

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Model of a System: Communication Link

A packet in a network suffers various delays
Processing in the node: examine packet header
Queueing: packet waits for transmission
Transmission: put all bits of a packet on the medium
Propagation: time to propagate on the medium from A to B

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Model of a System: Cellular System

Multi cellular network system model
Can be used for cellular networks, WLAN, WIMAX, Wireless
Mesh networks

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Model of a System: User Behavior

User behavior, application behavior
User level, object level, packet level

User/Application

Object

Packet

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Principles of Modeling
Conceptualizing a model requires system knowledge, engineering

judgment, and model-building tools.

The secret to being a good modeler is recognizing the need and having the
ability to remodel.
The modeling process is evolutionary because the act of modeling reveals
important information piecemeal.
The problem or problem statement is the primary controlling element in
model-based problem solving.
In modeling combined systems, the continuous aspects of the problem
should be considered first. The discrete aspects of the model should then
be developed.
A model should be evaluated according to its usefulness. From an
absolute perspective, a model is neither good or bad, nor is it neutral.
The purpose of modeling is knowledge and understanding, not models.
Know when to model top-down and when to model bottom-up.
It is important to learn modeling techniques, but more important to
learn to consider the tradeoffs among alternative techniques.
A. Alan B. Pritsker, James O. Henriksen, Paul A. Fishwick, Gordon M. Clark,
Principles of Modeling, Winter Simulation Conference, 1991.

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What is a Good Model?

Simplicity
Credibility
Documentation
Efficiency
Verified
Code quality
Availability

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What is a Good Model?

Everything should be made as simple

as possible, but not simpler.

Albert Einstein

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Simulation Models
Simulation Model
A simulation model is a particular type of mathematical model
of a system.

Types of simulation models

Static: Represent a system at a particular point in time.
Dynamic: Represent a system over a time interval.
Deterministic: Simulation models without random variables.
Stochastic: Simulation models with random variables.
Discrete: System state changes occur only at discrete time
points.
Continuous: System state changes occur continuously.
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Simulation Models

In this class, we will focus on

discrete, dynamic, stochastic
simulation models.
Mesut Gne

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Simulation Models
Models

static

deterministic

dynamic

stochastic

deterministic

stochastic

Monte Carlo
Simulation
continuous

discrete
Discrete-event
Simulation

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Discrete-Event System Simulation

Discrete-event Simulation
System state changes only at discrete set of points in time.
Simulation model is analyzed by numerical methods.
Numerical methods employ computational procedures to
solve mathematical models.
The model is rather run than solved

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What is a performance metric?

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Selecting performance metrics

Time
(Response time)

Request for
service i

Done
correctly

Rate
(Throughput)
Resources
(Utilization)

Done
Done
incorrectly

System

Cannot
do

Prof. Dr. Mesut Gne Ch. 1 Introduction to Simulation

Event k

Error j

Probability
Time between errors

Duration of the event

Time between events

1.59

Common performance metrics

User
request

System
response

Time
Response time

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Common performance metrics

User
starts
request

User
finishes
request

System
starts
execution

System
starts
response

System
completes
response

User
starts next
request

Time
Think time

Reaction time

Response time

Response time

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Utility classification of performance metrics

Metric

Prof. Dr. Mesut Gne Ch. 1 Introduction to Simulation

Nominal is best

Utility

Higher is better

Utility

Utility

Lower is better

Metric

Metric

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Other simulation paradigms

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Simulation for static models

Monte Carlo simulation
Mainly used for mathematical problems which are not
analytically tractable
Example: Approximate
Area of a circle: A = r 2 if r = 1 A =

Count the number of points inside and outside a unit quarter

circle.
The Monte Carlo
simulation was first
extensively used in
1944 in the research to
develop the first nuclear
bomb, the Manhattan
project!

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Simulation of dynamic, continuous models

System described by

differential equation
Typically involves
numerical solution of
these equations
No real difference to a
numerically based
mathematical solution
Typical example:
predator/prey systems
Let x(t) be the size of the
prey population
Let y(t) be the size of the
predator population

Growth rate of the prey

population without
predators
r x(t)

Predator change rate

-s y(t)

Interactions
dx
= r x(t ) a x(t ) y (t )
dt
dy
= s y (t ) + b x(t ) y (t )
dt

Parameters

x(0), y(0), a, b, r, s

Metrics
x(t), y(t)

Solve system of

differential equations

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Steps in a simulation study

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Steps in a Simulation Study

1. Problem formulation

Clearly understand problem

Reformulation of the problem

2. Setting of objectives and overall project plan

Which questions should be answered?
Is simulation appropriate?
Costs?

3. Model conceptualization

No general guide
Modeling tools in research, e.g., UML

4. Data collection

How to get data?

Are random distributions appropriate?

5. Model translation

Program, which runs on a Computer.

6. Verified?

Does the program that, what the model describes?

7. Validated?

Do the results match the reality? Calibration?

In cases with no real-world system, hard to validate

8. Experimental design

Which alternatives should be run?

Which parameters should be varied?

9. Production runs and analysis

10.More runs?
11.Documentation and reporting

Program documentation how does the program work

Progress documentation chronology of the work

12.Implementation

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Steps in a Simulation Study

Phase 1:
Discovery and
Orientation

Most crucial step is

validation.
If model is invalid
results can lead to
dangerous and
expensive
decisions!

Phase 2:
Model building
and data
collection

Phase 3:
Run the model

Phase 4:
Implementation

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Summary

Motivated the course by examples

Introduced simulation as a notion
Discussed for what purposes simulation is useful
Introduction of a general terminology
Introduction of discrete-event simulation
Discussed the steps of a simulation study
Performance metrics

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