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Technical Information
Table of Contents
1)
2)
3)
4)

Conversion Units .............................................................................................. 6

Terms and Definitions ....................................................................................... 7
Basic Engineering Information ....................................................................... 9
Load Bearing Mechanisms .............................................................................11
Plain Bearings............................................................................................ 11
Rolling Element Bearings .......................................................................... 12
Radial Ball Bearings .................................................................................. 12
Thrust Ball Bearings .................................................................................. 12
Linear Bearings .........................................................................................13
Roller Bearings .......................................................................................... 15
Selecting and Sizing Bearing Systems .................................................... 15
Selecting a Linear Bearing System .......................................................... 17
Fax Your Requirements For Linear Bearing Applications ........................ 18
5) Ball & Acme Screw Drive Mechanisms ........................................................ 19
Lead Screws .............................................................................................. 19
Ball Screws ................................................................................................ 20
Selecting and Sizing Screw Drive Systems ............................................. 21
Travel Rate vs. Length, Lead Screws ....................................................... 22
Load Vs. Length, Lead Screws .................................................................23
Load and Speed Limits, Ball Screws ........................................................ 24
Ball & Acme Screw Assembly Life Expectancy ........................................ 26
Lead Screw Formulas and Sample Calculations ..................................... 27
Fax Your Requirements For Ball & Acme Screw Applications .................30
6) Bending Formulas for Extruded Profiles .....................................................31

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1) Conversion Units, SI and Metric

Technical

Conventional
SI Unit
Inch Unit
Metric Unit
Meter
Meter
Inch
Inch
m
m
Square Inch
Square cm
Square Meter
Inch2
cm2
m2
Pound Mass Kilogram Mass Kilogram Mass
lb
kg
kg

Quantity
Length
Area
Mass
Force

Pound Force
lbf

Stress
Pressure

Pounds Per
Square Inch
lbf / inch2

Torque
Work

Inch Pounds
lbf Inch

Power

lbf ft / min

Kilogram Force
kgf

Newton
N

Conversion Factors
1 m = 3.2808 ft
1 inch = 25.4 mm
1 ft = 0.3048 m
1 mm = 0.03937 inch
1 inch2 = 6.4516 cm2
1 m2 = 10.764 ft2
1 cm2 = 0.155 inch2
1 ft2 = 0.092903 m2
1 lb = 0.45359237 kg
1 kg = 2.2046 lb
1 kgf = 9.80665 N
1 lbf = 0.45359237 kgf
1 N = 0.1019716 kgf
1 lbf = 4.44822 N
1 N = 0.224809 lbf
1 kgf = 2.2046 lbf

1 MPa = 106 N/m2 = 1 N/mm2 1 lbf/inch2=6.8947103 N/mm2

1 kgf/cm2=14.2233 lbf/inch2
1 kPa = 103 N / m2
2
2
1 lbf/inch = 0.070307 kgf/cm 1 kgf/cm2=9.80665102 N/mm2
1 lbf/inch2 = 7.0307104 kgf/mm2
1 lbf inch = 1.1521 kgf cm 1 kgf cm = 9.80665 102 N m
KilogramMeters NewtonMeters 1 kgf cm = 0.8679 lbf inch 1 N m = 8.85 lbf inch
1 lbf inch = 0.1129848 N m 1 N m = 10.19716 kgf cm
kgf m
Nm
1 kgf m = 9.80665 N m
1 hp = 75 kgf m / s
1 kW = 1000 N m / s
m / min
1 hp = 44741 N m / min
1
kW
=
60000
N
Nm / s
kgf m/s
1 kW = 44220 lbf ft / min 1 hp = 33000 lbf ft / min
1 hp = 0.7457 kW
1 kW = 1.34 hp

Kilograms Per
Square cm
kgf / cm2

Pascal
N / m2
Pa

Meters
Feet
Meters
1 ft / sec = 0.3048 m/sec 1 mile/hr = 0.44704 m/sec
Per Second 1 inch / sec = 2.54 cm/sec 1 km/hr = 0.27777 m/sec
Per Second
Per Second
1 ft / min = 0.00508 m/sec 1 mile/hr = 1.609344 km/hr
m / sec
ft / sec
m / sec
Meters
Per
Feet Per
Meters Per
1 ft / sec2 = 0.3048 m / sec2
Acceleration Second Squared Second Squared Second Squared
2
2
2
m / sec
ft / sec
m / sec
Velocity

TORQUE
Multiply By
dy cm
1
1.020 x 103
103
107
1.416 x 105
8.850 x 107
7.375 x 108

g cm
980.7
1
9.807 x 101
9.807 x 105
1.389 x 102
8.681 x 104
7.234 x 105

N m x 10
1000
1.020
1
104
1.416 x 102
8.850 x 104
7.375 x 105

Nm
107
1.020 x 104
104
1
141.6
8.850
0.7375

oz in
7.062 x 104
72.01
70.62
7.062 x 103
1
6.250 x 102
5.208 x 103

lb in
1.130 x 10 8
1.152 x 103
1.130 x 103
0.1130
16
1
8.333 x 102

POWER
Multiply By

dy cm
g cm

N m x 10 -4
Nm
oz in
lb in
lb ft

INERTIA
To
Obtain

oz in rpm
W
hp
1
1352
1.008 x 106 oz in rpm
4
W
7.345 x 10
1
745.7
7
3
hp
9.917 x 10 1.341 x 10
1

lb ft
1.356 x 107
1.383 x 104
1.356 x 104
1.356
192
12
1

To
Obtain

Multiply By
2

g cm
kg m
oz in s
oz in
7
4
1
10
7.062 x 10
182.9
107
1
7.062 x 103 1.829 x 105
1.416 x 105
141.6
1
2.590 x 103
5.467 x 103 5.467 x 104
386.09
1

To
Obtain
g cm2
kg m2
oz in s2
oz in2

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2) Terms and Definitions for Linear Motion Systems
There are many terms that are commonly used in industry that are not always understood by designers, end
users, and other technical persons. Although some of the terms take on obvious meanings, others may not.
This section is provided so that such people can use these terms in proper context, to relieve the possibility
of design criteria and specifications being too tightly constrained due to lack of effective communication.
Having the following terms explained and understood allows for a more efficient design process, and a more
cost-effective solution.
Point to point accuracy or accuracy is defined as the difference between the statistical mean of a series of
measurements and the theoretically correct position. Another way of stating this is to say that point to point
accuracy is the ability to travel to a desired point or series of points with respect to some known reference.
Straight line accuracy is the ability of a machine to accurately travel in a straight line with respect to a
known reference plane, and the specification refers to the maximum possible deviation from the desired
straight line path.
Accuracy affects how closely parts are made to specifications. There are many factors that contribute to the
accuracy of a system, but the most significant ones are the accuracy of the drive mechanism, the accuracy
of the motor, and the presence of play, or backlash. Accuracy may also be referred to as system error.
Repeatability is defined as the degree to which repetitive measurements on a single system are in agreement.
Another way of stating this definition is to say that repeatability is how close a system returns to a desired
location or locations time after time under repeated cycling. Major contributing factors to repeatability are
the precision of the bearing ways and the amount of play, or backlash in the system. Repeatability affects
how identical parts may differ slightly.

There is a direct relationship between system cost, accuracy and repeatability; therefore it is essential
that the terms are understood. If an application involves a motion stopped by an operator, a position sensor,
or a mechanical stop, then the application requires only repeatability. Similarly, if an application requires
that the same location be found time after time as with assembly applications, then only repeatability is
needed. If an application involves cycled point to point motion or exact length motion as with high-precision
parts machining, then both accuracy and repeatability are required. The following diagrams provide a good
visual representation of these two terms.

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Absolute
Position

Error

12
10
8
6
4
2
0

Mean
Position

.007
.008
.009
.010
.011
.012
.013
.014
.015
.016
.017

Number of Samples

.007
.008
.009
.010
.011
.012
.013
.014
.015
.016
.017

12
10
8
6
4
2
0

Absolute = Mean
Position Position

Case 2: Not Accurate but Repeatable

(Mean = Absolute Position, small)

Number of Samples

Case 1: Accurate and Repeatable

(Mean = Absolute Position, small)

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Absolute Mean
Position Position

12
X

Error

10
8
6
4
2
0

.007
.008
.009
.010
.011
.012
.013
.014
.015
.016
.017

Error

.010
.011
.012
.013
.014
.015
.016
.017
.018
.019
.020
.021
.022

12
10
8
6
4
2
0

Mean
Position

Case 4: Accurate but not Repeatable

(Mean ~
= Absolute Position, large)
Number of Samples

Absolute
Position

Number of Samples

Case 3: Not Accurate and not Repeatable

(Mean = Absolute Position, large)

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Backlash is defined as the dead band experienced when changing directions. This phenomenon is caused
by a clearance between interactive elements in a drive train and/or bearing system. Backlash is typically
found between gears or between a nut and screw. A common and less technical description of backlash is
defined to be the amount of play or slop in a system. The largest contributing factors to backlash stem
from the drive train and bearings being imprecise or worn. Preloading the drive train and bearings will
remove excess play in a system, and this type of system is generally referred to as anti-backlash.
Resolution is defined as the smallest attainable increment of adjustment or positioning. The minimum
amount that a positioning system can be moved is referred to as the system resolution. Among the factors
that determine resolution are the type of motor and control used, and mechanical advantages found within
the drive train.
Lifetime is defined as the cumulative number of linear inches of travel guaranteed by the manufacturer of a
linear motion system. This specification varies greatly with load and speed so care should be taken to
confirm operating conditions.
Friction is defined as a nonconservative force that acts in the opposing direction of a motion. By means of
heat dissipation, friction results in the loss of useful energy and contributes to system wear. As a result of
friction, systems become inefficient, inaccurate, and expensive to maintain. Friction due to rolling contact is
far less than that due to sliding contact. This should be considered when selecting load bearings and drive
trains. For example, lead screws and plain bearings have higher friction forces than ball screws and ball and
roller bearings.
Static analysis is defined as force and torque analysis of a body or system of bodies when they are at rest
(or when they are at equilibrium). Although acceleration forces are present in all gravitational fields, they
are counteracted by equal and opposite forces in a static system and motion is constrained. A static load
is a load acting on a body or system of bodies that is supported by an equal and opposite force. This type
of system is analyzed using Newtons 2nd Law in the case where the accelerations acting on all bodies are
equal to zero.
Dynamic analysis is defined as force, torque and motion analysis of a body or system of bodies when they
are not at rest (or when they are not at equilibrium). A dynamic system will have force and torque acting
that are not counteracted, resulting in motion of the body or bodies. A dynamic load is a load that is not
supported by an equal and opposite force and results in a dynamic, or changing system with respect to
motion. This type of system is analyzed using Newtons 2nd Law in the case where the accelerations acting
on all bodies may be nonzero. Note that dynamic conditions complicate load and life calculations because
of shock loads and vibrations.

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Technical Information
3) Basic Engineering Information
The following engineering information will help solve technical problems frequently encountered in designing
and selecting power transmission components and systems.

Torque:

Accelerating torque and force:

T = FR

(1)

where:
T = Torque (lb ft)
F = Force (lb)
R = Radius, or distance that the force is from the
pivotal point (ft)

Linear to rotary motion:

V
N =
0.262D

(2)

Of rotating objects:

(WK 2) N
T =
308t

(5)

where:
T
= Torque required (lb ft)
WK 2 = Total inertia of load to be accelerated (lb ft2)
See formulas 7, 8, 9 and 10
N = Change in speed (rpm)
t
= Time to accelerate load (sec)

Objects in linear motion:

W V
F =
1933t

where:
N = Speed of shaft rotation (rpm)
V = Velocity of material (fpm)
D = Diameter of pulley or sprocket (in)

where:
F
=
W =
N =
t
=

(6)

Force required (lb)

Weight (lb)
Change in velocity (fpm)
Time to accelerate load (sec)

N

Moment of Inertia

1
WK 2 = WR 2
2

Horsepower:

Rotating objects:
TN
P =
5250

Solid cylinder rotating about its own axis

(3)

where:
WK 2 = Moment of inertia (lb ft2)
W = Weight of object (lb)
R
= Radius of cylinder (ft)

where:
P = Power (hp)
T = Torque (lb ft)
N = Shaft speed (rpm)

(7)

Objects in linear motion:

FV
P =
33000

(4)

where:
P = Power (hp)
F = Force (lb)
V = Velocity (fpm)

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Duty cycle calculation

Hollow cylinder rotating about its own axis:

1
WK 2 = W (R 12 + R22)
2
where:
WK 2 =
W =
R1 =
R2 =

(8)

Moment of inertia (lb ft2)

Weight of object (lb)
Outside radius (ft)
Inside radius (ft)

R1

The RMS (root mean squared) value of a load is one

of the quantities often used to size PT components.
_____________________
L12t1 + L22t2 + ... + Ln2tn
LRMS =

(11)
t1 + t2 + ... tn
where:
LRMS = RMS value of the load which can be in any
unit hp, amp, etc.
L1 = Load during time period 1
L2 = Load during time period 2, etc.
t1
= Duration of time period 1
t2
= Duration of time period 2, etc.

R2

L1

=
=
=
=

t2

t3

Time

Modulus of elasticity

Linear inertia (lb ft2)

Weight of material (lb)
Linear velocity (fpm)
Rotational speed of shaft (rpm)

PL
E =
Ad

Reflected inertia of a load through a speed

reduction means gear, chain, or belt system:

WKL2
WKR 2 =
Rr2

t1

relation to a rotational speed, such as a conveyor

system:
V 2
WKL2 = W ()
(9)
2N
where:
WKL2
W
V
N

L2

Material in linear motion with a continuous fixed

Load

L3

(10)

where:
E =
P =
L =
A =
d =

(12)

Modulus of elasticity (lb/ in2)

Axial load (lb)
Length of object (in)
Area of object (in2)
Increase in length resulting from axial load (in)
Circumferential

where:
WKR2 = Reflected inertia (lb ft2)
WKL2 = Load inertia (lb ft2)
Rr
= Reduction ratio
Radial
Axial

Tangential

10

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Technical Information
4) Load Bearing Mechanisms
Load bearing mechanisms are the structural backbone of any linear/rotary motion system, and are a critical
consideration. This section will introduce most of the more common types of load bearing mechanisms
found in linear motion machinery. In general, bearings allow smooth, low friction motion between two surfaces
loaded against each other. The motion can be either rotary (such as in a turning shaft) or linear (such as a
machine part moving back and forth). Some applications require that a bearing accommodate both types of
motion simultaneously, which is referred to as a combination bearing. In both cases there should be a
strong attempt to provide enough lubrication to keep the bearing surfaces separated by a film of oil. The
absence of physical contact provides most bearings with long service lives.
Bearings are evaluated on the basis of how much load they carry, at what speeds they can carry the load,
and how long they will serve under those conditions. Friction, start-up torque, shock- and impact-resistance,
operating environment, rigidity, size, cost, complexity, and lubricating procedures are also important design
considerations.
The following diagram reveals the basic bearing families more widely found in linear motion systems. The
distinction between families is made by the type of motion and type of loading being considered. Bearings
accommodate rotational and/or translational motion. Translational bearings, or linear bearings, are loaded
perpendicular (radial) to the direction of motion. Rotational bearings can be loaded either perpendicular to
the axis of rotation (radial) or parallel to the axis of rotation (thrust).

Thrust

TRANSLATION
(OR LINEAR)
Motion

ROTATION

Load

THRUST
Bearing
BEARING
surface

Load

JOURNAL
OR RADIAL
BEARING

Motion

Load

Radial

Most bearings can be classified into one of two general types. The distinction between bearing types is
made by the nature of the bearing mechanism. The two types each have a number of different possible
configurations, and some of the more common configurations will now be discussed. Since many bearings
are either specialized or of proprietary design, this discussion is by no means intended to be all exhaustive,
but rather to serve as an introduction.
Plain Bearings, or Journal Bearings, are the most basic type of bearing.
They have no moving parts, they support loads through sliding contact,
and are usually the least costly to install. Some plain bearings are selflubricating and maintenance-free while others are not. In fact, some
plain bearings are classified as to the lubricating method required.
Typically, plain bearings will operate right up to the point of failure with
little or no warning signs. Since the motion involved is usually low level,
the results of failure are typically noncatastrophic, and replacement or
repair is fairly simple. There are several ways to size plain bearings for
an application, as outlined at the end of this section.

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Journal

Bearing
PLAIN BEARING

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Outer race

Technical

Rolling Element Bearings, or roller bearings, make up the bulk of

commercially available and applied bearings. These types of bearings
rely on either balls or rollers to carry the load. The rolling motion
produces less friction than found in plain bearings. For this reason,
roller bearings are also referred to as antifriction bearings. Both radial
loads and thrust loads can be supported by this type of bearing.
Lubrication is either permanently sealed in the bearing or is required
during operation. The largest causes of failure are either exceeding
temperature, load and speed limits, or providing insufficient lubrication
during operation. Since roller bearing applications often involve heavy
loads and high speeds, failure can be catastrophic, extremely costly
and time consuming to repair. Usually there will be an increase in the
sound of the balls or rollers in the raceways when approaching failure.
There are many different configurations of roller element bearings, and
some are discussed in the following section.

Filling slots

Raceways

Conrad-type ball bearing, left, and

maximum-capacity (filling slot) type, right

Rolling element

Inner
Race

ROLLING ELEMENT

Radial Ball Bearings come in two basic variations which

are called the Conrad type , or nonfilling slot, and the
maximum capacity type, or filling slot. The Conrad type has
a deep, uninterrupted raceway in inner and outer rings. This
design is capable of carrying heavy radial and moderate bidirectional thrust loads. The maximum capacity bearing has
more balls than an equivalent sized Conrad type, therefore
carries a higher radial load. However, the filling slots require
that the thrust loads be light and applied only in combination
with a heavier radial load. If moderate thrust loads are
present, the maximum type can be replaced by a double
row Conrad type bearing. Selection of this type bearing is
outlined in the following section.
A

Thrust Ball Bearings are designed to

provide axial shaft location and support
thrust loads. Angular contact ball
bearings support radial as well as thrust
loads, and the ratio of permissible radial
to thrust loads depends upon the angle
of contact between the races and the
bearing axis. Thrust ball bearings are
commonly used in linear motion
systems to support the drive screw.
A

Flat-race, flat-seat thrust ball bearing, A, and

grooved-race, flat-seat thrust ball bearing, B

Banded thrust ball bearing, A, and

aligning, single-acting, grooved-race
thrust ball bearing, B

12

Aligning, double-acting, grooved-race

thrust ball bearing

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Flat race, flat seat bearings consist of two flat washers and a ball retaining assembly. They are used when
the ball retainer assembly must carry thrust loads without restraining shaft oscillations or flexures. They
work well with light loads and are very economical.
Grooved race , flat seat bearings are the most common type of thrust ball bearing. They consist of a shaft
mounted small bore washer, a large housing mounted bore washer, and a ball retaining assembly. Grooved
race bearings have a load bearing capacity approximately 4 times greater than flat race bearings.
Banded thrust ball bearings are self-contained, have grooved races, have a stationary and rotating face
with full ball complement, and are encased in a containing band. These bearings are most commonly used
where the bearing's outer circumference must be protected from contamination, for blind installation, or
where separating forces cause substantial axial motion of bearing components.
Aligning grooved race bearings are a variation of grooved race bearings, and are available in single and
double acting types. Aligning members compensate for initial misalignment due to shaft deflection or
mismatch, while allowing uniform distribution of the load through the bearing. The double-acting type carries
thrust in both directions.
Linear Bearings are most commonly used in linear motion applications. This type of bearing is used when
loads are to be supported as the bearing rides back and forth along a shaft. Each raceway holds balls in
rolling contact between the shaft and inner bearing race of the bushing. The remaining balls recirculate
freely in the back side of the clearance in the ball train sleeve. A retainer is usually provided so that when
the bearing is removed from the shaft the balls stay in place. Linear bearings are as easy to install as a plain
bearing, while utilizing the advantages of rolling contact. Among the important factors when considering
load capacity of a linear bearing system are life expectancy, shaft hardness, and load orientation with respect
to the ball trains. Typically, if a lifetime of more than 2,000,000 inches is required, or if a shaft hardness of
less than Rc 60 is specified, then the load-carrying capacity of the bearing system will be reduced.

Load-carrying balls

Recirculating balls
in clearance

Linear Bearings are the most commonly applied bearing type in linear motion systems. Clearly, many
applications involve using two sets of double linear rails, with two bearing blocks on each rail. In this case,
the load found on each bearing block is of interest when selecting the bearing components. There are three
basic orientations for the bearing system and loads, and each case is represented as follows.

Horizontal Translation with Normal Load: when a normal load is applied to a horizontal bearing system,
the loads on each bearing are found by using the following equations. The equations still apply if the load is
acting inside of the carriage mounting surface area. The orientation of the applied load with respect to the
bearing system is the important feature to consider. This means that these equations can still be used even
if the orientation of the translation is not horizontal, as long as the load to bearing relationship is preserved.

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L
L
d3
d4
)
F1 = (
+
4
2
d1
d2
L
L
d3
d4
F2 = + (
)

4
2
d1
d2
L
L
F3 =
4
2

d
d
(
)
d
d
3

d4

(7)

F3
F4

L
L
d3
d4 )
F4 = + (
+
4
2
d1
d2

F2

d1
d2

Horizontal Translation with Side Load: when a side

load is applied to the bearing system, the loads on the
individual bearings change, and new equations are
required. Each bearing will have a resultant normal load
as well as a side load. The orientation of the applied
load with respect to the bearing system is the important
feature to consider. This means that these equations can
still be used even if the orientation of the translation is
not horizontal, as long as the load to bearing relationship
is preserved.

FORMAT 1

d4
F 1S

L
d4
F1 = F2 = (
)
2
d2
L
d4
F3 = F4 = (
)
2
d2

d3

F1

F1

F 2S
F 3S

(8)

L
L
d3
F1S = F3S = + (
)
4
2
d1

d3

L
L
d3
F2S = F4S = (
)
4
2
d1

FROM CENTER
OF TABLE

F2

F3

F 4S
d2
F4
d1

Vertical Translation with Vertical Load: when the load

is applied in the direction of travel (thrust), then the
following equations should be used to calculate the loads
on each bearing block. This type of configuration is
generally found in vertical applications. The orientation
of the applied load with respect to the bearing system is
the important feature to consider. This means that these
equations can still be used even if the orientation of the
translation is not vertical, as long as the load to bearing
relationship is preserved.

FORMAT 2

d3

d2

L
d3
F1 = F3 = (
)
2
d1
L
d3
F2 = F4 = (
)
2
d1
L
d4
F1S = F3S = (
)
2
d2
L
d4
F2S = F4S = (
)
2
d2

14

F3
F 1S

(9)

d4

F4

F1

TO CENTER
OF SCREW

F 2S
F2

d1

FORMAT 3
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Roller Bearings are also widely used in linear / rotary motion applications. There are several principal types
of roller bearings. In general, they have higher load capacities than ball bearings of the same size due to the
increased area of contact and, except for the cylindrical type, lower speed capabilities. They are commonly
used in heavy-duty moderate-speed applications; and, as with ball bearings, there are many different styles
to choose from. Because of the geometry, roller bearings are not tolerant of shaft misalignment.

Cylindrical Roller Bearing

Needle Bearing Caged

Crossed Roller Bearing

Cylindrical Roller Bearings have the highest radial load capacity for a given cross section, and the highest
speed capability for any given roller bearing type. A common problem encountered is roller skidding, which
causes premature failure. Solutions include a slightly concave raceway that pinches the ends of the rollers,
or the use of hollow preloaded rollers to hold position.
Needle Roller Bearings are similar in appearance to cylindrical roller bearings, but typically have a much
smaller diameter to length ratio. They typically exhibit higher load capacities than single row ball bearings of
comparable OD, and can nearly fit into the same space as a plain bearing. In most instances, a hardened
shaft acts as the bearings inner race, although an inner race can be supplied when the shaft cannot be
hardened.
Crossed Roller Bearings are very common in heavy-duty precise applications; however, they are extremely
sensitive to contaminants. The principle is similar to that of cylindrical bearings; however, the roller diameter
must be equal to the roller height. The rollers take on an alternating pattern, with their orientations being
crossed at 90 degrees. This arrangement allows very smooth motion, and large load capabilities in all
directions normal to travel. A further benefit of crossed roller bearings is very high straight line accuracy.

Selecting and Sizing Bearing Systems

When selecting and sizing bearings for an application, there are several considerations. Most bearing
applications can be practically analyzed by sizing load and speed requirements. This section is intended to
provide a basic understanding of the bearing selection process, and should not used as an only source.
Plain Bearing Selection: A plain bearings load capacity is generally expressed as pounds per square inch
(psi) of projected bearing area. The size and material of the bearing determine most of the load carrying
ability, and there are several rules of thumb to use as a guide.

Maximum load capacity for static or very low-speed applications is 1/3 the bearing
materials compressive limit. The compressive limit is the lowest pressure that results in
plastic (permanent) deformation.
Most plain bearings carry less than 400 psi.

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Plain bearings rarely ever carry more than 3000 psi.
Another way of determining a bearings load capacity is through maximum PV factor. This is the value of
pressure on the bearing (psi) times the shaft speed (feet/min).

If the PV value for the application is less than the maximum PV value for the bearing
considered, and if the application pressure load does not exceed the compressive
strength of the bearing material, and if the application speed does not exceed the
maximum permissible speed of the bearing considered, then the bearing considered
may well serve the application.
Ball Bearing Selection: The nature of the application load must be known and compared to the load
carrying capability of the considered bearing. Combination loads should be converted into a single equivalent
radial or thrust load using manufacturers equations to size the application requirement. Regarding speed
requirements, tolerance grade, lubrication, retainer design and bearing seal type must be considered, and
the maximum application speed must not exceed the maximum allowable bearing speed. A useful guide for
ball bearing selection is to consider the DN value (speed value) of the bearing. The DN value is the product
of the bore size (mm) and the shaft speed (rpm). This quantity will suggest the type of lubrication and
tolerance grade required. Use for the ball bearing type include applications involving shafts that may be
slightly misaligned.
Linear Ball Bearing Selection: This selection is generally based on speed and load requirements.
Understanding the orientation and magnitude of the application loads on the bearing is of paramount
importance. Most manufacturers and suppliers of such bearings will include information regarding the load
capabilities with respect to load orientation, as shown below.

F
A

FY

Force on Single Bearing

Force on Double Bearing

FY

80
60
40
20

20
0.7
0.8
0.9
1.0

40

Angle of Applied Load (A)

FZ

Derating Factor (D)

FZ

1.0
0.9
0.8
0.7

60
80

Series 1 Bearings

Roller Bearing Selection: Load, speed, and shaft alignment are the most important features to consider
when selecting roller bearings. It is suggested that, in the case of needle bearings, the shaft parallelism be
less than 0.0003" for the entire length of the bearing section. Further, the shaft should be round to within
0.0002" or to within half the shaft tolerance.

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Selecting A Linear Bearing System
There are several factors in selecting a Linear Bearing System.
Here are the main items to consider ...
Maximum Speed
Minimum Acceleration
Environment

Travel
Load
Orientation
Nominal Life Expectancy
The nominal life expectancy is achieved, or
exceeded a majority of 90% of the nominal life
expectancy, before the first indication of fatigue of
material appears.
L= C
P

( )

Lh =

(1)

833
H nosz

Lh = 1666
V
L [m]
Lh [h]
C [N]
P [N]
x

H [m]

( PC )
C
P

( )

(2)

Due to the variation in installations and operating

conditions, it is not possible to determine the exact
usable life of a linear guide in advance. The safest
method to obtain a correct assessment of the usable
life is to compare cases with similar installation.

Combined Loading Capacity

F2

(3)

nominal life expectancy in 100,000 m

nominal life expectancy in operating hours
dynamic load data
dynamic equivalent load
life expectancy index:
ball-bearing linear guides: x = 3
roller-bearing linear guides: x = 10/3
single stroke length of the oscillated
movement

nosz [min] number of the double strokes per minute

V [m/min] average travel speed

Usable Life
The actual life expectancy achieved by a linear guide
is known as usable life. The usable life can deviate
from the calculated life expectancy.
Wear & tear or fatigue can lead to early defects:
- alignment error between the guide rails or the
guide elements
- insufficient lubrication

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- oscillated movement with very small strokes

(rippling)
- vibration during standstill (rippling)

F1

(4)

When the loading direction of an element does not

coincide with one of the main loading directions, the
equivalent load is calculated as follows:
P = F1 + F 2

(5)

When a Force (F) and a moment (M) are applied at

the same time, the dynamic equivalent load is:
P= F + M

MC

(6)

P [N]
F [N]
F1 [N]
F2 [N]
C0 [N]

dynamic equivalent load

applied force = F12 + F22
vertical components, see sketch (4)
horizontal components, see sketch (4)
static load in the direction of the applied
force
M [Nm] applied moment
M0 [Nm] static moment in the direction of the applied
moment

According the DIN, the dynamic equivalent load

should not exceed the value P= 0.5 C

For multiple Rail and Carriage Configurations, refer

to page 14
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Application Worksheet

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Linear Bearings Application Worksheet

Name: _____________________________________________ Phone: _______________________________

Company Name: ______________________________________ Fax: _______________________________

Address 1: ________________________________________________________________________________

Address 2: ________________________________________________________________________________

City: ________________________________________ State: _________________ Zip: ________________

Brief Description of Application: _______________________________________________________________

_________________________________________________________________________________________

E-mail: ______________________________________

Please use this area for any notes or diagrams:

Max Load: __________________________________

Max Speed: _________________________________

Max Accel: __________________________________

Travel: _____________________________________

Complete Cycle Time: _________________________

Environment (woodshop, cleanroom, etc...): ________

_______________________________________________

Travel Accuracy Needed: ______________________

Orientation of Load: ___________________________

(Format 1, 2, 3) See page 14
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5) Ball and Acme Screw Drive Mechanisms
This section will introduce most of the more common types of drive mechanisms found in linear motion
machinery. Ideally, a drive system should not support any loads, with all the loads being handled by a
bearing system. Topics discussed will include, but not be limited to, the mechanism of actuation, efficiency,
accuracy, load transfer, speed, pitch, life cycle, application and maintenance. Each type of drive system will
be accompanied by a diagram and useful equations when applicable. Some of the terms used with screws,
the most common drive component, are as follows:
lead
pitch
# of threads
# of starts
outer diameter
root diameter
stub
critical shaft speed

maximum compressive load

end bearing supports

advance of the nut along the length of the screw per revolution
distance between corresponding points on adjacent thread forms
(pitch = lead / # of starts)
number of teeth found along a unit length of the screw (1 / pitch)
number of helical grooves cut into the length of the shaft
largest diameter over the threaded section (at top of threads)
smallest diameter over the threaded section (at base of threads)
specific type of ACME thread where the root diameter is larger to
provide for a more heavy-duty screw (the threads look stubby)
operating speed of spinning shaft that produces severe vibrations
during operation. This is a function of length, diameter, and end
supports.
maximum load that can be axially applied to the screw before
buckling or permanent deformation is experienced. Also referred to
as column strength.
the screw must be supported at one or both ends with thrust type
bearings. Depending upon the application, it may also be desirable
to provide for a stiffer system by incorporating angular contact
bearings (fixed support).

Although shafts, gear trains, belt and pulley, rack and pinion, and chain and sprocket drives are practical in
other applications, they require special consideration when used in CNC machinery. This is because there
is typically backlash associated with these types of drives, which increases the system error. Thorough
technical descriptions of these types of drives can be found in the Stock Drive Components Library.
Lead Nut

Lead screws are threaded rods that are fitted with a nut.
There are many types of threads used, but the most prevalent
in industry is the ACME lead screw. Because the ACME
thread is an industry standardized thread style, it is easily
interchanged with parts from various manufacturers. The
basic function of a screw is to convert rotary input motion to
linear output motion. The nut is constrained from rotating
with the screw, so as the screw is rotated the nut travels
back and forth along the length of the shaft. The friction on
Lead Screw System
the nut is a function of environment, lubrication, load, and
duty cycle; therefore, practical life cycle is difficult to quantify.
Lead screw/nut drive systems are available in a variety of sizes and tolerances. Contact is primarily sliding,
resulting in relatively low efficiency and a wear rate proportional to usage. Advantages include the selflocking capability in back drive mode which is good for vertical applications, low initial costs, near silent
operation, manufacturing ease, and a wide choice of a materials. Disadvantages of ACME screws include
lower efficiencies (typically 30-50%, depending on nut preload) which require larger motor drives, and
unpredictable service life.
Lead Screw

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Ball Screws are very similar to lead screws with the
exception of a ball bearing train riding between the screw
Ball Nut
Balls
and nut in a recirculating raceway. This raceway is generally
Ball Screw
lubricated, which allows for predictable service life. Due
to the increased number of mating and moving parts,
matching tolerances becomes more critical. The screw
threads have rounded shapes to conform to the shape of
the balls. The function, terminology, and formulas are the
same as found with lead screws, however the performance
Ball Return
of ball screws is far superior. The rolling action of the balls
ve r s u s t h e s l i d i n g a c t i o n o f t h e AC M E n u t
Ball Screw System
p r o v i d e s significant advantages. Advantages of
ball screw drives are increased efficiency (typically up to 90 95%) which allows required motor torque to be
lower, predictable service life, low wear rate and maintenance costs. Disadvantages include limited material
choice, higher initial cost, and an auxiliary brake is required to prevent back driving with vertical applications.



Helpful Formulas: When determining the amount of input torque required to produce an amount of output
linear force, there are many factors to consider. The following equations provide a practical approach in
making force and torque calculations.
Force Calculations:

FT = FA + FE + FF
where: FT = Total Force
FA = Acceleration Force
FE = External Force
FF = Friction Force
W
a
FA = lb
g
12

(1)

(2)

where: W = total weight to accelerate (lb)

a = linear acceleration (in/sec2)
g = acceleration from gravity (ft/sec2)
External Force (FE) may be due to gravity in vertical applications, or may be from external work
requirements (feeding material, stretching material, etc.)
Friction Force (FF) required to overcome all of the friction in the load bearing system (with a low friction
bearing system, this can be negligible)

The Total force must be below the compressive (thrust) rating of the screw chosen. A modest factor of
safety should be added to the total force so that unexpected dynamic loads are safely handled by the
screw system.
Torque Calculations:
L
T = FT
2 e

(3)

where: FT = Total Force (lbs)

L = Lead (inches)
e = efficiency (no units, use 0.9 for Ball screws assemblies.)

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Total Force = 100 lbs
Lead = 0.20 inches
Efficiency = 0.9 (Ball screw)

(3)

100 lbs 0.20 inches

T = = 3.54 lb-inches
2
(0.9)
Total Force = 25 lbs
Lead = 0.10 inches
Efficiency = 49%

(3)

25 lbs 0.10 inches

T = = 0.81 lb-inches
2
(.49)

The Torque required should be well below the torque rating of the motor chosen. A modest factor of safety should
be added to the torque required so that unexpected dynamic loads are safely handled by the driving system.
Selecting and Sizing Screw Drive Systems: When choosing a particular screw for a given application,
there are several factors to be considered. Required rpm, critical speed and maximum compressive strength
are the most important design features that determine screw design parameters, and can be calculated
according to the following equations. Since thread style design is irrelevant in these calculations, the same
equations and charts can be used for both lead screws and ball screws. Bearing configuration must be
considered when using these equations. The following diagrams represent the typical bearing end support
arrangements.

A. Fixed-Free

B. Simple-Simple

C. Fixed-Simple

D. Fixed-Fixed

linear velocity (in/min)

rpm =
lead (in/rev)

(4)

Maximum Speed:

d
CS = F (4.76 x 10 6)
L2
where:
CS = critical speed (rpm)
d = root diameter of screw (inches)
L = length between supports (inches)
F = end support factor (see diagram)
case A.: 0.36
case B.: 1.00
case C.: 1.47
case D.: 2.23

Maximum Load
(5)

d4
P = F (14.03 x 10 6)
L2

(6)

where:
P = maximum load (lbs) (critical load)
d = root diameter of screw (inches)
L = maximum distance between nut and load
carrying bearing
F = end support factor (see diagram)
case A.: 0.25
case B.: 1.00
case C.: 2.00
case D.: 4.00

The formulas above can be represented graphically by the charts on following pages. These charts have
been compiled for screws made of stainless steel. Speeds, loads, diameters, bearing arrangements and
products are referenced. It must be realized that a screw may be able to rotate at very high rpms, but the
nut may have more strict limitations. For this reason, we have truncated the ball screw rpm diagrams to a
top end of 4000 rpm, and provided each type screw with their own charts. Please note that the ball screw
charts are only represented for screws of 16 mm and 25 mm diameters.
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TRAVEL RATE VS. LENGTH

FOR STANDARD ACME SCREWS

CRITICAL SPEED

TRAVEL RATE
IN INCHES PER MINUTE
100000
80000
60000
40000
30000

PURPOSE
This graph was designed to simplify the
selection of the proper lead screw so as
to avoid lengths and speeds which will
result in vibration of the assembly
(critical speed). The factors which can
be controlled after a particular
maximum length is determined are:
method of bearing support and choice
of lead screw diameter.

20000

TRAVEL RATE IN INCHES / MIN.

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10000
8000
6000
4000
3000
2000

1000
800

USE OF THE GRAPH

1. Choose preferred bearing support
means, based on design
considerations.
2. On the proper bearing support
horizontal line (A, B, C or D) choose
length of lead screw.
3. Draw vertical line at the lead screw
length, determined at (2.), and draw
a horizontal line at the travel rate.
4. All sizes to the right and above the
intersection point in (3.) are suitable
for this application.
5. Screw sizes are coded as follows:

600
400
300
200
25161
37161

100
80

31084
37084
43082
50101
62101
75101

37101
37122

60
40
30

31032
37081

20

62102
75061

10
ONE END FIXED
OTHER END FREE
BOTH ENDS SUPPORTED
ONE END FIXED
OTHER END SUPPORTED
BOTH ENDS FIXED

REF
A

12

18

24

30

36

42

INCHES

REF
B

10

20

30

40

50

60

70

INCHES

REF
C

12

24

36

48

61

73

85

INCHES

REF
D

15

30

45

60

75

90

105

INCHES

Diameter (in)
Threads / in
Starts

LENGTH

MAXIMUM LENGTH (IN.) ADJUSTED FOR BEARING SUPPORT

"Y" DIMENSION

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Compression Load vs. Length
FOR STANDARD BALL SCREWS & ACME SCREWS

COLUMN LOADS

40000
30000

COMPRESSION LOAD IN LBS.

20000

PURPOSE
This graph was designed to simplify the
selection of the proper lead screw so as
to avoid buckling when subjected to the
axial loading by means of the nut. The
factors which can be controlled after a
particular maximum length is
determined are: method of bearing
support and choice of lead screw
diameter.

10000
8000
6000
4000
3000
2000

1000
800

75101

600
400
300

75061

75081

62081

62101

43082

62102
50101

43084

37161

200
25161

37081

37101

37121

31082

81084

31122

37122

37084

100

REF
ONE END FIXED
A
OTHER END FREE

10

15

20

25

30

INCHES

REF
B

10

20

30

40

50

60

INCHES

ONE END FIXED REF

C
OTHER END SUPPORTED

14

28

42

57

71

85

INCHES

REF
D

20

40

60

80

100

120

INCHES

BOTH ENDS SUPPORTED

BOTH ENDS FIXED

USE OF THE GRAPH

1. Choose preferred bearing support
means, based on design
considerations.
2. On the proper bearing support
horizontal line (A, B, C or D) choose
length of lead screw.
3. Draw vertical line at the lead screw
length, determined at (2.), and draw
a horizontal line at the compression
load the unit is exerting on the
screw.
4. All sizes to the right and above the
intersection point in (3.) are suitable
for this application.
5. Screw sizes are coded as follows:

LENGTH

Diameter (in)
Threads / in
Starts
MAXIMUM LENGTH (IN.) ADJUSTED FOR BEARING SUPPORT
"X" DIMENSION

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Critical Speed & Load

Load and Speed Limits on 16 mm Ball Screws

CRITICAL SPEED

SPEED
(rpm)
BEARING SUPPORT TYPES
FF Fixed, Fixed
LENGTH (mm)

CRITICAL LOAD

FO Fixed, Open

FS Fixed, Simple
LOAD
(kg)

SS Simple, Simple

LENGTH (mm)

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Critical Speed & Load

Load and Speed Limits on 25 mm Ball Screws

CRITICAL SPEED

SPEED
(rpm)
BEARING SUPPORT TYPES
FF Fixed, Fixed
LENGTH (mm)

CRITICAL LOAD

FO Fixed, Open

FS Fixed, Simple
LOAD
(kg)

SS Simple, Simple

LENGTH (mm)

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Ball & Acme Screw Assembly
Life Expectancy
16 mm LIFE EXPECTANCY
Pitch

LIFE (Rev's)

2.5
4
5
5
10
10
20
20
Ca
L =
Fm

SPECIFICATIONS
Axial Load (N)
Screw
Dynamic (Ca)
Static
Dia.
16
3500
5500
16
2600
4200
6
4600
7200
25
5100
12600
16
4200
6500
25
5100
12600
16
1900
2500
25
3570
8800

x 106

L = life expectancy expressed in number of revolutions

Ca = dynamic load rating (N) [for acme nuts, see design load
column on catalog pages].
AXIAL LOAD (N)

25 mm LIFE EXPECTANCY

Fm = average axial load (N).

Example: For 10 mm pitch screw, 16 mm dia., Ca = 4200 N

carrying an average axial load, Fm = 200 N (45 lbs.) the
expected life is:
L = 4200

200

x 106 = 9.261 x 109 revolutions.

LIFE (Rev's)

At an average of 1000 rpm this will result in:

9.261 x 109 revolutions
1 hour
x = 154 000 hours
60 minutes
1000 rpm
of expected operational life. Note that the nature of
the motion (jerky, smooth, etc.) will affect the life
expectancy.

AXIAL LOAD (N)

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Lead Screw Formulas and Sample Calculations
Linear Speed (ipm)
steps / second
1
Linear Speed = x 60 x
steps / revolution
p
where:
p = lead screw pitch in threads per inch
Axial Force (lb)
2
Force = x T x p x eff.
16
where:
T = torque (oz in)
p = lead screw pitch in threads per inch
eff. = efficiency expressed as a decimal: 90% = 0.90

Note: Ball screws are generally 85% to 95% efficient. Acme lead screw efficiency is generally 35% to 45%,
but can be as high as 85%.
A. Calculating the torque required to accelerate a mass
moving horizontally and driven by a ball bearing lead
screw and nut. The total torque the motor must provide
includes the torque required to:
a.
b.
c.
d.

accelerate the weight

accelerate the lead screw
accelerate the motor rotor
overcome the frictional force

Motor

To calculate the rotational equivalent of weight w:

1
1 2
I(eq) = w x
x
2
p
2

( )

where:
w = weight (lb)
p = pitch (threads per inch)
I(eq) = equivalent polar inertia (lb in2)

to calculate lead screw inertia (steel screw)

I (screw) = D 4 x length x .028

Example:
Weight = 1000 lb
Velocity = 0.15 feet per second
Time to Reach Velocity = 0.1 seconds
Ball Screw Diameter = 1.5"
Ball Screw Length = 48"
Ball Screw Pitch = 5 threads per inch
Motor Rotor Inertia = 2.5 lb in 2
Friction Force to Slide Weight = 6 oz

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1
1
I (eq) = w x
x .025 = 1000 x x .025 = 1.0 lb in2
p2
25

I (screw) = D 4 x length x .028 = 5.06 x 48 x .028 = 6.8 lb in 2

I (rotor) = 2.5 lb in2

I (total) = 10.3 lb in

Velocity is 0.15 feet per second, which is equal to 1800 steps per second (motor steps in 1.8 increments).
Torque to accelerate system:
'
x 1.8
1
1800
3.1416 x 1.8
1
T = 2 x IO x x x = 2 x 10.3 x x x = 484 oz in
t
180
24
0.1
180
24

Torque to overcome friction:

F = .393 x T x p x eff.
6

F
16
T = = = 0.22 oz in
.393 x p x eff.
.393 x 5 x 0.90

where:
F = frictional force (lb)
T = torque (ozin)
p = lead screw pitch (threads per inch)

Total torque required = 0.22 oz in + 484.00 oz in = 484.22 oz in

After determining the required motor size, it is recommended to add a 20% factor of safety so that unexpected
dynamic loads are easily handled by the motor.
Sizing Servo Motors: Two separate torque figures are needed when selecting a DC motor a peak
torque, being the sum of acceleration and friction torques, and a continuous torque, which is the friction
component only. The torque produced by the motor is given by:

T=K I
where K is the motor torque constant (e.g., Nm/amp) and I is the drive current (amp). The choice of motor
and drive must satisfy the following conditions:
1. The product of K and peak drive current must give the required peak torque
2. The product of K and continuous drive current must produce sufficient continuous torque.
3. The maximum allowable motor current must be greater than the peak drive current.
4. At maximum speed and peak current, the voltage developed across the motor must be less than
80% of the drive supply voltage.
The voltage across the motor is given by:

E = KE

+RI

where KE is the motor voltage constant, the speed, R the winding resistance (ohms) and I the peak current
(amperes). The speed units should be the same in each case; i.e., if the voltage constant is in volts per
radian per second, then should also be in radians per second.
To make the most efficient use of the drive, the chosen solution should utilize most of the peak drive current

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and most of the available voltage. Motor manufacturers usually offer alternative windings, and care should
be taken to select the most appropriate.
Example:
Leadscrew Length: 80 in
Leadscrew Diameter: 1.5 in
Leadscrew Pitch: 2.54 in
Table Weight: 1000 lb
Linear Table Speed Required: 472 inches/min
Acceleration Time: 120 ms
D4 L
Inertia of Leadscrew: J = = 11.25 lb in2
36

W
Inertia of Table: J =
= 3.88 lb in2
40 p 2

Total inertia = 15.13 lb in

Linear Table Driven by DC Motor

Maximum Speed = 472"/min = 1200 rpm (equivalent to 4000 full steps/sec)

Acceleration Torque:
J
T = = 660 oz in (4.65 N m)
764 t

This takes no account of motor inertia, so a suitable motor will be capable of producing around 1000 oz in
torque.
Again, as with stepper selection, it is recommended to add a 20% factor of safety so that unexpected dynamic
loads are easily handled by the motor.

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Ball & Acme Screw Application Worksheet

Name: _____________________________________________ Phone: _______________________________

Company Name: ______________________________________ Fax: _______________________________

Address 1: ________________________________________________________________________________

Address 2: ________________________________________________________________________________

City: ________________________________________ State: _________________ Zip: ________________

Brief Description of Application: _______________________________________________________________

_________________________________________

E-mail: _____________________________________

Max Load: ________________________________

Max Speed: _________________________________

Max Accel: __________________________________

Please use this area for any notes or diagrams:

Travel: _____________________________________
Complete Cycle Time: _________________________

Orientation: _________________________________
Accuracy Needed: ____________________________
Anti-Backlash Nut Required: (Yes / No) ___________
Integral Flange Nut Required: (Yes / No) __________
Finished End Required: (Yes / No) _______________
Supply drawing (Note: Finished ends for OEM quantities
only: i.e. 25 or higher)
End Bearings Required: (Yes / No) ________________
Base Mount or Flange Mount of End Bearings: ____________________

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6) Bending Formulas for Extruded Profiles
The deflection of a beam depends on how it is supported, the magnitude of the load it carries, the distribution of the load
and the distance from the supports. Two examples will be considered the simple beam and the cantilevered beam.
The deflection of a simple beam with the load concentrated at the center is given by the following equation:

P
y =

Pl 3
48 EI
l

The deflection of a cantilevered beam with the load concentrated at the free end is given by the following equation:
3
y = Pl
3 EI

P
l

Where: y
P
l
x
E
I

=
=
=
=
=
=

beam deflection at the loading point, cm

concentrated loads, kgf
length of beam, cm
distance from support to any section, cm
modulus of elasticity, kg/cm 2
moment of inertia, cm 4

Example 1:
Structural Profile 40 x 80 is used as a simple beam with 100 cm between supports. If this beam carries a 100 kg load
concentrated at the center of the beam, how much will the beam bend?
The modulus of elasticity of the aluminum alloy used for all the extrusions listed in this brochure is 702,949 kg/cm. The
moment of inertia for this beam is given in the technical data section which describes this beam. Since this beam is
not symmetrical, two moments of inertia are given. Select the value corresponding to the way in which the beam will
be used. For this example, we assume that the load is applied along the y-axis. From the technical data, we see that
the moment of inertia is 21.17 cm 4 .
Substituting these values and the values from the example into the equation for the deflection of a simple beam, we
obtain:
100 kg (100 cm) 3
y =
= 0.14 cm
48 (702949 kg/cm 2) (21.17 cm 4)
Example 2:
Structural Profile 40 x 80 is supported at one end and a concentrated load is applied to the free end, 100 cm from the
fixed end. Calculate the bending at the free end.
Substituting these values and the value for the modulus of elasticity and moment of inertia above, we obtain:

y =

100 kg (100 cm) 3

= 2.24 cm
3 (702949 kg/cm 2) (21.17 cm 4)

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