ARWACHIN

BHARTI
BHAWAN
SCHOOL
PROJECT
ON :
CHEMISTRY
STUDY OF CONSTITUENTS OF
ALLOYS
SUBMITTED BY:raj.

Prankur

Introduction

An alloy is a partial or complete solid

solution of one or more elements in a
metallic matrix. Complete solid solution
alloys give single solid phase
microstructure, while partial solutions give
two or more phases that may be
homogeneous in distribution depending on
thermal (heat treatment) history. Alloys
usually have different properties from
those of the component elements.Alloying
one metal with other metal(s) or non
metal(s) often enhances its properties. For
instance,steel is stronger than iron,its
primary element. The physical properties,
such as density,reactivity,Young's
modulus, and electrical and thermal
conductivity, of an alloy may not differ
greatly from those of its elements, but
engineering properties, such as tensile
strength
And shear strength may be substantially
different from those of the constituent
materials. This is sometimes due to the
sizes of the atoms in the alloy, since larger
atoms exert a compressive force on
neighboring atoms, and smaller atoms

exert a tensileforce on their neighbors,

helping the alloy resist deformation. Alloys
may exhibit marked differences in
behavior even when small amounts of one
element occur. For example, impurities in
semi-conducting ferromagnetic alloys lead
to different properties, as first predicted
by White, Hogan, Suhl, Tian Abrieand
Nakamura. Some alloys are made by
melting and mixing two or more metals.
Brass is an alloy made from copper and
zinc. Bronze ,used for bearings, statues,
ornaments and church bells, is an alloy of
copper and Unlike pure metals, most
alloys do not have a single melting point.
Instead, they have a melting range
in which the material is a mixture of solid
and liquid phases. The temperature at
which melting begins is called the solidus
and the temperature when melting is
complete is called the liquid us. However,
for most alloys there is a particular
proportion of constituents (in rare cases
two) which has a single melting point. This
is called the alloy 'seutectic mixture tin.

Some
Common
Alloys
And
Their
Uses
Amalgam:

Any alloy of mercury is called an

amalgam.
Most metals are soluble in mercury,
but some are not. Amalgams are
commonly used in dental fillings
because they have been relatively

cheap, easy to use, and durable. In

addition, until recently, they have
been regarded as safe. They are

made by mixing mercury with

silver,copper,tin, and other metals.
The mercury content of dental
fillings has recently stirred
controversy, based on
thepotentially harmful effects of
mercury.Mercury amalgams have
also been used in the process of
mining gold and silver, because of
the ease with which mercury
amalgam ates with them. In
addition,th allium amalgam is used
asthe liquid material in
thermometers, because it freezes
at -58C,whereas pure mercury
freezes at -38C.

Brass:
A decorative brass paperweight (left),
along with zinc and coppersamples.Brass
is the term used for alloys
ofcopperandzincin asolidsolution. It has a
yellow color, somewhat similar togold. It
wasproduced in prehistoric times, long
before zinc was discovered, bymelting
copper with calamine, a zinc ore.The
amount of zinc in brass varies from 5 to 45
percent, creatinga range of brasses, each
with unique properties. By
comparison,bronzeis principally an alloy of
copper andtin. Despite thisdistinction,
some types of brasses are called
bronzes.Brass is relatively resistant to
tarnishing and is often used fordecorative
purposes. Its malleability and acoustic
properties havemade it the metal of
choice formusical instrumentssuch as
thetrombone,tuba, trumpet, and
euphonium. Although saxophones and

harmonic asare made out of brass, the

saxophone is a wood wind instrument, and
the harmonica, a free reed aerophone.In
organ pipes designed as "reed" pipes,
brass strips are used as the
"reed."Aluminum makes brass stronger
and more corrosion-resistant. It forms a
transparent, self-healing, protective layer
of aluminium oxide on the surface. Tin
has a similar effect and finds its use
especially in seawater applications
.Combinations of iron, aluminium ,silicon,
and manganese make brass resistant to
wear and tear.

Bronze:

Bronze
refers to a broad range ofcopperalloys,
usually withtin as the main additive, but
sometimes with other elements such as
phosphorus,manganese,aluminum, or
silicon. Typically, bronze is about 60
percent copper and 40 percent tin.The use
of bronze was particularly significant for
early civilizations, leading to the name
"Bronze Age." Tools, weapons,armor, and
building materials such as decorative tiles
were made of bronze, as they were found
to be harder and more durable than their
stone and copper predecessors. In early
use, the natural impurity arsenic
sometimes created a superior naturalalloy,
called "arsenical bronze."Though not as
strong as steel, bronze is superior to iron
in nearly every application. Bronze
develops a patina (a green coating onthe
exposed surface), but it does not oxidize
beyond the surface.It is considerably less
brittle than iron and has a lower
castingtemperature. Several bronze alloys
resist corrosion(especially by seawater)
and metal fatigue better than steel; they
also conduct heat and electricity better
than most steels. Bronze has myriad uses
in industry. It is widely used today for

springs, bearings, bushings, and similar

fittings, and is particularly common in the
bearings of small electric motors. It is also
widely used for cast metal sculpture and is
the most popular metal for top-quality
bells and cymbals. Commercial bronze,
otherwise known as brass, is 90 percent
copper and 10 percent zinc. It contains no
tin.

Pewter :
Pewter plate
Pewter
is traditionally composed of 85 to 99
percent tin, with theremainder consisting
ofcopper, which acts as a hardener.Lead is
added to lower grades of pewter, giving a
bluish tint .Traditionally, there were three
grades of pewter:
fine,for eating ware, with 96 to 99 percent
tin and 1 to 4 percent copper;trifle also for
eating and drinking utensils but duller in
appearance, with 92 percent tin, 1 to 4
percent copper, and up to4 percent lead;
and
lay or ley metal, not for eating or drinking
utensils, which could contain up to 15
percent lead. Modern pewter mixes the tin
with copper ,antimony, and/or
bismuth rather than lead. Physically,
pewter is a bright, shiny metal that is
similar in appearance to silver. Like silver,
it oxidizes to a dull grey overtime if left
untreated. It is a very malleable alloy,
being soft enough to carve with hand
tools. It also takes good impressions from
punches or presses. Given this inherent
softness and malleability, pewter cannot

be used to make tools. Some types of

pewter pieces, such as candlesticks, were
turned on a metal lathe ,and these items
are sometimes referred to
as "holloware."Pewter has a low melting
point (around 225 to 240C), depending
on the exact mixture of
metals. Duplication by casting gives
excellent results.
The use of pewter was common from the
Middle Ages up until the various
developments in glass-making during the
eighteenth and nineteenth centuries.
Pewter was the chief tableware until the
making of china. With the mass production
of glass products ,glass has universally
replaced pewter in daily life. Today, pewter
is mainly used for decorative objects such
as collectible statuettes and figurines,
replica coins, and pendants.

Nickel
silver
(German
silver) :

Nickel silver
is an alloy of copper,nickel, and often (but
notalways)zinc. It is named for its silvery
appearance and contains no elemental
silver. Other common names for this alloy
are German silver,paktong,new
silver,and
alpacca(or alpaca).Many different
formulations of alloys fall in the general
category of "nickel silver." Besides
containing copper, nickel, and zinc, some
formulations may include
antimony ,tin ,lead, or cadmium. Are
presentative industrial formulation (Alloy

No.752) is 65percent copper, 18 percent

nickel, and 17 percent zinc. In
metallurgical science, such alloys would
be more properly termed nickel bronze.
Some nickel silver alloys, especially those
containing high proportions of zinc, are
stainless .The earliest use of nickel silver
appears to have been in China. It became
known to the West from imported wares
called Paktong or Pakfong, where the
silvery metal color was used to imitate
sterling silver. It was discovered to be an
alloy composed of copper, nickel, and zinc
in the eighteenth century.Nickel silver first
became popular as a base metal for silverplated cutlery and other silverware,
notably the electro plated wares called
"E.P.N.S." (electro-plated nickel silver). It
is used in zippers, costume jewelry, and
musical instruments(such as

cymbals). After about 1920, its use

became widespread for pocket knife
bolsters, due to its machinability and
corrosion resistance. In some countries, it
is used in the production of coins. Its
industrial and technical uses include
marine fittings and plumbing fixtures for
its corrosion resistance, and heating coils
for its high electrical resistance.

Steel :

Steel is an alloy composed mainly of iron,

with carbon content between 0.02 and 1.7
percent by weight. Carbon is the most
cost-effective alloying material for iron,
but many other alloying elements are also

used. Carbon and other elements act as

hardening agents, preventing iron atoms
in the crystal lattice from sliding past one
another. By varying the amount of alloying
elements and their distribution in the
steel, one can control its qualities such as
hardness, elasticity, ductility, and tensile
strength. Steel with increased carbon
content can be made harder and stronger
than iron, but it is also more brittle. The
maximum solubility of carbon in iron is 1.7
percent by weight, occurring at 1130 C.
Higher concentrations of carbon or lower
temperatures producece mentite, which
reduces the material's strength. Alloys
with higher carbon content than this are
known as cast iron because of their lower
melting point. Steel should also be
distinguished from wrought iron, with little
or no carbon (usually less than
0.035percent).Currently, there are several
classes of steels in which carbon Is
replaced with other alloying materials, and
carbon, if present, is undesired. More
recently, steels have been defined as ironbased alloys that can be plastically formed
pounded, rolled, and so forth.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
I thank to my chemistry teacher
MS. NEHA DHINGRA for guiding
me in doing this project, her
constant support and
encouragement helped me a lot in
completing this project.
I also thanks to my chemistry
laboratory lab assistant sir for

arranging the apparatus as we

required.
I also thank to my school for
providing such wonderfull
activities.

BIBLIOGRAPHY
~ Wikipedia-the free
encyclopedia
(http://en.wikipedia.org)
~CBSE
(http://www.cbse.nic.in)
~Foundation chemistry XI
~Comprehensive practical
chemistry XI