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COPYINGANDDISTRIBUTINGAREPROHIBITEDWITHOUTPERMISSIONOFTHEPUBLISHER

Improvematerialbalancebyusingproper
flowmetercorrections
10.01.2011|Peramanu,S.,CanadianNaturalResourcesLtd.,Calgary,CanadaWah,J.C.,CanadianNatural
ResourcesLtd.,Calgary,Canada
Hereareguidelinestoincreaseaccuracyforflowmeasurements
Keywords:
Processplantsfrequentlyencountermassimbalances.Thesecanbeattributedtovariousfactors,butoftentheylead
backtoinappropriatemeasuringdevices,impropercalibration,incorrectinstallationorincorrectinterpretationofthe
measuredflows.Therearewellestablishedguidelinesavailabletoensureappropriateflowmeterselectionbasedon
theprocessconditionsandcontrolrequirements.
Instrumentvendorsfollowtheindustrystandardsandapprovedproceduresforflowmetercalibration,calculatingthe
calibrationfactorsbasedonthedataprovidedintheflowmeterspecificationdatasheets.Engineeringand
constructionservicecontractorsoftenfollowvendorguidelinesandstandardpracticestocorrectlyinstallthe
flowmeters.Thismeansthatmostflowmeterinstallations,therefore,meetacceptedprojectstandardsand
specifications.
Whatstheflowrate?
However,measuredflowinterpretation,normallyaprocessorproductionengineersresponsibility,isoftendone
withoutproperdirectionsorguidelines.Althoughitappearsstraightforwardthattheflowmetermeasurestheflowrate
andtheflowratevalueisreadfromthedisplay,significanterrorcanbeintroducediftheflowmeasurementconditions
arenotunderstoodandappropriatecorrectionfactorsarenotapplied.Accuratestreamflowinterpretationandcritical
massbalancereconciliationrequireunderstandingflowmetercharacteristicsandtheirassociatedmeasurement
uncertainties.Thisisofparticularimportancewheremassbalancesmaybeusedforhighlysensitiveprocesscontrol
operations,productionaccountingorgovernmentreportingonroyaltiesandemissions.
Thisarticleprovidesabackgroundontheimportanceofaccuratemeasurements,adescriptionofmeasurementerrors
andtheroleofuncertaintiesinmassbalanceandreconciliation.Flowmetercorrectionequationsarederivedfor
differentialpressureflow,volumetricflowandmassflowmeters,andflowcorrectionfactorsareprovidedforvarious
unitsofmeasurements(UOM).Flowmeteruncertaintyequationsarederivedfordifferentialpressureflow,volumetric
flowandmassflowmeters.

METERINGAPPLICATIONS
Toachievethemostaccurateflowmeasurement(minimumuncertainty),properflowsystemoperationand
maintenancemustbepracticedsothatmeteraccuracycapabilitiesarerealized.Periodicmaintenance,testingand
recalibrationareessentialbecausethecalibrationwillshiftovertimeduetowear,damageorcontamination.
Themaintenancemaybeonlyasecondaryequipmentcalibration,acompletesystemmechanicalinspection,an
actualthroughputtestagainstsomeagreeduponstandardsoranycombinationofthese.Theequipmentusedtotest
themeter,suchasthermometers,deadweighttests,pressuregauges,differentialpressuregauges,chromatographs
andprovers(usedforthroughputtests),musthaveaccuracycertificationandshouldbeapprovedandagreeduponby
theinterestedparties.Havingoperatorswhohavehadexperiencewithsimilarmeteringsystemsalsoincreasesthe
calibrationandtestprocedureconfidencelevels.Testequipmentitselfshouldberecertifiedperiodicallybytheagency
ormanufacturerthatoriginallycertifiedtheequipment.

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Custodytransferoperations.
Incustodytransfermeasurement,themeasurementfurnishesquantityandqualityinformationthatcanbeusedasthe
basisforachangeinownershipand/orachangeinresponsibilityformaterials.
Custodytransfermeasurementisdistinctfromothermeasurementtypesbecauseofthecontractualnatureofthe
meter.Custodytransfermeteringmayrequireaccuracyof0.1%orbetter,whereascontrolmeasurementmaybe
acceptedata2%accuracyandoperationalmeasurementmayrequirea5%accuracy.Ahighintegritycustody
transfermeasurementsystemisaresultofcarefuldesignbasedonthespecificapplicationrequirementscomprising
fluidcontrol,conditioning,metering,computationandameansoftraceablesitedatavalidation.1,2
Custodytransfermanagementinvolvestheentirechainfromthecustodytransfermeteringconceptualizationtothe
finalproductionorsaledatareporting.Forexample,intheupstreamoilandgassector,measurementincludesall
intermediatestepssuchasmeasurementandsamplingguidelines,operationalprocedures,dataprocessing,data
transmissionandreconciliation,allocationorcustodytransferprocedures.Tosolvetheflowmeasurementequation,
itisimperativethateveryequationparameterbewellunderstoodandrepresented.
Aprimarycustodytransfermeasurementconsiderationistominimizeflowvariationsbymaintainingbetterflow
control.Forsituationswherethismaynotbepossible,ameterwithawiderangingflowcapacityisneeded.Ifasingle
meterwiththerequiredflowcapacitytocovertheintendedoperatingrangewithminimumuncertaintydoesnotexist,
usingmultiplemeterswithsometypeofmeterswitchingcontrolisrequired.Mostmetersoperatewithaspecified
uncertaintywithinthestatedflowcapacitylimitsthatistypicallyfrom25%to95%oftheflowmetermaximum
capacity.Forcustodytransfermeteringandcriticalcontrolmeasurement,itisimportanttomaintainthemeter
operationwithinthestatedflowcapacitylimits.
Errors.
Otherthansomeoperatingproblemsandpoormaintenancethatmayaffectthemeasurement,themaincauseoferror
isthefluidcharacteristicsanderrorsinfluiddensitycalculation.Forgases,mixturesaremoreaccuratelymeasuredif
thestreamhasrelativelyconstantcomposition.ThisallowsspecificPVTteststoberun,ordatamaybeavailablefor
commonmixturesfrompreviouswork.Ifthemixtureischangingrapidly,adensitometeroramassmetermaybe
requiredtodetermineanaccuratemeasurement.
Duringtimeswhenacustodytransfermeterisoutofserviceorregisteringinaccurately,aproceduremustbeinplace
formeasuringorestimatingdeliveries.Thisproceduremayneedtobeinaccordancewithregulatorystandardsifthe
meterflowisusedforregulatoryreporting.AnexampleofthisistherecentUSAEPAGreenhouseGasMandatory
ReportingRuleissuedSept.22,2009.Atypicalaccuracylimitfrom0.5%to2%maybeused,butmaybesetcloser
orwiderdependingonthespecificmetercostsandmeasurementability.
Forcustodytransfermeters,aproversystemormastermetershouldbeusedforthroughputtestingandrecalibration.
Thebestthroughputtestcanberundirectlyinserieswithaprover.Theprovercancomeinmanyforms,but
essentiallyitinvolvesabasicvolumethathasbeencertifiedbyagovernmentorindustrialgroup.Sincemostmeters
arenottotallylinear,testsmayhavetoberunoverthemetersoperatingrangetocalculatethecalibrationfactors
dependentontheflowcapacity.
Commercialmassbalancesoftware.
Thecharacteristicsandstrengthsofcommercialmassbalancesoftwaremayinclude:
Graphicallyaidedinputthatisuserfriendlyandintuitive
Interactivediagnosticsandfeedbackoninputerrors
Flexibilitytoselectthemeasurementunitsdesiredbytheuser
Flexibilityfortheusertoselectstartandendtimestoperformthereconciliation
Facilitytoconstructmassbalanceunitsbasedonplantconfigurationuserinput
Reconciliationprocessesperformlinear,nonlinearandinequalityconstraintsonthemeasurementdatatoproduce
reconciledmeasurementsandunmeasuredflowestimates
Algorithmforefficientiterationandfastconvergencetothesolution.SomealgorithmsmayincludetheMonte
Carlomethodtogeneratesetsofrandomvaluesformeasurementerrorswithinaprescribedrange(%uncertainty)
thataresolvedanditeratedinthereconciliationalgorithm
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Algorithmtoensurenumericalrobustnessandpreventnumericalrunaway

Areconciledmassbalanceattheprocessingunitlevelorgroupofprocessingunits,progressingallthewayupto
theplantlevel
Abilitytoreconciletotalmassandselectedcomponentfractionsatthesametime

Reportingtooltoverifythepresenterrorinbalanceforeachnodeandgeneratethecustomizedreports.
Massbalanceandreconciliation.
Datareconciliation 3,4improvesprocessdataaccuracybyadjustingthemeasuredvaluessothattheysatisfythe
processconstraints.Theamountofadjustmentmadetothemeasurementsisminimizedsincetherandomerrorsare
expectedtobesmall.Datareconciliationcanbeformulatedbythefollowingconstrainedweightedleastsquares
optimizationproblem:
Minimizethefunction(knownasobjectivefunction):

Wherenisthenumberofmeasurements,Misthedifferencebetweenthereconciledandmeasuredvaluesof
measurements,iands iisthemeasurementistandarddeviation.Thevalue1/s 2whichisaninverseofvariance
(squareofstandarddeviation)istheweightfactorrepresentingtheaccuracyoftherespectivemeasurements.Sincea
highervalueofstandarddeviationimpliesthatthemeasurementislessaccurate,theabovechoicegiveslargerweights
tomoreaccuratemeasurements.
Theaboveobjectivefunctionminimizationissubjecttoconstraints:
fj(Mi1DMi)=0 j=1,....m
Wherefisthebalanceequationforthemeasurements(i=1,....n)andmisthenumberofbalanceequations.
Duringthereconciliationprocess,themeasurementscontainingsystematicbiasorgrosserrorsaredetectedby
comparingthedifferencebetweenthereconciledandmeasuredvaluestothemeasurementuncertainties.
IfAbs(DMi/Mi)>Uncertainty,measurementihasgrosserror.
Themeasurementscontaininggrosserrorsareeithereliminatedorappropriatelycompensatedfordatareconciliation
tobeeffective,asshowninFig.1.Inthisexample,thereconciliationinvolves:
M1 =stream1cumulativemeasuredmassflowoveraperiod(aday,forexample)
M2=stream2cumulativemeasuredmassflowoveraperiod
M3=stream3cumulativemeasuredmassflowoveraperiod
M4=measuredmassinventorygainordepletionoverthesameperiod

Fig.1.Flowreconciliationexampleforastoragetank.
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Itisevidentthatbecauseofmeasurementerrorsthesemeasuredquantitiesdonotbalance,namely:
M1 1M2M31M4
Therefore,reconciliationisrequiredadjustmentstoeachofthemeasuredquantitiesneedtobemadetoobtainamass
balance:
(M1 1DM1 )1(M21DM2)=(M31DM3)1(M41DM4)
whereMiisanadjustment(+veorve)forthemeasuredquantityMi.
ItisevidentthatthereareinfinitesetsofMi,eachofwhichwillgivethedesiredmassbalance,i.e.,theywillsatisfy
theequationabove.OftheinfinitesetsofMi,theoneparticularsetthatcorrespondstotheleastamountoftotal
adjustmentisrequired.ThissuggeststhattheproblemtofindthisparticularsetofMicanbeformulatedasonethat
entailsminimizingafunction(usuallyreferredtoasobjectivefunction)subjecttosomeconstraints(massbalance
equations).Forthesimpleexamplehere,theproblemoffindingthatparticularsetofMicanbeformulatedas:
Minimizetheobjectivefunction:

Subjecttotheconstraint:

(M1 1DM1 )1(M21DM2)

Therefore,theweightfactor,(1/s 1 2),formeasurementM1 intheobjectivefunctionaboveis1/9.Supposeifthe

FLOWCORRECTIONS
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Processindustryflowmeterscanbeclassifiedintothreebroadcategoriesthatincludedifferentialpressuremeters,
actualvolumetricflowmetersandmassflowmeters.Thedifferentialpressuremetersincludeorifice,venturi,nozzle,
wedge,pitottubeandannubarvolumetricflowmetersincludevortex,turbine,ultrasonicandmagneticandmass
flowmetersincludeCoriolisandthermalmeters.Themeteroperatingprinciplesandflowequationsareprovidedin
AppendixA.
Foranyoftheseflowmeters,thevendorshouldmakesurethattheflowmetersmeasuredoutputsareintheUOM
requestedintheflowmeterspecificationdatasheet.Forthis,thevendorcalculatestheconversionfactorbyusingthe
designdensitydata(orpressure,temperatureandmolecularweightdataforgases)specifiedonthedatasheetto
outputmeasuredvaluesinthedesiredUOM.
Duringprocessoperation,themeasureddensity(orP,T,MWandzforgases)valuesmaynotbethesameasthe
valuesonthedatasheet.Therefore,themeasuredflowratesshouldbecorrectedtoaccountforthemeasuredprocess
conditions.ThecorrectionfactorsforvariousflowmetersusingdifferentUOMareprovidedinTable1.Thedetailsof
theflowmetercorrectioncalculationareavailableinAppendixB.

Flowuncertaintyequations.Uncertainty,U95,isastatisticalstatementofmeasurementaccuracythatisusefulin:
Definingtolerancesforreconcilingmeasurementswithconcurrentgrosserrordetectionandelimination
Estimatingaccuracieswhenreportingtogovernmentonmeasurementsthatimpactroyaltiesandemissions
Evaluatingcustodytransfermeteringperformance.
Uncertaintyisameasurementprocesscharacteristic.Itprovidesanestimateoftheerrorbandwithinwhichthetrue
valueforthatmeasurementprocessmustfallwithhighprobability.5Itisbasedontheprobabilityof95%thatistwice
thestandarddeviation,2s.The95%confidencelevelfortheestimatedflowmeteruncertaintyisinaccordancewith
prudentstatisticalandengineeringpractice.
Flowmeteruncertaintyisactuallyafunctionofbothbias(systematicorgrosserror)andprecision(randomerror),as
showninFig.2.Flowmeterpartmanufacturersfollowrigoroustestingandcalibrationtoremoveorrandomizethe
measurementbiases.InCanada,theyfollowthestandardsbyMeasurementsCanada,andintheUS,thetestmethod
followstheNationalBureauofStandards(NationalInstituteofStandardsandTechnology).Thevaluesusedforthe
precisionmaybeobtainedfrommanufacturersspecificationsfortherespectiveequipmentprovidedthatthevalues
areadjustedtoreflectoperatingconditions.

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Fig.2.Biasandprecisionerrors.

Tocalculatetheuncertaintyvalues,thesignificanceofeachvariable(parameter)intheflowcalculationequationis
examinedandisrelatedtoflowmeasurement.Itisassumedthatthemeterhasbeenproperlyinstalled,operatedand
maintained.Itisalsoassumedthatthesystematicequipmentbiasesarerandomizedwithinthedatabase,whichmeans
thatvariationsintheequipmentandlaboratorieswillnotimposeanybiasintheequationsabilitytorepresentreality.
Forpracticalconsiderations,thepertinentvariablesareassumedtobeindependenttoenablesimpleruncertainty
calculations.Itwasnotedthatthesimplifieduncertaintyequationswouldprovideverygooduncertaintyestimates.6
Themathematicalrelationshipsamongthevariablesestablishthesensitivityofthemeteredquantitiestoeachofthese
variables.Eachvariablethatinfluencestheflowmeasurementuncertaintyhasaspecificsensitivitycoefficient.The
uncertaintyforageneralequationQ=f(x1 ,x2,.....xN)canbederivedanalyticallybypartialdifferentiationbasedon
propagationofuncertaintybytheTaylorseries.
RefertoAppendixCforderivationusingtheTaylorseries.TheuncertaintyinQcanbegivenas:

Thiscanberepresentedinasimplerformas:

wheredQ/QistheuncertaintyinQ,SxisthesensitivitycoefficientassociatedwiththevariableandUxisthevariable
uncertainty.Theuncertaintyequationsarederivedfordifferentialpressure,volumetricandmassflowmetersin
AppendixDusingtheflowequationsrepresentingthebasicoperatingprinciple.
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FLOWMETERUNCERTAINTY
Uncertaintyfororifice,ventureornozzlemetermeasuringinstandardflowisgivenby:

Thesameequationabovecanbeusedforawedgemeterhowever,thedeviationintheequivalentdiameter,d,fora
wedgemeteriscalculatedbyusing:

where:

Uncertainityequationsforvortex,turbinemultrasonicandcoriolisflowmetersareinAppendixD.
Measuredflowratecorrection.
Anorificemeterisusedinarefinerytomeasuretheflowrateofliquidhydrocarbonsanditiscalibratedtoindicate
(readout)flowrateinstandardvolumetricflows.Forexample,designstreamconditionsindicatedontheflowmeter
specificationdatasheetare:
TD=Designtemperature=300C
PD=Designpressure=1,500kPaa
rD_Std=Designstandarddensity=950kg/m3(normallyobtainedfromprocesssimulation)
rD=Designactualdensity=750kg/m3(normallyobtainedfromprocesssimulation).
Duringactualoperation,themeasuredconditionsare:
TM=Measuredtemperature=310C
PM=Measuredpressure=1,500kPaa
rM_Std=Measuredstandarddensity=960kg/m3(measuredinthelaboratoryusingthesample)
rM=Measuredactualdensity=740kg/m3(measured,orcalculatedusinganappropriatecorrelation).
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Forliquidflows,ifthemeasureddensitiesarenotavailableattheactualoperatingconditions,theestablished
correlationscanbeused.Itshouldbenotedthatthesecorrelationsmayresultinsomeerrorinthedensity
predictions.
ActualliquidhydrocarbonstreamdensitycanbeestimatedusingtheequationbyYawas:7

ForC20 andheavieralkanes,thedensitiescanbeobtainedusingthemethodbyFisher:8

whereSGmisspecificgravityatmeasuredtemperature
SGristhespecificgravityatreferencetemperature
TmismeasuredtemperatureinKelvin
TrisreferencetemperatureinC.
AmethodforcalculatingactualdensityusingliquidcriticalpropertiesisgivenbyNoor:9

whererm=Densityatmeasuredtemperatureinkg/m3,
M=Molecularweight,
V C=Criticalvolumeinm3/kg
Tm=MeasuredtemperatureinKelvin
TC=CriticaltemperatureinKelvin.
FromTable1,thecorrectionfactorfortheorificemeterwithindicated(readout)liquidflowrateatstandardconditions
isgivenby:

andthecorrectedflowrateatstandardconditionsisgivenby:
QStdVol_Corr=QStdVol_Meas 3CorrectionFactor
Iftheflowmeterindicated(readout)flowis600std.m3/d,thenthecorrectedflowrateatstandardconditionis:
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=589.8Stdm3/d~590std.m3/d

Uncertaintycalculation.
A3in.orificemeterrunwithabratioof0.6isselectedforthepreviousliquidhydrocarbonflowmeasurement
exampleatastaticpressureof1,500kPaaandflowingtemperatureof310C.Differentialpressurerecordedforthe
flowis25kPaandtheflowrateis590std.m3/h.
Thevariablesensitivitycoefficientscanbecalculatedusingtheorificeuncertaintyequation:

Theuncertaintyvaluesforthevariablesdx/xat95%confidencelevel,U95,canbeobtainedfromindustrystandards
andprocedures(AGA,API,ASME,ASTM)and/ormanufacturesspecificationsfortheequipmentorparts.Foreach
variable,theuncertaintylistedinTable2representsrandomerrorsonly,whichareobtainedfromAGARP31.

Basedonthecalculations,thestandardvolumetricflowmeasurementuncertaintyat95%confidencelevelis0.76%.
Formassflowmeasurementuncertainty,thestandarddensityvariable,rStd,intheaboveequationisexcluded,which
givesthe%U95valueof0.58%.

APPENDIXA
TheoperatingprinciplesandflowmeterequationsarelistedinthisappendixfortheflowmetersasshowninFig.3.

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Fig.3.Examplesofvariousflowmetersusedbyindustry.

Differentialpressureflowmeters.
Theflowmetersthatmeasuredifferentialpressuretocalculatetheflowratescanbeclassifiedasdifferentialpressure
flowmeters.
Orifice,venturiandnozzleflowmeters.Forfluidflowinanorifice,venturiornozzleflowmeter,theactual
volumetricflowratecanbegivenas:10

wheredistheorificediameterforanorificemeterorthroatdiameterforventuriandnozzlemeters,
P1 =Pressureattheupstreampressuretap,
P2=Pressureatthedownstreampressuretap
r1 =DensityatP1 pressurecondition.
Cd=Dischargecoefficienttoaccountforfrictionallosses(kineticenergyintoheat)duetoviscosityandturbulence
effects.
Euisthevelocityapproachfactorthatrelatestheflowingfluidvelocityinthemeterapproachsection(upstreammeter
tube)totheorifice/throatfluidvelocity:

whereb=d/Distheorificebore(orthroatfortheventuriandnozzle)topipeinnerdiameterratio.
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Yistheexpansionfactortoaccountforthegascompressibilitythatisgivenby:

wherekisspecificheatratioCP /CV.Forblessthan0.25,b4valueapproacheszerointheequation.
Pitottubeorannubarflowmeters(forvelocitylessthan30%ofsonicvelocity).ForfluidflowinaPitot
tubeflowmeter,theactualvolumetricflowratecanbegivenas:

Where:K=Instrumentcoefficientthatisusuallydeterminedthroughcalibration,
D=Pipeinsidediameter
P=PressuredropmeasuredbythePitottube,whichisthedifferencebetweenthetotal(stagnation)pressure,Pt,and
thestaticpressure,Ps .
Wedgeflowmeter(usedforliquidflowsonly).Forliquidflowinawedgeflowmeter,actualvolumetricflowrate
canbecalculatedusingtheorificeequation:

wheredisequivalentorificediameterthatiscalculatedusingequivalentbetaratio:

whereH=wedgesegmentopeningheight,
D=Pipeinsidediameter,
P=Pressuredropacrosstheorifice
rAct=Liquiddensityatactualtemperatureandpressureconditions,T,P.
Cdisthewedgemeterdischargecoefficienttoaccountforfrictionallosses(kineticenergyintoheat)duetoviscosity
andturbulenceeffects.
Euisthevelocityapproachfactorthatrelatestheflowingfluidvelocityinthewedgemeterapproachsection(upstream
metertube)tothefluidvelocityinthewedgesection.

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wherebisd/Dwhichisequivalentorificetopipeinnerdiameterratio.
Volumetricflowmeters.
Theflowmetersthatdirectlyinterprettheactualvolumetricflowfromothermeasuredparametersarecalledvolumetric
flowmeters.Tointerpretthevelocity,vortexmetersusevortexsheddingfrequencyultrasonicmetersusesound
transittimeandmagneticmetersusevoltageinducedinthefluid(conductive)flowingthroughanimposedmagnetic
field.
Vortexflowmeter.Avortexflowmetermeasuresthevolumetricflowratebyusingthevortexsheddingfrequency
causedbyaflowbarrier.11
Strouhalnumber,S,isrelatedtovortexsheddingfrequencybyS=fw/u
wheref=Vortexsheddingfrequencythatdependsonflowvelocity,fluidviscosityandflowbarrierdimensions(bluff,
whichiseitheracylinderorasquarecolumn)usedtocreatevortex
w=Flowbarrierwidth(bluff)
u=Fluidvelocityinthebluffsection.
Actualvolumetricflowratecanbegivenby:

whereDisthepipeinnerdiameter
andBistheblockagefactorthatisdefinedasthepipeborearealessthebluffbodyblockagearea,dividedbythepipe
fullborearea:

whereKfactorisusedtocompensateforthepipeflownonuniformprofileinindustrialapplications.Combiningthe
aboveequationstheactualflowrateisgivenas:

TheStrouhalnumber,S,isaboutconstantacrossawideReynoldsnumberrangeof(102107).TheSvaluedepends
onthebluffwidthtothepipeinnerdiameterratio.S=0.18forw/D=0.1S=0.26forw/D=0.3andS=0.44for
w/D=0.5.
Turbineflowmeter.Aturbineflowmetermeasuresthevolumetricflowbycountingtherotorrevolutions(rotor
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angularvelocity)thatturnsinproportiontotheflowvelocity.1214Theequationforaturbinemetercanbegivenas:
utan(theta)=Kr(omega)
whereu=Incomingflowvelocity,
Theta=Anglebetweenthepipeaxis(incomingflowdirection)andtheturbineblades,
r=Rootmeansquarevalueofthebladeinnerandouterradiitorepresenttheaverageradius,
K=Instrumentfactortocompensatevelocityloss(nonidealities)duetorotorbladedesignandomegaistherotor
angularvelocity.

wherero=Bladeradiusouteredgeandri=Radiusbladeroot.
Actualvolumetricflowratecanbegivenby:

Ultrasonicflowmeter.Anultrasonicflowmetermeasuresthevolumetricflowbyusingsoundpulsetransittimein
theflowmediumcausedbydoplareffect.1517Atypicalultrasonicflowmeter(transittimeflowmeasurement)system
utilizestwoultrasonictransducersthatfunctionasbothtransmitterandreceiver.Theflowmeteroperatesby
alternatelytransmittingandreceivingasoundenergyburstbetweenthetwotransducersandmeasuringthetransit
timethatittakesforsoundtotravelbetweenthetwotransducers.Thedifferenceinthetransittimemeasuredis
directlyandrelatedtotheliquidvelocityinthepipe.
IftDisthesoundpulsetransittime(ortimeofflight)travelingfromtheupstreamtransducertothedownstream
transducer,andtUisthetransittimefromtheoppositedirection,theequationscanbegivenas:

wheretheta=Anglebetweenthetransduceraxistotheflowdirection,
c=Soundspeedintheliquid,
D=Pipeinsidediameter
u=Flowvelocityaveragedoverthesoundpath.Solvingtheaboveequationsleadsto:

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wheretf =(tUtD)/(tUtD)isthetransittimefunctionandKistheinstrumentfactordeterminedthroughcalibration.
Therefore,byaccuratelymeasuringtheupstreamanddownstreamtransittimes,tUandtD,theflowvelocity,u,canbe
obtained.
Actualvolumetricflowrateiscalculatedas:

whereAisthepipeinnercrosssectionarea.
Magneticflowmeter.MagneticflowmeteroperationisbasedonFaradaysLawthatstatesthatthevoltageinduced
acrossanyconductorasitmovesatrightanglesthroughamagneticfieldisproportionaltotheconductorvelocity.18
Toapplythisprinciplethefluidbeingmeasuredmustbeelectricallyconductive.
Thevoltage,E,generatedinaconductorisgivenby:
E(alpha)BLu
where:
E=Voltagegeneratedinaconductor
B=Magneticfieldstrengthperpendiculartotheflowdirection
L=Distancebetweentheelectrodes(usuallyequaltopipeinsidediameterinmostconstruction)
u=Conductorvelocity.
Thefluidvelocitycanbegivenby:

whereKistheinstrumentcoefficientthatisusuallydeterminedthroughcalibration.
Subsequently,theactualvolumetricflowrateiscalculatedas:

whereAisthepipeinnercrosssectionareaandDisthepipeinsidediameter.
Massflowmeters.
Acoriolisflowmeterdirectlymeasuresthemassflowbasedontheinertialforcesexertedonthetubevibrations.1921
Whenanoscillatingexcitationforceisappliedtothetube,causingittovibrate,thefluidflowingthroughthetubewill
induceatwist(orrotation)tothetubebecauseoftheCoriolisaccelerationactinginoppositedirectionsoneitherside
oftheappliedforce.
InaUtubecoriolismeter,theflowisguidedintotheUshapedtubethatisvibratedusinganactuator.Thevibrationis
commonlyintroducedbyelectriccoilsandmeasuredbymagneticsensors.Whenthetubeismovingupwardduring
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thefirsthalfofacycle,thefluidflowingintothemeterresistsbeingforcedupbypushingdownonthetube.Onthe
oppositeside,theliquidflowingoutofthemeterresistshavingitsverticalmotiondecreasedbypushinguponthe
tube.Thisactioncausesthetubetotwist.Whenthetubeismovingdownwardduringthesecondhalfofthevibration
cycle,ittwistsintheoppositedirection.Thetwovibrationsareshiftedinphase(timelag)withrespecttoeachother,
andthedegreeofphaseshiftisdirectlyaffectedbythemasspassingthroughthetube.
AUshapedCoriolisflowmetermassflowisgivenas:

whereKu=Tubestiffness,
K=Ashapedependentfactor
L=Width,
t=Timelag,
omega=Vibrationfrequency
Iu=Tubeinertiathatincludesthetubefluidmass.Theexpressioncanbesimplifiedas:

where:

isthenaturalfrequencyoftheUshapedtubesystem.
Thermalflowmeter.
Athermalflowmetermeasuresthemassflowbasedonheatabsorption.Asmoleculesofamovingfluidcomeinto
contactwithaheatsource,theyabsorbheatandcoolthesource.Atincreasedflowrates,moremoleculescomeinto
contactwiththeheatsourceabsorbingevenmoreheat.Theheatdissipatedfromthesourceinthismanneris
proportionaltothenumberofmoleculesofaparticulargas(itsmass),thegasthermalcharacteristics,anditsflow
characteristics.Themassflowofathermalmassflowmetercanbegivenas:
QMass =KH
whereKistheinstrumentcoefficientwhichisusuallydeterminedthroughcalibration,andHistheamountofheat
dissipatedfromtheheatsource.
APPENDIXB:FLOWMETERCORRECTIONCALCULATIONS
Flowcorrectionfordifferentialpressureflowmeters.
Actualflowfordifferentialpressuremetersiscalculatedusing:
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Assumingincompressiblefluidintherangeofinterest(constantfluiddensitybetweentheflowmeterpressuretaps)
theactualflowratemeasuredbytheflowmetercanbegivenas:

Liquidflowmeter(actualvolumetricflowmeasurementact.m3/h).Theequationforcorrectedflowis:

Liquidflowmeter(standardvolumetricflowmeasurementstd.m3/h).Standardvolumetricflowiscalculated
using:

Theequationforcorrectedflowis:

Liquidflowmeter(massflowmeasurementkg/h).Massflowiscalculatedusing:

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Theequationforcorrectedflowisgivenby:

Gasflowmeter(actualvolumetricflowmeasurementact.m3/h).Theequationforcorrectedflowis:

Gasflowmeter(standardvolumetricflowmeasurementstd.m3/h).Standardflowrateis:

Theequationforcorrectedflowisgivenby:

Gas/steamflowmeter(massflowmeasurementkg/h).Theequationformassflowis:

Theequationforcorrectedflowis:

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Flowcorrectionforvolumetricflowmeters.
Actualflowmeasuredbythevolumetricflowis:
Vortexmeter:QActVolfv
Turbinemeter:QActVolomega
Ultrasonicmeter:QActVolf(TUP ,TDown)
Magneticmeter:QActVolE
Liquidflowmeter(actualvolumetricflowmeasurementact.m3/h).Theequationforcorrectedflowis:

Liquidflowmeter(standardvolumetricflowmeasurementstd.m3/h).Standardvolumetricflowiscalculated
using:

Theequationforcorrectedflowis:

Liquidflowmeter(massflowmeasurementkg/h).Massflowiscalculatedusing:

Theequationforcorrectedflowis:

Gasflowmeter(actualvolumetricflowmeasurementact.m3/h).Theequationforcorrectedflowis:
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Gasflowmeter(standardvolumetricflowmeasurementstd.m3/h).Standardvolumetricflowiscalculatedusing:

Theequationforcorrectedflowis:

Gas/steamflowmeter(massflowmeasurementkg/h).Theequationformassflowis:

Theequationforcorrectedflowis:

Flowcorrectionformassflowmeters.
Massflowratesforthemassflowmetersis:
Coriolismeter:QMass t
Thermalmeter:QMass DH
Liquidflowmeter(actualvolumetricflowact.m3/h).Actualvolumetricflowiscalculatedusing:

Theequationforcorrectedflowis:

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Ifthecoriolismeterhasanintegraldensitymeasurementandusestheoperatingdensity(orflowingdensity)instead
ofdesigndensity,rD,intheaboveequations,thencorrectionfactorisequalto1.
Liquidflowmeter(standardvolumetricflowstd.m3/h).Standardvolumetricflowiscalculatedusing:

Theequationforcorrectedflowis:

Liquidflowmeter(massflowmeterkg/h).Equationforcorrectedflowis:
QMass_Corr=QMass_Meas
Thecorrectionfactorrequiredforcorrectingtheflowmeterreadingisequalto1.
Gasflowmeter(actualvolumetricflowmeasurementact.m3/h).Actualvolumetricflowiscalculatedusing:

Theequationforcorrectedflowis:

Ifthecoriolismeterhasanintegraldensitymeasurementandusestheoperatingdensity(orflowingdensity)inthe
aboveequationsinsteadofdesigndensity,thencorrectionfactorisequalto1.
Gasflowmeter(standardvolumetricflowmeasurementstd.m3/h).Standardvolumetricflowis:

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Theequationforcorrectedflowis:

Gasflowmeter(massflowmeterkg/h).Theequationforcorrectedflowis:
QMass_Corr=QMass_Meas

APPENDIXC:PROPAGATIONOFUNCERTAINTYBYTAYLORSERIES
Thesensitivitycoefficientassociatedwitheachflowvariableisderivedanalyticallybypartialdifferentiationbasedon
uncertaintypropagationbytheTaylorseries[ASMEMFC2M,1983].TherelationshipofdependentvariableQwith
independentvariablesx1,x2,...,xNcanbeexpressedinageneralformas:
Q=f(x1 ,x2,...,xN)
UsingtheTaylorseriestheuncertaintyinQcanbeexpressedas:

Squaringonbothsides,theequationcanbewrittenas:

Giventhatthevariablesareuncorrelated(independent),i.e.,(delta)xi(delta)xj=0(ij),allthevaluesofthe
summationintheaboveequationwillbezero.Therefore,theuncertaintyinQcanbegivenas:

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whichcanberepresentedinasimplerformas:

where(delta)Q/QistheuncertaintyinQ,Sxisthesensitivitycoefficientassociatedwiththevariable,andUxisthe
uncertaintyofthevariable.

APPENDIXD:UNCERTAINITYEQUATIONSFORVORTEX,TURBINE,ULTRASONIC
ANDCORIOLIS
Vortexflowmeteruncertaintyis:

Turbineflowmeteruncertaintyis:

Ultrasonicflowmeteruncertaintyis:

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Coriolisflowmeteruncertaintyis:

NOMENCLATURE
SubscriptDDesignvaluesfromflowmeterspecificationdatasheet
SubscriptMMeasuredvaluesduringplantoperation
MMolecularweight
PPressure,kPaa
PPressuredrop,kPa
QFlowrate
QMass Massflowrate,kg/h
QActVolVolumetricflowrateatactualoperatingconditions,act.m3/h
QStdVolVolumetricflowrateatstandardconditions(15Cand1atm.),std.m3/h
QMass_Meas Measured(readout)massflowratefromtheflowmeter,kg/h
QActVol_Meas Measuredactualvolumetricflowrate(readout)fromtheflowmeter,act.m3/h
QStdVol_Meas Measuredstandardvolumetricflowrate(readout)fromtheflowmeter,std.m3/h
QMass_CorrCorrectedmassflowratefortheflowmeter,kg/h
QActVol_CorrCorrectedactualvolumetricflowratefortheflowmeter,act.m3/h
QStdVol_CorrCorrectedstandardvolumetricflowratefortheflowmeter,std.m3/h
RUniversalgasconstant(R=8.3145kPaam3/kmolK)
SSensitivitycoefficient
TTemperature,K
UUncertainty
U95Uncertaintyat95%confidencelevel
ZCompressibilityfactorforgases(Z=1foridealgas)
sStandarddeviation
rMassdensity,kg/m3
rDDesigndensityatactualconditionsfromflowmeterspecificationdatasheet
rMMeasured(orcalculated)densityatactualconditionsduringoperation
rD_StdDesigndensityatstandardconditionsfromflowmeterspecificationdatasheet
rM_StdMeasureddensityatstandardconditionsduringoperation
Acknowledgments
TheauthorsthanktheircolleagueKenFernie,P.Eng.,forreviewandvaluablecommentsoncustodytransfer
metering,andAndrewNelson,ProductionmanagementmanagerfromMatrikonInc.,hisforreviewandvaluable
inputonflowmeteruncertainties.
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LITERATURECITED
1 Spitzer,D.W.,FlowMeasurement:PracticalGuidesforMeasurementandControl,2ndEdition,Research

TrianglePark,NC:ISA,2001.
2Upp,E.L.andP.J.LaNasa,FluidFlowMeasurement:APracticalGuidetoAccurateFlowMeasurement,Gulf

ProfessionalPublishing,2ndEdition,2002.
3Romagnoli,J.A.andM.C.Sanchez,DataProcessingandReconciliationforChemicalProcessOperations,

ProcessSystemsEngineering,Vol.2,AcademicPress,1stEdition,1999.
4Ozyurt,D.B.andR.W.Pike,TheoryandPracticesofSimultaneousDataReconciliationandGrossErrorDetection

forChemicalProcesses,ComputersandChemicalEngineering,28,pp.381402,2004.
5 ASMEMFC2M,MeasurementUncertaintyforFluidFlowinClosedConduits,AmericanNationalStandard,1983

(Revised2006).
6AGARP31,OrificeMeteringofNaturalGasandOtherRelatedHydrocarbonFluidsPart1GeneralEquations

andUncertaintyGuidelines,AmericanGasAssociation,June2003.(APIMPMS14.31ANSI/API253091Part1
GasProcessorsAssociationGPA8185Part1).
7Yawas,C.L.,etal,EquationforLiquidDensity,HydrocarbonProcessing,Vol.70,No1,January1991,pp.103

106.
8Fisher,C.H.,HowtoPredictnAlkaneDensities,ChemicalEngineering,Vol.96,No10,pp.195,October1989.
9Noor,A.,QuickEstimateofLiquidDensities,ChemicalEngineering,Vol.88,No.7,pp.111,6thApril1981.
10 ASMEMFC3M,MeasurementofFluidFlowinPipesUsingOrifice,NozzleandVenturi,AmericanNational

Standard,2004.
11 ASMEMFC6M,MeasurementofFluidFlowinPipesusingVortexFlowmeters,AmericanNationalStandard,

1998(Revised2005).
12AGARP7,MeasurementofNaturalGasbyTurbineMeters,AmericanGasAssociation,February2006.
13APIMPMS5.3,MeasurementofLiquidHydrocarbonsbyTurbineMeters,AmericanPetroleumInstitute,

September2000.
14ASMEMFC4M,MeasurementofGasFlowbyTurbineMeters,AmericanNationalStandard,1986(Revised

2008).
15 AGARP9,MeasurementofGasbyMultipathUltrasonicMeters,AmericanGasAssociation,April2007.
16APIMPMS5.8,MeasurementofLiquidHydrocarbonsbyUltrasonicFlowMetersUsingTransitTime

Technology,AmericanPetroleumInstitute,February2005.
17ASMEMFC5M,MeasurementofLiquidFlowinClosedConduitsUsingTransitTimeUltrasonicFlowmeters,

AmericanNationalStandard,1985(Revised2006).
18ASMEMFC16M,MeasurementofLiquidFlowinClosedConduitswithElectromagneticFlowmeters,American

NationalStandard,1995(Revised2006).
19AGARP11,MeasurementofNaturalGasbyCoriolisMeter,AmericanGasAssociation,January2003.
20 APIMPMS5.6,MeasurementofLiquidHydrocarbonsbyCoriolisMeters,AmericanPetroleumInstitute,

October2002.
21 ASMEMFC11M,MeasurementofFluidFlowbyMeansofCoriolisMassFlowmeters,AmericanNational

Standard,1989(Revised2003).

Theauthors

SubodhsenPeramanuhasmorethan15yearsofexperienceinconceptual,frontenddesignand
detailedengineeringofupgradingandrefiningprocesses.Hehasauthoredpapersontopicsincluding
hydrogenseparationandeconomics,bitumencharacterization,andasphaltenesolubilityand
reversibility.Dr.PeramanuwasinvolvedincommissioningandstartupofCNRLHorizonUpgrader
andisworkingwithCNRLThermalTeamasaseniorengineeringspecialistoninsituoilrecovery.He
holdsaBChemEngdegreeinchemicalengineeringfromInstituteofChemicalTechnology(formerly
UDCT),Mumbai,MTechdegreefromIndianInstituteTechnology,KanpurandPhDfromUniversityof
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Calgary.

JuonWahscareerinprocessengineeringspansmorethan30yearsandcoversconceptualdesign,
FEED,EPCanddetailedprocessandequipmentdesignofmajorprojectsinrefining,bitumen
upgradingandoilandgasproductionfacilities.Atpresent,Mr.Wahisaconsultantonprocessdesign
andplantoperations.Atthetimeofwriting,hewasworkingonanexpansionprojectfortheHorizon
UpgradingcomplexofCNRL.Mr.WahholdsaBScdegreeinchemicalengineeringfromtheUniversity
ofBirmingham,UK,andaDiplmedIngnieurinchemicalengineeringandpetroleumrefiningfrom
theIFP,France.

AnatoliyPavlov
10.12.2015
Iwouldliketosuggestuseofanewheattype(noknownThermalMass)fastactinggasliquidMASSFLOWMETER
forimmersioninunsteadyflow.DetailsinEmail:[email protected].
C.Voigt
11.11.2014
DearSir,
couldyoupleasesentmethroughthenamesofthestandardswhichhavebeenusedtocalculatethecorrectionfactor
forgasflowatstdm3/hrintable1?Thankyouverymuchinadvance,
C.Voigt
SHASHIKANTDAWALKAR
02.23.2014
DearSir,
Pleaseletmeknowtheprincipleofcorrectionfactorappliedinthemeasurementofcorrectionfactorandthe
calculationofcorrectionfactorforvolumentricflowthroughorificemeter.
WithRegards
RichardvonBrecht
01.20.2013
Thisisanamazingarticle.tome.I'munfamiliarwithsomeofthenomenclature.I'dbeinterestedseeinganexpanded
versionofyourpaper.
MuhammadFarhatUllah
12.19.2011
Itisreallyhandyandvaluablearticle.Thanks
WilliamBlanco
12.07.2011
Tobothofyou,excellentandvaluablework

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