Foraminifera

Dr. Mohamed Youssef Ali

South Valley University

Faculty of Science
Geology Department
Micropaleontology (Foraminifera)

Dr. Mohamed Youssef Ali

Foraminifera

Dr. Mohamed Youssef Ali

Course contents:

1- Itroduction, History of study, applications, Preparation

techniques.
2- Range, living foraminifera, biology, life cycle.
3- Classification, test morphology (wall structure).
4-

Test

morphology

(chamber

shape,

chamber

arrangement).
5- Test morphology (aperture and openings, Pores,
ornamentation).
6- Ecology.

Further readings:
1- Elements of micropaleontology; Bignot, G. 1985.
2- Microfossils; M. D. Brasier, 1992.
3- Introduction to marine micropaleontology; (eds) Bilal U.
Haq & Anne Boersma, 1983.
4- Foraminifera; John R. Haynes, 1981.
5- Internet sites (Yahoo and google search).

Foraminifera

Dr. Mohamed Youssef Ali

Kingdom: Protista
Subkingdom: Protozoa
Phylum: Sarcomastigophora
Subphylum: Sarcodina
Super class: Rhizopoda
Class: Granuloreticulosea
Order: Foraminiferida (foraminifera).
Introduction:
The order foraminiferida or foraminifera as they are
informally called forms the most important group of microfossils for
two reasons: first, they are abundant in rocks and there are
numerous species; second they provide valuable information in the
dating of strata and the reconstruction of sedimentary environments.
Foraminifera are an order of single-celled protests that live
either on the sea floor or amongst the marine plankton. The soft
tissue (protoplasm) of the foraminiferid cell is largely enclosed within
a shell (test) variously composed of secreted minerals (calcite,
aragonite or silica) or of agglutinated particles. This test consists of a
single chamer or several chambers mostly less than 1 mm across and

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Dr. Mohamed Youssef Ali

each interconnected by an opening (foramen) or several openings

(foramina). Foraminifera are known from early Cambrian times
through to recent times.
Foraminifera are found in all marine environments, they may be
planktic or benthic in mode of life. The generally accepted
classification of the foraminifera is based on that of Loeblich and
Tappan

(1964).

Unpicking

this

nomenclature

tells

us

that

foraminifera are testate (that is possessing a shell), protozoa, (single

celled organisms characterised by the absence of tissues and organs),
which possess granuloreticulose pseudopodia (these are thread-like
extensions of the ectoplasm often including grains or tiny particles of
various materials).

History of Study:
The study of foraminifera has a long history; their first recorded
"mention" is in Herodotus (fifth century BC) who noted that the
limestone of the Egyptian pyramids contained the large benthic
foraminifer Nummulites. In 1835 Dujardin recognized foraminifera
as protozoa and shortly afterwards d'Orbigny produced the first
classification. The famous 1872 HMS Challenger cruise , the first
scientific oceanographic research expedition to sample the ocean
floor collected so many samples that several scientists, including
foraminiferologists such as H.B. Brady were still working on the
material well in to the 1880's. Work on foraminifera continued
throughout the 20th century, workers such as Cushman in the U.S.A
and Subbotina in the Soviet Union developed the use of foraminifera

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Dr. Mohamed Youssef Ali

as biostratigraphic tools. Later in the 20th century Loeblich and

Tappan and Bolli carried out much pioneering work.

Applications

As previously mentioned, foraminifera have been utilized for

biostratigraphy for many years, and they have also proven invaluable
in

palaeoenvironmental

palaeoceanographical

reconstructions
and

most

recently

palaeoclimatological

for

purposes.

Forexample palaeobathymetry, where assemblage composition is

used and palaeotemperature where isotope analysis of foraminifer
tests is a standard procedure. In terms of biostratigraphy,
foraminifera have become extremely useful, different forms have
shown evolutionary bursts at different periods and generally if one
form is not available to be utilized for biostratigraphy another is. For
example preservation of calcareous walled foraminifera is dependent
on the depth of the water column and Carbonate Compensation
Depth (CCD) (the depth below which dissolution of calcium
carbonate exceeds the rate of its deposition), if calcareous walled
foraminifera are therefore not preserved agglutinated forms may be.
The

oldest

rocks

for

which

foraminifera

have

been

biostratigraphically useful are Upper Carboniferous to Permian

strata, which have been zoned using the larger benthic fusulinids.
Planktic

foraminifera

have

become

increasingly

important

biostratigraphic tools, especially as petroleum exploration has

extended to offshore environments of increasing depths. The first and
last occurrence of distinctive "marker species" from the Cretaceous

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Dr. Mohamed Youssef Ali

to Recent (particularly during the Upper Cretaceous) has allowed the

development of a well established fine scale biozonation.
Benthic foraminifera have been used for palaeobathymetry since the
1930's and modern studies utilize a variety of techniques to
reconstruct palaeodepths. For studies of relatively recent deposits
simple comparison to the known depth distribution of modern extant
species is used. For older material changes in species diversity,
planktic to benthic ratios, shell-type ratios and test morphology have
all been utilized. Variations in the water temperature inferred from
oxygen isotopes from the test calcite can be used to reconstruct
palaeoceanographic conditions by careful comparison of changes in
oxygen isotope levels as seen in benthic forms (for bottom waters)
and planktic forms(for mid to upper waters). This type of study has
allowed the reconstruction of oceanic conditions during the EoceneOligocene, the Miocene and the Quaternary. Benthic foraminifera
have been divided into morphogroups based on the test shape and
these groups used to infer palaeo-habitats and substrates; infaunal
species tending to be elongate and streamlined in order to burrow
into the substrate and epifaunal species tending to be more globular
with one relatively flatter side in order to facilitate movement on top
of the substrate. It should be remembered, however, that a large
variety of morphologies and possible habitats have been recognized
making such generalizations of only limited use. Studies of modern
foraminifera have recognized correlations between test wall type (for
instance porcelaneous, hyaline, agglutinated), palaeodepths and
salinity by plotting them onto triangular diagrams.

Foraminifera

Dr. Mohamed Youssef Ali

Preparation Techniques

WARNING: Please remember all preparation techniques require the

use of hazardous materials and equipment and should only be
carried out in properly equiped laboratories, wearing the correct
safety clothing and under the supervision of qualified staff.
Foraminifera range in size from several millimeters to a few tens of
microns and are preserved in a variety of rock types. The
preparation techniques used depend on the rock type and the
"predicted" type of foraminifera one expects to find. Very hard
rocks such as many limestones are best thin sectioned as in normal
petrological studies, except instead of grinding to a set thickness
(commonly 30 microns) the sample is ground very carefully by hand
until the optimum thickness is obtained for each individual sample.
This is a skilled job and requires expensive equipment but provides
excellent results and is particularly used in the study of larger
benthic foraminifera from reef type settings.
Planktic and smaller benthic foraminifera are prepared by crushing
the sample into roughly five millimeter fragments. The crushed
sample is then placed in a strong glass beaker or similar vessel and
water and washing soda or 6% hydrogen peroxide added, left to
stand and then heated and allowed to simmer. The length of time the
sample is left to simmer depends on the rock type involved and if
peroxide is used the sample should not be left immersed in the
solution for more than about half an hour. Next, the material is
washed through a 63 micron sieve untill the liquid coming through
the sieve is clean (i.e. the clay fraction has been removed). The
sample can then be dried and sieved into fractions (generally 63-125

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Dr. Mohamed Youssef Ali

microns, 125-250 microns, 250-500 microns and greater than 500

microns) using a "nest" of dry sieves. Care must be taken to clean all
sieves and materials used between the preparations of each sample to
prevent contamination.

Observation Techniques
Thin sections are viewed using transmitted-light petrological
type microscopes. Washed, dried fossil samples can be picked from
any remaining sediment using a fine brush and a reflected light,
binocular microscope. The best method is to scatter a fine dusting of
sieved sediment on to a black tray divided into squares, this can then
be scanned under the microscope and any foraminifera preserved in
the sediment can be picked out with a fine brush (preferably a 000
sable-haired brush). The picked specimens can then be mounted in
card slides divided into numbered squares with sliding glass covers.
Gum tragocanth was traditionally used to attach the specimens to the
slides but modern office-type paper adhesives are now used.

Foraminifera

Dr. Mohamed Youssef Ali

Range:
Foraminifera have a geological range from the earliest Cambrian to
the present day. The earliest forms which appear in the fossil record

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Dr. Mohamed Youssef Ali

(the allogromiine) have organic test walls or are simple agglutinated

tubes. The term "agglutinated" refers to the tests formed from
foreign particles "glued" together with a variety of cements.
Foraminifera with hard tests are scarce until the Devonian, during
which period the fusulinids began to flourish culminating in the
complex fusulinid tests of the late Carboniferous and Permian times;
the fusulinids died out at the end of the Palaeozoic. The miliolids first
appeared in the early Carboniferous, followed in the Mesozoic by the
appearance and radiation of the rotalinids and in the Jurassic the
textularinids. The earliest forms are all benthic, planktic forms do
not appear in the fossil record until the Mid Jurassic in the strata of
the northern margin of Tethys and epicontinental basins of Europe.
They were probably meroplanktic (planktic only during late stages of
their life cycle). The high sea levels and "greenhouse" conditions of
the Cretaceous saw a diversification of the planktic foraminifera, and
the major extinctions at the end of the Cretaceous included many
planktic foraminifera forms. A rapid evolutionary burst occurred
during the Palaeocene with the appearance of the planktic
globigerinids and globorotalids and also in the Eocene with the large
benthic foraminifera of the nummulites, soritids and orbitoids. The
orbitoids died out in the Miocene, since which time the large
foraminifera have dwindled. Diversity of planktic forms has also
generally declined since the end of the Cretaceous with brief
increases during the warm climatic periods of the Eocene and
Miocene.

Foraminifera

Dr. Mohamed Youssef Ali

Living Foraminifera:
Foraminifera are unicellular organisms belonging to the rhizopod
protozoa (protista). Their protoplasm, differentiated into endoplasm
and ectoplasm, is emitted in the form of retractile pseudopodia,
which are granular, anastomosing filaments. These are used in
catching prey.

From Stanley (1993)

Biology
Studies of living foraminifera, in controlled laboratory
environments, have provided limited information regarding trophic
strategies but much has been inferred by relating test morphology to
habitat. Foraminifera utilize a huge variety of feeding mechanisms,
as evidenced by the great variety of test morphologies that they

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Dr. Mohamed Youssef Ali

exhibit. From the variety of trophic habits and test morphologies a

few generalisations may be made. Branching benthic foraminifera
such as Notodendrodes antarctikos, which resembles a microscopic
tree, absorbs dissolved organic matter via a "root" system. Other
sessile benthic foraminifera exhibit test morphologies dependent on
the substrate on or in which they live, many are omnivorous
opportunistic feeders and have been observed to consume
autotrophic

and

heterotrophic

protists

(including

other

foraminifera), metazoans and detritus. Some suspension feeding

foraminifera utilize their pseudopodia to capture food from the water
column, or interstitial pore waters, Elphidium crispum forms a
"spider's web" between the stipes of coralline algae. Infaunal forms
are probably detritivores and commonly have elongate tests to
facilitate movement through the substrate. Benthic and planktonic
foraminifera which inhabit the photic zone often live symbiotically
with photosynthesising algae such as dinoflagellates, diatoms and
chlorophytes. It is thought the large benthic, discoidal and fusiform
foraminifera attain their large size in part because of such
associations. Foraminifera are preyed upon by many different
organisms including worms, crustacea, gastropods, echinoderms, and
fish. It should be remembered that the biocoenosis (life assemblage)
will be distorted by selective destruction by predators.

Foraminifera

Dr. Mohamed Youssef Ali

Life Cycle:

Of the approximately 4000 living species of foraminifera the life

cycles of only 20 or so are known. There is a great variety of
reproductive, growth and feeding strategies, however the alternation
of sexual and asexual generations is common throughout the group
and this feature differentiates the foraminifera from other members
of the Granuloreticulosea. An asexually produced haploid generation
commonly forms a large proloculus (initial chamber) and are
therefore

termed

megalospheric.

Sexually

produced

diploid

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Dr. Mohamed Youssef Ali

generations tend to produce a smaller proloculus and are therefore

termed microspheric. Importantly in terms of the fossil record, many
foraminiferal tests are either partially dissolved or partially
disintegrate

during

the

reproductive

process.The

planktonic

foraminifera Hastigerina pelagica reproduces by gametogenesis at

depth, the spines, septa and apertural region are resorbed leaving a
tell-tale test. Globigerinoides sacculifer produces a sac-like final
chamber and additional calcification of later chambers before
dissolution of spines occurs, this again produces a distinctive test,
which once gametogenesis is complete sinks to the sea bed.

Classification

Foraminifera are classified primarily on the composition

and morphology of the test. Three basic wall compositions are
recognised, organic (protinaceous mucopolysaccharide i.e. the
allogromina), agglutinated and secreted calcium carbonate (or more
rarely silica). Agglutinated forms, i.e the Textulariina, may be
composed of randomly accumulated grains or grains selected on the
basis of specific gravity, shape or size; some forms arrange particular
grains in specific parts of the test. Secreted test foraminifera are
again subdivided into three major groups, microgranular (i.e.
Fusulinina),

porcelaneous

(i.e.

Miliolina)

and

hyaline

(i.e.

Globigerinina). Microgranular walled forms (commonly found in the

late Palaeozoic) are composed of equidimensional subspherical grains
of crystalline calcite. Porcelaneous forms have a wall composed of
thin inner and outer veneers enclosing a thick middle layer of crystal

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Dr. Mohamed Youssef Ali

laths, hey are imperforate and made from high magnesium calcite.

The hyaline foraminifera add a new lamella to the entire test each
time a new chamber is formed; various types of lamellar wall
structure have been recognised, the wall is penetrated by fine pores
and hence termed perforate. A few "oddities" are also worth
mentioning, the Suborder Spirillinina has a test constructed of an
optically single crystal of calcite, the Suborder Silicoloculinina as the
name suggests has a test composed of silica. Another group (the
Suborder Involutina) have a two chambered test composed of
aragonite. The Robertinina also have a test composed of aragonite

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Dr. Mohamed Youssef Ali

and the Suborder Carterina is believed to secrete spicules of calcite

which are then weakly cemented together to form the test.

Test Morphology:

Foraminifera are animals which build a shell; and for paleontologists

the characterstics of the shell are the primary features which can be
used to distinguish one species from another.

Wall Structure:
The most readily obvious featuredistingushing one foraminifer from
another is its wall type. Whether the foraminifer builds its test wall
by

cementing

together

exogenous

grains,

by

carbonate

mineralization, or by some combination of these two processes

separates the three primary foraminiferal groups, the agglutinated,
the calcareous, and the microgranular foraminifera.

Agglutinated wall structure

In these, organic and mineral matter from the sea floor is bound
together by an organic, calcareous or ferric oxide cement. The grains
are commonly selected for size, texture or composition (e.g.
coccoliths, sponge, spicules and heavy minerals). Other agglutinated
forms are non-selective and will employ any particle from a substrate
as long as it lies in the appropriate size range.

Foraminifera

Dr. Mohamed Youssef Ali

Microgranular walls
Microgranular walls evolved during the Paleozoic and are considered
the link between the agglutinated and the precipitated tests in
foraminifera. Microgranular particles of calcite cemented by a
calcareous cement characterize this wall type and give it a sugary
appearance.

Calcareous walls- hyaline type

Calcareous wall may be composed of either low or high Mg calcite, or
aragonite which is confined to only two foraminiferal families.
Hyaline calcareous tests are characterized by the possession of
minute perforation in the test wall. The calcareous hyaline are
generally glassy (hyaline) when viewed with reflected light and grey
to clear in transmitted light.

Calcareous walls- porcelaneous type

The term porcelaneous derives from the shiny, smooth appearance of
the tests and is the result of the orientation of submicroscopic
crystalline may be randomly arranged or organized in brick-like
patterns, but both patterns give the test a smooth, opaque
appearance (milky white) in polarized light. Both in shallow-marine
and in deeper environments porcelaneous tests are often composed of
calcite with high proportion of Mg.

Foraminifera

Dr. Mohamed Youssef Ali

Chamber shape and chamber arrangement:

Foraminiferal tests may posses one or more chambers. The
initial chamber is most often spherical or oblate with an aperture.
Later chambers range in shape from tubular, spherical, ovate to
several others. Additional chambers are added in a variety of
patterns termed chamber arrangements:
1- Uniserial: the chamber arranged in a single row; if it forms a
curved row, it is termed arcute; if a straight series, it is termed
rectilinear.
2- Biserial: the chambers arranged in a double row.

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Dr. Mohamed Youssef Ali

3- Triserial: Chambers are added every 120o in a spiral fashion.

4- Polyserial: the chambers arranged in a multiple row.
5- Planispiral: the chamber arranged spirally around an axis of
coiling and the spiral lies in a single plane.

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Dr. Mohamed Youssef Ali

6- Trochospiral: when the spiral does not lie in one plane, but
progresses up up the axis of coiling, the chamber arrangement
becomes helicoidal.
7- The Miliolidae have a streptospiral arrangement. The arched
chambers, tangential at their two extremities with the extension axis,
are arranged in cycles of five, three or two loculi or one loculus. Each
new chamber has its aperture facing the aperture of the the
preceding chamber.

When a series of chambers is arranged spirally or coiled about an

axis, the chambers involved in one complete revolution are termed a
whorl or coil. The degree to which one whorl covers, or hides a
previous one, is known as the degree of involution. Where the
majority of the previous coils are hidden, a species is termed involute,
while evolute if the majority of the previous coils are visible.
On a coiled test the side of the foraminifer showing the trace of the
coil, or spiral, is termed the spiral side. The opposite side is termed
the umbilical side. The umbilicus, the axial space between the inner

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Dr. Mohamed Youssef Ali

wall margins of the chambers belonging to the same coil, may not
necessarily be present. The area where one chamber meets another is
the suture area and represents the line of junction projected to the
surface of the test.

Apertures and openings:

The aperture is the primary opening of the test to the outside
environment. Apertures vary in size and shape and the shape is most
often a function of the shape of the chamber on which they are
located. The aperture is found in the wall of the final chamber and
serves to connect the external pseudopodia with the internal
endoplasm, allowing passage of food and contractile vacuoles, nuclei
and release of the dauther cells.
Aperture may be single or multible in number and terminal, areal,
basal extraumbilical, umbilical or sutural in position. Their shape
varies widely, e.g. rounded, bottle-necked (phialine), radiate,
dendritic, sieve-like (cribrate), circular form, slit- or loop- shaped.

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Dr. Mohamed Youssef Ali

Sculpture:
The external surface of the test may bear spines (termed
spinose), keels (carinate), rugae (rugose), fine striae (striate), coarser
costae (costate), granules (granulate).

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Dr. Mohamed Youssef Ali

Ecology:
During life, forams are either benthonic of planktic,
relying on their pseudopodia for both locomotion and creating
water currents for food gathering. Benthic forms inhabiting
shallow to deep water environments can be recognized by their
larger size, thick heavily ornamented walls, and less "globular"
shape. Planktic forams are recognized by their thin, and often
perforated, tests and globular inflated chambers. You should be
able to recognize the difference between the two types of
forams.

Planktonics

Benthonics

Numerous foraminifera inhabit the benthic environment. Some move

freely over the sea-bed or in the first few millimeters of sediment.
Others use their pseudopodia or calcareous secretions to attach
themselves to supports such as rocks, shells and seaweed. Most are
marine and stenohaline (they can tolerate only very small variations
in the salinity of the water). Certain groups, however, having a
porcelaneous test (e.g. the milolines) can live equally well in
hyperhaline environments (lagoons with a salinity 35 Parts per mile
(). Certain types such as the agglutinates (e.g. Eggerella) and
hyalines (Nonion) prefer water with a low salinity e.g. brackish

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Dr. Mohamed Youssef Ali

lagoons and estuaries. Still others (e.g. Trochammina and Eliphidium)

can adjust to considerable variations in salinity and may be found in
all environments with the expception of lakes where foraminifera
never live. Foraminifera are used to interpret past water depth, since
depth-and space related parameters are of greatest significance, the
foraminifera occupying different levels according to local values for
temperature, oxygen content, light, etc. As a general role, species
with a hyaline test occur everywhere but in the deepest areas. Species
with agglutinated testes are similarly ubiquitous but they alone
survive at depth below 4000 to 5000 m.

Ecology
The physical environment of the ocean basins, the chemical
constitution and dynamics of sea water, and all of the organisms
dwelling in the ocean comprise the marine ecosystem. Indicator
faunas have become one of the several indices that can be used to
characterize a particualr environment. Other indices now used
include the planktic to benthic (P/B) ratio, the ostraacode to
foraminifera ratio, the calcareous to agglutinated ratio, the
percentage of various families present, divirsity indices.
Physical variables
There is a combination of variables that controls the distribution of
individual foram. Water depth, Temperature, etc. Temperature is
one of the most important and easily determined variables affecting
benthics. Foraminifera are found living at temperatures from 1 to
over 50C. some variables affecting foraminiferal distribution
undirectly like hydrostatic pressure, light intensity.

Foraminifera

Depth (Km)

0
1

Continental
margin

Dr. Mohamed Youssef Ali

Maximum number of species

Maximum number of individuals

Planktonic species

Calcareous species dominance

Agglutinated species dominance

Slope

Maximum number of agglutinated species

Beginning of
abyssal plain

Depth distribution of recent benthic foraminifera.

After Bolstovsky & Wright (1976)
Numerous foraminifera inhabit the benthic environment. Some move
freely over the sea-bed or in the first few millimeters of sediment.
Others use their pseudopdia or calcareous secretions to attach
themselves to supports such as rocks, shells and seaweed. Most are
marine and stenohaline. Certain groups, however, having a
porcelaneous test (milioline) can live equally well in hyperhaline
environments (lagoons with salinity > 35 parts per mile ()

Chemical variables
1- Salinity
Foraminifera inhabit environments with salinities ranging from a
typical open ocean value of 35 to as high as 45 . The genus
Discorbinopsis was found to tolerate salinities up to 57 . At the
other extreme, a river and its estuary may have salinities varying
from as low as 15 to .05 and still contain foraminifera. The
lower the salinity of the environments the lower the diversity of the
faunas there.
2- Alkalinity
As a function of the concentration of CO2 in the water, alkalinity is
governed

chiefly

by

temperature,

pressure,

and

biological

respiration. The top 500 m of sea water are said to be saturated with

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Dr. Mohamed Youssef Ali

respect to calcium carbonate which reflects the high alkalinity in this

region. Below 500 m water is considered under saturated with
respect to calcium carbonate. Below this depth the lower alkalinities
tend to cause calcium carbonate to dissolve.

Biotic variables
The study of foraminifera as members of marine communities falls
into the realm of autecology. Such an approach seeks to relate the
foraminifera to the food chain of which it is a part, as well as to
understand the types of relations foraminifera have among
themselves and with other members of the marine communities.
Figures for the density of living benthic foraminifera vary from
1.000 to 2.000.000 individuals per square meter of sea bottom. When
density of individuals becomes great, foraminifera have been
observed to migirate away from the crowded areas.

Planktonic foraminiferal ecology

The distribution and ecology of recent planktonic foraminiferais
essentially similar to that of other zooplankton and is primarly
governed by the availability of food. Planktonics live in the water
column from the surface zone down to depths of over 1.000 m.
distribution of taxa trough the water column may change seasonally.
In cooler seasons or at high latitudes a species may live nearer the
surface than it does in warmer waters or at lower latitudes.
Geographically there are close parallels between the distribution of
planktonic foraminifera in moern oceans and in the past. In general
smaller species are found in colder water masses or at high latitudes
and larger species in warmer water or at low latitudes. Diversity is
lower at high latitude and increase toward the eqyator.

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Dr. Mohamed Youssef Ali

Distribution of recent foraminifera

Foraminifera have been reported from marine environments
extending from tide pools in a marsh to the abyssal plains. Each
environment is characterized by its particular species, their diversity
and densities. We consider that past environments may have
contained

many

analogous

components

and

hence

modern

environmental indicator faunas are carefully applied to the

understanding of both recent and past environments.

Carbonate platforms, reefs and back reefs

Foraminifera occur in coral reefs environments either as adherent
forms (Homotrema) or as epifauna in niches developed within the reef
framework (calcarina, Amphistigina, Marginopora). Smaller benthic
foraminifera are one of the primary contributors to the sediments of
shallow carbonate platforms. They attach to sea weeds and grasses,
algal and coral fragments. Larger foraminifera inhabit these shallow
waters in association with the macroflora which foraminifera use for
protection, and the microflora which the foraminifera use for food.

Brackish environments
Historically foraminifera have been considered predominantly
marine organisms, with primitive or aberrant types inhabiting
freshwater ecosystems. There is a group of foraminifera that occuer
in brackish environments and this brackish-water fauns is
geographically very uniform. Brackish environments are typified by
finer-sized sediments containing abundant plant detritus. The critical
controlling factor in this environment is apparently the low salinity.

Marshes
Foraminifera live from the deepest tidal channels to shallow
ephermal tide pools in the march grass. Marchs and bays are

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Dr. Mohamed Youssef Ali

characteristically areas of high daily and seasonal fluctuations in

temperature, salinity, water depth, turbidity, and water chemistry.in
addition high in organic matter and nutrients and thus support large
biomasses low in diversity.
There is a marked difference between living faunas and faunas
recovered from fossil march sediments. Hyaline, agglutinated and a
few porcelaneous genera characteristically form the living fauna. The
test of the calcareous and porcelaneous genera are frequently thin.
The number of calcareous genera in the sediments, however, is
significantly lower or they are altogether absent; while the number of
agglutinated forms is generally the same in both sediment and living
populations.

Continental shelf and open marine

The shallow shelf is characterized by a small fauna dominated by a
few species, very few of which are agglutinated and none of which are
pelagic. The inner shelf characterized by coarse-grained clean, well
sorted sands containing abundant rounded shell fragments. The
benthic faunas are usually highly dominated by a few species. Test
are small and not strongly ornamented. A few pelagic species, usually
of the genus Globigerina, may be present.
The deep inner shelf contains fine-to medium grained sand, silt,
clay with common glauconitie and mollusk and echinoid remains.
There is an increase in the number of specimen per species. Pelagic
types are more numerous and agglutinated foraminifera increase in
abundance, but still have simple interiors. Middle shelf sediments are
composed of clay, silt, poorly sorted sands, and abundant glauconite.
Species are often highly ornamented, with pelagic types comprising
from 15 to 30% of the total microfauna. Species dominance is low

Foraminifera

Dr. Mohamed Youssef Ali

and the number of species is high. Agglutinated forms have more

complex interior structures.
The outer shelf is characterized by fine grained sediments such
as clays and some glauconite. Species number is high and
ornamentation is strong. Planktonics constitute approximately 50%
of the faunas. Arenaceous foraminifera have complex interiors. The
upper continental slope strongly resembles the outer shelf.
Planktonic foraminfera comprise from 50 to 85% of the microfaunas.
The number of benthic species is large on the abyssal plain, though
there is a dilution effect from dead planktonic tests. Planktonic
foraminifera range from 75% to more than 90% of the microfauna.
The deepst-dwelling, abyssal agglutinated foraminifera are
simple tube-like structures, surrounded by detrital particles held
together loosely by protoplasm. The lack of carbonate in their tests
reflects the absence of carbonate particles in the abyssal red clay
environment.

Total species, calcareous forms,

planktonic/benthic ratio, internal complexity of
arenaceous species, size and shell thickness
of calcareous species.

Abyssal plain
Simple
agglutinated
forms

Lenticulina
Liebusella

Be
nt
h ic

Aphotic

a
rin
ge
s
i
ob o rid
Gl yrg osa
P od
N

Deep Inner
shelf

Nonionella
Siphonina
Qunquiloculina

Middle
shelf

Discorbinella
Eponides
Lenticulina

Outer
shelf
Zo
ne

70-150 m

Inner
shelf

Typical genera of foraminifera

Trends in bathymetry and fossil content of sediments from

the shelf to the abyss.

Brackish
zone
Trochammina
Valvulineria
Ammobaculites

Continental shelf

Most plankton

Bolivina
Bulimina
Discorbis

Photic

Faunal dominance, arenaceous forms