Alipato 23

Problem Solving Strategies

of High School Students on
Non-Routine Problems:
A Case Study
Rina A. Mabilangan, Auxencia A.
Limjap and Rene R. Belecina
Abstract
The main purpose of this study was
to investigate how well certain students in a
university high school solve non-routine
problems. These problem situations required
the use of their conceptual understanding of
mathematics and their procedural knowledge
of the algorithm involved in the solution.
Results of analysis of students solutions
showed that each student employed at least
four problem-solving strategies. Seven out of
the eight possible problem solving strategies
were used at least once to solve the twelve
non-routine problems. When given the
opportunity to use any problem solving
strategy, the students solved non-routine
problems even without prior instruction. The
most frequently used strategy was Making a
Model or Diagram. After evaluating the
students problem solving skills using the
Oregon Mathematics Problem Solving Rubric,
results showed that of the five students,
three had proficient level of conceptual
understanding and procedural knowledge,
one was a transitional problem solver from
apprentice to proficient level of performance,
and one was an apprentice problem solver.
Those who performed well were also
proficient in the use of solution strategies
whereas the transitional problem solvers
were either novice to apprentice or
apprentice to proficient in their use of
solution strategies.

24 Alipato

Introduction

Problem Solving Heuristics

The results of the National Achievement Test (NAT) conducted among

secondary students in a university high
school in the academic year 2009-2010
showed a low performance with a mean
percentage score of only 60.24 in the
Mathematics sub-test. Since most of the
items in the sub-test are application
problems, this reveals the weak problem
solving skills of the students. Considering
that these students belong to the high ability
group in terms of rank in the entrance
examination, this low performance in NAT is
very alarming. An investigation about their
problem solving abilities was therefore,
deemed necessary.

According to Candelaria and Limjap

(2002), a problem solving process is referred
to as a heuristic. For Polya (1945), problem
solving heuristics are not clear-cut rules in
coming up with the correct answers, rather
they are possible solutions for certain
problems. Polya (1957) states that successful
problem solving involves four steps:
a) understanding the problem; b) selecting
strategy; c) solving the problem; and
d) looking back. Students may demonstrate
problem solving strategies with clear and
good reasoning that leads to a successful
resolution of the problem. Krulik and Rudnick
(1996) identified eight strategies (along with
their definitions) that are applicable to
mathematical problem solving at the
secondary level, namely:

Problem solving is regarded as one

of the primary skills that students must take
with them when they leave the classrooms
and enter the real world (Krulik and Rudnick
1996). Aside from developing the critical and
analytical thinking skills of the students, it
promotes conceptual understanding and
meaningful learning in mathematics. Limjap
(1996) reported that as students are given
the opportunity to reflect on their
experiences when they confront problem
situations, they learn to construct their own
ways of reasoning in mathematics. She
further added that the students come to
understand their own learning process and
are able to deal with problem situations
which facilitate their understanding of the
mathematics concepts. However, math
problems may be classified either as routine
problems that directly apply formulas learned
in class or non-routine problems that require
the application of various mathematical
concepts. Non-routine problems help develop
critical and creative thinking among students.
For Candelaria and Limjap (2002), the
development of critical thinking skills essential for problem solving does not necessarily
require direct instruction. Students may
acquire the skill as they interact with their
environment in the school and at home, thus
honing their creative skills as well.

1. Computing or Simplifying (CS) includes

straightforward application of arithmetic
rules, order of operations, and other
procedures.
2. Using a Formula (F) involves substituting
values into a formula or selecting the
proper formula to use.
3. Making a Model or Diagram (MD)
includes use of objects, drawings, acting
out, or writing an equation.
4. Making a Table, Chart, or List (TCL)
involves organizing the data by making a
table, chart, graph, or list.
5. Guessing, Checking, and Revising (GCR)
involve making a reasonable guess,
checking the guess, and revising the
guess, if necessary.
6. Considering a Simpler Case (SC) includes
rewording the problem, using smaller
numbers, using a more familiar problem
setting, dividing the problem into simpler
problems, or working backwards.

7. Eliminating (E) involves eliminating

possible solutions based on information
presented in the problem or elimination
of incorrect answers.

Alipato 25
8. Looking for Patterns (LP) involves
determining certain common characterristics that can be generalized and used
to solve the problem.
It should be noted that problem
solving requires the use of many skills, often
in certain combinations, before the problem
is solved. Strategies used to solve problems
are not explicitly taught by teachers.
Circumstantial evidence has suggested that
the range of heuristics taught by the
teachers are usually limited and the types of
problems given in class are usually those
found in the textbooks, referred to as routine
problems. Students in this study are taught
the use of diagram/model heuristics as well
as common heuristics like guess and check,
listing and working backwards.
In order to enhance the problem
solving skills of students, teachers can
expose them to unfamiliar problematic
situations that challenge their heuristics.
This can be accomplished using non-routine
problems.
Non-routine problems provide a large
room for varied solutions, strategies, and
approaches in problem solving. Also, they
provide students with a realistic situation in
which they will be using higher order
thinking skills such as application, synthesis
and creation.
A students understanding of nonroutine problems described by the Oregon
Department of Education (1991) consists of
the following:
a) Conceptual Understanding
includes the ability to interpret the problem
and select appropriate concepts and
information to apply a strategy for solution.
Evidence is communicated through making
connections between the problem situation,
relevant information, appropriate
mathematical concepts, and logical/
reasonable responses.

b) Procedural knowledge deals with

the student's ability to demonstrate
appropriate use of algorithms. Evidence
includes the verifying and justifying of a
procedure using concrete models, or the
modifying of procedures to deal with factors
inherent to the problem.
c) Problem Solving Skills and
Strategies includes clearly focused good
reasoning and insightful thinking that leads
to a successful resolution of the problem.
Conceptual understanding is
manifested by an integrated and functional
grasp of mathematical ideas. Students with
conceptual understanding know more than
isolated facts and methods. They understand
the importance of a mathematical idea and
how it is applied in certain situations. They
have organized their knowledge into a
coherent whole, enabling them to see the
connections of new ideas with what they
already know.
Students who have conceptual
understanding of mathematical ideas retain
those ideas because of the relationships and
connections involved. Hence, they find it
easy to reconstruct the ideas that they
forget. Those who understand only the
method oftentimes remember it incorrectly.
Those who understand the concept monitor
what they remember and try to figure out if
it makes sense. They may attempt to explain
the method to themselves and correct it if
necessary. Evidence of conceptual understanding is found in the students ability to
verbalize connections among concepts and
representations. However, conceptual understanding does not need to be explicit since
most students understand before they can
verbalize that understanding.
Devlin (2007) defined conceptual
understanding as "the comprehension of
mathematical concepts, operations, and
relations," which elaborates the question but
does not really answer it. He believed that,
an important component of mathematics
education, is achieving conceptual understanding. He noted that many mathematical
concepts can be understood only after the

26 Alipato
learner has acquired procedural skill in using
the concept. In such cases, learning can take
place only by first learning to follow symbolic
rules, with understanding emerging later,
sometimes considerably later. Devlin (2007)
also agreed with practically everyone that
procedural skills not eventually accompanied
by some form of understanding are brittle
and easily lost. He also believed that the
need for rule-based skill acquisition before
conceptual understanding can develop is in
fact the norm for more advanced parts of
Mathematics (Calculus and beyond), and he
was not convinced on the idea that it is
possible to proceed otherwise in all of the
more elementary parts of the subject.
Ben-Hur (2006) defined procedural
knowledge as knowledge of formal language
or symbolic representations. It involves the
ability to solve problems through the
manipulation of mathematical skills with the
help of pencil and paper, calculator,
computer, and so forth. In an article by
G. Wiesen (2003), procedural knowledge is
defined as the type of knowledge someone
has and demonstrates through the procedure
of doing something.
Problem solving skills and strategies
consist of a utilization of the appropriate
basic thinking skills and higher order thinking
skills needed to solve the problem. This
includes flexibility in the choice of the
strategy to be employed, openness to try
different strategies and self regulation while
solving the problem. Since students with this
skill are clearly focused on the resolution of
the problem, they can recognize the
accuracy and reasonableness of the answer.

Purpose of the Study

This study was conducted to investigate the problem solving strategies of five
(5) third year students of a university high
school. It aimed to answer the following
questions:
1. What is the level of performance of the
students on non-routine problems in
terms of the following:

a. Conceptual Understanding?
b. Procedural Knowledge?
c. Problem Solving Skills and Strategies?
2. What problem solving strategies do
students belonging to the same level of
performance use in solving non-routine
problems?

Methodology
This research utilized the descriptive
research design to examine and classify the
problem solving strategies of high school
students in solving non-routine problems.
The study was conducted in a
university high school. Five (5) participants,
3 males and 2 females were chosen among
the 124 third year students of the school.
They were randomly chosen from all sections
of Math classes in the third year level.
Twelve non-routine problems from
the sourcebook of Krulik and Rudnick (1996)
were used to determine the different
strategies of the students. The questions and
evaluation criteria were validated by three
university professors and two public school
teachers. The profiles of the students were
collected. The Oregon Mathematics Problem
Solving Rubrics, (Oregon Department of
Education 1991) were used to evaluate
students conceptual understanding,
procedural knowledge and problem solving
strategies and skills. The problem solving
performance of the students were classified
as proficient, apprentice, and
novice (tables 1 to 3).
Full Conceptual Understanding is
characterized by the ability of the students to
recognize the essence of the problem. They
can see the relations of the given information
and represent those relations mathematically. They are able to recognize the
appropriateness of the answers that they
obtained. Different levels of conceptual
understanding are classified in table 1.

Alipato 27
TABLE 1 Classification of the different levels of conceptual understanding
Full Conceptual
Understanding (Proficient)

Partial Conceptual
Understanding (Apprentice)

Lack of Conceptual
Understanding (Novice)

The student uses all

relevant information to
solve the problem.

The student extracts the

The student's solution is
essence of the problem, but is inconsistent or unrelated to the
unable to use this information to question.
solve the problem.

The student is able to

translate the problem into
appropriate mathematical
language.

The student is only partially able The student translates the

to make connections between/
problem into inappropriate
among the concepts.
mathematical concepts.

The student's answer is

consistent with the
question/problem.

The student's solution is not fully The student uses incorrect

related to the question.
procedures without understanding the concepts related to the
task.
The student understands one
portion of the task, but not the
complete task.

Aside from representing the problem mathematically, students should be able to employ
the appropriate steps and procedures in the solution of the problem. Correct algorithm is
needed to arrive at the precise answer as indicated in table 2.
TABLE 2 Classification of the use of procedural knowledge
Full Use of Appropriate
Procedures (Proficient)

Partial Use of Appropriate

Procedures (Apprentice)

Lacks Use of Appropriate

Procedures (Novice)

The student uses principles

efficiently while justifying the
solutions.

The student is not precise in

using mathematical terms,
principles, or procedures.

The student uses unsuitable

methods or simple manipulation of data in his/her
attempted solution.

The student uses appropriate

mathematical terms and
strategies.

The student is unable to carry

out a procedure completely.

The student fails to eliminate

unsuitable methods or
solutions.

The student solves and verifies The process the student uses
the problem.
to verify the solution is
incorrect.

The student misuses principles

or translates the problem into
inappropriate procedures.

The student uses mathematical principles and language

precisely.

The student fails to verify the

solution.

To evaluate the over-all problem solving performance of the students for the 12
problems, a point system was used: 5 points for Proficient, 3 points for Apprentice, and 1 point
for Novice. A score of 2 was assigned to work that exceeded criteria for a score of 1, but did not
meet criteria for a score of 3. Similarly, a score of 4 was assigned to work that exceeded criteria
for a score of 3, but did not meet criteria for a score of 5.

28 Alipato
Problem Solving Skills and Strategies are categorized into three (Oregon Department of
Education 1991):
TABLE 3 Classification of problem solving skills and strategies
Thorough/Insightful Use of Partial Use of Skills/Strategies
Skills/Strategies (Proficient) (Apprentice)

Limited Skills/Strategies (Novice)

The skills and strategies

show some evidence of
insightful thinking to
explore the problem.

The skills and strategies have

some focus, but clarity is
limited.

The skills and strategies lack a

central focus and the details are
sketchy or nor present.

The student's work is clear

and focused.

The student applies a strategy

which is only partially useful.

The procedures are not recorded

(i.e., only the solution is
present).

The skills/strategies are

appropriate and
demonstrate some
insightful thinking.

The student starts the problem Strategies are random. The

appropriately, but changes to an student does not fully explore
incorrect focus.
the problem and look for
concepts, patterns or
relationships.

The student gives possible

extensions or generalizations to the solution or the
problem.

The student recognizes the

pattern or relationship, but
expands it incorrectly.

The student fails to see

alternative solutions that the
problem requires.

The students problem solving schema is characterized by their ability to demonstrate

deep thinking about the problem. Students should be able to recognize the relationships of the
given data and employ the appropriate strategy.

Results and Discussion

Results of this study are presented and discussed in two parts. The first part consists of
sample problem solutions actually given by the students that exhibit their different levels of
performance in terms of conceptual understanding, procedural knowledge, and problem solving
skills and strategies. The second part consists of the evaluation of the levels of performance of
the five participants of the study.
Problem Solutions that Exhibit Conceptual Understanding

Proficient. To be proficient in conceptual understanding, the student must have used all
relevant information to solve the problem. That is, the students answer is consistent with the
question or problem and the student is able to translate the problem into appropriate
mathematical language.
The work of Student D in problem number 2 illustrates this as shown in figure 1.
Student D thoroughly investigated the situation and was able to use all applicable information
related to problem number 2, like listing the equivalent points for correct, wrong and no
answer. Moreover, she tested if the numbers would satisfy the condition. Finally, she came up
with the correct greatest possible number of questions the boy had answered correctly in a
quiz.

Alipato 29

Fig. 1. Student Ds solution to problem number 2.

Apprentice. An apprentice in conceptual understanding is one who extracts the essence

of the problem, but is unable to use this information to solve the problem. It could be that the
student is only partially able to make connections between or among the concepts; the
students solution is not fully related to the question; or the student understands one portion of
the task, but not the complete task.
The work of Student E in problem 6 illustrates an apprentice understanding of concepts.
Student E seemed to understand one portion of the problem, but not the complete task as
revealed in her solution. Student E failed to analyze properly the question: How many actual
hours elapsed during the interval the watch shows 12 noon to 12 midnight? She forgot to add
12 and 3 that will result to the correct answer which is 15 hours. She even added another 15
minutes to 3 hours without noticing that she was already on the 12th hour.

Fig. 2. Student Es solution to problem number 6.

30 Alipato

Novice. If a students solution is inconsistent or unrelated to the question, then the

student is rated as novice in conceptual understanding. This means that the student
translates the problem into inappropriate mathematical concepts or the student uses incorrect
procedures without understanding the concepts related to the task.
Figure 3 shows how Student B used incorrect procedures. His mathematical statements like
34+64 = 120 show his lack of skill in basic mathematical operations. All other statements were
not derived from correct analysis of the given information.

Fig. 3. Student Bs solution to problem number 7.

Problem Solutions that Exhibit Procedural Knowledge

Proficient. Students who use the mathematical principles and language correctly to solve
the problems are classified as proficient in procedural knowledge. Figure 4 illustrates the
proficient work of Student A in problem 6. He used appropriate mathematical terms and
strategies. He efficiently solved the problem with a good analysis of the given information.

Fig. 4. Student As solution to problem number 6.

Alipato 31

Apprentice. A student who is unable to carry out a procedure completely or incorrectly

verifies the solution is said to have an apprentice procedural knowledge.
Figure 5 illustrates the work of Student B in problem 6 assessed as apprentice. The
inadequacy of Student Bs solution is very evident. He failed to realize that the product of 42
and 42 was incorrect as shown in his solution.

Fig. 5. Student Bs solution to problem number 5.

Novice. Students who fail to apply the appropriate procedure, use unsuitable methods
or simple manipulation of data in their attempted solution are rated as novice in procedural
knowledge. The work of Student A in problem number 1 illustrates this. Student A failed to
verify his solution as shown in figure 6. His difference of 150 and 88 is 42 instead of 62.
Everything else was wrong after that careless mistake.

Fig. 6. Student As solution to problem number 1.

32 Alipato
Problem Solutions that Exhibit Problem Solving Strategies
Problem solving requires the use of many skills, often in certain combinations, before
the problem is solved. Students demonstrate problem solving strategies with clearly focused
solution and good reasoning that lead to a successful resolution of the problem.

Proficient. A proficient rating in problem solving skills and strategies shows evidence of
insightful thinking to explore the problem. Some evidences include a clear and focused work,
appropriate skills and strategies, extensions and generalizations to the solution of the problem.
The work of Student D in problem number 3 illustrates this. Student Ds insightful thinking to explore the problem was evident. Her good reasoning skills were further demonstrated in
her solution as shown in figure 7. She has a clear and focused work when she had a table/list of
team members and considered the conditions on each of them.

Fig. 7. Student Ds solution to problem number 3.

Apprentice. An apprentice in problem solving skills and strategies is one whose skills
and strategies have some focus, but clarity is limited. A student shows routine or partial use of
skills and strategies if the student applies a strategy which is only partially useful; the students
strategy is not fully executed; the student starts the problem appropriately, but changes to an
incorrect focus; or the student recognizes the pattern or relationship, but proceeds incorrectly.
The work of Student B in problem number 10 illustrates this as shown in figure 8.
Student B had some focus on the problem since he knew that the sum must be exactly 150. He
had a strategy that was partially useful and possible source of partially correct answer. Student
B failed to exhaust the number of 13s in 150.

Alipato 33

Fig. 8. Student Bs solution to problem number 10.

Novice. If the skills and strategies lack a central focus and the details are sketchy and
not present, then the student is rated as novice in problem solving strategies. Limited evidence
of skills and strategies include unrecorded procedures, random strategies, and failure to see
patterns, relationships and alternative solutions.
The work of student D in problem number 9 illustrates this. Student D failed to see
alternative solutions that the problem required. She did not fully explore the problem nor look
for concepts, patterns or relationships as shown in figure 9.

Fig. 9. Student Ds solution to problem number 9.

Components of Problem Solving
The mean scores for each of the components shown in table 4 were used to assess the
students level of performance.
Three of the five students were proficient problem solvers. They were Student A, C and
E. They all got an average score of greater than four while Student D was an intermediate
problem solver between apprentice and proficient levels who got an average score of 4. Only
Student B who got an average score of 3.1 was found out to be an apprentice problem solver.

34 Alipato

TABLE 4 Mean Scores obtained by the students in the three components of problem solving
Students

Scale

Components

Mean Score on
Twelve Problems

Conceptual Understanding

4.5

Procedural Knowledge

4.4

Problem Solving Skills and

Strategies

4.2

Conceptual Understanding

3.3

Procedural Knowledge

3.2

Problem Solving Skills and

Strategies

2.8

Conceptual Understanding

4.6

Procedural Knowledge

4.6

Problem Solving Skills and

Strategies

4.7

Conceptual Understanding

4.1

Procedural Knowledge

4.0

Problem Solving Skills and

Strategies

4.0

Conceptual Understanding

4.3

Procedural Knowledge

4.3

Problem Solving Skills and

Strategies

4.3

4.2
3.4
2.6
1.8
1.0

5.0
4.1
3.3
2.5
1.7

Average

Level of
Performance

4.4

Proficient

3.1

Apprentice

4.6

Proficient

4.0

Apprentice/
Proficient

4.3

Proficient

Proficient
Apprentice/Proficient
Apprentice
Novice/Apprentice
Novice

Table 5 shows the different strategies employed by the students in twelve non-routine
problems. As can be seen from the table, some of the problems were solved using a combination of two or three strategies. Each student employed at least four problem solving strategies
on the twelve non-routine problems.
Seven out of the eight problem solving strategies were used at least once to solve the
twelve non-routine problems, Making a Model or Diagram being the most frequently used
strategy.
Student A utilized Making a Model or Diagram (MD) by drawing diagrams or sketching
figures in eight problems with a combination of Make a Table, Chart, or List (TCL), Consider a
Simple Case (SC), Eliminate (E), Compute or Simplify (CS), and Guess, Check and Revise
(GCR).

Alipato 35
There were also cases when students used the same strategy on one problem but at
different approaches. Student B, Student C, Student D and Student E employed TCL in problem
number 6 but as shown in their worksheets, there were slight differences in the way they used
the strategy. There were three out of the twelve problems that were approached using three
different strategies. These are problems 8, 9, and 10. Only Student B and Student D used
different strategies in problem number 3 while the rest used the same strategy which is
Consider a Simple Case (SC).
TABLE 5 Summary of the strategies employed by the students in twelve non-routine problems
Student
Problem
A

GCR/MD

GCR/MD

GCR

GCR

MD

GCR/E

GCR

MD/GCR

GCR

GCR

SC

MD

SC

TCL/GCR

SC

SC/MD

TCL/MD

SC

TCL/MD

CS

GCR/CS

GCR/CS

GCR/CS

CS

MD

F/SC

TCL

TCL

TCL

TCL

MD/GCR

CS

MD

GCR

MD

MD/GCR

MD/GCR/TCL

MD/GCR

GCR

GCR

MD/CS

MD/TCL/CS

MD/CS

CS

MD/TCL

10

MD/TCL

TCL/MD

MD/CS

SC

MD/TCL/CS

11

GCR/MD

MD/GCR

MD/SC

SC

MD/SC

12

MD/GCR

GCR

MD/GCR

GCR/ TCL

GCR/MD

Legend:
CS Compute or Simplify
SC Consider a Simple Case
MD Make a Model

GCR Guess, Check, and Revise

F Use a Formula
TCL Make a Table, Chart, or List

E Eliminate
LP Look for Patterns

Compute or Simplify (CS) includes straightforward application of arithmetic rules or order of

operations
Student E used CS in problem number 4 as shown in her solution (fig. 10), she simply
added 15 and 3 and obtained 18 by which these amounts are borrowed from Ruby by Agua and
Gelay, respectively.

36 Alipato

Fig. 10. Student Es solution to problem number 4.

Use a Formula (F) involves substituting values into a formula or selecting the proper formula
to use.
Among the five students, only Student A used F. He employed F in problem number 6
as shown in his solution (fig. 11). He converted hours to minutes using the conversion
1hr = 60 min.

Fig. 11. Student As solution to problem number 6.

Alipato 37
Make a Model or Diagram (MD) includes use of objects, drawings or sketches, acting out,
writing an equation.
Student E used MD seven times. In problem number 1, she wrote an equation representing the number of vehicles and wheels. She also used the variable x and y to represent the
number of cars and motorcycles respectively. As seen in her solution (fig. 12), she was able to
set up a system of linear equations in two variables in order to get the number of motorcycles.
She used algebraic skills to solve the system.

Fig. 12. Student Es solution to problem number 1.

She used MD together with Make a Table, Chart, or List (TCL), and Compute or
Simplify (CS) strategy to solve problem number 9. She first drew a table representing
rectangular strip of copper. She divided the length with the given measure of 7 and the
width by 5 (fig. 13). She used her drawing and straightforward application of arithmetic
rules to figure out the number of bracelets she can get from a single sheet of copper.

38 Alipato
She used MD together with Make a Table, Chart, or List (TCL), and Compute or
Simplify (CS) strategy to solve problem number 9. She first drew a table representing rectangular strip of copper. She divided the length with the given measure of 7 and the width by 5
(fig. 13). She used her drawing and straightforward application of arithmetic rules to figure
out the number of bracelets she can get from a single sheet of copper.

Fig. 13. Student Es solution to problem number 9.

In problem number 10, in order to visualize the problem, she drew a figure which
represented a dartboard and numbered them 2, 3, 5, 11, and 13 (fig. 14).

Fig. 14. Student Es solution to problem number 10.

Alipato 39
Like what she did in problem number 1, she wrote an equation and computed for the
answer backwards in problem number 11 (fig. 15).

Fig. 15. Student Es solution to problem number 11.

Both Student C and Student E utilized MD on exactly the same problem, problem
number 7. They both used system of linear equations in two variables to solve the problem.
Student C employed substitution method while Student E used elimination method to solve the
system (fig. 16).

Fig. 16. Student Cs and student Es solutions to problem number 7.

40 Alipato
Make a Table, Chart, or List (TCL) organizing the data by making a table, chart, graph, or
list.
In problem number 6 four students utilized TCL to solve the problem (fig. 17-20). All
were able to construct a table to organize their solution. As shown on their workings, they
were able to make two columns that show their interpretation of the problem.

Fig. 17. Student Cs solution to problem number 6.

Fig. 18. Student Bs solution to problem number 6.

Alipato 41

Fig. 19. Student Ds solution to problem number 6.

Fig. 20. Student Es solution to problem number 6.

42 Alipato
Only Student A did not use TCL. Instead, he used a Formula (F) and a Simpler Case
(SC) strategy to get the actual number of hours (fig. 21).

Fig. 21. Student As solution to problem number 6.

Guess, Check and Revise (GCR) making a reasonable guess, checking the guess, and revising
the guess if necessary.
All the students utilized GCR in most of the problems. Student D used GCR in problem
numbers 1, 2, 7, and 8. It was very evident that she did not use any strategy except GCR as
seen in her worksheets (fig. 22-25).

Fig. 22. Student Ds solution to problem number 1.

Student D tried some numbers and checked whether they satisfy the condition on the problem.

Alipato 43

Fig. 23. Student Ds solution to problem number 2.

Fig. 24. Student Ds solution to problem number 7.

Fig. 25. Student Ds solution to problem number 8.

44 Alipato
Consider a Simpler Case (SC) includes rewording the problem, using smaller numbers, using a
more familiar problem setting, dividing the problem into simpler problems, or working backwards.
Student C and A were able to use effectively SC in solving problem number 3. Their
solutions somehow made the problem appear simpler to them than it looked like (fig. 26).
They divided the problem into simpler statements.

Fig. 26. Student Cs an As solutions to problem number 3.

Looking for Patterns (LP) - involves determining certain common characteristics that can be
generalized and used to solve the problem.
No one used this strategy in solving any of the 12 non-routine problems.
Table 6 shows the frequency of problem solving strategies employed by the students
belonging to the same level of performance. As gleaned on the table, Make a Model or
Diagram was the most frequently used strategy by both proficient and apprentice problem
solvers, while the Guess, Check and Revise was used frequently by the transitional problem
solver between apprentice and proficient levels. Only Student A used Eliminate and Use a
Formula among the five students in solving the twelve non-routine problems. The proficient
problem solvers employ at least 5 different problem solving strategies.

Alipato 45
TABLE 6 Frequency of Problem Solving Strategies of Students with the same Level of
Performance
Strategies
Level of Performance

Student

GCR

MD

SC

CS

TCL

Apprentice/ Proficient

Apprentice

Proficient

Conclusions and Recommendations

Each student in this study employed singly or in certain combinations at least four
problem-solving strategies on the twelve non-routine problems. Seven out of the eight possible
problem solving strategies were used at least once to solve the twelve non-routine problems,
Making a Model or Diagram being the most frequently used strategy. Some of the problems
were solved using a combination of 2 or 3 strategies like Making a Model or Diagram, Making a
Table, Chart, or List and Computing or Simplifying. Based on the solutions of the students, a
problem solving strategy could be employed by a student in different ways depending on the
complexity of the problem. There were also cases when students used the same strategy on
one problem but with different approaches. There were three out of the twelve problems that
were approached using three different strategies. Despite different approaches, all five students
successfully solved problem numbers 8 and 12. This indicates that the participants of this study
know that a single problem can be solved in more than one way. After evaluating the students
problem solving abilities, this study shows that three of the five students were proficient
problem solvers while one of them was a transitional problem solver between apprentice and
proficient levels. One student was an apprentice problem solver. Making a Model or Diagram
was the most frequently used strategy by both proficient and apprentice problem solvers.
This study showed that junior high school students could employ different problem
solving strategies without prior instruction, if given the chance to solve non-routine problems.
All five students had a high level of problem solving ability, thus attaining a high level of
performance in the problem solving tasks. These high performing students became enthusiastic
in solving the problems when they were allowed to use any strategy in finding the answer.
Since the students who participated in this study all belong to high-ability group, it is
suggested that a similar study be done with students belonging to low-ability group. More
supporting evidence is needed to show that the problem-based instruction and learning is more
effective in nurturing the critical and analytical thinking skills of the students in any ability level.
Exposing the students to non-routine problems, can develop students mathematical reasoning
power and foster their understanding that mathematics is a creative endeavor. Also non-routine
problems provide students a realistic situation where they are challenged to use higher order
thinking skills including their critical and creative thinking.
Academic institutions may consider immersing students in a setting where they can find
situations of interest to them. Schools should start introducing the students to problems that
lend themselves to long-term, thorough analysis at different levels of intellectual accomplish-

46 Alipato
ments. Problem solving activity should be
embedded in all aspects of learning
situations. In doing so, it is important to
document the results of implementing such
changes in order to inform school administrators and teachers about the mathematical
thinking of Filipino students and in order to
help them make curricular decisions.

Laset, Leopold B. and Limjap. Auxencia A.

2005. An exploratory investigation of
the problem-solving heuristics of
high-performing senior students.
Intersection 6 (1): 2-22.
Limjap, Auxencia A. 1996. A constructivist-

References

based instructional systems design

for undergraduate discrete
mathematics. PhD diss., De La Salle

Ben-Hur, Meir. 2006. Concept-rich mathe-

University, Manila,
Philippines.

matics instruction: Building a strong

foundation for reasoning and
problem solving. Alexandria, Virginia:
Association for Supervision and
Curriculum Development.
http://www.ascd.org/publications/
books/106008/chapters/ConceptualUnderstanding.aspx.
Candelaria, Marissa L. and Limjap, Auxencia
A. 2002. Problem solving heuristics
of college freshmen: A case analysis.

The Asia Pacific Education

Researcher 11(2): 199-223.
Chicago Public Schools Bureau of Student
Assessment. 1991. Oregon

Mathematics Problem Solving &

Norwood Park Draft Math
Problem Solving Rubric. Illinois:
Chicago Public Schools Bureau of
Student Assessment.
Devlin, Keith. 2007. What is conceptual
understanding? Washington DC:
Mathematical Association of America.
http://www.maa.org/devlin/
devlin_09_07.html.
Kaur, Berinderjeet, Ban Har, Yeap, and
Manu, Kapur, eds. 2009. Mathematical Problem Solving. Singapore:
World Scientific Publishing Co Inc.
Krulik, Stephen and Rudnick. Jesse A. 1996.

The new sourcebook for teaching

reasoning and problem solving in
junior and senior high schools.
Boston, MA: Allyn and Bacon.

Oregon Department of Education. 1991.

Oregon Mathematics Problem Solving

Rubric. http://web.njit.edu/
~ronkowit/teaching/rubrics/samples/
math_probsolv_chicago.pdf
Perlwitz, Marcela. and Axtell. Michael. 2001.

College mathematics: The struggle

for meaning continues.
http://persweb.wabash.edu/facstaff/
axtellm/Math-%20Educ%20Inquirytalk-P-4.htm.
Polya, Gyorgy. 1945. How to solve it? 1st ed.
Princeton, New Jersey: Princeton
University Press.
Polya, Gyorgy. 1957. How to solve it: A new
aspect of mathematical method. 2nd
ed. New York: Double Day and Co.
Polya, Gyorgy. 1981. Mathematics discovery:

An understanding, learning, and

teaching problem solving (combined
edition). New York: John Willey &
Son.
Wiesen, G. (2003). What is procedural
knowledge? www.wisegeek.com/
what-is-procedural-knowledge