DEPARTMENT OF

ELECTRICAL ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING

Subject Code
Name
:
Year
:
Semester
:

: EE2401
Power System Operation and Control
IV year
VII semester EEE 2008 Regulation

PREPARED BY,
M.ULAGAMMAI
AP(SG)/EEE

UNIT I Power System Overview and Control

Two Marks:
1. What is Load curve?
Ans:The curve drawn between the variations of load on the power
station with reference to time is known as load curve. There are
three types namely Daily load curve, Monthly load curve and
annual load curve.
2. What is Daily load curve?
Ans:The curve drawn between the variations of load on the power
station with reference to the various time periods of a day is
called as Daily load curve.
3. What is connected load?
Ans:It is the sum of continuous rating of all the equipments
connected to the supply systems.
4. What is demand factor?
Ans:It is the ratio of maximum demand to connected load.
D.F = Maximum demand / Connected load
5. What is load factor?
Ans:The ratio of average load to the maximum demand for a given
period is called as Load factor
6. What is diversity factor?
Ans:The ratio of sum of individual maximum demand to the
maximum demand of the power station is called as Diversity
factor
7. What is capacity factor?
Ans:The ratio of actual energy produced to the maximum possible
energy that could have been produced during a given period.
8. What is plant use factor?

Ans:It is the ratio of units generated to the product of plant

capacity and the number of hours for which the plant was in
operation.
9. What is load duration curve?
Ans:When the load elements of a load curve are arranged in the
order of the descending magnitudes the curve obtained is called
as Load duration curve.
10. What is maximum demand?
Ans:It is the greatest demand of load on power station during a
given period.
11. What is monthly load curve?
Ans:It is obtained from daily load curve. Average value of power at
a month for different time periods are calculated and plotted in
the graph is known as Monthly load curve.
12. What is annual load curve?
Ans:It is obtained from monthly load curve for a year and is used to
find annual load factor.
13. What is average demand?
Ans:The average of loads occurring on the power station in a given
periodis known as average demand.
Daily average demand: No. of units generated / 24 hours
Monthly Average demand: No. of units generated / No. of hrs in
month
14. What is load forecasting?
Ans:The load on their systems should be estimated in advance. The
estimation in advance is called as Load forecasting. Load
forecasting is based on previous experience and on historical
data.
15. What is short term load forecasting?
Ans:The period of forecasting from few minutes to few hours is
termed as short term forecasting.
16. What is medium term load forecasting?

Ans:The period of forecasting from few days to few weeks is

termed as medium term forecasting.
17. What is long term load forecasting?
Ans:The period of forecasting from few weeks to few months is
termed as long term forecasting.
18. What is need for load forecasting?
Ans:To meet the load demand, for preparing maintenance
scheduling of generating units, future expansion, Unit
commitment, allocation of spinning reserve etc. load forecasting
is needed.
19. What is meant by unit commitment?
Ans:This problem is to minimize the total operating cost while
satisfying the load demand and providing the sufficient spinning
reserve to satisfy the security level.
20. What are the factors affecting power quality?
Ans:Switching surges, lightning, load shedding, electromagnetic
interference, Line capacitance and line inductance are some of
the factors affecting power quality.
PART B
16 Marks
1. A generating station has the following daily loads
0 6 hr

4500 KW

6 8 hr

3500 KW

8 12 hr -

7500 KW

12 14 hr

2000 KW

14 18 hr

8000 KW

18 20 hr

2500 KW

20 24 hr

5000 KW

Sketch the load duration curve determine the load factor

and plant capacity factor if the capacity of the plant is 12
MW.
Solution
From the given data the load curve is sketched in figure
Capacity of the plant = 12.0 MW = 12,000 KW
Maximum demand of the generating station = 8000 KW
Using generated in 24 hrs = 8000 x 4 + 7500 x 4 + 5000 x 4 +
4500 x 6 + 3500 x 2 + 2500 x2 + 2000 x 2
= 1,25,000 K Whr
Average Load=

Load Factor=

Plant Capacity factor=

Unitsgenerated 1,25,000
=
=5208 KW
Time hrs
24

Average Load
5208
=
=65.1
maximumdemand 8000

Average demand
X 100
Ratedcapacity of plant

5208
X 100=43.4
12000

2. Explain in detail about the reserve requirements.

Installed Reserve

The installed reserve is the reverse power which is not normally

utilized but can be made available when required (i.e.) to meet
the peak loaded condition, load contingencies and the loss of
power.
Operating Reserve
Assuming there is sufficient installed capacity in the system, the
allocation of operating reserves consists in the decision
concerning the capacity and units to commit to replace failed
generating units.
The risk of load interruption upon the failure of a generating unit
can be minimized keeping part of the reserve spinning; that is,
as units connected to the grid, synchronized and ready to take
load, or keeping available a group of units with quick-start
capability. These units can be rapidly brought on-line and pick up
load. Both the spinning and non-spinning reserve form the
operating reserve of the system.
Non-spinning reserve
Non-spinning reserve can only be provided by hydraulic or gas
turbine units which have start-up times in the order of minutes,
whereas spinning reserve can be provided by a broader range of
units.
Actually, the division between spinning and non-spinning reserve
can be actually one of definition. Fast-start units can be
considered spinning reserve; interruptible loads and assistance
from interconnected systems can be included in both categories.

Accordingly, some systems may or may not include non-spinning

reserve when assessing generation reliability.
Spinning reserve
In order to ensure reliability, electricity grids need a certain
amount of spinning reserve. This is a source of generation that
can be turned up quickly, to accommodate unexpected surges in
demand, or loss of generation or transmission. For fossil plants to
be used as spinning reserve, they must be already warmed up,
and that means they must burn some fuel just to keep them
ready.
Water power provides quick start reserve. Nuclear can not be
used for spinning reserve. It is either on or it is off. The same is
true of co-generation or combined heat and power installations.
Spinning reserve is defined as the amount of power allocated as
reserve in the generating units. If one unit, this reserve power on
the other units will make the loss in the specified time period.
Actually, power generation = Power demand + losses
when including spinning reserve, this equation can be represented
as,
Power generation = Power demand + losses + spinning reserve.
Thus spinning reserve is the term used to describe the total
amount of generation available from all the synchronized
generating units on the system, minus the present load (demand)
and losses being supplied.

Hot reserve
The generators are conventionally able to be brought on-line is
less than 10 minutes, a slower contingent of reserves, or hot
reserve, can be kept available. The hot reserve is capacity
generally provided by thermal generation where the turboalternator is shut down but the boiler is left in a hot state.
Thus, some regions like New York and New England require
additional reserve that must be fully available within 30 minutes.
California ISO requires a replacement reserve to be fully
available within 60 minutes. This additional reserve
(replacement, secondary) is used to redispatch after
contingencies and to restore operating reserve requirements.
Cold reserve
Literally, reserve energy which is currently cold. Refers
specifically to energy produced by thermal generators which is
available but not currently operating, and derives from the fact
that an available, nonfunctional oven or steam boiler is colder
than one which is in operation.
3. Explain in detail about the power system operation.
Overview of system operation
Load forecasting
Load forecasting is simply defined as a systematic procedure for
quantitatively defining future loads. It is a methodology to be
performed as a part of the systems planning. For the addition of

new generation, transmission and distribution facilities, system

planning must be done well in advance.
According to the time period, the load forecasting is classified as
* Short term

*Intermediate

*Long term

techniques
Factors affecting load forecasting
The factors effecting load forecasting are
a) Geographic factors
b) Historical data
c) Population growth
d) Load density
e) Alternative energy sources
f) Community development plans
g) Industries plans
h) City plans
i) Land use
Forecasting techniques
Forecasting techniques may be divided into three broad classes
(i) Extrapolation technique
(ii) Correlation technique
(iii) Combination of both
Unit Commitment
The process of committing the generating units to be ON or OFF
is called unit commitment. This unit commitment deals with the
scheduling the ON/OFF status of the generating units. The
resultant schedule should minimise the production cost during

the whole period which leads an economic operation of the power

system.
The following constraints are taken into account. They are
spinning reserve constraints, uptime and downtime constraints,
fuel constraints and hydro constraints.
Load dispatching
It becomes necessary to operate the power plant units most
economically, i.e. the loads must be dispatched to the consumers
from the generating units economically. This task is termed as
economic dispatch. The economic scheduling of generators aims
to reduce the costs of fuel, line losses, maintenance, etc.
Unit commitment is a prior step of the economic load dispatch.
Once the unit is committed, with the committed units the power
must be generated and supplied to the load. The constraints to be
satisfied are load demand constraint, unit capacity constraints,
spinning reserve constraints, etc.
4. Explain in detail about the system level control.
The speed governor is the main primary tool for the load frequency
control. By controlling the position of the steam valve, the flow of
high pressure steam through the turbine is controlled and thus
the speed of the generator is controlled which allows to regulate
the frequency and thus real power also.
Speed governor compromises of the elements, which are directly
responsive to speed, and whose positions influence the action of
other elements of speed governing system. The overall speed

governing system includes speed governor, speed control

mechanism, governor controlled valves and speed changer.
Load frequency Control
Load frequency control includes both primary control and
secondary control.
a) Primary Control
If the speed changes from synchronous speed, the governor
initiates the control action. This action changes the generation of
all generator, turbine units depending upon the change in load
demand and thus stabilize the system frequency.
b) Secondary Control
It adjusts the load reference set points of selected turbinegenerator units so as to give nominal value of frequency.
The function of load frequency control is to change the position of
control valve or gate openings of the prime movers, as a function
of load variations in order to hold systems frequency constant.
Load frequency control is achieved for an isolated control area
and extended for multi area systems also. Load frequency control
is analysed by developing a mathematical model for speed
governor, turbine and generator. Integral controller may also
included to achieve steady state system frequency error to be
zero.
Automatic Voltage Regulation (AVR)
When the load on the power system changes, the terminal voltage
of the generator also changes. In order to maintain the terminal
voltage within permissible limits, the excitation of the

synchronous generator must be decreased or increased. This can

be achieved by employing automatic voltage regulation AVR).
The basic AVR loop consists of voltage comparator, error
amplifier, exciter, synchronous generator. The basic function of an
excitation system is to provide direct current to the synchronous
generator. The excitation system may be of DC, AC or static type.
The comparator compares the terminal voltage of the
synchronous generator with a reference voltage and produces the
error voltage. The error amplifies with this error signal. The
exciter gets the amplified error signal and adjust the rotor field
current of the synchronous generator in order to keep the
terminal voltage within allowable limits.
System Voltage Control
Requirement of system voltage control
a) All the machines and equipments are designed at a certain
voltage operation above or below the allowable range could
damage them
b) The voltage and reactive power control have significant in power
system stability point of view.
c) To reduce I2R and I2X losses and to operate the transmission
system effectively i.e, mainly for active power transfer.
The voltage control equipments are connected between the
generating station and the consumers. These equipments are
located at
(i) Generating stations
(ii) Transformer stations

(iii) Feeders
The voltage control can be achieved by the following methods
a)
b)
c)
d)

By excitation control
Static VAR compensators
Tap changing transformers
Static shunt capacitors, shunt

reactors,

series

capacitors,

synchronous condensers.

5. Explain in detail about and plant level controls.

Power System Security
The power system is frequently subjected to disturbances and it
is necessary to study the effect of these disturbances on the
power system so that the system may be operated in a secure
operating condition. For example, a generating unit may have to
be taken offline because of some auxiliary equipment failure. By
maintaining proper amount of spinning reserve, the remaining
generating units can make up deficit without causing any
appreciable drop in frequency or need to shed any load. Similarly,
a transmission line may be damaged by a storm and taken out by
automatic relaying; the remaining transmission line flows are
within specified limits, the system remains in secure condition.
Suppose, one of the remaining lines is now too heavily loaded, it
may open due to relay action, thereby causing even more load on
the remaining lines. This type of process is termed as a cascading
outages. If this process continues, the entire system may
completely collapse. This is usually referred as a system blackout.

Modern power systems with super power plants are highly

complex and the human operator is finding it more and more
difficult to take instantaneous decisions in cases of serious and
complex situations. During the earlier days, control action was
applied to generation dispatch and supervisory control. Modern
systems demand a comprehensive and integrated approach to
monitoring and controlling of power flow for economic and
secure operation. This brought into the picture of a third and
equally important aspect of control, viz, security control.
Security Control
Real time security control of a power system is broadly concerned
with the safe operation the system is satisfactory as possible at
all times, even when the components such as generator,
transformer, transmission line fail. This is an on-line control
procedure because the system state keeps on changing as the
load changes. There are four main functions in security control.
They are
(i) System Monitoring and Data Acquisition
(ii) State Estimation
(iii) Security Assessment
(iv) Security Enhancement

UNIT-II REAL POWER FREQUENCY CONTROL

TWO MARKS:
1. What is the major control loops used in large generators?
Ans : The major control loops used in large generators are
1. Automatic voltage regulator (AVR)
2. Automatic load frequency control (ALFC).
2. What is the use of secondary loop?
Ans : A slower secondary loop maintains the fine adjustment of the
frequency, and also by reset action maintains proper MW
interchange with other pool members. This loop is insensitive to
rapid load and frequency changes but focuses instead on drift like
changes which take place over periods of minutes.
3. What is the adv of AVR loop over ALFC?
Ans : AVR loop is much faster than the ALFC loop and therefore
there is a tendency, for the VR dynamics to settle down before
they can make themselves felt in the slower load frequency
control channel.
4. What is the diff. between large and small signal analysis?
Ans : Large signal analysis is used where voltage and power may
undergo sudden changes of magnitude that may approach 100

percent of operating values. Usually this type of analysis leads to

differential equations of non-linear type. Small signal anaysis is
used when variable excursions are relatively small, typically at
most a few percent of normal operating values.
5. What is the exciter?
Ans : The exciter is the main component in AVR loop. It delivers
the DC power to the generator field. It must have adequate power
capacity and sufficient speed of response (rise time less than 0.1
sec).
6. What is the function of AVR?
Ans : The basic role of the AVR is to provide constancy of the
generator terminal voltage during normal, small and slow
changes in the load.
7. Explain about static AVR loop?
Ans : In a static AVR loop, the execution power is obtained directly
from the generator terminals or from the station service bus. The
AC power is rectified by thyristor bridges and fed into the main
generator field via slip rings. Static exciters are very fast and
contribute to proved transient stability.
8. Write the static performance of AVR loop?
Ans : The AVR loop must regulate the terminal |V| to within
required static accuracy limit. Have sufficient speed of response.
Be stable.
9. What is the dis.adv of high loop gain? How is to be
eliminated?
Ans : High loop gain is needed for static accuracy but this causes
undesirable dynamic response, possibly instability. By adding

series AND/OR feedback stability compensation to the AVR loop,

this conflicting situation can be resolved.
10. What are the effects of generator loading in AVR loop?
Ans : Added load does not change the basic features of the AVR
loop, it will however affect the values of both gain factor Kf and
the field constant. High loading will make the generator work at
higher magnetic saturation levels. This means smaller changes in
|E| for incremental increases in if, translating into the reduction
of KF. The field time constant will likewise decreases as generator
loading closing the armature current paths. This circumstance
permits the formation of transient stator currents the existence of
which yields a lower effective field induction.
11. What are the functions of ALFC?
Ans : The basic role of ALFCs is to maintain desired MW output of
a generator unit and assist in controlling the frequency of large
interconnection. The ALFC also helps to keep the net interchange
of power between pool members at predetermined values.
Control should be applied in such a fashion that highly differing
response characteristics of units of various types are recognized.
Also unnecessary power output changes should be kept at a
minimum in order to reduce wear of control valves.
12. Specify the dis.adv of ALFC loop?
Ans : The ALFC loop will main control only during normal changes
in load and frequency. It is typically unable to provide adequate
control during emergency situations, when large MW imbalances
occur.
13. How is the real power in a power system controlled?

Ans : The real power in a power system is being controlled by

controlling the driving torque of the individual turbines of the
system.
14. What is the need for large mechanical forces in speedgoverning system?
Ans : Very large mechanical forces are needed to position the main
valve against the high stream pressure and these forces are
obtained via several stages of hydraulic amplifiers.
15.Why should the system frequency maintained constant?
Ans :

Constant frequency is to be maintained for the following

reasons.
All the AC motors should be given constant frequency supply so
as to maintain speed constant.
In continuous process industry, it affects the operation of the
process itself.
For synchronous operation of various units in the power system
network, it is necessary to maintain frequency constant.
16. What is damping factor?
Ans :

Damping factor is the frequency coefficient of load and is

defined as the ratio of change in load to change in frequency.

17. What are the advantages of state variable model?
Ans :The system dynamic model in state variables is useful in
designing optimal linear regulator.
State variables are amendable for computer solutions.
State variable formulation is similar for both continuous and
discrete signals
18. What are the advantages of pool operation?

Ans : Half the added load in area 2 is supplied by area 1 through

the tie line.
The frequency drop would be only half of that which would occur
if the areas were operating without interconnection.
19. Define area control error.
Ans :

ACE contains both frequency error and error in tie line

power flow. It is the change in area frequency, which when used

in an integral control loop forces steady state error to zero.
20. What is the need for speed changer?
Ans :

It provides a steady state power output setting for the

turbines. Its upward movement opens the upper pilot valve so

that more steam is admitted to the turbine. This gives rise to
higher steady state power output. The reverse happens for the
downward movement of speed changer.

PART B
16 MARKS
1. What are the components of speed governor system? Derive
its transfer function with an aid of block diagram.
The speed governor is the main device for load frequency control. It
consists of the following components.
Speed Governor:
This is the mechanical speed sensitive device coupled directly to
and built directly on to prime movers to adjust the increased
speed. It senses the change in speed or frequency. For example
when the speed increase the flywheel move towards and point B

on linkage mechanism move downwards and the reverse happen

when the speed decrease.
Hydraulic Amplifier:
It consists of pilot valve and main piston. Low power level pilot
valve is converted into high power level movement of the main
piston. Hydraulic amplification is necessary in order to open or
close the system valve against high pressure steam.
Speed Changer:
It provides a steady state power output setting for the turbine. Its
downward movement permits more steam to enter the turbine
under steady state conditions and the reverse happens for the
upward movement of speed changer.
Linkage Mechanism:
ABC is rigid link pivoted at B and CDE is another rigid link pivoted
at D. The function of this link mechanism is to control the steam
valve. Moreover via link 4, a feedback from the movement of
steam valve is obtained.

Modelling:

A mathematical model is developed based on small deviations

around a nominal steady state and is delivering power

Pg

at a

nominal frequency f0. Under these conditions the prime mover

valve is closed and the linkage mechanism is stationary.
With the help of speed changer, a power increase command

Pc

is given. Due to this command the linkage point A moves

downward a small amount by X A

and expressed as,

X A =K Pc . ------- (1)

With the movement of

XA

, the linkage point C & D move

upwards by an amount of X c and X D respectively. Due to

this movement of D, high pressure oil flows into the bottom of
main piston and causes the motion of the piston downwards by an
amount X E .
Due to the opening of steam valve, there is increased flow of
steam resulting in increased generation of power PG . The
increased power output slightly increases the frequency by f .
With the increased speed the flyballs of the governor move
outwards this causing the link point B to move slightly
downwards a small distance by X B where X B f .
Due to the downward movement of link B, the link point C also
moves downwards by an amount of X c ( X c f ) .
All the incremental movements are assumed positive in
directions.

These events are mathematically expressed as:

The net movement of link C is,
X c =K 1 f K 2 P c

-------------------------- (2)

The positive constants

K 1K 2

depend upon the lengths of the

linkage arms and also upon the proportional constants of speed

changer and governor.
X D =K 3 X c +K 4 X E

-------------------------- (3)

Where positive constants

K 3K 4

depend upon the length of the

linkage arms 3 and 4. The oil flows into the hydraulic motor and it
is proportional to X D of the pilot valve.
X D
X E =K 5

-------------------------------------- (4)

The constant

K5

depends on the orifice, the cylinder geometric

and fluid pressure.

Taking L.T of 2, 3 and 4,
X c ( s )=K 1 F ( s )K 2 Pc (s)------------------------ (5)
X D ( s)=K 3 X c (s )+ K 4 X E ( s)

X E ( s )=

K 5 X D
s

--------------------(6)

--------------------------------------- (7)

Eliminating X c ( s ) and X D ( s )
X E ( s )=

K 5
[ K 3 X c ( s )+ K 4 X E ( s ) ]
s

K
[ 1 F ( s )K 2 Pc (s)]+ K 4 X E ( s )
K 3
K
5
s

K 4 K 5 K 5
=
[ K 3 K 1 F ( s )K 3 K 2 Pc (s )]
s
s

X E ( s ) 1+

X E ( s )=

K5
K
K K 1 F ( s ) K 3 K 2 5 Pc ( s )
s 3
s

1+

K4 K5
s

On simplifying

[ K 3 K 2 Pc ( s ) K 3 K 1 F ( s ) ]

K4+

[ K 3 K 2 Pc ( s ) K 3 K 1 F ( s ) ]

K 4 1+

s
K4K5

K 3 K 2 Pc ( s )

s
K5

K 4 1+

K1
F ( s)
K2

s
K4K5

KG
1
P c ( s ) F ( s )
1+s T G
R

Where

K G= K 3

K2
1
T G=
R=K 2 / K 1
K4
K4 K5

K GStaticgainoftHesystem ; T G Timeconstant ; Rspeedregulation

Transfer function of speed governor

Gg (s)=

KG
1+ s T G

Turbine Model:
General representation of turbine model is given by
GT ( s )=

KT
PG (s)
=
1+s T T X E ( s )

TT ranges from 0.2 to 2 seconds

From the bock diagram,

 PG ( s ) =

KGKT
F ( s)
[ Pc ( s )
]
R
( 1+ s T G )( 1+ s T T )

The speed or frequency is assumed as independent of power output

of generator.
PG ( s ) =

KGKT

( 1+ s T G )( 1+ s T T )

[ Pc ( s ) ]

(i.e) F ( s ) = 0;

Case (i):
A step change of Pc ( s ) is made to find the steady state change in
the generator output.
Pc ( s ) =

Pc
s

PG ( s ) =

KGKT
[ Pc /s ]
( 1+ s T G )( 1+ s T T )

s PG ( s )= PG ( static )=

KGKT

( 1+ s T G )( 1+ s T T )

[ Pc ]

T G T T 0 yields s PG ( s ) = PG ( static )=K G K T [ Pc ]

Assuming
Case (ii) :

K G K T =1

, PG ( static )=[ Pc ]

Assuming Pc =0 and the load is suddenly increased by small

amount P D .
Since Pc =0 ,

PG ( s )=

KGKT

F ( s )
]
R
( 1+ s T G )( 1+ s T T )

and T G T T 0K G K T =1

F ( s ) = F / s

PG ( s ) =

F
sR

s PG ( s )= PG ( static )=

F
F
t h erefore
RHz / MW
R
PG

2. Obtain the static and dynamic response of load frequency

control of single area under uncontrolled case.
Uncontrolled case means Pc =0 .

From the block diagram

1
F( s) G ( s ) P D ( s ) G p ( s ) = F (s)
R

F ( s ) 1+
F ( s) =

1
G ( s ) G p ( s ) = P D ( s ) G p ( s )
R

PD ( s ) G p ( s )

1+

1 ( ) ( )
G s Gp s
R

Static Analysis:
P D ( s )=

PD
s

F=lim s F ( s ) t h erefore F=lim s

s0

s0

P D ( s ) G p ( s )

1+

1 ( ) ( )
G s Gp s
R

Taking LCM and making s as zero

F=

K p P D
1
1+ K p
R

Therefore
Kp
1
P D w h ere K p = Hz / puMW
1
D
1+ K p
R

( )

Fstatic=

P D P D
1/ D
P D=
=
1/ D
1

1+
D+
R
R

( )

Fstatic=

Where
=D+

1
puMw /Hz
R

 Fstatic=

PD

is called Area frequency response characteristics

Dynamic Analysis:
Letting TG = TT = 0 and KGKT =1;

F ( S)=

Kp
PD
(
)
(1+ s T p )
s

1+

Kp
1
R (1+s T p )

Taking LCM and cancelling out common terms

PD
Kp R
s
F ( S)=
R ( 1+ s T p )+ K p

On simplifying
F ( S)=

PD K p R 1

R+ K p s

1
R+K p
s+
Tp R

3. Obtain the static and dynamic response of single area

system under controlled case.

Dynamic response:
To control the dynamic frequency changes with step load change,
an integral controller is added which activates the speed changer
by real power command signal Pc .

Pc ( s ) =

K I
F ( s)
s

For a step load input

P D ( s )=

PD
s

From the block diagram

K I
1
F ( s ) F ( s ) P D ( s ) G p ( s )= F ( s )
s
R

F ( s ) 1+

( Ks + R1 ) (1+sK T ) ]= sP
I

Kp
(1+ s T p )

Multiplying the above equation by s(1+sTp)

1
K s
R p
s = PD K p
F (s)

(1+s T p )+ K I K p +

(1+ s T p)+ K I K p +
s

t h erefore F ( s )=

F ( s) =

1
K s
R p

PD K p

P D K p

s T p +s 1+

1
K + KI K p
R p

Dividing the above equation by Tp

F ( s) =

PD K p /T p

[ (
s 2+ s

K K
1
1
+
Kp + I p
T p RT p
Tp

Considering the denominator alone

s 2 +s

K K
1
1
+
Kp + I p
Tp RT p
Tp

Kp
R
2T p

1+

Adding and subtracting

Kp
R
2T p
s+

K
1+ p
R
2T p

1+

Kp
R
2T p

1+

If KIKp/Tp>

Then,

Kp
1
KI >
(1+ )
4 K pT p
R

If KI> Kcritical, then the denominator roots are positive and real.
This is super critical case and the response is damped oscillatory.
If KI< Kcritical, it is sub critical case and the response contains
exponential terms

Static response:

(1+s T p )+ K I K p +

1
K s
R p

PD K p
F ( s )=

Fstatic=lim s F ( s )=0
s0

The addition of integral controller results in zero frequency error.

4. Two synchronous generators operating in parallel. Their
capacities are 200 Mw and 400 Mw. The droop
characteristics of the governor are 4% and 5% from no load
to full load. Assuming the generators are operating at 50Hz
at no load, how would a load of 600 MW be shared with
them. What will be the system frequency at this load?
Solution:
Let X be the load shared by machine A
And (600-X) be the load shared by machine B
By similarity of triangles,

X h
X
=
=2 X =200 hh=
200 2
100
600X
h
=
400
2.5

2.5 ( 600 X )=400 h andsubstitutingfor h

( 100X )=4 X

2.5 ( 600 X )=400

2.5 ( 600 )=4 X +2.5 X

6.5 X=1500 andX =230.76 Mw

Load shared be machine A = 230.76 MW

Load shared by machine B = 600 X = 369.24 Mw
h=

X
230.76
=
=2.31
100
100

Frequency = 50 h = 50 2.31 = 47.69 Hz

5. Obtain the state variable model of a two area system.
Pc 1 Pc 2

are referred as control inputs u1 and u2 . The inputs

where provided by the integral of Area control errors. State

variables are defined as the outputs of all blocks having either an
integrator or time constant. Two area system has nine state
variables.

UNIT-III - REACTIVE POWER -VOLTAGE CONTROL

TWO MARKS:
1. What are the sources of reactive power? How it is
controlled?
Ans: The sources of reactive power are generators, capacitors, and
reactors.
These are controlled by field excitation.
Give some excitation system amplifier.
The excitation system amplifiers are,
a) Magnetic amplifier
b) Rotating amplifier
c) Modern electronic amplifier.
2. When is feedback stability compensation used?
Ans : High loop gain is needed for static accuracy but this causes
undesirable dynamic response, possibly instability. This
conflicting situation is resolved by adding feedback stabling
compensation to the AVR loop.
3. Give the characteristics of line compensators?
Ans : The characteristics of line compensators are,
a. Ferranti effect is minimized.
b. Under excited operation of synchronous generator is not
required.
4. What is known as bank of capacitors? How it is adjusted?
Ans : When a number of capacitors are connected in parallel to get
the desired capacitance, it is known as bank of capacitors. These
can be adjusted in steps by switching (mechanical).
5. What is the disadvantage of switched capacitors are
employed for compensation?

Ans : When switched capacitors are employed for compensation,

these should be disconnected immediately under light load
conditions to avoid excessive voltage rise and Ferro resonance in
presence of transformers.
6. What are the effects of capacitor in series compensation
circuit?
Ans : The effects of capacitor in series compensation circuit are,
Voltage drop in the line reduces. Prevents voltage collapse.
Steady state power transfer increases. Transient stability limit
increases.
7. Give two kinds of capacitors used in shunt compensator?
Ans : The two kinds of capacitors used in shunt compensator are,
a. Static Var Compensator (SVC) : These are banks of capacitors (
sometimes inductors also for use under light load conditions).
8. What is synchronous condenser?
Ans : It is a synchronous motor running at no-load and having
excitation adjustable over a wide range. It feeds positive VARs
into the line under overexcited conditions and negative VARs
when under excited.
9. Write about Static VAR Compensator (SVC).
Ans : These comprise capacitor bank fixed or switched or fixed
capacitor bank and switched reactor bank in parallel. These
compensators draw reactive power from the line thereby
regulating voltage, improve stability (steady state and dynamic),
control overvoltage and reduce voltage and current unbalances.
In HVDC application these compensators provide the required
reactive power and damp out sub harmonic oscillations.

10. What is Static VAR Switches or Systems?

Ans : Static VAR compensators use switching for var control. These
are also called static VAR switches or systems. It means that
terminology wise SVC=SVS. And we will use these
interchangeably.
11. Give some of the Static compensators schemes.
Ans : a. Saturated reactor b. Thyristor- Controlled Reactor (TCR) c.
Thyristor Switched capacitor (TSC) d. Combined TCR and TSC
compensator.
12. What is a tap changing transformer?
Ans : All power transformers and many distribution transformers
have taps in one or more windings for changing the turns ratio.
It is called tap changing transformers.
13. Write the types of tape changing transformers.
Ans : a. Off- load tap changing transformers. b. Tap changing under
load transformers.
14. What is the use of off-load tap changer and TCUL ?
Ans : The off- load tap changers are used when it is expected that
the ratio will need to be changed only infrequently, because of
load growth or some seasonal change. TCUL is used when
changes in ratio may be frequent or when it is undesirably to deenergize the transformer to change the tap.
15. What is saturated reactor?
Ans : This is a multi core reactor with the phase windings so a
constant voltage reactive
source. It is almost maintenance free but not very flexible with
respect to operating

characteristics
16.How the TSCs are characterized?
Ans : TSCs are characterized by step wise control, no transients,
very low harmonics, low
losses, redundancy and flexibility.
17.Write the expression of effective reactance in series
compensation.
Ans :

The effective reactance is given by,

XL = X - Xc
Where, XL = Line reactance
XC = Capacitor reactance
18.List the advantages of series compensation.
Ans : The advantages of series compensation are,
a. Series capacitors are inherently self-regulating and a control
system is not
required.
b. For voltage stability, series capacitors lower the critical
c. Series capacitors possess adequate time-overload capability.
d. For the same performance, series capacitors are often less costly
than SVCs and
losses are very low.
19. What is active compensation?
Ans :

When solid-state devices are used for switching off

capacitors and inductors, this is regarded as active

compensation.
20.Mention the purposes of series compensation.
Ans : The purposes of series compensation are.

a. Increase of maximum power transfer.

b. Reduction in power angle for a given amount of power transfer.
c. Increased loading

PART B
16 MARKS
1. Draw the block diagram of Automatic voltage regulator and
derive its transfer function. Explain its static and dynamic
analysis.
Functions of AVR:
For an isolated generator, AVR is used to maintain the bus bar
voltage constant
To keep system voltage constant, so that the connected
equipments are satisfactory
To improve stability
To obtain suitable distribution of reactive power load between
machines working in parallel.
With sudden disturbances like load fluctuations, the AVR is
required to reduce magnitude and duration of load variations
AVR senses the terminal voltage and adjusts the excitation to
maintain constant terminal voltage and also maintains reactive
power control
One generator with AVR is used to maintain bus bar voltage while
the excitation of the rest are used to distribute properly VAR
among the generators

Voltage error e = |V ref ||V ||V ref |=|V |

0

|V ref ||V |=|V 0|[ V 0+ |V |]=|V |

(i) Comparator:
The voltage comparator comparers the terminal voltage |V | of the
generator with the reference voltage which is set to nominal
0
voltage |V |

(ii) Amplifier:
This device is characterized by a gain factor KA and time constant
TA (TA< 100 ms)
Transfer function of amplifier =

KA
=V 2 (s)/V 1 (s)
(1+s T A )

(iii) Exciter:
It is basically an amplifier and its transfer function is :
KE
=V r (s)/ V 2( s)
(1+s T E )

(iv) Generator:
The transfer function of generator depends upon nominal operating
state of generator. Stator currents are neglected and direct axis
component id is negligible in magnitude and rotor voltage is
V r =r r i r + Lr

d ir
=r r i r + s i r Lr =i r (r r +s Lr )
dt

Under no load condition

|V |=|E|=

ir L s
2

From the above equations, the transfer function is

i r Ls
Ls
V ( s)
=
=
V r ( s ) 2i r ( r r + s Lr ) 2(r r + s Lr )

Kr
Ls
V ( s)
=
w h ere K r =
T =L /r
V r ( s ) (1+ s T r )
2(r r ) r r r

(v) Stabilizing circuit:

The AVR loop has three time constants and has three negative
poles. A very high loop gain is needed to reduce the response
time of the loop. This makes system unstable
The system is stabilized by using stabilizing transformer which
provides derivative feedback. This supplies Vst ist and
proportional to Vr
V st =M

d i st
di
V r=r i st + L st
dt
dt

V st ( s )
sM i st
s K st
M
L
=
=
w h ere K st = T st =
R
R
V r ( s ) (R +sL)i st (1+s T st )

Static Analysis:
The above block diagram can be reduced as

Static accuracy requirement can be stated as, For a constant

reference input the constant error (e0) must be less than some
specified percentage p of the reference
e 0=|V ref ||V |<

p
|V |
100 ref

For constant input voltage set s=0

From the reduced block diagram
1+G(s)

G (s )
|V |=

Substituting in error equation

1+G( s)

G ( s)
e 0=|V ref |

[1

G( 0)
p
]|V ref |<
|V |
100 ref
1+G ( 0 )

Taking LCM,

1+G ( 0 )G ( 0 )
p
V ref |<
|
|V |
100 ref
1+ G ( 0 )

1
1
V ref|=
|
|V |
1+
k ref
1+G ( 0 )

Therefore
1
p
|V |< |V |
1+ k ref 100 ref
1
p
100
100
<
=K +1>
=K >
1
1+ k 100
p
p

Dynamic analysis:
From the closed loop model
1+G(s)

|V | G ( s )
=
|V ref |
1+G( s)

G (s )

|V ( t)|=L1

The response depends on eigen values and it is obtained by, 1+G(s)

=0
G ( s )=

K
(1+s T A )(1+ s T E )(1+ s T r )

The characteristic equation is third order and hence three eigen

values s1, s2 and s3 is obtained
Depending on the nature of these roots, the response will be
exponential and oscillatory
2. Derive the relation between voltage, power and reactive
power at a node
The phase voltage V at a node is a function of P & Q at that node
V = (P,Q)
V

The differentiation of v : dV = P dP+ Q dQ

And using

V P 1 V Q
.
=
.
=1
P V
Q V

Therefore :

dV =

dP
dQ
+
P Q
(
)
V
V

The change in voltage (dV) is defined two quantities

P
Q
V
V

As an example consider a line with a series impedance (R+jX) ohms

and zero shunt admittance
Drop across impedance (V) is I* Z
And VI* = S* therefore drop = (S* / V) * Z
drop=

( PV jQ )( R+ jX )

drop=Real

( PR+ jPX jQR+QX )

V

Therefore
drop=

PR+Q X
V

 V =V 1V =

PR+QX
V

V
( 1V )V =PR+QX

V
( 1V V 2QX )/R
P=
V
( 1V V 2PR )/ X
Q=

Partially differentiating
V
( 12 V )/ R
P
=
V

V
( 12 V )/ X
Q
=
V

Therefore
V
V
( 12 V )/ X
dQ
( 12V )/ R+

dP
dQ dP
dV =
+
=
P Q
(
)
V
V
V
(12V )
R dP+ X dQ
dV =

For constant V and dV,

V
( 12 V )=0 =RdP=XdQ
RdP+ XdQ

Therefore

( RX ) dP

dQ=

In general

Q
V

plays an important role and it can be found

experimentally

Q
V

is found using network analyzer by the injection of known

quantity VARs at the node and measuring the difference in

voltage produced at that node
Smaller the value of reactance, larger

Q
V

for a given voltage

drop

Q
V

on network configuration

At no load or short circuit,

V
V
V
( 1)
amperes
X
( 12 V 1)
=
X
( 12V )
=
X
Q
=
V

3. Discuss about the generation and absorption of reactive

power
(i) Synchronous Condensers:

 It can be used to generate or absorb Q. The ability to supply Q is

determined by short circuit ratio (SCR = 1/Xs). The value of this
SCR is made low for economic reasons and hence the ability to
operate at leading power factor is large
VAR capacity can be increased by use of voltage regulators
Over excited machine generates Q and under excited machine
absorbs Q
(ii) Overhead Lines and Transformers
When fully loaded lines absorb Q . Qabsorbed = I2 (X / ph) where
I is the current in amperes and X is the reactance in ohms/phase
During light loads, the shunt capacitance of longer lines may be
dominant and lines become VAR generators
Transformers always absorb Q. Transformer of reactance XT (p.u)
and full load rating of 3VIrated , then Q absorbed is given by, 3 I2
(ohmic reactance)
Ohmic reactance X = XT V/ Irated ; Q = I2 XT V/ Irated
(iii) Cables:
Cables are generators of Q owing to that high capacitance. A 275
KV, 240 MVA cable produces 10 to 12 MVAR per mile; a 132 KV
cable roughly produces 3MVAR/mile and a 33 KV cable roughly
produces 0.2 MVAR/ mile
(iv) Loads:
A load at 0.95 power factor implies Q demand of 0.33 KVAR per
KW of power
Loads in general absorb Q
Loads of low power factor causes excessive voltage drops in
transmission lines
Load power factor can be improved by shunt capacitors
4. Explain the different methods of voltage control
(i) Injection of reactive power
(a)
Static shunt capacitors

(b)
Static series capacitors
(c)
Synchronous compensators
(ii) Tap changing Transformers
(iii) Booster transformers
(iv) Regulating transformers
(v) Static VAR compensators
(i) Injection of Reactive Power
Injection of reactive power is done to minimize the transmission
losses and to improve voltage profile
(a) Shunt Capacitors:
The function of shunt capacitor applied as single unit or group of
units is to supply lagging VAR to the system at the point where
they are connected
It has the same effect as an over excited synchronous condensers
or motors
It is the cheapest means of Q supply
It is mainly used for power factor correction at load terminals of
low voltage
When voltage falls, Q produced by shunt capacitor falls. When
voltage raises, capacitor output is large. The voltage control is
not smooth in shunt capacitors
It is applied at the load end of the circuit breaker because (i) it
increases the voltage level at the load (ii) reduces losses (iii)
Increases power factor of source generators (iv)Improves voltage
regulation and (v) Decreases KVA loading
(b) Series capacitors:
They are connected in series with the line and are used to reduce
inductive reactance between supply and load
One major drawback with series capacitor is the high over
voltage produced when short circuit current flows through it
They are used to compensate the effect of series X when a
capacitor with reactance Xc is connected. The reactance of line

reduced from X to X- Xc. The voltage drop is therefore reduced by

compensating the inductive X of the line. The compensation
factor K = (X- Xc) / X
If the load VAR requirement is small, series capacitors are of
small use
With series capacitors, reduction in line current is small, hence if
thermal considerations limit the current, little advantage is
obtained
If voltage drop is the limiting factor, series C are effective
If total X is high, series capacitors are effective and stability is
improved
(c) Shunt reactors (SR):
SR are provided at sending end and receiving end of long
transmission line when the lines are lightly loaded
The current taken by the reactors is in phase opposition to the
current due to line capacitance. The leading current due to line
capacitance is cancelled out by the lagging current taken by the
reactors
Capacitors are sources of VARs and reactors absorbs Q
SR improves stability
An air gap is provided within the reactor core to prevent
magnetic saturation. This increases core vibration and noise
(d) Synchronous Compensators:
It is a synchronous motor running without mechanical load and
depending on the value of excitation it can absorb or generate Q
The losses are high in syn. Compensators when compared to
static capacitors
When used as voltage regulator, the syn. Compensator
automatically run over excited at times of high load and under
excited at light load

 The compensator is run up as an Induction motor in 2.5 minutes

and then synchronized
The cost of installation is high but very flexible for all load
conditions
(ii) Tap changing Transformers
The voltage control is mainly obtained by tap changing
Tap changers are either ON load or OFF load. Bt changing the
turns ratio of transformer, the voltage ratio and secondary
voltage is changed
Voltage control of range 16

can be achieved

OFF Load Tap changing:

It is manually executed by substation operator.
Occasional adjustment of voltage ratio can be made by off load
tap changing. These adjustments are for seasonal load. Daily and
short time variation is not possible
ON Load Tap changing:
REFER Ques No. 5
(iii) Booster Transformers (BT)
It may be desirable to increase the voltage at intermediate point
rather than at the ends of the line and the use of tap changers
will be expensive. Hence BT is preferred
The BT can be brought into operation by closing the relay B and
opening A and viceversa
The mechanism by which the relays are operated can be
controlled either from a change in voltage or change in current

 The booster gives an in phase boost similar to tap changing

transformer
An advantage of BT is that the rating is the product of current
and injected voltage and hence only 10% of the main transformer
winding is used
They are often used in distribution feeders
(iv) Regulating Transformers
A transformer which is designed for small adjustment of voltage
instead of changing voltage levels is called regulating
transformer
It consists of two parts: three phase auto transformer called
exciting transformer and series transformer
The voltage tapped from auto transformer is applied to series
transformer placed in the network where the voltage is to be
added
The magnitude of change in V depends upon the tap changer
position of the auto transformer
It is also used for Q control, phase angle control and real power
control
(v) Static VAR compensators (SVC):
SVCs are located in receiving substations and distribution ss for
smooth and step less variation of Q injected into the line by shunt
capacitors and shunt reactors
SVCs are thyristorised
Capacitance brought into circuit during heavy loads or low power
factor loads
Inductors brought into circuit during low or light loads
Installation of SVC at suitable points can maintain voltage and
frequency deviations
Transient stability can be improved

 SVC method of Q control is fast, continuous, little losses, less

maintenance and more optimum in case of faults
SVC is an integrated system of static electrical components
(Capacitors, reactors, transformers, switches) combined to
provide continuous reactive power compensation

5. Explain the operation of on load tap changer.

The daily voltage variation due to changing load and short period
voltage variations are controlled by OLTC automatically.
In order to initiate tap changing, the line/bus voltage is sensed
form changing, the line/bus voltage is sensed from secondary of
P.T by a voltage sensitive relay.
A tap changer is provided on a transformer for maintaining for
maintaining output voltage where the input voltage is subjected
to variations.
The tap changer is mounted on the transformer tank. It
comprises a motor driving mechanism and associated control
circuit for starting and stopping of motor.
The voltage sensitive relay has two pairs of contacts for raise
and lower. A time delay element is provided to prevent the tap
changing operation during transient voltages

 When the line voltage varies beyond certain set value, the voltage
sensitive relay connected is actuated either to close raise
contacts or lower contacts. The driven motor rotates in
required direction to achieve tap changing. The motor stops
automatically after changing the tap as the unit switch provided
in the mechanism operates.
Thus the tap changing on load tap changer provides automatic
regulation of bus bar voltage.
Derivation of nominal ratio (ts) :
Ts&tr are fractions of nominal transformation ratios (i.e) tap
ratio/nominal ratio
For example a transformer a nominal ratio 6.6 kv to 33 kv, when
tapped to give 6.6 to 33 kv has a ts = 36/33 = 1.09
V1 and V2 are the nominal voltages at the end of the lines and the
actual voltage being ts V1 and tr V2.
ts tr =1 (i.e) voltage level remains in same order.

V s=t s V 1V r =t r V 2

t s V 1 =V s=V r + IZ=t r V 2+ IZ

w.k.t,
V =V 1V =

V =IZ =

PR+QX
V

PR+QX PR+QX
=
V
tr V 2

Therefore
t s V 1 =t r V 2 +

PR+ QX
tr V 2

Also ,
t s t r =1t r=

t s=t r

t s=

1
ts

V 2 PR+QX
+
V 1 t r V 1V 2

1 V 2 PR+QX
+
t
ts V 1
V 1V 2 s

Multiplying the equation by t s

t s2=

V 2 PR+QX 2
+
t
V1 V1V2 s

Therefore,

t s2 [1

PR+QX V 2
]=
V 1V 2
V1

For complete compensation, V 1=V 2

The tap changing ratio for better compensation can be calculated
from the above expression

UNIT-IV UNIT COMMITMENT AND ECONOMIC DISPATCH

TWOMARKS
1. Define economic dispatch problem?
Ans: The objective of economic dispatch problem is to minimize the
operating cost of active power generation.
2. Define incremental cost?
Ans: The rate of change of fuel cost with active power generation is
called incremental cost. Write the load balance equation? Pg-pdpl=0.
3. Define base point?
Ans: The present operating point of the system is called base point.
4. Define participation factor?
Ans: The change in generation required to meet power demand is
called as participation factor.
5. Define hydrothermal scheduling problem?
Ans: The objective is to minimize the thermal generation cost with
the constraints of water availability.
6. Define Unit commitment?
Ans: Commitment of minimum generator to meet the required
demand.
7. Define spinning reserve?
Ans: It is the term to describe the total amount of generation
availability from all units synchronized on the system.
8. What is meant by scheduled reserve?
Ans: These include quick start diesel turbine units as well as most
hydro units and pumped storage hydro units that can be brought
online, synchronized and brought up to full capacity quickly.
9. What are the thermal unit constraint?

Ans: Minimum up time, minimum down time crew constraints.

10. Define minimum up time?
Ans: Once the unit is running, it should not be turned off
immediately.
11. Define min.down time?
Ans: Once the unit is decommited, there is a minimum time before
it can be recommended.
12. Define crew constraints?
Ans: If a plant consist of two (or) more units, all the units cannot be
turned on at the same time since there are not enough crew
members to attend both units while starting up.
13. What are the two approaches to treat a thermal unit to
operating temperature?
Ans: The first allow the unit boiler to cool down and then heat
backup to operating temperature in time for a scheduled turn on.
The second requires that sufficient energy be input to the boiler
to just maintain operating temperature.
14. What are the techniques for the solution of the unit
commitment problem?
Ans: Priority list method dynamic programming Lagrange relation
15. What are the assumptions made in dynamic
programming problem?
Ans: A state consists of an array of units with specified units
operating and the rest of the time. The startup cost of a unit is
independent of the time it has been offline. There are no costs for
shutting down the units.
16. Define long range hydro scheduling problem?

Ans: The problem involves the long range of water availability and
scheduling of reservoir water releases. For an interval of time
that depends on the reservoir capacities.
17. What are the optimization techniques for long range
hydro scheduling problem?
Ans: Dynamic programming composite hydraulic simulation
methods statistical production cost.
18. Define short range hydro scheduling problem?
Ans: It involves the hour by hour scheduling of all generators on a
system to achieve minimum production condition for the given
time period.
19. Define system blackout problem?
Ans: If any event occurs on a system that leaves it operating with
limits violated, the event may be followed by a series of further
actions that switch other equipment out of service. If the process
of cascading failures continues, the entire system of it may
completely collapse. This is referred as system blackout.
20. What is meant by cascading outages?
Ans: If one of the remaining lines is now too heavily loaded, it may
open due to relay action, thereby causing even more load on the
remaining lines. This type of process is often termed as cascading
outage.

PART B
16 MARKS

1. Explain in detail with flowchart about forward dynamic

programming approach to UC problem.
The forward DP algorithm can be set up to run forward in time
from initial hour to final hour.
Computations in DP are done recursively (i.e) optimum solution of
one sub problem is used as an input to the next sub problem.
When the last subproblem is solved, the optimum solution for the
entire problem is reached. The sub problems are normally linked
by common constraints and the feasibility of these constraints
must be maintained when we move from one sub problem to the
next.
The recursive algorithm to compute minimum cost in hour k with
combination I is given as,

Pcost
[ ( k , I ) + Scost ( k 1, L ; K , I ) + F cost (k 1, L) ]
F cost ( k , I )=min
{ L}

Where
Pcost ( k , I )

Fcost ( k , I )

is the least total cost to arrive at state(k,I)

is the production cost for state(k,I)

L is the feasible states in interval k-1

S cost ( k 1, L ; K , I ) is the transition cost from state(k-1,L) to state(k,I)
I is the number of states to search in each period.
N is the number of strategies or paths to save at each step < L
A strategy is defined as the transition or path from one state at
given hour to a state at the next hour.
N & I are the two variables that allow control of computation
effort
For complete enumeration maximum number of value of I is 2n -1

 Reducing the number (N) means that we are discarding the

highest cost schedules and saving only the lowest N paths or
strategies
Assumptions:
Shut down cost are neglected
Start up cost is independent of time it has been off line
A state consists of an array of units with specified units operating
and the rest off line
Strict priority order is there and in each interval specified
minimum amount of capacity is operating

2. Discuss the priority method to solve the UC problem with

an example.
A simple approach to UC problem is to impose priority ordering,
wherein most efficient unit is loaded is first to be followed by
least efficient units in order as load increases. The full load
average production (FLAP) is the incremental heat rate at full
load multiplied by fuel cost.
Algorithm:

1. At each hour when load is dropping determine whether dropping

the next unit on the priority list ensures sufficient generation to
supply the load plus spinning reserve. If not continue operating
as it is; If yes, go on the next step.
2. Determine the number of hours H, before unit will be needed
again. That is assuming that the load is dropping and will then go
back some hour later.
3. If H is less than the minimum shut down time for the unit, keep
the commitment as such and go to last step 5. If not go to next
step.
4. Calculate two costs. The first is the sum of the production costs
for the next hours when the unit is up. Then recalculate the same
unit down and add in start up cost. If there are sufficient savings
from shutting down the unit, it should be shut down. Otherwise
keep it on.
5. Repeat this procedure for the next unit in the priority list and so
on.
Example:
Suppose a system has three units with the following chacteristics:
Unit

Min

Max

gen.
150

gen
600

Heat rate

Fuel

510+7.2P1+0.001

cost
1.1

2
42 P1

100

400

310+7852P2+0.00

1.0

2
194 P2

50

200

78+7.97P3+0.004
2
8 P3

1.2

FLAP = Incremental fuel rate (dF/dP) * Fuel cost

FLAP for unit 1 = (7.92 + 0.00142P1) * 1.1 = 9.79 Rs/Mw hr at P1 =
600 Mw
FLAP for unit 2 = (7.85 + 0.00194P2) * 1.0 = 9.48 Rs/Mw hr at P2 =
400 Mw
FLAP for unit 3 = (7.97 + 0.0048P3) * 1.2 = 11.188 Rs/Mw hr at P3
=200 Mw

Priority order:

Unit

Min

Max

FLAP

2
1
3

gen.
100
150
50

gen
400
600
200

9.48
9.79
11.188

Unit commitment schedule:

Unit
combi
nation
2+1+3
2+1
2

Min
gen.
300
250
100

Max
gen
1200
1000
400

3. Explain the procedure for solving ED with losses using

iteration method
Consider N generators meeting the load in the network.
ED problem with losses is defined as,

Min F T = Fi ( Pi )
i=1
N

Subject Pi=Pload + Ploss

i=1

Making use of Lagrange multiplier,

L=F T +

= Pi (Pload + Ploss )

Where

i=1

Differentiating w.r.t

Pi

Pload P loss
L FT
=
+
+
1 =0
Pi P i
Pi
Pi

d Fi
Ploss
+
1 =0
d Pi
Pi

d Fi
Ploss
=
1
d Pi
Pi
Ploss
Pi

Where

is the incremental transmission loss

is the incremental production cost

The coordination equation is given by

[
[

d Fi
P
= 1 loss
d Pi
Pi
d Fi
P
=
1 loss
d Pi
Pi
=

]
]

d Fi
PF
d Pi

Where PF is the penalty factor and

P
PF= 1 loss
Pi

The loss is given by

B mn

Ploss= P m Bmn Pn
m

is the transmission loss coefficient

Solution Technique:
Consider a three unit system. Assume an incremental cost rate
Find the power outputs of each of the 3 units for this value of
At the end of first iteration if the error is negative the increase
by 10% and try another solution
Otherwise decrease by 10% and proceed
By keeping track of total demand (vs) incremental cost, the
desired operating point can be found
Stopping rule based on tolerance or maximum number of
iterations

4. Derive Base point and participation factors.

This method assumes that ED problem has to be solved
repeatedly by moving the generators from one economic schedule
to another as the load changes by small amount. We start from a
given schedule called Base point and assume that first, second

derivatives of cost function w.r.t power output as

'

Fi and

''

Fi

These functions are quadratic.

As the unit generation is changed by an amount Pi, the system cost
moves from
i =

to

0 + .

d Fi
=F 'i
d Pi

d i
=F 'i'
d Pi

''
; i= PiF i ( Pi ) =

''
For N units: P1= / F 1 ( P 1)

P N = / F ''N ( P N )

The total change in generation: P D= P 1+ P2+ ..+ PN

Therfore,
N

P D=
i=1

1
F 'i '

Where,
P D=Pload + Ploss

Participation Factor:
N
Pi

1
= '' /( ' ' )
PD
Fi
i=1 F i

( )

Participation factor

1
''
Fi
P.f=
1
N
F1' '
i =1
i

The new value of generation :

Pnewi =P basei +

Pi
( PD PD

5. A power plant has 3 units with the following

characteristics:
F1 = 800+21.5P1+0.05
P21

F2

500+27P2+0.1

P22

F3 =

900+16P3+0.07

P3

Pmax = 120 Mw and Pmin = 39 MW.Find the optimum

scheduling and total cost per hour for a total load of 200
Mw.
Solution:

d F 1 d F2 d F 3
=
=
d P1 d P 2 d P 3
d F1
=21.5+ 0.05 P 1
d P1

d F2
=27+0.2 P 2
d P2
d F3
=16+0.14 P3
d P3
d F 1 d F2
=
=21.5+0.1 P 1=27+0.2 P2
d P1 d P2
Therefore :P 1=55+2 P 2
d F 2 d F3
=
=27+0.2 P2=16+ 0.14 P3
d P2 d P 3
Therefore :P 3=78.57+1.43 P2
P1+ P 2+ P3 =200

Substituting the above equations and solving

55+2 P 2+78.57+ 1.43 P2 + P2=200

Therefore
P2=15 Mw

But P2min = 39 Mw ; therefore

P2=39 Mw

Rescheduling P1 and P3 for the remaining demand of 161 Mw

[(200-39)]

d F 1 d F3
=
=21.5+0.1 P 1=16+0.14 P3
d P1 d P 3
21.5+0.1(161P 3)=16+ 0.14 P3

Therefore
Therefore

P3=90 Mw

P1=16190=71 Mw

Fuel cost:

At

P1=71 Mw : F1=2578.5

Rs
hr

P2=39 Mw : F 2=1705.1 Rs /hr

P3=90 Mw : F 3=2907 Rs /hr

Total fuel cost = F1+F2+F3 = 7190.65 Rs/hr

UNIT-V COMPUTER CONTROL OF POWER SYSTEMS

TWO MARKS:
1. What are the functions of control center?
Ans: System monitoring contingency analysis security constrained
optimal power flow.
2. What is the function of system monitoring?
Ans: System monitoring provides upto date information about the
power system.
3. Define scada system?
Ans: It stands for supervisory control and data acquisition system,
allows a few operators to monitor the generation and high
voltage transmission systems and to take action to correct
overloads.
4. What are the states of power system?
Ans: Normal state alert mode contingency mode emergency mode.
Define normal mode? The system is in secure even the
occurrence of all possible outages has been simulated the system
remain secure is called normal mode.
5. Define alert mode?
Ans: The occurrence of all possible outages the system does not
remain in the secure is called alert mode.
6. What are the distribution factors?
Ans: Line outage distribution factor, generation outage distribution
factor.

7. Define state estimation?

Ans: State estimation is the process of assigning a value to an
unknown system state variable based on measurements from that
system according to some criteria.
8. Define max. likelihood criterion?
Ans: The objective is to maximize the probability that estimate the
state variable x, is the true value of the state variable vector (i.e,
to maximize the P(x)=x).
9. Define weighted least-squares criterion?
Ans: The objective is to minimize the sum of the squares of the
weighted deviations of the estimated measurements z, from the
actual measurement.
10. Define minimum variance criterion?
Ans: The objective is to minimize the expected value of the squares
of the deviations of the estimated components of the state
variable vector from the corresponding components of the true
state variable vector.
11. What are the known values in short term hydro
scheduling problem?
Ans: The load, hydraulic inflows & uit availabilities are assumed
known. What is meant by telemetry system? The states of the
system were measured and transmitted to a control center by
means of telemetry system.
12. What are the functions of security constraints optimal
power flow?
Ans: In this function, contingency analysis is combined with an
optimal power flow which seeks to make changes to the optimal

dispatch of generation. As well as other adjustments, so that

when a security analysis is run, no contingency result in
violations.
13. Define the state of optimal dispatch?
Ans: This is the state that the power system is in prior to any
contingency. It is optimal with respect to economic operation but
may not be secure.
14. Define post contingency?
Ans: This is the state of the power system after a contingency has
occurred.
15. What are the priorities for operation of modern power
system?
Ans: Operate the system in such a way that power is delivered
reliably. Within the constraints placed on the system operation by
reliability considerations, the system will be operated most
economically.
16. What is meant by linear sensitivity factor?
Ans: Many outages become very difficult to solve if it is desired to
present the results quickly. Easiest way to provide quick
calculation of possible overloads is linear sensitivity factors.
17. What are linear sensitivity factors?
Ans: Generation shift factors line outage distribution factors.
18. What is the uses of line distribution factor?
Ans: It is used to apply to the testing for overloads when
transmission circuits are lost.
19. What is meant by external equivalency?

Ans: In order to simplify the calculations and memory storage the

system is sub divided into 3 sub systems called as external
equivalency.
20. Define secure dispatch?
Ans: This is state of the power system with no contingency
outages,but with correction to the operating parameters to
account for security violations.
Part B
16 MARKS
1. Discuss the functions of energy control centre.
An energy control centre (ECC) manages these tasks and provides
optimal operation of the system. It can perform the following
functions.
(i) Load Forecasting

:
It is an integral part of the power system

operations. For economically efficient operation and for effective

control,this must be accomplished over a spectrum of time
intervals. It falls into four categories. They are ,
Very short term : Lead time is few minutes to half an hour
Short Term : Half an hour to few hours
Medium Term : Few days to few weeks
Long term : Few months to few years
(ii) Power system planning

The load generation and transmission grow

continuously. Planning is essential for generation, transmission
and distribution .Planning should aim at excess capacity. Planning
is divided into : generation planning for alternative sources of
energy; Transmission planning for interconnections; distribution
planning for load centers.
(iii) Unit commitment

:
It means committing a generating unit(i.e

turn it on),bringing the unit upto a speed, synchronize it to the

system and connect it so that it can deliver power. The
constraints are: spinning reserve, Min up time, Min down time,
hydro constraints, fuel constraints. Etc.
(iv) Maintenance scheduling :
Preventive maintenance involves regular routine
or plant checkups and repair on generating equipment to prevent
failures and to increase the availability of generating capacity. It
is the process of scheduling the planned maintenance outages of
the generation equipment over a given future period.
The main objectives are 1. Minimization of the total cost to the
utility 2.Maximization of the system reliability.
(v) Security monitoring:
It is defined as an online process using real time data for analyzing
the effects of a series of outage contingencies on the steady state
performance of the system. Continuous monitoring of security

and appropriate corrective actions for improving security is

called security control.
(vi)

State estimation :
It is the process of estimating the state of the power
generation. State estimation based on system monitoring data
produces the best estimate of latest power system condition.

The functions of the state estimation are :

1. Detection, identification and suppression of bad measurements.
2. Provide the data base for a more reliable security analysis.
3. Augment the telemetered real time measurements to a reliable
information base of the system.
(vii) Economic Dispatch :
it is to distribute the load among the generating units connected in
the system in such a manner to minimize the total cost.
(viii)

Load frequency control:

In an inter connected system with two or more
independently controlled areas, in addition to control of
frequency, the generation with each area has to be controlled so
as to maintain scheduled power interchange. The control of
generation and frequency is commonly referred as LFC.

2. Explain the functions of SCADA with neat block diagram.

SCADA system is an arrangement which consists of
many equipments which performs controlling and monitoring of a
power system or a past of power system.

SCADA

Configuration:
Computer receives data from RTOS via the

communication interface. Operators control based on one or

more CRT terminals for display with the terminal, The
programming is used for modifying the supervisory software. All
the programs and data is stored in main memory.
RTU Terminal Unit:
It records transmitted/received data. The functions of RTU are to
record and check signals, measured values and meter readings,
before transmitting them to control station and in opposite
direction, to transmit commands, set point values etc.
Function of SCADA:
1. Monitoring 2. Alarm 3, control and indication of AGC 5. Data
acquisition 6. Control ON/OFF 7. Display.
Features of SCADA:
1. Data collection :

The data consists of electrical and mechanical

variables, ON/OFF states, analogue quantities, digital quantities
of state, sequence of event, time of occurrence and several other
data.
2. Data acquisition :
The power system data is collected through P.T,C.T
and transducers. These data are converted into digital quantities
by A/D converters and stored in memory. This data collection is
performed by data loggers.
3. Data logger:
This is an equipment which makes a log of the
reading of instruments. It performs
1, input scanning 2. A/D conversion 3. Display 4. Signal
amplification 5. Recording 6. Programming
4. Data transmission :
The data is transmitted from the process location to the control
room and from the control room to the control Centre
5. Supervision :
It is the process of checking whether all equipment
are functioning correctly and whether the system is at normal
state, by comparing the system data with reference data.
6. Indication :

Abnormal situation is indicated by means of alarms or

through other indicating devices.
7. Execution of operating commands :
The execution of operating commands is done under
2 conditions.
1. Normal : according to the load curve of the power station, the
generation of each units has to be adjusted. These can be done by
raise/lower command.
2. Emergency condition : during fault conditions the circuit
breakers are opened.
8. Data presentation :
Any data or variation regarding a particular
system variable can be obtained from the SCADA system in the
form of print outs are displays.

9. Special functions of SCADA :

1. AGC 2. Contingency 3. Online load flow analysis 4.
Economic dispatch 5. Relaying 6. Load shedding and 7. Unit
commitment.
3. Discuss in detail about the system transition states.
In general power system conditions may be described by five
operating states. The five operating states are

1. Normal state 2. Alert state 3. Emergency state 4. Inextremis 5.

Restorative state

Normal state:
A. All the constraints are satisfied.
B. Reserve margin is high to meet the system well secured.
C. when the security level falls below certain level or when
disturbance increases, the system enters into Alert state
Alert state:
a. It is the state, all the constraints are satisfies.
b. Reserve margin is not sufficient to deal with the disturbances.
c. If the disturbance is present some of the inequality constraints
will not be sacrificed
d. But corrective actions taken in time may bring conditions
satisfied and bring back the system to normal state.
e. But if severe disturbance occurs then the system is pushed to
emergency state.
Emergency state:
a. In this state, system is totally insecure .inequality constraints are
violated.

b. If emergency control action, it may be possible to bring the

system at least to alert state
c. In the absence of any corrective measures taken in time, the
system may start integrating. The system may be termed as
inextremis.
Inextremis state :
a. In this state neither inequality and equality constraints are
satisfied
b. Emergency control action should be with a motive to bring back
the portion of the system into the main stream of operation.
When this restorative procedure starts following the collapse, the
system may be referred as restorative state.
Restorative state:
From this state system may reach alert state or normal
operating state depending on the security level.
Emergency control actions:
a. Shifting of generation, changing taps in transformers, switching
capacitor banks etc. b. re commissioning of the units such as
transformers c. if any generator in the system is idle without
operation those generators are started and set to supply full
power d. The last possibility is load shedding till the fault which
creates abnormality is rectified

Restorative control actions:

a. Shut down all the loads in which generation is difficult and then
connect load one by one in the order of preference
b. Switch off all the loads in black out area and connect this to the
nearest surplus generating area. Switch of the load one by one in
the order of priority.
c. Connect all the lines and make sure there is no excessive
generation in one area and excessive demand in another area.
4. Discuss in detail about system or security monitoring
using state estimation
A state estimation is a data processing algorithm to transform
meter readings and other sets of information into an estimation of
the system state. It is proceeded via three stages
1. Data processing and display
a. bad data detection b. sampling rate
2. Security monitoring
a. overload limits b. rescheduling c. switching d. load
shedding
3. Optimal control
a. emergency dispatching b. short term forecasting c. load
frequency control d. economic load dispatching d. unit
commitment.
(i)Data processing and display
In the first stage of state estimating to main problems to be solved
are: a. bad data detection b. sampling rate.

The state estimator receives the crude measurements through

telemetry equipment. The incoming data contains large errors.
Detection and suppression of bad data is incorporated into the
estimator itself. In the preprocessor, z(k+1) at time (k+1) are
compared with past estimate z(k). The difference should not be
more than 3- 10 %depending on the sampling interval.
The preprocessor estimates the bad data. Sampling rate for the
measurements of 5 to 60 seconds is appropriate .as the difference
is small enough the time counter k is advanced without further
computation.
(ii)

Security monitoring :
The estimated quantities are compared against overload

limits and the results are indicated by suitable displays. If the

limits are approached, the operator must choose between
rescheduling, switching operation and load shedding.
Contingency evaluation is performed based on the data basis of
the estimator.

The input to the estimator includes network topology, system

parameters, transmission limits, system voltages and line
switching operations. The estimated values from stage 1 are
checked against over load limits. If no limits violated, the output
of the estimator may be used for contingency evaluation.
When overload limits are reached, suitable remedial measure like
switching, load shedding or rescheduling must be chosen.
(iii )Optimal control :
State estimation technique are used for short term forecasting,
load frequency control and economic dispatching while
emergency dispatching and unit commitment are indirectly
affected by state estimation.
State estimation techniques are used for developing forecasting
models. The load frequency control operates on a time scale
comparable with state estimation.
The main task of LFC is to reduce the frequency deviation.
Estimates for the line follows and power generation are obtained
from state estimator.
5. Explain in detail about security control .
Real time security control of a power system is
broadly concerned with the safe operation of the system as
satisfactorily as possible at all times even if any of the
components fail. Is is an online control procedure because the
system state keeps changing as load changes

Four main functions of the security control are system monitoring

and data acquisition, state estimation, security assessment and
security enhancement.
1. System monitoring and data acquisition :
It provides upto date information about the
conditions of power system. Critical quantities are measured and
transmitted at frequent intervals to the control centre. Normally
the measurement are voltages, currents, power flows, status of
circuit breakers, frequency, generator unit outputs and
transformer tap positions. Digital computers in the control center
gather the telemetered data, process and palce them in the data
base. Computers check the incoming information against pre
stored limits and alarm the operator in the event of overload or
out of limits.
It is usually combined with supervisory control systems that allow
the operator to control remotely.
2. State estimation :
The telemetered data may contain errors due to
inaccurate transducer calibration, noise in communication etc.
these errors render the data unfit for direct acceptance. For
these reasons, state estimation techniques are developed. State
estimation is a data processing algorithm for converting
redundant meter readings and other information into an estimate
of the power system. For effective control, reliable data base
should be provided.

3. Security assessment :
After state estimation, security assessments have to
be carried out. All the bus voltages and loadings are compared
with their respective limits. if any limit violation, system is
insecure and insecurity enhancement procedures have to be
carried out. If not, the system is said to be in secure mode. In
such case, security assessment studies are continued.
The various possible outages that may occur in the system are
simulated one at a time and their effects are studied. If the
system is secure for all possible outages, the system is in normal
mode and security enhancement procedures are not necessary. If
the system is insecure for at-least one outage, system is said to
be in alert mode and security enhancement procedures are
carried out to bring it to normal state.
4. Security Enhancement

A simple type of corrective action involves shifting of generation

from one unit to another. Such shifts can cause power flows to
charge and can alter loading on over loaded lines. Together the
functions of system monitoring, state estimation, security
assessment and enhancement comprise a very complex set of
tools that can aid in the secure operation of power system.