Nuclear Physics Lecture Notes

P.Babkevich 2007
Content:
Lecture 1:
Nuclear sizes and isotope shifts
Lecture 2:
The Semi Empirical Mass Formula SEMF
Coulomb term
Volume and Surface term
Asymmetry term
Pairing term
Lecture 3 (8 & 9):
decay
decay
Valley of stability
Fermi theory of decay
Selection Rules in decay
Electron capture
Inverse decay
decay
Mssbauer effect
Lecture 4 & 5:
Magic numbers
Shell model
Spin-orbit potential
Lecture 6 & 7:
Cross section
Breit-Wigner line shape
Breit-Wigner cross-sections
Rutherford scattering
Lecture 9 & 10:
Interaction with matter
Charged particles in matter
Bethe-Bloch formula
Cherenkov radiation
Bremsstrahlung
Synchrotron radiation
Photons in matter
Lecture 11:
Photomultiplier
Avalanche Photo Diode
Scintillators
Gas-filled counters
Experimental set-ups
Response of a Ge-Li detector
Radiation units
Lecture 12:
Neutron cross-sections for 235U and 238U
Fission process

2
4
5
7
8
10
12
16
16
17
20
21
22
23
23
25
25
26
28
30
31
33
35
36
37
40
40
42
43
46
46
46
47
49
51
52
53
54
1

Lecture 1
Nuclear Sizes and Isotope Shifts
Assume a uniform distribution of charge Ze in a spherical nucleus of radius R. Then
calculate the potential inside nucleus Vinside.
Einside by Gauss law:

Einside =

Ze r

4 0 r 2 R

(1.1)

Find Vinside by integrating Einside and applying boundary conditions at r=R to match Vinside to
usual 1/r2 potential:
(1.2)
2
Zer
3Ze
+
Vinside ( r ) =
3
8 0 R
8 0 R
The difference between actual potential and Coulomb:

V ( r ) =

Zer 2
3Ze
Ze
+

3
8 0 R
8 0 R 4 0 r

(r < R)

(1.3)

Using 1st order perturbation theory to calculate energy shift E:

(1.4)

E = 4 r * ( r )[ eV ( r )] ( r )dr
2

Inserting approximate Hydrogenic ground state wave function:

a0

3/ 2

3/ 2

(1.5)

Z
exp( Zr / a0 ) 2
a0
3
R
2
Zer
3Ze
Ze
Z
E = 4 r 2 4 ( e)
+

dr
3
a
8
R
8
R
4
r

0
0
0

(r) = 2

4 4 3

Z Ze
E = 4e
R 2 + 2
a 4 0
10 3 2

2 Ze 2 R 2 Z
E =

5 0 a0

(1.6)

Note how E is proportional to Z4 and R2 therefore the most noticeable effect is deep
inside large Z nuclei. To see the isotope shift, look at transitions from l=1 (no isotope
shift) to l=0 (large isotope shift), preferably look for transitions at low n.

Types of isotope shifts in increasing shift order:

o Isotope shift for optical spectra: E = O(meV)
o Isotope shift for X-ray spectra (bigger effect then optical because electrons
closer to nucleus): E = O(0.1 eV)
2

o Isotope shift for X-ray spectra for muonic atoms. Effect greatly enhanced
because mm~ 207 me and a0 ~1/m. E = O(keV)
All data consistent with R = R0A1/3 using R0 = 1.25 fm.

Isotope Shift in Optical Spectra:

Need to use higher n wave functions to calculate this

Use Zeff Z n
expect (Zeff /Z)4 dependence in E
Why is E ~ A2/3?
E ~ R2(see before) and R = R0A1/3

Energy shift of an optical transition in Hg at = 253.7 nm for different A relative to A =

198. Data was obtained by Doppler free laser spectroscopy. The effect is about 1 in 107
(Note the even/odd structure).

Two lines for odd and even A

See SEMF pairing term later

E (eV)

40

21 eV

A2/3

Isotope Shift in X-Ray Spectra:

6

E (eV)

Data on the isotope shift of K X-ray lines in Hg. The effect is about 1 in 10 . Again the data
shows the R2= A2/3 dependence and the even/odd effect.

A2/3

Isotope Shift in Muonic Atoms:

Because a0 ~ 1/m the effect is ~ 0.4%, i.e. much larger than for an electron. Changing Rnucl
by increasing A gives changes in isotope shifts of 2 keV. Data on isotope shift of K X-rays
from muonic atoms [in which a muon with m = 207me takes the place of the atomic
electron]. The large peak is 2p3/2 to 1s1/2. The small peak is 2p1/2 to 1s1/2. The size comes
from the 2j+1 statistical weight.
Isotope Shift Summary:
All types of isotopes shifts show ~ A2/3 as expected for a Rnucl2 dependence. This holds for
all types of nuclei. When fitting the slopes we find the same R0 in Rnucl2= A2/3, this tells us
that the nuclear density is a universal constant.
Lecture 2

The Semi Empirical Mass Formula - SEMF

Assumptions:
o
o
o
o
o

Nuclear density is constant (see lecture 1).

We can model effect of short range attraction due to strong interaction by a
liquid drop model.
Coulomb corrections can be computed using electromagnetism (even at these
small scales)
Nucleons are fermions at T = 0 in separate wells (Fermi gas model leads to
the asymmetry term)
QM holds at these small scales leading to pairing term.

SEMF = Liquid Drop Model + Fermi Gas Model + phenomenology + QM + EM

Liquid Drop Nucleus:
Phenomenological model is used to understand binding energies. Consider a liquid drop
with no rotation and no influence of gravity. Can assume that intermolecular forces are
repulsive at short distances, attractive at intermediate distances and negligible at large
distances also that the nucleus is of constant density.
4

n=number of molecules, T=surface tension, B=binding energy, E=total energy of the drop,
a,b=free constants
E = -an + 4pR2T

B = an - bn2/3
The liquid drop is analogous to the nucleus, which has constant density. From nucleonnucleon scattering experiments we know that nuclear force has short range repulsion and is
attractive at intermediate distances. Assume charge independence of nuclear force,
neutrons and protons - have same strong interactions this can be checked with experiment
(Mirror Nuclei).
Coulomb Term:
The nucleus is electrically charged with total charge Ze. Assuming that the charge
distribution is spherical and computing the reduction in binding energy due to the Coulomb
interaction.
Ze

ECoulomb =

Q(r)

4 r dQ
0

r
Q ( r ) = Ze
R
3Zer 2
dQ =
dr
R3
R

ECoulomb =
0

3( Ze) 2 r 5
3 ( Ze) 2
dr
=
4 0 r R 6
5 4 0 R

(2.1)

However this includes self interaction of last proton with itself. To correct this replace Z2
with Z(Z-1). Using R = R0A1/3. This leads to the equation below. In principle could take d
from the above calculation but it is more accurate to take it from the overall fit of the
SEMF to data (since nuclei not totally spherical or homogeneous)
(2.2)
Z ( Z 1)
BCoulomb ( Z , A) = d
A1/ 3
Does the assumption of the drop model of constant binding energy for every constituent of
the drop actually hold for nuclei? Compare binding energies of mirror nuclei (nuclei with
np). Eg 73Li and 74Be. Then if the assumption holds the mass difference should be due
to n/p mass difference and Coulomb energy alone.

Ecoulomb ( Z , Z 1) =
=

3 e2
[ Z ( Z 1) ( Z 1)( Z 2)]
5 4 0 R
3 e2
2( Z 1)
5 4 0 R

Z ~ A / 2 ; R = R0 A1/ 3
EC ( Z , Z 1) A

(2.3)

2/3

Now lets measure mirror nuclei mass, assuming that the model holds and derive Ecoulomb
from the measurement. This should show a A2/3 dependence and the scaling factor should
yield the correct R0 of 1.2 fm if the assumptions were right.
5

nn and pp interaction same (apart from Coulomb).

Energy levels of two mirror nuclei for a number of excited states corrected for n/p mass
difference and Coulomb energy.

Mirror nuclei showed that strong interaction is the same for nn and pp. What about np?
Compare energy levels in triplets with same A, different number of n and p. e.g.
22
10

22
Ne 11
Na 1222 Mg
Find the same energy levels for the same spin states and therefore the strong interaction is
the same for np as nn and pp. Same spin/parity states should have the same energy. Indeed
when np=nn=pp this is true. Note that there are far more states in 2211Na. Because it has
more np pairs then the others, np pairs can be in any spin-space configuration, but pp or nn
pairs are excluded from the totally symmetric ones by Paulis exclusion principle. Also
22
11Na has the lowest (most bound) state. (The diagram for the elements is shown on the
next page)

22
10Ne

22
12Mg

22
11Na

We have shown by measurement that if we correct for n/p mass difference and Coulomb
interaction, then energy levels in nuclei are unchanged under n p exchange and we
must change nothing else i.e. spin and space wavefunctions must remain the same. Strong
two-body interaction must be the same for pp, pn and nn if nucleons are in the same
quantum state. However by Pauli exclusion principle there are bound state of pn but not pp
or nn, this is because the strong force is spin dependent and the most strongly bound spinspace configurations (deuteron) are not available to nn or pp. Just like 2211Na on the
previous triplet level schema.
Volume and Surface Term:
Now we have all we need to trust that we can apply the liquid drop model to a nucleus constant density and same binding energy for all constituents. Since we are building a
phenomenological model in which the coefficients a and b will be determined by a fit to
measured nuclear binding energies we must include any further terms we may find with the
same A dependence together.
(2.4)
BVolume ( A) = aA
BSurface ( A) = bA2 / 3
Asymmetry Term:
Neutrons and protons are spin fermions and hence
must obey Pauli exclusion principle. If all other factors
were equal nuclear ground state would have equal
numbers of n & p.
In the diagram n and p states are with same spacing .
Crosses represent initially occupied states in ground
state. If 3 protons were turned into neutrons, the extra
energy required would be 33. In general if there are
Z N excess protons over neutrons the extra energy is
((Z N)/2)2 relative to Z = N.

Assume:
o p and n form two independent, non-interacting gases occupying their own square
Fermi wells
o kT << so we can neglect kT and assume T=0, this should to be obvious as nuclei
dont suddenly change state at room temperature
o Nucleons move non-relativistically (check later if this makes sense)
Fermi Gas Model
Define the momentum associated with the Fermi level through
pF2
2m

EF =

(2.5)

Where m is the mass of a nucleon. Ignoring the presence of fermions beyond the Fermi
level, we can write the volume for states in momentum space as
4 2
pF
(2.6)
3
If V denotes the physical nuclear volume, then the total volume for the states in what can be
called phase space will be given by the product
VPF =

VTOT = VV pF =

4 3 4 3
r0 A
pF
3
3

(2.7)
2
3
4
=
A ( r0 pF )
3
which is proportional to the total number of quantum states of the system. The Heisenberg
uncertainty principle provides the restriction on the minimum volume that can be
associated with any physical state of the system, which can be shown to be
Vstate = ( 2 = ) = h 3
3

(2.8)

it follows that the number of fermions that can fill states up to and including the Fermi
level is
nF = 2

VTOT

( 2 = )

3
4
=
A ( r0 pF )
3
( 2 = ) 3

(2.9)
3
4 r0 pF
A
=

9 =
where the factor of 2 arises because each state can be occupied by 2 fermions with opposite
spins. Considering for simplicity a nucleus with N = Z = A/2 and assume that all the states
up to and including the Fermi level are filled, then
N =Z=

A 4 r0 pF
=
A

2 9 =
1
3

(2.10)

= 9

r0 8
In this case, the Fermi momentum is constant and independent of the nucleon number. This
leads to the equation for the Fermi energy

pF =

p2
1 = 9 3
EF = F =

2m 2m r0 8
33MeV
From statistical mechanics, know that
3
E = EF
5
Return to equation (2.10) and rearrange for Fermi momentum to find Fermi energy
4 r0 pF
Z=
A

9 =

(2.11)

(2.12)

= 9 Z 3
pF =

r0 4 A

(2.13)
2

= 2 9 Z 3
E FZ =

2mr02 4 A
Therefore can now calculate the total energy of protons and neutrons
Etot = Z E Z + N E N
3
= EF ( Z + N )
5
2
5
5
3 = 2 9 3 Z 3 + N 3
Etot =

2
3
5 2mr02 4

Introduce new variable y = N Z and substitute into the above equation

2

3 = 2 9 3 1
Etot =

5 2mr02 4 2 5 3

(2.14)

(2.15)

( A y ) 53 + ( A + y ) 53

2
3

5
5
KA
y 3
y 3
= 5 1 + 1 +
A
A

2 3

use binomial expansion, defined as

(1 + x )
y

1
A

1 +
A

n ( n 1) 2
x + ...
2!

1 + nx +

5 y 5 y
1
+ ...
3 A 9 A

1+

5 y 5 y
+ + ...
3 A 9 A

KA 5 y
Etot 2 1 +
2 3 9 A

KA
2

5 K (N Z)
+
9 22 3
A

(2.16)
9

(N Z )
3
1
Etot = E F A + E F
5
3
A

(2.17)

The first term of equation (2.16) is only proportional to A, it has already been captured by
the volume term of the liquid drop model. Therefore the Fermi gas model leads to the
Asymmetry term:
(2.18)
( N Z )2
BAsymmetry ( N , Z ) = c
A
Pairing Term:
From observation, nuclei with even Z and N are more tightly bound than when Z and/or N
are odd. This is due to 2 protons or 2 neutrons in the same energy level having opposite
spin, this results in having to have a symmetric wavefunction which is more likely for the
particle to have a maximum overlap and therefore be more bound. Empirical fit gives
(2.19)

BPairing ( A) =

A1/ 2

e-e

+ive

e-o

o-o

-ive

Putting the results for the Semi Empirical Mass Formula together, find

B( N , Z ) = aA bA2 / 3 c

( N Z )2
Z2

d 1/ 3 1/ 2
A
A
A

(2.20)

Please note that the Coulomb term has been changed from Z(Z 1) to just Z2 as the formula
is only applicable for A > 20 and for heavy atoms a difference of 1 nucleon is not going to
be significant.

Fit parameters/MeV
a = 15.56
b = 17.23
c = 23.29
d = 0.70
+12

= 0
12

10

(o-o)
(o-e)
(e-e)

Lecture 3 (,8 & 9)

Stability of Atoms

From observation, stable nuclei do not lie on a straight line in N-Z plane. The SEMF
predicts this:
Coulomb term pulls them down (prefers Z<N) and
wins with increasing Z over Asymmetry term (prefers Z=N)
Rich structure in location of stable elements
more stable isotopes of e-e then o-o nuclei (see -decay)
No life beyond Z=92 (U) and a big gap from Z=82 to 92 (the region of
natural radio activity)
Funny magic numbers for Z and N (see SEMF limitations)

-decay:
emission of Helium nucleus
ZZ 2
NN 2
AA 4
A
A 4
Z X N Z 2YN 2 +
- decay
emission of e- and n
ZZ + 1
NN 1
A=const
n p + e + e
A
Z

Y + e + e

A
Z +1

+ decay
emission of e+ and n
ZZ1
NN+1
A=const
p n + e+ + e
A
Z

Y + e+ + e

A
Z 1

electron capture (EC)

absorption of e- and emission of
ZZ 1
NN + 1
A=const
p + e n + e
A
Z

Y + e

A
Z 1

decay
emission of gamma ray
Z,N,A all constant
11

 decay (Cottingham 2nd Ed. pg. 74; Williams pg. 83; Krane pg. 251)

decay is due to the emission of a 24 He nucleus

4
2 He is doubly magic and very tightly bound
decay is energetically favourable for almost all nuclei having A 190 and for
many A 150
but the world is full of isotopes with A > 151
and only 7 natural -emitters observed with A < 206 because
o barrier penetration has ~ exp(-Q)
9

o energies are too low to get << age of earth (410 years)
Note: Shell effects O(1 MeV) make the life times of a-emitters deviate by several
orders of magnitude from SEMF predictions
The kinetic energy release, Q(A, Z) in an decay of a nucleus (A, Z) is given in
terms of binding energies of the parent and daughter nuclei by:
Q ( A, Z ) = B ( A 4, Z 2) B ( A, Z ) + 28.3MeV

(3.1)

where 28.3 MeV is the experimental binding energy of a 24 He nucleus. Negative values of
Q imply absolute stability against decay.

Consider decay of Thorium:

23290Th emits with Q 4 MeV
1/3

RTh 1.2232

has V(RTh) = 24 MeV

fm = 7.36 fm

Classically the particle cannot penetrate the barrier

Conclusion:
must tunnel out of the nucleus
half lives should have exp(-Q) dependence (true over 24 orders)

12

V (r > a)

1
r

-V0
Figure above shows the relative potential energy of particle, daughter nucleus system as a
function of their separation. Inside the nuclear surface at r = a, the potential is represented
as a square well; beyond the surface, only the Coulomb repulsion operates. The particle
must tunnel through the Coulomb barrier from a to b. The horizontal line, Q is the
disintegration energy.
In the theory developed in 1928 simultaneously by Gamow and Gurney an particle is
assumed to move in a spherical region determined by the daughter nucleus. The central
feature of this one-body model is that the particle is preformed inside the parent nucleus.
Actually there is not much reason to believe that particles exist separately within heavy
nuclei; nonetheless the theory works quite well, especially for even-even nuclei. This
success of the theory does not prove that particles are preformed, merely that they behave
as if they were.
Consider a rectangular potential barrier that a particle of energy Q (< V0) incident from x =
- experiences.
0

V ( x ) = V0
0

x<0
0x t
x>t

The solutions in the three regions respectively are then:

1 = Aeik x + Be ik x
1

2 = Cek x + De k x
2

3 = Feik x
3

where :

(3.2)

2mQ
k1 = k3 =
=2
k2 =

2m (V0 Q )
=2

Setting the boundary condition on the equations that and d/dx are continuous at x = 0
and x = t, find the transmission coefficient, T = |F|2/|A|2 as:

13

V02
T = 1 +
sinh 2 k2t
4 Q (V0 Q )

(3.3)

From the figure on page 12, the Coulomb barrier has height B at r = a, such that:
zZ ' e 2
4 0 a
1

B=

(3.4)

where the particle has charge ze and the daughter nucleus, which provides the Coulomb
repulsion, has charge Ze = (Z z)e. The height of the barrier thus varies from (B Q)
above the particle energy at r = a to zero at r = b. A representative average height is then
(B Q). Similarly the average step size is (b a). The factor of k2 in Eq. (3.2) then
becomes ( 2m / = 2 ) ( B Q ) / 2 . For a typical heavy nucleus (Z = 90, a = 7.5 fm), the barrier
height, B ~ 34 MeV, so k2 is approximately 1.6 fm-1.
b=

zZ ' e 2
4 0 Q
1

(3.5)

For typical values of Q ~ 6 MeV, b ~ 42 fm, k2t ~ k2(b a) >> 1. Eq. (3.3) can then be
approximated as
P e 2 k2 (1/ 2)( b a )

(3.6)

The actual Coulomb potential varies with r and therefore k2 changes. Dividing the potential
into small strips and multiplying together the exponents leads to:
1/ 2

2m (V ( r ) Q )
dP = exp 2dr

=2

P = e 2 ki r

(3.7)

2m (V ( r ) Q )
= exp 2 dr

=2

a
= exp {2G}

1/ 2

where G is the Gamow factor which can be evaluated as:

V (r > a) =
1/ 2 b

2mQ
G= 2
=

zZ ' e 2 Qb

4 0 r
r

1/ 2

b
a dr r 1

let :

(3.9)

r = b cos2 ; dr = 2b cos sin d

1/ 2

2mQ
= 2
=

(3.8)

1/ 2

1/ 2 d cos2 1
1 a

( 2b cos sin d )

cos
b

14

1/ 2

1/ 2

2mQ
G= 2
=

2b sin 2 d

1/ 2

2mQ
= 2
=

1/ 2

b (1 cos )

1/ 2

2m
= 2
= Q

a
cos 1
b

1/ 2

a
cos 1
b

cos
0

(3.10)

1/ 2

a
aa
b cos 1 1
b
b b

for the case where a << b:

1/ 2

2m
G 2
= Q

zZ ' e 2
4 0 2

(3.11)

Thus the result of the quantum mechanical calculation for the lifetime of decay:
=

1
fP

(3.12)

where is the disintegration constant and f is the frequency at which the particle strikes
the barrier with probability of transmission of P. The time between collisions is 2a/v (v is
1/ 2
the velocity ~ ( 2Q / m ) ).

2a 2 G
e
v

2m 1/ 2 zZ ' e 2
2a
exp 2

v
4 0
= Q

(3.13)

Experimental tests:

1/2

Predict exponential decay rate proportional to (Q)

Agrees approximately with data for even-even nuclei.
The approximation that the nucleus is spherical with mean radius of 1.25A1/3 has a
substantial influence on the half-lives. The nuclei with A 230 have strongly
deformed shapes and the calculated half-lives are extremely sensitive to small
changes in assumed radius.
Assumed the existence of one particle in nucleus and have not taken into account
the probability of formation.
Assumed semi-classical estimate for escape frequency, f.
Also angular momentum effects complicate the picture:
o Additional angular momentum barrier (as in atomic physics)
El =

l (l + 1)( =c) 2
2mc 2 r 2

(3.14)

o El is small compared to ECoulomb

o E.g. l = 1, R = 15 fm El ~ 0.05 MeV compared to
o Z = 90 ECoulomb~17 MeV.
o The emission of particles is suppressed for high l states.
o but still generates noticeable extra exponential suppression.
Spin (J) and parity (P) change from parent to daughter
L
J=L P=(-1)

15

 decay

The continuous energy distribution of decay electrons was confusing experimental result
in the 1920s. Alpha particles are emitted with sharp, well defined energies, equal to the
difference in mass energy between the initial and final states (less recoil corrections). Beta
particles have a continuous distribution of energies, from zero up to an upper limit which is
equal to the energy difference between the initial and final states. If were like decay, a
two body process, we would expect all particles to have a unique energy. The neutrino
proposed by Fermi carries away the missing energy and because it is highly penetrating
radiation, it is not stopped within the calorimeter.
In all there are 3 processes that are refered to as decay:
:

n p + e + e

A
Z

+ :

p n + e+ + e

EC :

p + e n + e

Y + e + e

A
Z +1

A
Z

A
Z 1

A
Z

A
Z 1

Y + e+ + e

Y + e

A nucleus with overabundance of neutrons or protons can become more stable isotope by
emitting and electron/positron or absorbing one.
p

d
u
u

d
u

e-

n p + e + e

W(

e
Beta decay energetics:
Consider:
n p + e + e

Define the Q value as follows:

Q = ( mn m p me m )c 2
= 939.573Mev 938.280 Mev 0.511Mev m c 2
= 0.782 MeV m c

(3.15)

For decay of neutron at rest:

Q = Tp + Te + T

(3.16)

The proton recoil energy can be considered as negligible, which gives the maximum energy
electrons, Q ~ (Te)max = 0.782 0.013 MeV (according to measurements) in agreement with
Eq. (3.15).
Valley of stability
Can use SEMF to find a stable value of Z for a given A. The mass of a neutral atom is given
by Eq. (3.17) with nucleus of Z protons and electrons and (A Z) neutrons.
M ( Z , A) = Z ( m p + me ) + ( A Z )mn B ( Z , A) / c 2

(3.17)
16

From SEMF have:

( A 2 Z )2
Z2

d 1/ 3 1/ 2
A
A
A
M ( Z , A)c 2 = ( Amn c 2 aA + bA2 / 3 + sA + A1/ 2 )
B ( Z , A) = aA bA2 / 3 s

( 4 s + ( mn m p me )c 2 ) Z
+ ( 4 sA1 + dA1/ 3 ) Z 2

(3.18)

(3.19)

M ( Z , A)c 2 Z + Z 2

Minimum found at:

M

=0
Z A
Z min =

(3.20)

( 4 s + ( m m m )c ) A
=
2 ( 4 s + dA )
2

2/3

The plots of the parabolae of Eq. (3.19) are shown below for odd and even A:

Due to the pairing term, for even A there are 2 parabolae

decay is a weak interaction mediated by the W boson
Angular momentum consideration influence whether decay occurs readily or not

Fermi theory of decay (Cottingham 2nd Ed. pg 166; Krane pg 277; Williams pg 294)
Assumptions:

Not considering parity non-conservation

Nucleons in closed shells do not take part in the decay by Paulis exclusion
principle
Ignoring spin states of particles
Neglecting recoil of nucleus
Lifetime of W boson is of short range and therefore at the moment of interaction all
particles can be considered at the same point in space
17

Described by Fermis Golden Rule which is from non-relativistic perturbation

theory

The transition rate, from initial state of the system i to final state, f is given by Fermis
golden rule:
=

(3.21)

2
2
H fi ( E f )
=
=

where Hfi is the matrix element linking the initial and final quasi-stationary states and (Ef)
is the density of specified f states. For + decay have:
i = p (rp ),

(3.22)

f = n (rn ) e (re ) (r )
H fi = dv f H i

(3.23)

( dv = d 3rn d 3rp d 3red 3r )

Eq. (3.23) could be of the form:
H fi = GW d 3r ( n (r ) e (r ) (r ) ) p (r )

(3.24)

where Gw is the strength of the weak interaction. The constant Gw is given in terms of more
fundamental constants of particle physics by:
GW = GFVud

(3.25)

where GF is the Fermi constant and Vud is an element of the Kobayashi-Maskawa matrix
their values are found to be experimentally as:
GF = 1.16639(2) 1011 ( =c )3 MeV 2
Vud = 0.9744(10)

Taking neutrino and positron to have plane wave states, normalised in a volume V.
(r ) =

1
V

1/ 2

eik .r , e (r ) =

1
V 1/ 2

eik e .re

(3.26)

Therefore matrix element Hfi of Eq. (3.24) becomes:

H fi =

GW
G
i k + k .r
M F = W d 3r n (r ) p (r )e ( e )
V
V

(3.27)

Energies in decay are generally of order ~ MeV and the corresponding wavevectors are ~
MeV/ = c ~ 10-2 fm-1. To a good approximation can expand the integral (3.27) such that:
H fi =

GW
iG
d 3r n (r ) p (r ) W ( k + k e ) .r d 3r n (r ) p (r ) + ...

V
V

(3.28)
18

The density of states factor determines (to lowest order) the shape of the beta energy
spectrum. To find the density of states, we need to know the number of final states
accessible to the decay products. Consider the locus of points representing momenta in the
range dp at p is a spherical shell of radius p and thickness dp thus having volume 4p2dp. If
the electron is confined to a box of volume V, then the number of final electron states dne,
corresponding to momenta in the range [p, p + dp] is:
dne =

4 p 2 dpV
h3

(3.29)

dn =

4 q 2 dqV
h3

(3.30)

And similarly for the neutrino states:

where q is the neutrino momentum. The available spatial and momentum states are counted
in 6-dimensioal (x, y, z, px, py, pz) phase space; the unit volume in phase space is h3. The
final number of states which have simultaneously an electron and a neutrino with proper
momenta is:
d 2 n = dne dne =

( 4 )

V 2 p 2 q 2 dpdq
h6

(3.31)

To find the differential decay rate, d/dp need to find d2n/dpdEf. The total energy of the
final state, Ef, assuming the neutron and proton do not recoil in the decay is given by the
sum of the neutrino and electron energies: Ef = Ee + E = Ee + qc. Now p is fixed as want
to find the d/dp for a given p, therefore:
dE = dE f = cdq

(3.32)

( 4 ) V 2 p 2 q2
d 2n
=
dpdE f
h6c

(3.33)

2
2 (Ef )
2 d n
d 2
2
H fi
H fi
=
=
dp
dp
dpdE f
=
=

(3.34)

Eq. (3.31) then becomes:

2

Differentiating Eq. (3.21) wrt p

Now substitute Eq. (3.33) and (3.27):

2 2 2
d 2 GW
( 4 ) V p q
=
M
F

= V
dp
h 6c

64 4
2
= 7 3 GW2 M F p 2 ( E f Ee )2
hc
2

(3.35)
(3.36)

19

Using the relativistic energy-mass relation can rewrite Eq. (3.36) in the usual form.
1
( Ee2 me2c4 )
c2
dp
E
= e
dEe pc 2
p2 =

d
dp 64 4 2
2
=
GW M F p 2 ( E f Ee ) 2
dEe dEe h 7 c 3
64 4
2
= 7 6 GW2 M F S0 ( Ee )
hc

S0 ( Ee ) = ( Ee2 me2 c 4 )

1/ 2

Ee ( E f Ee ) 2

(3.37)

(3.38)

(3.39)

As expected the arbitrary normalisation volume, V cancels out from the final result. The
formula can be improved by allowing for the interaction between the electron and the
Coulomb field of the daughter nucleus of charge Zd. Since only the electron (positron)
wavefunction at the nucleus is important, S0(Ee) is modified to
S c ( E e ) = F ( Z d , Ee ) S0 ( Ee )

( Z ,0 )
F ( Z d , Ee ) = e d
e ( 0,0 )

(3.40)

where e(Zd, r) is the electron wavefunction at energy Ee in the Coulomb potential

Zde2/40r.
Selection Rules in decay
From Fermi theory, cf Eq.(3.27).
Superallowed transitions:
M F ~ p n d 3r 1

(3.41)

Allowed transitions:
Angular momentum of e, pair relative to nucleus, l = 0.
e i ( k e + k ).r ~ 1

(3.42)

There are two types of allowed/superallowed transitions depending on the relative spin
states of the emitted e and . If both have spin then the total spin of e system is Se = 0
or 1.
Fermi transitions Sev = 0:
n p + e + e
 

Se = 0

J x = J y ; J = 0

20

Gamow-Teller transitions Se = 1
n p + e + e
 

Se =1

J x = J y ; J = 1
n p + e + e
 

Se =1

J x = J y 1; J = 0 (0 0 forbidden)

Total number of spin states of e is 4 (3 G-T and 1 Fermi)

No change in angular momentum of the e pair relative to the nucleus, l = 0
parity is unchanged.

Forbidden transitions:

Angular momentum of e pair relative to the nucleus l > 0

e i ( k e + k ).r = 1 i ( k e + k ).r + [ ( k e + k ).r ] ...
2

P = ( 1)

even

odd

even

...

st

Allowed; 1 forbidden; 2 nd forbidden

Transition probabilities for larger l are small forbidden transitions. Forbidden transitions
are only competitive if an allowed transition cannot occur (selection rules). The lowest
permitted order of forbiddeness will dominate.
Electron capture
The initial state is:
i = p (rp ) e (re )

(3.43)

To a good approximation the electron is most likely to be in the K-shell, since the K-shell
wavefunction has the greatest overlap with the nucleus. This wavefunction can be
considered as hydrogen-like:
e (re ) =

1 Z

a0

3/ 2

Zr
a0

(3.44)

where a0 is the Bohr radius (= mee2/( 4 0= 2 )). Final state is:

f = n (rn ) (r )

(3.45)

The neutrino wavefunction is the same as in Eq. (3.26) that takes form of a plane wave
state. The appropriate equation now for the matrix element is:
H fi = GW d 3r n (rn ) (r ) p (rp ) e (re )

(3.46)
21

which for an allowed transition reduces to:

H fi =

GW
e (0) d 3r n (rn ) p (rp )
V

G
= W
V

Z

a0

3/ 2

(3.47)

MF

where have treated the electron and neutrino wavefunctions as constant over the nuclear
volume. Once again neglecting nuclear recoil, the emitted neutrino has energy E:
E E f + me c 2

(3.48)

To find the density of neutrino states, , use result from Eq. (3.30) and the following
property from statistical mechanics:
dn
dn
dq = dE
dq
dE
dn dq
( E ) =
dq dE

(3.49)

4 V E 1

h3 c c
4 V
= 3 3 E2
hc

( E ) =

(3.50)

The decay rate, EC for electron capture using Fermis golden rule in Eq. (3.21) and
inserting Eq. (3.47) and (3.50) becomes:
EC =

2
2
H fi ( E )
=

2 GW
=

= V

Z

a0

3/ 2 2

2 4 V
E2
MF
3 3
h
c

GW2 M F E2 Zme e 2

2 = 4 c 3 4 0 = 2

(3.51)

Since have neglected electron spin, only one K electron is included in the calculation. At
high Z, the Z3 factor and increasing Coulomb barrier for positron emission will make
electron capture the dominant process.
Inverse decay (Krane pg. 296)
decay:

n pe e

inv. decay: e p ne +

Define the reaction cross section for the inverse decay as:
=

probability/target atom for reaction to occur

incident flux of e

(3.52)
22

The reaction probability can be again calculated from Fermis golden rule. The matrix
element, Hfi is again as in Eq. (3.27), Gw|MF|/V. The neutron recoil is neglected and the
density of final states comes only from the positron. Eq. (3.52) becomes:

2 GW2
MF
= V2

4 Vpe2+

3
h
c /V

dpe+

dEe+

(3.53)

From Eq. (3.37): dp/dE = E/c2p using which gives the result:
= 16 3GW2 M F

pe+ Ee+

(3.54)

h 4c3

decay

Very similar to atomic physics transitions

When do they occur?
o Nuclei have excited states similar to atoms (need a proper shell model to
understand).
o when there is not enough energy to emit a strongly interacting particle
(nucleon), often after other nuclear decays
o E

atomic

< 100 keV ; E

nuclear

< O(1 MeV)

nuclear, rot

o Heavy nuclear rotational states can have E

< O(10 keV)
o EM interaction less strong then the strong (nuclear) interaction
o Low energy excited states E < 6 MeV above ground state cant usually
decay by nuclear interaction -decays
decays important in cascade decays following and decays.
Practical consequences
o Fission. Significant energy released in decays
o Radiotherapy: from Co60 decays
o Medical imaging eg Tc
o Studying emission and its competing process, internal conversion, allows
to deduce the spins and parities of the excited states of the nucleus

Mssbauer effect (Eisberg 2nd ed. pg 584; Krane pg 328/361)

A source nucleus in an excited state makes a transition to its ground state, emitting a ray.
The ray could be subsequently absorbed by another nucleus (previously in ground state)
which is excited. Small changes to the source energy, absorber energy or ray energy will
destroy the resonance. The problem has to do with the recoil of the nuclei upon emission
and absorption of the ray.

The total linear momentum of the decay is zero before emission. The nuclear recoil
momentum is pn after the emission and equal to momentum carried away by the ray, p.
23

If the nuclear mass, M is high and the recoil velocity is low, may use the classical
expression for kinetic energy of the nuclear recoil, K as:
K=

pn2
2M

(3.55)

For the ray, p = E /c, therefore from conservation of angular momentum have
K=

1
2M

E

c

(3.56)

For emission have:

E = E + K
E = E

E2
2 Mc 2

E 2
2 Mc 2

(3.57)

For absorption:
E E +

E 2
2 Mc 2

(3.58)

E varies due to natural width of energy levels.

If initial state is in thermal motion, need to consider Doppler shift.
Absorption of rays can only occur for energies in the overlap region shown above
If the atoms are put into a lattice, the strong bonding allows the recoil of a nucleus
from emission/absorption to be distributed between many atoms. Effectively this
corresponds to greater value of mass in Eq. (3.56). If mass is very large, the
energies of emission/absorption will be approximately the same.
The above will be true in a lattice provided the recoil energy is smaller than the
phonon energy such that there is insufficient energy to excite the lattice to a
higher vibrational energy state.

24

Lecture 4 & 5

Shortcomings of the SEMF:

o spin & parity of nuclei do not fit into a drop model
o magnetic moments of nuclei are incompatible with drops
o actual value of nuclear density is unpredicted
o values of the SEMF coefficients except Coulomb and Asymmetry are completely
empirical
o Magic numbers unaccounted for
Magic numbers
Nuclei with values of

are very stable and show significant departures from the average nucleus behaviour. They
represent the effects of the filled major shells analogous to the atomic shell model. The
binding energy per nucleon is large for magic numbers.

Doubly magic nuclei extremely stable (where Z and N are magic)

Energies in alpha and beta decay high when daughter nucleus is magic
Nuclear radius is not changed much with Z, N at magic numbers
1st excited states for magic numbers higher than neighbours
Spontaneous neutron emitters have magic number +1
Terrestrial nuclear abundances for Z or N magic are greater than those for nonmagic elements.
Elements with Z/N magic have many more isotopes than with Z/N non-magic
Odd A nuclei have small quadrupole moment when magic, etc, etc

Shell model (Williams pg. 131; Cottingham 2nd ed. pg. 56; Krane pg. 116)
The atomic theory based on the shell model has provided remarkable clarification of the
complicated details of the atomic structure. Nuclear physicists therefore attempted to use a
similar theory to solve the problem of nuclear structure. A major difference is that in the
atomic case the potential is supplied by the Coulomb field of the nucleus; the orbits are
25

established by external agent. In nucleus there is no such external agent; the nucleons move
in a potential that they themselves create. This is overcome by the fundamental assumption
of the shell model: the motion of a single nucleon is governed by a potential caused by all
of the other nucleons. Treating each nucleon individually allows for the nucleons to be
occupying the energy levels of a series of sub-shells.
Another difficulty is that electrons move in orbits free of collisions with other electrons.
Nucleons on the other hand have relatively large diameter compared to the size of the
nucleus. However, the existence of spatial orbits depends on the Pauli principle. For
example in a heavy nucleus a collision between nucleons in a state near the bottom of the
potential well will result in a transfer of energy to one another. But if all the energy levels
are filled up the level of the valence nucleon, there is no way for one of the nucleons to
gain energy except to move to the valence level as other low lying levels are filled. The
transition thus requires more energy than the nucleons are likely to transfer in a collision.
Thus collisions cannot occur and nucleons orbit as if they were transparent to one another.
Assumptions:
o Each nucleon moves in an averaged potential
neutrons see average of all nucleon-nucleon nuclear interactions
protons see same as neutrons plus proton-proton electric repulsion
the two potentials for n and p are wells of some form (nucleons are bound)
o Each nucleon moves in single particle orbit corresponding to its state in the
potential
We are making a single particle shell model
Q: why does this make sense if nucleus full of nucleons and typical mean free
paths of nuclear scattering projectiles = O(2fm)
A: Because nucleons are fermions and stack up. They can not loose energy in
collisions since there is no state to drop into after collision
o Use Schrdinger Equation to compute energies (i.e. non-relativistic), justified by
simple infinite square well energy estimates
o Aim to get the correct magic numbers (shell closures)
The Saxon-Woods potential can be used to approximate the potential as experienced by an
individual nucleon.
V (r) =

V0
1 + e( r R ) / a

(4.1)

The parameters R and a give, respectively, the mean radius and skin thickness. Their values
are chosen with accordance to measurements such that: R = 1.25A1/3 fm and a = 0.524 fm.
V0 is adjusted to give the proper separation energies and is of order 50 MeV. This potential
is then substituted into the Schroedinger Equation and the energy levels found. However
the central potential alone cannot reproduce the magic numbers, need to account for the
spin-orbit interactions.
Spin-orbit potential
In atomic physics, the spin-orbit interaction causes the observed fine structure of spectral
lines, comes about because of the electromagnetic interaction of the electrons magnetic
moment with the magnetic field generated by its motion about the nucleus. This concept is
adopted in nuclear physics. From scattering experiments there is strong evidence of
nucleon-nucleon spin-orbit force. The potential is altered such that:
V ( r ) V ( r ) + W ( r )L.S
(4.2)
26

where L and S are orbital and spin angular momentum operators and W(r) is a function of
radial position.
2

W ( r ) = VLS

where:

= 1 dV

m c r dr

(4.3)

VLS = VLS ( Enucleon )

and

V(r) is the Saxon-Woods potential of Eq. (4.1). As with atomic physics, the total angular
momentum operator is defined below:
J = L+S

(4.4)

The eigenvalue of L.S for a stationary state with good quantum numbers l, j and s (=1/2) is
=2
j ( j + 1) l ( l + 1) s ( s + 1)
2

(4.5)

Therefore, the potential for j = l + is:

1
V ( r ) + l = 2W ( r )
2

(4.6)

1
V ( r ) l (l + 1)= 2W ( r )
2

(4.7)

and for j = l - :

Since W(r) is negative (to obtain agreement with observation), the j = l + level will be
below that with j = l . The resultant energy structure is shown below.

27

Summary of successful predictions of the Shell model:

Origin of magic numbers

Spins and parities of ground states
Trend in magnetic moments
Some excited states near closed shells, small excitations in odd A nuclei
In general not good far from closed shells and non-spherically symmetric potentials
Collective properties of nuclei can be incorporated into the nuclear shell model by
replacing the spherically symmetric potential by a deformed one. This improves
description for
Even A excited states
Electric quadrupole and magnetic dipole moments

Shortcomings of the Shell model:

Cannot predict spin or parity for odd-odd nuclei do not have a very good model
for the LS interactions
A consequence of the above is that the shell model predictions for nuclear magnetic
moments are very imprecise
Cannot predict accurate energy levels because:
o we only use one well to suit all nuclei
o we ignore the fact that n and p should have separate wells of different shape
As a consequence of the above we cannot reliably predict much (configuration,
excitation energy) about excited states other then an educated guess of the
configuration of the lowest excitation

Lecture 6 & 7

Partial decay widths

Particles can often decay with more than one decay mode, each with its own transition rate,
as given by Fermis golden rule (cf lecture 3):
=

2
2
H fi ( E f )
=

The total decay rate is given by:

(5.1)
= i
i

This determines the average lifetime:

The total width of particle state is:

= = = = i

Define the partial widths:

i = =i = i
i

The proportion of decays to a particular

decay mode is called the branching fraction:

Bi =

=1

Cross section
The strength of a particular reaction between two particles is specified by the interaction
cross-section. A cross-section is an effective target area presented to the incoming particle
28

for it to cause the reaction. Often use units of barns defined as 1 barn (b) = 10-28 m2. The
cross-section, is defined as the reaction rate per target particle, per incident flux, that
is the number of beam particles passing through unit area per second.
=

(5.2)

Consider a beam of N particles/sec of area A incident upon a target width dx and n

nuclei/unit volume.

Number of target particles, NT in area A,

= nAdx
Effective area for absorption
= nAdx
Rate at which particles are removed from the beam = - dN = (N/A)nAdx
dN
= ndx
N
N o scattered particles/sec
=
Nndx

(5.3)
(5.4)

For a thick target (nL>>1) the Eq. (5.3) can be integrated such that:
Nf

Ni

dN
= ndx
N 0

(5.5)

N f = N i e nL

The mean free path between interaction is then 1/n. For a thin target (nL<<1):
N f = N i (1 nL )

(5.6)

The total reaction rate per unit surface area in the thin target will be = nL. To rewrite the
cross-section in terms of incident flux use the relation, = N/A. Eq. (5.4) can then be
rewritten as:
=

N o scattered particles/sec
( A)( N T /( Adx ) ) dx

N o scattered particles/sec
Flux Number target particles
=

(5.7)
(5.8)

There are usually several reaction channels that incident particle can sustain:
1) elastic scattering by the target
2) inelastic scattering or
3) absorption by the target
Given that a reaction occurs, each reaction channel, i has definite probability pi, the
partial cross-section i is defined as i=pitot. The incident particle in general can scatter at
any angle with respect to the incident direction. The elastic differential cross-section, e for
a particle scattering into solid angle d is defined as:
d e

d d =

(5.9)
29

Breit-Wigner Line Shape (Cottingham 2nd ed. pg. 103/236)

Figure to the left shows the total crosssection for neutron to interact with 168O as a
function of kinetic energy (in the centre of
mass frame). The principal features are
narrow resonance peaks, superposed on a
slowly varying background. These peaks are
due to the formation of excited states of 17O
from the neutron and 16O at resonance
energies. When the energy of the incident
neutron is such that the total energy of the
system matches to within width one of the
excited states of 17O, the neutron is readily
accepted. The shape of peaks at resonance is
described by the Breit-Wigner formula whose derivation is outlined below.
The wavefunction of the unstable state is denoted by 0 and it decays to states
1 , 2 ,... m where m > 0. The states can be chosen to be orthonormal. The state of the
system, which is 0 at t = 0 can be expressed as a superposition of states m .

(t ) = am (t )e iEmt / = m

(5.10)

Em = H mm = m H m

(5.11)

m =0

where

Assume:
The Hamiltonian, H is known that perturbs the resonance and lets it decay
Dealing with a spinless resonance
Now insert Eq. (5.10) into the Schrdinger equation:
i=

d
= H
dt

(5.12)

which gives,

( i=a
m

+ Em am ) e iEmt / = m = am He iEmt / = m

(5.13)

Multiplying by n , the orthogonality picks out the time dependence of an.

n

( i=a

+ Em am ) e iEmt / = m = n

He iEmt / = m

( i=an + En an ) e iE t / = = am
n

m n

n H m e iEmt / = + En an e iEn t / =

(5.14)

i=an = am H nm e i ( Em En )t / =
m n

30

The initial conditions at t = 0 are a0(0) = 1, am(0) = 0 for m a. To first order the
quantities Hnm can be regarded as small when n m, then for n 1 have
i=a n a0 H n 0e

i ( E0 E n ) t / =

(5.15)

The state 0 is unstable, so make the following ansatz

a0 (t ) = e t / 2 =

(5.16)

a0 ( t ) = e t /

where is the energetic width (uncertainty) of our initial resonance. The probability of
finding the system in 0 state decays exponentially with time. Eq. (5.15) can now be
integrated to give
t

i=an (t ) = H n 0 dt ' e
0

i ( E0 En ) i / 2 t '/ =

e i ( E0 En )i / 2t / = 1
=
= H n0

i
( En E0 ) + i / 2

(5.17)

For times t >> , the probability of decay to the state n is:

an ( t  ) =

2
2
H n 0 P ( E n E0 )

(5.18)

P ( E n E0 ) =

1
2 ( En E0 )2 + 2 / 4

(5.19)

where

The function in Eq. (5.19) is normalised and is

regarded as the probability distribution in
energy of the state 0 it is shown in figure
below. The energy of the final state En is not
identically equal to E0 and is not absolutely
determined. This is an consequence that the
state 0 does not have definite energy. The
instability implies that it has a small spread of
energy about the mean energy E0.

Breit-Wigner cross-sections
Consider a channel i which consists of two particles, for example a neutron interacting with
nucleus, I at an energy close to an energy at which the two can combine to form the
unstable excited state X*. The X* then decays into one of its decay channels f.
( channel i ) X ( channel f )

31

Use the result obtained in Eq. (5.18):

2

H n0
an ( t  = ) =
( E n E0 ) 2 + 2 / 4
2

(5.20)

The probability that X* is formed from i is:

P(i X ) = a x (t  = x ,tot )

H xi
( E x Ei ) 2 + 2x ,tot / 4

(5.21)

Use Fermis golden rule to substitute for |Hxi|2. Since H is hermitian; |Hxi|2 = |Hix|2.
xi 2
2
=
H ix i ( E x )
=
=
P (i X ) =

H ix =

x i
2
= H xi
2 i ( E x )

1
x i
2 i ( E x ) ( E x Ei ) 2 + 2x ,tot / 4

(5.22)

(5.23)

The rate of the reaction from channel i to channel f , (i x f) is:

i f = P (i X )x f

i f =

x f x i

2 = i ( E x ) ( E x Ei ) 2 + 2x ,tot / 4

(5.24)
(5.25)

Using the reaction rate can find the cross-section using the relation in Eq. (5.2). For a free
particle in initial state i. Where wavefunction is normalised to 1 particle per volume V and v
is the velocity of the particle.
1 ik .r
e
V
1
= v
V

(5.26)

The density of states in the ith channel is given by:

i ( E )dE =

V
dk
dE
4 k 2
3
dE
(2 )

dE = 2 k
=
= =v
dk
m

(5.27)

(5.28)

where m is the reduced mass of the particles. And have made use of the relation p = mv =
= v. Eq. (5.27) is then:

i ( E )dE =

V 4 k 2
dE
(2 )3 =v

(5.29)

32

 i f =

i f

1
=

1
i ( Ex )

V (2 )3 =v
=

V 4 k 2

i f =
=

2 = ( E x Ei ) 2 + 2x ,tot / 4
x f x i

2 = ( E x Ei )2 + 2x ,tot / 4
x f x i

ki 2

x f x i

Ei = E x

( E x Ei ) 2 + 2x ,tot / 4
x f x i

=2

(5.30)

2mE x ( E x Ei ) 2 + 2x ,tot / 4

This result is the Breit-Wigner formula for the special case when the incoming and the
compound nucleus have zero spin. For small , the cross-section peaks sharply at Ex = Ei.
The phenomenon is known as resonance scattering and is common in nuclear physics;
experimental resonance peaks can often be well fitted by an expression of this form.

Rutherford scattering (Sakurai pg. 386)

What do we want to describe:
o Scattering between two spin less nuclei due to Coulomb interactions
o Non relativistic scattering energies (Ecm << smallest of the two nuclear masses)
o The correct approach to Rutherford scattering is by use of quantum mechanics,
although classically would get the same result it is only accidental
o Use the Born approximation
plane waves going into and coming out of scattering
no disturbance of wave functions during the scattering
acceleration happens at one instance in time
nuclei stay what they were (no break-up or emission of other particles etc.)
o First nucleus, denoted by i1 and f1
is light compared to the first one to guarantee no recoil
has charge Z1
o Second nucleus denoted by i2 and f2
is heavy no recoil
is stationary in the lab frame before collision
has charge Z2
The scattering potential, V(r) is the Coulomb potential which has been modified to allow
for solutions to the integration
Z1Z 2 =c r / a
V (r) =

(5.31)

e2
4 0=c

The wavefunctions of the incoming and outgoing first nucleus are:

i =

1 iki1 .r
e ;
V

f =

1 ik f 1 .r
e
V

(5.32)
33

The matrix element of the Coulomb interaction Hamiltonian as in Eq. (3.23) is:
H fi =

1
ik .r
eiki1 .r V ( r ) e f 1 dv

V all space

(5.33)

Use K = ki1 kf1 such that the above is rewritten as

H fi =

1
V ( r )eiK .r dv

V all space

(5.34)

Choose z-axis to be parallel to K

(
Z Z =c
iKr cos e
H fi = 1 2
e
0 0 1
V
r

r / a)

r 2d ( cos )d dr

Z1Z 2 =c eiKr e iKr e (

= 2
0 iKr
V
r

r / a)

(5.35)

r 2 dr

+ iK r
Z Z =c a iK r
a

= 2 1 2
e

e
dr

iKV 0

1
1
Z1Z 2 =c
= 2

iKV 1 + iK 1 iK
a
a

2iK
Z Z =c
= 2 1 2
iKV 1
2
2 +K
a

(5.36)

Now taking the limit as a find the matrix element as

H fi = 4

Z1Z 2 =c
K 2V

(5.37)

Using Fermis golden rule have the expression for cross-section:

d =

2V
2
H fi
d f (E f )
=
v

(5.38)

where v is the velocity of the incident particles. Now need to find the density of states in
solid angle d. The number of states between p and p + dp in solid angle d is:
V 2
p dpd
h3
V
dp
d = 3 p2
d
h
dE
d 2N =

(5.39)

where p and E are centre of mass momentum of one of the final state particles and total
energy in the final state respectively. In the non-relativistic limit, Eq. (3.37) becomes dp/dE
= 1/v. Now substitute the results Eq. (5.37) and (5.39) into (5.38).
34

d =

2
Z Z =c V V 2 d
4 1 22
p
KV
v h3
v
=

2
d 4 p Z1Z 2 =c
=

2 4
K2
d v =

(5.40)

(5.41)

By energy conservation, |ki1| = |kf1|:

K = k i1 k f 1 = 2k1 sin
2

(5.42)

( Z1Z 2 =c )
d ( 2m )

=
4
16k14 sin 4 ( 2 )
=
d
2

(5.43)

Lecture 9 & 10

Interaction with matter

Measure properties of nuclei through decay products

Measure energy, momentum, mass & charge of particles with
o M [0 () ; few 100 GeV (fission fragment)]
o Ekin [keV (Radioactivity) ; few GeV (accelerator experiments)]
o Q/e [0 (,n); O(100) (fission fragments)]
Need to translate microscopic particle properties into quantitatively measurable
macroscopic signals
Do this by interactions between particles and matter
Which interactions would be useful?
o Weak? Too weak at low (nuclear) interaction energies
o Strong? Some times useful but often noisy (strong fluctuations, few
interactions per distance)
o EM? Underlies most nuclear and particle physics detectors (L9&10)
Energies released Ekin (particle) often too small for direct detection need
amplification of signals (see detector section L11)
Particle Ranges
a) If smooth energy loss via many steps (i.e. ionisation from light ions)
sharply defined range, useful for rough energy measurement
b) If a few or a single event can stop the particle (i.e. photo-effect)
exponential decay of particle beam intensity,
decay constant can have useful energy dependence
No range but mean free path defined
c) Sometimes several types of processes happen (i.e. high energy electrons)
mixed curves, extrapolated maximum range

35

Particles we are interested in

o photons
exponential attenuation at low E, often get absorbed in single events
detect secondary electrons and ions liberated in absorption process.
o charged particles
sharper range (continuously loose energy via ionisation)
leave tracks of ionisation in matter measure momentum in B field
sometimes radiate photons can be used to identify particle type
o neutrons
electrically neutral no first-order em-interaction difficult to detect
react only via strong force (at nuclear energies)
long exponential range (lots of nuclear scattering events followed by absorption
or decay)
need specific nuclear reactions to convert them into photons and/or charged
particles when captured by a target nucleus
if stopped, measure decay products, e- + p +
Charged particles in matter

If particle or medium emit photons, coherent with incoming particle radiation

process
o Bremsstrahlung, Synchrotron-radiation: emitted by particle
o Cherenkov-radiation: emitted by medium
If no coherent radiation non-radiating process
o Ionisation, scattering of nuclei or atoms
Note: Scintillation is a secondary process in which the light is emitted after
ionisation or atomic excitation. It is NOT a radiation process
Charged particle can collide with:
Atomic electrons (free)
large energy loss E q2/2me (small me, q = momentum transfer)
small scattering angle
Nuclei
small energy loss (E q2/2mnucleus)
large scattering angle
Unresolved atoms (predominant at low energies)
medium energy loss E < q2/2meeff because: meeff(bound) > me(free)
medium scattering angle
atoms get excited and will later emit photons (scintillation)

36

Bethe-Bloch formula (Williams pg. 234; Das pg. 114)

Charged particle ionises or excites the atoms as it transverses through a material. The mean
rate of energy loss is given by the Bethe-Bloch formula the derivation of which is outlined
below. The Mott scattering formula for differential cross-section for an electron of
momentum p and velocity V by a heavy nucleus of charge z|e| is given by:

2
2
V
d z =c
1

2
=
1 sin ( 2 )
d 2 pV sin 4 ( 2 ) 
c  

Mott
term

Rutherford term

(6.1)

Now want to change variables from d to q2, where q is the momentum transferred to the
scattered electron.
q = p p'

q 2 = p 2 + p '2 2 pp 'cos

(6.2)

For elastic scattering:

q 2 = 4 p 2 sin 2
2
2
dq

= 2 p 2 sin
d

If have no dependence:

(6.3)
(6.4)

d = 2 sin d
d
1
=
d 2 sin

(6.5)

d d dq 2 d
=
d d d dq 2
d
1
2 p 2 sin 2
=
dq
2 sin
d
d
= 2
2
dq
p d

(6.6)

Putting it together gives:

Substitute Eq. (6.1) and (6.3) into (6.6)

2
4
2
d
z =c 2 p Vq
=
1

dq 2 p 2 2 pV q 2cp

(6.7)

2
2
z =c Vq
d
= 4 2 1

dq 2
q V 2cp

(6.8)

Now change frame from one where nucleus is at rest and electron is moving to the frame in
which the heavy nucleus of mass M is moving with velocity V towards collision with
stationary electron. The momentum p in Eq. (6.8) is still the momentum of the electron, p =
meV. Here q2 is the same in both frames. This is true non-relativistically and if it is
correctly defined also relativistically. For an electron initially at rest, the energy transfer, v
to the electron is 2mev = q2.
37

If this nucleus loses energy dT in a distance dx in a material containing n atoms of

atomic number Z per unit volume, then
vmax

dT =

d
dv
dv
vmin
 

nZdx
N

(6.9)

n. of collisions with
e in length dx per
unit cross-sectional cross-section weighted
area
average energy lost per
collision

z =c
dT = nZdx v 2me 4

vmin
( 2me v )V
vmax

dT = nZdx

vmax

vmin

( z =c )
v 2
meV 2

1
v2

V V 2
1 ( 2me v )
1 2 dv
c

2cmeV

v V 2

1
1 2 dv

2
c
2me c

( z =c ) ln vmax vmax vmin 1 V 2

dT

= 2 nZ

dx
meV 2 vmin
c2
2me c 2

(6.10)

(6.11)

where vmax amd vmin are the maximum and minimum values of energy transfer. For a heavy
incident particle:
vmax =

2meV 2
V2
1 c2

(6.12)

Although vmax is much greater than vmin, do not know the latter. At large v the bound
electrons can be assumed to be free, but at low v that assumption is no longer valid. It
becomes possible to have an energy, v and momentum, q transfer that do not satisfy the
constraint (2mev = q2) imposed if those quantities impact on a free electron. The
momentum and energy transfer can now lead not only to ionisation but also excitation of an
atom. Thus the integral is not correct and has to be done over variables v and q for
differential cross-sections that depend on the detailed atomic structure. This gives an
important contribution to the whole energy loss and expect it to differ by some factor from
the result that has been obtained thus far. The Bethe-Bloch formula parameterises these
problems by defining a quantity I, the mean excitation potential, for all Z atomic electrons
this is an element dependant parameter which has to be determined from experimental data.
The correct result is thus (note a correction factor of 2 has been added, but will not be
justified here):

2
( z =c ) ln 2meV 2 V 2
dT
= 4 nZ
dx
meV 2 I (1 V 2 / c 2 ) c 2

(6.13)

= density correction: dielectric properties of medium shield growing range of Lorentzcompacted E field that would reach more atoms laterally. Without this the stopping power
would logarithmically diverge at large projectile velocities. Only relevant at very large .
1 dT 4 N A Z ( z =c ) 2me 2 c 2 2

2
ln

=

2 2
dx
2
A
me c
I

1 dT

, called the stopping power

dx
2

(6.14)
(6.15)

where is mass density of material, A is the atomic weight, NA, Avogadros number.
38

Limitations:
o totally wrong for very low V (ln goes negative particle gains energy)
o correct but not useful for very large V (particle starts radiating)

Figure to show the ionization and Bethe-Bloch formula variation with

Broad minimum at 3.0 (3.5) for Z = 100(7)

At minimum, stopping power is nearly independent of particle type and material
Stopping Power at minimum varies from 1.1 to 1.8 MeV g-1 cm2)
Particle is called minimum ionising (MIP) when at minimum

variation in dT/dx is useful

for particle identification
variation is most pronounced
in low energy falling part of
curve
if determine momentum, p
and dT/dx you can determine
the particle mass and thus its
type

39

Cherenkov radiation (Das pg. 148; Shaw 2nd ed. pg. 64)

Source of E-field (charge) passing through medium at a v > vphase (light in medium)
creates conical shock wave. Similar to a sonic boom.
Not possible in vacuum since v < c. Possible in a medium when n > 1.
o The Cherenkov threshold at = 1/n can be used to measure and thus to identify
particles if measure the momentum as well.
Huygens secondary wavelet construction gives angle of shockwave as
ct
1
cos c = n =
ct n

(6.16)

this can be used to measure particle direction and .

In time that the particle goes from O to P, light goes from O to A.
Cherenkov radiation first used in discovery of antiproton (1954).
Now often used in large water-filled neutrino detectors and for other particle physics
detectors
Total energy emitted as Cherenkov Radiation is ~0.1% of other dT/dx.

Bremsstrahlung (Williams pg. 247; Shaw 2nd ed. pg. 55)

Due to acceleration of incident charged particle in

nuclear Coulomb field
Radiative correction to Rutherford Scattering.
Continuum part of x-ray emission spectra.
The intensity is proportional to inverse mass
squared
Lorentz transformation of dipole radiation from
incident particle frame to laboratory frame gives narrow (not sharp) cone of blueshifted radiation centred around cone angle of = 1/.
Radiation spectrum falls as 1/E (E = photon energy) because particles loose many lowE photons and few high-E photons. i.e. it is rare to hit nuclei with small impact
parameter because most of matter is vacuum
Photon energy limits:
o low energy (large impact parameter) limited through shielding of nuclear charge
by atomic electrons.
o high energy limited by maximum incident particle energy.

-*

Ze

40

Energy loss due to bremsstrahlung is:

dT

dx brem

T ( x ) = T0 e

(6.17)

( x LB )

2
2 3

1 4nZ ( =c ) 183
=
ln
1/ 3
LB ( m c 2 )2
Z
e

(6.18)

where L0 is the radiation length, n is the number per unit volume of the nuclei, atomic
number Z.

dT/dx|brem ~ T dominates over dT/dx|ionise ~ ln(T) at high T.

Ecrit is the energy at which bremsstrahlung losses exceed ionization losses
For electrons Bremsstrahlung dominates in nearly all materials above few 10 MeV.
Ecrit (e-) 600 MeV/Z
Radiation Length L0 of a medium is defined as:
o distance over which electron energy reduced to 1/e via many small bremsstrahlunglosses
o LB ~ Z-2 approximately as it is the charge that particles interact with
Bremsstrahlung photon can produce e+e- -pair and start an em-shower
The development of em-showers, whether started by primary e or is measured in LB.

Simple shower model assumes:

o e2
o E0 >> Ecrit
o only single Brem- or pair production per LB
The model predicts:
o after 1 LB, of E0 lost by primary via Bremsstrahlung
o after next LB both primary and photon loose E again
o until E of generation drops below Ecrit
o At this stage remaining Energy lost via ionisation (for e+/-) or Compton scattering,
photo-effect (for ) etc.
o Abrupt end of shower happens at E0 = Ecrit, when LBmax = ln(E0/Ecrit)/ln2
o Indeed observe logarithmic dependence of shower depth on E0
o The main features of this model are observed experimentally.
o The physical sizes of calorimeters need increase only slowly with the maximum
energies of particles to be detected.
o The energy resolution of calorimeter depends on statistical fluctuations which are
neglected in this model, for em calorimeter they are typically: E/E = 0.05E-1/2 GeV
41

Synchrotron Radiation (Das pg. 163; Shaw 2nd ed. pg. 46)

Appears mainly in circular accelerators (mainly to electrons) and limits maximum

energy achievable.
Similar to Bremsstrahlung
Replace microscopic force from E-field in Bremsstrahlung with macroscopic force
from vB to keep electron on circular orbit
Electrons radiate only to the outside of circle because they are accelerated inward
Angle of maximum intensity of synchrotron radiation with tangent of ring = 1/
Synchrotron radiation = very bright source of broad range of photon energies up to few
10 keV used in many areas of science
Many astrophysical objects emit synchrotron radiation from relativistic electrons in
strong magnetic fields

For relativistic energies, the equation of motion for a charged particle mass, m and charge e
in a magnetic field B becomes:
dp
vB
=e
dt
c

(6.19)

Equating to the centripetal force with |v| ~ c:

m

dv
vB
= m v = e
dt
c

(6.20)

For magnetic field and axis of circular motion perpendicular to the direction of motion:
=

eB
m c

(6.21)

or
1/ 2

1 eB v 2
=
f =

1
2 2 mc c 2

(6.22)

For this relation to hold during an acceleration cycle either the alternating frequency has to
decrease or the magnetic field to increase, or both must happen as v c.

Synchrocyclotrons magnetic field kept constant, frequency varied.

Synchrotrons magnetic field changed, irrespective of whether the frequency is
changed. In electron synchrotrons, the frequency is held constant and magnetic field
varied, whereas in proton synchrotrons, both frequency and magnetic field are
altered.

With relativistic effects taken into account, Eq. (6.22) can be used to obtain the parameters
for accelerating particles to any desired energy. Rewrite Eq. (6.22) in terms of momentum
and radius of final orbit. For v c, frequency of the motion can be expressed as:
1 v
1 c

2 R 2 R

(6.23)

1 c
1 eB 1
=

2 R 2 mc

(6.24)

f =

Eq. (6.22) is then:

42

let p = mv mc, the equation for radius, R is:

pc
eB

R=

(6.25)

The above equation is often written in mixed units of accelerator science as:
R

p
0.3B

(6.26)

where R is in meters, p in GeV/c and e has magnitude corresponding to charge on an

electron.
Photons in matter (Das pg. 124; Cottingham 2nd ed. pg. 207; Shaw 2nd ed. pg. 56; Krane pg.
198)

Rayleigh scattering
o Coherent, elastic scattering on the entire atom (the blue sky)
o + atom + atom
o dominant at > size of atoms
Compton scattering
o Incoherent scattering on electron from atom
o + e-bound + e-free
o possible at all E > min(Ebind)
o to properly call it Compton requires E >> Ebind (e-) to approximate free eo Consider an incident photon striking an electron, initially at rest, mass m. The
photons energy after collision is E travelling in the exact opposite direction to
incidence and electron gains momentum, p. From energy (6.27) and momentum
(6.28) conservation have (in natural units):
E + m0 = E ' + N
m0

(6.27)

E = p E '

(6.28)

Ee2 = p 2 + m 2

(6.29)

Ee

Use invariant:

Substitute into (6.29) Eq. (6.27) for Ee and Eq. (6.28) for p:

(E

E ' + m0 ) = ( E + E ' ) + m 2
2

E E ' =
E ' =
E

max

2 E E '
m
mE
m + 2 E
2 E2

m + 2 E

(6.30)

Photoelectric effect
o absorption of photon and ejection of single atomic electron
o + atom + e-free + ion
o possible for E < max(Ebind) + dE(Eatomic-recoil, line width) (just above K-edge)
43

o Free electrons cannot absorb a photon and recoil. Energy and momentum cannot
both be conserved in such a process; a heavy atom is necessary to absorb the
momentum at little cost to the energy.
o This can be shown as follows. Consider an electron at rest colliding with a photon,
the rest mass of the electron cannot change (otherwise would not be an electron).
By energy and momentum conservation have the following:
me c 2 + hf = me c 2

(6.31)

hf
= me v
c
me c 2 + me vc = me c 2

(6.32)
1/ 2

v 1 v v
1 = = 1 1 +
c c c
v=0

therefore must have scattering rather than absorption by a free electron.

o The kinetic energy of the electron is equal to the photon energy less the binding
energy of the electron:
Te = E Be

(6.33)

o The absorption of a photon for photoelectric effect is most significant for low
energy photons (~ 100 keV), it increases rapidly with atomic number Z of absorber
atoms (as Z4) and decreases rapidly with increasing photon energy (of order E-3).
There are discontinuous jumps in the probability for photoelectric absorption at
energies corresponding to binding energies of particular electronic shells.
Pair production
o absorption of in atom and emission of e+e- pair
o The energy balance is:
E = T+ + me c 2 + T + me c 2
(6.34)
o Two varieties:

a) dominant: + nucleus e+ + e- + nucleusrecoil

b) weak: + Z*atomic e- e+ + e- + Z *atomic e-recoil

o Both variants need: E >2mec2 + Erecoil

bigger Mrecoil gives lower threshold because Erecoil = Precoil2/2Mrecoil

type a) has lower threshold then type b) because Mnucl>>Meeff

o Nucleus/atom has to recoil to conserve momentum coupling to nucleus/atom
needed strongly charge-dependent cross-section (i.e. growing with Z)

type a) has approximately Z times larger coupling dominant

o Like photoelectric absorption require the presence of a nearby atom for momentum
conservation.
o The threshold for this process is 2mec2, or 1.022 MeV and in general pair
production is important for high energy photons.
o Pair production becomes dominant only for energies above 5 MeV.
o At very high energies (>100 MeV) the e+e- pair cross-section saturates and can be
characterised by a constant mean free path for conversion (or by constant
absorption coefficient. The mean free path is given by, where LB is the radiation
length:
Lpair 

9
LB
7

(6.35)
44

o After pair production, the positrons transverse the medium much like electrons and
deposit their energies through ionisation or bremsstrahlung. Once a positron loses
most of its kinetic energy, it captures and electron to form a hydrogen-like system,
refered to as positronium, where proton is replaced by positron. However this
system is unstable and decays (annihilate) with lifetimes of ~ 10-10 sec to form two
photons:
e + e 2
to conserve momentum-energy, each photon carries away 0.511 MeV. Thus pair
production provides a very clean signal for detecting positrons as well as calibrating
the low energy response of the detector.

The three main processes photoelectric effect, Compton scattering and pair production
provide independent contributions to the absorption of photons in any medium. The total
absorption coefficient is given as the sum of the three separate coefficients:
= pe + comp + pair

(6.36)

The sum of this is shown in the figure below as a function of photon energy

As Z increases
o PE extends to higher E due to stronger atomic e- binding
o PP & PPE extend to lower E due to stronger coupling of projectile to target
o Threshold for PPE decreases as nucleus contributes more to recoil via stronger
atomic electron-nucleus bond
As A increases Erecoil (nucleus) decreases and threshold for PP gets closer to minimum
of 2mec2

The fractional loss in intensity in crossing any thickness dx of material is

dI
= dx
I

(6.37)

I = I 0e x

(6.38)
45

Lecture 11 Detectors
Photomultiplier, PMT (photons only) (Das pg. 143)

o primary electrons liberated by photon from photo-cathode (low work function, high
photo-effect cross-section, metal)
o visible photons have sufficiently large photo-effect cross-section
o acceleration of electron in electric field 100 200 eV per stage
o create secondary electrons upon impact onto dynode surface (low work function
metal) multiplication factor 3 to 5
o 6 to 14 such stages give total gain of 104 to 107 (electron amplification factor)
o fast amplification times (few ns, due to differing electron transit times different
paths/velocities) good for triggers or vetos
o signal on last dynode proportional to number of photons impacting
o can have large area photo-cathode with smaller acceleration tube large area
applications
Avalanche Photo Diode, APD (photons only)
o solid state alternative to PMT for photons up to < 1600 nm
o strongly reverse biased (30-70 V) photo diode gives limited avalanche when hit
by photon
o Avalanche in APD:
electrons and holes accelerated by high E-filed inside photo diode
in one mean free path electrons gain enough energy to generate another electron
hole pair in their next collision
Multiplication of electrons (and holes) every time an electron collides
Dynode separation in PMT corresponds to mean free path in APD
o advantages over PMTs - very much smaller, relatively low voltage, cheap
o often gets used for amplification of light delivered via fibres because this suits their
small area
o multiple diodes in one chip for imaging applications
Scintillators (em interacting particles)
o Particle (charged or ) excites atom through ionisation or photo-effect or Compton
scattering
o Observe photon from de-excitation of atomic electron using eye or PMT or APD
o Takes approximately 10 times more energy to produce a scintillation photon then
one electron-ion pair in the same material because there are many other ways of
loosing energy. Typical 1 photon per 100eV of dT/dx
o Very old style: Zinc sulphite screens viewed by eye (Rutherford)
o Scintillators today on the front of every CRT TV-tube.
o Problem: normally materials re-absorb their own scintillation light
o Two solutions to this problem exists
46

Solution 1: Organic scintillators

o Naphthalene, anthracene are organic molecules, low density ( 1.3)
o excitation non-radiating de-excitation to first excited state scintillating
transition to one of many vibrational sub-states of the ground state (direct transition
to ground state is forbidden)
o low cross-section to re-absorbing this photon unless molecule already in this
particular vibrational state
o often used together with wavelength shifters to further reduce re-absorption and
attenuation in light guides
o Wavelength shifter: low concentration of absorber which absorbs one high Ein and
emit 2 or more low Eout in cascade decay which can not be re-absorbed by bulk of
scintillator
o Organic scintillators give fast scintillation light, de-excitation time O(10-8 s)
o Organic scintillators are cheap large area panels
Solution 2: Inorganic scintillators
o NaI activated (doped) with Thallium, semi-conductor, high density: (NaI) = 3.6,
(PbWO4) = 8.3 high stopping power
o Dopant atom creates energy level (luminescence centre) in band-gap of the semiconductor
o Electron excited by passing particle into conduction band can fall into luminescence
level (non radiative, phonon emission)
o Note: electron must live long enough (not recombine with holes) to reach
luminescence centre
o From luminescence level falls back into valence band under photon emission
o this photon can only be re-absorbed by another dopant atom crystal remains
transparent to the scintillation light
o High density of inorganic crystals good for totally absorbing calorimetry even at
very high particle energies (many 100 GeV)
o de-excitation time O(10-6 s) slower then organic scintillators
Gas-filled counters (em interacting particles) (Das pg. 136; Krane pg. 204)
o 6 MeV particle stopped in gas
gives typically 2105 ion pairs (30
eV/ion pair for air) = 3.210-14 C
negative charge
o Release into C = 10 pF 3.2 mV
>> Vnoise (typ. ampl.) small, but
detectable
o Amount of collected charge depends
on collection voltage
o Low voltage Ionisation chamber,
collect only primary ionisation
o Medium voltage proportional
counter avalanche (secondary collision ionisation) signal is proportional to
primary ionisation
o High voltage Geiger counter each particle produces the same amount of
charge in an unlimited avalanche
o Too high voltage continuous spark (breakdown)
47

Ionisation Chambers now obsolete

o Essentially a parallel plate capacitor in which
region between plates is filled by gas, often air.
o Used for single particle and flux measurements
o Can be used to measure particle energy up to few
MeV. At higher energies the particle will not be
stopped in the gas.
o Measure energy with accuracy of 0.5% (mediocre),
limited due to fluctuations of energy loss
o In the gas electrons are more mobile then ions
detect electrons earlier then ions. Collection time =
O(s)
o Slow recovery from ion drift
o The amplitude of the signal is proportional to the number of ions formed (and thus
to the energy deposited by the radiation), and is independent of the voltage between
the plates. The applied voltage determines the speed at which the electron and ion
clouds drift to their respective electrodes.
o Replaced by solid state detectors

Proportional chambers (Krane pg. 205; Das pg. 138)

o
o
o

o
o
o
o

o To use gas-filled detectors to observe

individual pulses, must provide considerable
amplification.
o A large electric field is able to accelerate the
electrons that result from ionisation
processes; rather than drifting slowly
towards the anode, making occasional elastic
collisions with gas atoms, the accelerate
electrons can acquire enough energy to make
inelastic collisions and even create new
ionised atoms this is known as Townsend
avalanche.
o Even though there is a large number (~ 103
105) of secondary events for each original
ion, the chamber is always operated such that the number of secondary events is
proportional to the number of primary events and hence the name of the device.
Geometry of a proportional chamber/counter is usually cylindrical as shown in
figure above.
Use small wire as positive electrode (anode)
E = V/[rln(b/a)] high field close to wire
o local avalanche near wire
o most electrons released close to wire
o short average drift distance
o fast signal rise time O(s)
Use avalanche amplification to measure small ionisation
Problem: uv-photons from recombination spread through volume catch them on
large organic molecules (quencher) quenchers vibrationally de-excite
Many such detectors (MWPC multiwire proportional chamber) used as large-area
position sensitive device
Can add drift time measurement to increase position resolution Drift chamber
48

Geiger counters (Das pg. 141; Krane pg. 206)

o If the electric field is increased to even larger values, secondary avalanches can
occur. These can be triggered by photons emitted by atoms excited in the original
(or in subsequent) avalanche. These photons can travel relatively far from the
region of original avalanche, and sooon the entire tube is participating in the
process.
o Amplification factor as large as 1010.
o Because entire tube participates for every incident event, there is no information on
the energy of the original radiation all incident radiations produce identical output
pulses.
o Voltage pulse is large and easily detectable ~ 1 V.
o The cycle would be completed once the positive ions have drifted to the cathode
and become neutralised, but during their travel they can be accelerated and strike
the cathode with enough energy to release the electrons from the cathode to begin
the process again (it takes only one electron to create an output pulse). To avoid
this, a second type of gas quenching gas is added to the tube. As charge consisting
mainly of argon ions begins to drift towards the cathode, collisions occur with
quenching gas in which there is high probability of transfer of an electron so that
the argon is neutralised and the ionised quenching gas (such as ethanol) drifts back
to the cathode. It is neutralised at the cathode. The quenching gas is gradually used
up and has to be replaced.
o Geiger counter is advantageous in the simplicity of construction and its insensitivity
to small voltage fluctuations.
o Construction nearly same as proportional counter
o Operate with Vg < V < Vdischarge
o Detection here means counting of particles
o Long recovery time limits counting rage O(100Hz)
o Not used much for nuclear physics
o Some use in radiation protection where you only want to know whether or not there
is radiation of any sort

Set-up 1 Scintillator

o
o
o
o
o

Scintillator makes number of visible photons proportional to energy lost by -ray

Light guide collects them to PMT photo cathode
PMT makes electron pulse for each photon
Counter counts pulses
Number of pulses in short time window is proportional to -ray Energy

49

Set-up 2 Germanium detector

o Move electrons from valence to conduction band via collision with particle
electron-hole pair
o Band gaps O(eV) Energy per electron-hole pair = typical 3-4 eV 1 MeV lost
by particle 3105 pairs only 0.2% statistical fluctuation according to n
excellent energy resolution
o Lowest band gap for Ge = 0.64 eV per pair
o Ge detectors have highest energy resolution (few keV)
o Ge-Li detector generates electron hole pairs proportional to energy lost by -ray and
acts as a source of current pulses
o One pulse per -ray
o Amplifier measures integrated charge of the pulse which is proportional to energy
of -ray

Source contains 2411Na, (Na) ~ 1 g/cm3

-decay of 2411Na goes to excited state of 2412Mg
Ekin() = 1.391 MeV and the is stuck in the source because according to Bethe-Bloch
formula electron will loose O(10 MeV/cm) and thus only has a range of O(1mm)
Daughter nucleus 2412Mg decays in two steps via -decay
Gamma rays escape from source and are observed by the two different detectors
E 1 = 2.754 MeV;
E 2 = 1.368 MeV

Example -ray spectra from the two detectors

50

Scintillator:
o approx. 100eV/scintillation photon
o O(10%) of photons reach photo detector
o O(10%) quantum efficiency of photo detector
o 27000 photons for E1 = 2.754 MeV
o 270 reach detector
o 27016.4 6% of E 1
o consistent with poorly resolved peak width of 7%

Ge-Li detector
o 0.64 eV per e-hole pair
o 4.3106 pairs for E 1 = 2.754 MeV
o O(10%) of pairs make it across large detector to the electrodes
5
o 4.310 656 0.1% of E 1
o consistent with observed peak width of 0.14%

Response of a Ge-Li detector (Krane pg. 220)

D
A
D
C

C
Temax(2) =
1.153 MeV

Temax(1) =
2.520 MeV

When a -ray photon enters a solid detector, the photon can Compton scatter several times;
after each scattering, the photon loses some energy and a free electron is produced.
Gradually the photon either continues the repeated Compton scattering, eventually
becoming so low in energy that photoelectric absorption occurs and the photon vanishes, or
it wanders too close to the edge of the crystal and scatters out of the detector. The energy of
the photon is converted into electrons (photoelectrons or Compton scattered electrons),
which have a very short range in the crystal (by Bethe-Bloch formulation), lose energy
rapidly by creating light photons in a scintillator or electron-hole pairs in semiconductor
detector. If the original photon eventually suffers photoelectric absorption, the energy
deposited is equal to the original -ray energy. If it scatters out of the crystal, the energy
deposited is less than the original photon energy.
In a single Compton scattering event, the electron gains the following amount of kinetic
energy, Te (by generalised derivation as Eq. (6.30)):
Te =

E2 (1 cos )

mc 2 + E (1 cos )

(7.1)

Since all scattering angles can occur in the detector, the scattered electron ranges in energy
from 0 for = 0o and to 2E2/(mc2 + 2E) for = 180o (Eq. (6.30)). These electrons will
normally be totally absorbed in the detector, and (if the scattered photons escape) the
contribute to the energy response of the detector a continuum called the Compton
51

continuum ranging from zero to a maximum known as the Compton edge (due to Compton
scattering probability varying with angle, the continuum is not flat). This can be seen on the
figure above as features C and C corresponding to the Compton edges for 2 different Es.
This gives Temax(1 = 2.754 MeV) = 2.520 MeV and Temax(2 = 1.368 MeV) = 1.153 MeV.
These peaks are slightly rounded as electrons are not exactly free but slightly bound.
The peaks at E = E1 and E = E2 (D and D) correspond to complete photoelectric
absorption.
The final process is that of pair production by the -ray photon. The electron-positron
pair are created with total kinetic energy of E 2mec2, by Eq. (6.34). The loss of this
energy in the detector would result in a peak at full energy. However, once the positron
slows down to energy near to that of atomic electron, annihilation takes place and e+e-
2 with the new photons each of energy mec2, 0.511 MeV. Should both photons escape
would except to have peaks at E 2mec2 (peak A for 1) if one escapes and the other is
absorbed then peaks at E mec2 (peak B for 1) and finally peaks at E if both are absorbed
(photopeaks D and D).
The relative amplitudes of the photopeak, Compton continuum and escape peaks depend
on the size and shape of the detector. In general, the larger the detector, the smaller the
Compton continuum relative to the photopeak, for there is a smaller chance of Compton
scattered photon surviving from the center to the surface without interacting again.
Similarly the annihilation photons are more likely to be captured in a larger detector.
Radiation units (Krane pg. 184)

50%

1%
10%

other
secondary cosmic rays
internal
medical scans

11%
14%

natural radon

14%

natural gammas

Activity of a source
o Becquerel (Bq) is the number of
disintegrations per second.
o 1 Bq = 2.7 1011 Curie (Ci)
o radiation levels sometimes quoted in
Bq m-3.
Absorbed Dose
o 1 Gray (Gy) = 1 joule of deposited
energy per kg of irradiated mass

o 1 Gy = 100 rad = 6.24 1012 MeV/kg.

Equivalent Dose for biological damage
o 1 Sievert (Sv) = absorbed dose equivalent in damage to 1 Gy of x-rays, or .
o per unit energy deposited:
some particles have larger dT/dx then or & strong interactions localised
damage more long term biological risk higher weight wR then or
o 1 Sv = 100 rem (Roentgen equivalent for man)
52

Examples of Sv
o Lethal whole-body dose 2.5 - 3.0 Sv death in 30 days without treatment
o Limit for radiation workers: 15 mSv yr-1 (UK) or 50 mSv yr-1 (US)
o Chest x-ray 0.04 mSv
o CT scan 8 mSv
o Average UK whole body dose rate 2.6 mSv yr-1 (world from 0.4 4 mSv yr-1)
Weight expresses risk from low levels of chronic exposure
Main consequences in risk evaluation are cancer and leukaemia
Average breakdown of 2.6 mSv yr-1 taken from NRPB report (1995).
Internally released = (40K, 14C)
Cosmic flux at sea level, cosmic 1 min-1 cm-2 sr-1

Lecture 12

Fission (Cottingham 2nd ed. pg. 115; Krane pg. 501; Williams pg. 123)
The Coulomb barriers inhibiting spontaneous fission are in the range 5 6 MeV for nuclei
with A ~ 240. If a neutron of zero kinetic energy enters a nucleus to form a compound
nucleus, the compound nucleus will have excitation energy above its ground state equal to
the neutrons binding energy in that ground state. For example, a zero energy neutron
entering 235U forms a state of 236U with an excitation energy of 6.46 MeV. This energy is
above the fission barrier and the compound nucleus quickly undergoes fission. To induce
fission in 238U on the other hand requires a neutron with a kinetic energy of approximately
1.4 MeV.
The differences in binding energy of the last neutron in even-A and odd-A nuclei are
incorporated in the SEMF in the pairing term. The odd-A nuclei:
233
92

U,

235
92

U,

239
94

Pu,

241
94

Pu

are fissile nuclei the fission can be induced by zero energy neutron. The even-A nuclei:
232
90

Th,

238
92

U,

240
94

Pu,

242
94

Pu

require an energetic neutron to induce fission. Note that all Pu isotopes are manmade.
Neutron cross-sections for 235U and 238U

(barns)

The principal isotopes of naturally occurring uranium are 238U (99.27%) and 235U (0.72%).

Total cross-section tot and fission cross-section f as function of neutron energy.

53

The figure on page 53 shows the total cross-sections of 235U and 238U for incident neutrons
of energy E from 0.01 eV to 10 MeV. At very low energies, below 0.1 eV in 235U the law
1/v can be observed and the total and fission cross-sections are large because of an excited
state of 236U lying just below E = 0. The fission fraction f/tot ~ 84%, the remaining 16%
of tot corresponds mostly to radiative capture. In contrast, the cross-section for 238U is very
much smaller and nearly constant in this region and is due almost entirely to elastic
scattering.
Region between 1 eV and 1 keV, resonances are prominent in both isotopes. These
resonances are very narrow and radiative capture gives a significant fraction of the total
widths. This is particularly true of resonances in 238U, which are below the fission
threshold. For example, -decays account for 95% of the width of the resonance at 6.68 eV.
In the final region, between 1 keV and 3 MeV, the resonances are not resolved by
measured cross-sections. Compound nuclear states at these energies are more dense and
wider. The fission cross-section for 238U appears above 1.4 MeV and the 235U fission
fraction f/tot remains significant. However in both isotopes at these higher energies the
result of a neutron interaction is predominantly scattering, either elastic or at higher
energies inelastic with neutron energy lost in exciting the nucleus.
Fission process
A single fission event of 235U will on average produce 2.5 neutrons. This number will
depend somewhat on the energy of the incident neutron. In addition there are on average
0.02 delayed neutrons produced per fission, emitted following chains of - decays of
neutron-rich fission products. Each of these second-generation neutrons is capable of
producing another fission event and so on. This is known as a chain reaction. The total
energy release on the induced fission of a 235U nucleus, is on average 205 MeV. The break
down of which is:
MeV
Prompt:
Kinetic energy of fission fragments
Kinetic energy of fission neutrons
Energy of prompt -rays
Delayed:
Electrons from subsequent decays
-rays following decays
Neutrino Energy

167
5
6
8
7
12
205

The delayed energy release is regarded as a nuisance, some of it is delayed by decades or

more and presents potential biological hazard in discarded nuclear waste. The radiative
capture yields a further 3 12 MeV of useful energy in emitted -rays, which are not
included in the table.
Consider a sample of pure 235U on which a neutron of energy 2 MeV is incident. The
nuclear number density, n of uranium metal is 4.8 1028 nuclei/m3. The mean free path of
a neutron in the mixture is

1
n tot

(7.2)

For 2 MeV neutron, the total cross-section from figure a) on page 53 is ~ 7 barns and so ~
3 cm. Not all neutrons will induce fission. The 2 MeV neutron has an 18% chance of
inducing fission (again from figure a)). The probable number of collisions before fission is
induced is therefore ~ 6. For a random walk, the neutron will travel ~ 6 = 7 cm from its
54

starting point. The time for it to travel this distance, tp is approximately 10-8 s. Some will
escape from the surface and some will undergo radiative capture. Let probability that a
neutron will induce fission be q and average number of prompt neutrons be v, then on
average addition (vq 1) neutrons will be created in time tp. If number of neutrons at time t
is n(t), then at t + t there will be:
n(t + t ) = n(t ) + ( vq 1)n(t )

dn ( vq 1)
=
n(t )
dt
tp
n (t ) = n (0)e

( vq 1)t / t p

t
tp

(7.3)

(7.4)

For 235U, v = 2.5, therefore if q > 0.4, there will be an exponential increase in number of
neutrons and hence the reaction becomes supercritical. For a small amount of 235U, much
less than 7 cm, there will be a good chance of escape and therefore q will be small and
chain reaction will be damped out. If sufficiently large mass of uranium is brought together
at t = 0 will have q > 0.4. There will be neutrons present at t = 0 due to spontaneous
fission, a large amount of energy will be released even in a microsecond. The bare sphere
of 235U will have critical radius of 8.7 cm and critical mass of 52 kg for this to occur.
For nuclear reactors need to control the chain reaction, to maintain a steady state release
of energy would like for the pile (lattice of blocks of uranium alternating with graphite) to
be exactly critical (vq = 1). In a fission process after fragmentation, the neutrons will have
energy ~ MeV, such neutrons have a relatively low probability of inducing new fissions,
they will scatter rather than be absorbed therefore they must be slowed using a moderator
where neutrons can scatter and reduce their energy to thermal energies ~ 0.1 eV, where the
235
U cross-section is much larger than of 238U. These thermal neutrons, if captured in the
fuel rods are predominantly captured by 235U, the large cross-section compensates for the
low number density. The neutrons are slowed to thermal energies in the moderator rather
than in the fuel rods, capture into 238U resonances is avoided. The captures into 235U lead to
fission with a probability of f235/tot235 ~ 84% at thermal energies and the chain reaction
can be sustained in this way.
The neutrons are most effectively slowed down by using light elements/materials as
moderator as the atoms will recoil more and energy of neutrons will be reduced more
efficiently. Most effective moderator would be hydrogen; however neutrons are likely to be
captured: p + n 21H + in hydrogen and water. Deuterium is better as a moderator as it
has a very low neutron absorption cross-section. Therefore deuterium can use ordinary
uranium as fuel as more neutrons are available. Carbon is a light material which is solid,
stable and abundant; it too has a low neutron absorption cross-section.

55