Table of Contents

THE OPEN UNIVERSITY

BRIEF HISTORY
GOALS
MISSION
OBJECTIVES
OU SUPPORT PROGRAM
OU LEARNING APPROACH
EXAMINATION AND PROCTORING
GRADING POLICY
COMMUNICATING WITH SDE
PRIVACY
CLOSING
MODULE 1: THE NATURE AND SCOPE OF PSYCHOLOGY
LESSON 1: Psychology as A Science
Learning Objectives
Keywords and Phrases
INTRODUCTION
THE EMERGENCE OF PSYCHOLOGY AS A SCIENCE
Schools of Thought in Psychology:
Latest Schools of Thought in Psychology
Psychology in the Philippines
KEY FILIPINO PSYCHOLOGISTS
Methods of Research Used in Psychology
Branches of Psychology
Importance of Psychology
Summary
Suggested Readings
Exercises/Written Assignment
References/Bibliography
LESSON 2: THEORIES OF MOTIVATION
Learning Objectives
Keywords and Phrases
INTRODUCTION
The Different theories of Motivation
Motivation Behavior Relationship
Summary
Suggested Readings

Exercises/Written Assignment
References/Bibliography
MODULE 2: BIOLOGICAL BASES OF HUMAN BEHAVIOR
LESSON 1: FACTORS AFFECTING DEVELOPMENT
Learning Objectives
Keywords and Phrases
Introduction
Biological Factors
Principles of Development
Environmental Factors
Interaction of Biological and Environmental Factors
Summary
Suggested Readings
Exercises/Written Assignment
References/Bibliography
MODULE 3: PHYSIOLOGICAL DETERMINANTS OF BEHAVIOR
LESSON 1: THE NERVOUS SYSTEM
Learning Objectives
Keywords and Phrases
Introduction
The Organization of the Nervous System
Summary
Suggested Readings
Exercises/Written Assignment
References/Bibliography
LESSON 2: THE ENDOCRINE GLANDS
Learning Objectives
Keywords and Phrases
Introduction
There are eight (8) types of Endocrine System
Relationship of the Nervous System and Behavior
Relationship of the Endocrine Glands and Behavior
Summary
Suggested Readings
Exercises/Written Assignment
References/Bibliography
MODULE 4: SENSATION, PERCEPTION AND EXTRA SENSORY PERCEPTION
LESSON 1: THE SENSATION

Learning Objectives
Keywords and Phrases
INTRODUCTION
General Characteristics of the Senses
The following are the known senses:
Summary
Suggested Readings
Exercises/Written Assignment
References/Bibliography
LESSON 2: PERCEPTION
Learning Objectives
Keywords and Phrases
Introduction
Sensation and Perception Relationship
Psychologists divide the process of perception into three
processes, namely:
Factors Influencing Perception
Errors of Perception
Extra Sensory Perception
The Rhine Experiments
Extrasensory Perception In General
Can We Develop Extrasensory Perception?
Summary
Suggested Readings
Exercises/Written Assignment
References/Bibliography
MODULE 5: INTELLIGENCE, THINKING AND CREATIVITY
LESSON 1: INTELLIGENCE
Learning Objectives
Keywords and Phrases
INTRODUCTION
Primary Factors of Intelligence
Classifications of Intelligence
Measurement of Emotional Competencies.
Other Psychologists classified intelligence into nine (9) types:
Factors Affecting Intelligence
Levels of Intelligence
The Measurement of Intelligence

Summary
Suggested Readings
Exercises/Written Assignment
References/Bibliography
LESSON 2: THINKING
Learning Objectives
Keywords and Phrases
INTRODUCTION
Process of Thinking
Steps in the Thinking Process
Problem-Solving
Stages in Problem Solving
Strategies for Problem-Solving (Morris, 1991)
There are two types of heuristic approach as follows:
Decision Making
Summary
Suggested Readings
Exercises/Written Assignment
References/Bibliography
Lesson 3: Creativity
Learning Objectives
Keywords and Phrases
INTRODUCTION
There are three (3) components of creativity in individuals:
Personality Characteristics and Behaviors of a Creative Person
Ways on How to Improve your Creative Thinking
Summary
Suggested Readings
Exercises/Written Assignment
References/Bibliography
MODULE 6: LEARNING AND MEMORY
LESSON 1: LEARNING
Learning Objectives
Keywords and Phrases
Introduction
Nature of Learning
Types of Learning
Theories of Learning

Types of Reinforcement
Theory and Research-Based Principles of Learning
Applications of Principles or Theories of Learning
Study Tips for Effective Learning
Summary
Suggested Readings
EXERCISES/WRITTEN ASSIGNMENT
References/Bibliography
LESSON 2: MEMORY
Learning Objectives
Keywords and Phrases
Introduction
Types of Memory
Improving Memory
Summary
Suggested Readings
Exercises/Written Assignment
References/Bibliography
LESSON 3: FORGETTING
Learning Objectives
Keywords and Phrases
Introduction
Psychologists have proposed three major theories of interference
in forgetting:
Summary
Suggested Readings
Exercises/Written Assignment
References/Bibliography
MODULE 7: EMOTIONS AND ATTITUDE
LESSON 1: EMOTIONS
Learning Objectives
Keywords and Phrases
Introduction
Nature of Emotion
Classifications of Emotion
Theories of Emotion
Management of Emotion
Summary

Suggested Readings
Exercises/Written Assignment
References/Bibliography
LESSON 2: ATTITUDES
Learning Objectives
Keywords and Phrases
Introduction
Measurements of Attitude
Attitude-Behavioral Relationship
Summary
Suggested Readings
Exercises/Written Assignment
References/Bibliography
MODULE 8: MOTIVATION
LESSON 1; MOTIVATION
Learning Objectives
Keywords and Phrases
Introduction
Nature and Types of Motivation
Classifications of Motive
General Ways of Motivating People
Summary
Suggested Readings
Exercises/Written Assignment
References/Bibliography
MODULE 9: PERSONALITY
LESSON 1: PERSONALITY
Learning Objectives
Keywords and Phrases
Introduction
Concepts of Personality
Components of Personality
Theories of Personality
The Psychological Stages of Personality Development
Personality Dynamics
Summary
Suggested Readings
Exercises/Written Assignment

LESSON 2: FILIPINO VALUES

Learning Objectives
Keywords and Phrases
Introduction
Filipino Values that may influence our personality and
relationships with others:
Values of Modern Filipino
Strategies in Improving Personality
Summary
Suggested Readings
Exercises/Written Assignment
MODULE 10: ADJUSTMENT, BEHAVIORAL DISORDERS AND TREATMENT
LESSON 1: ADJUSTMENT
Learning Objectives
Keywords and Phrases
Introduction
Adjustment Process
There three Types of Frustration
Patterns of Adjustment
The Different Types of Defense Mechanism
Summary
Suggested Readings
EXERCISES/WRITTEN ASSIGNMENT
References/Bibliography
LESSON 2: BEHAVIORAL DISORDERS
***
There ere are major types of personality disorders, namely:
Summary
Suggested Readings
Exercises/Written Assignment
References/Bibliography
LESSON 3: TREATMENT FOR PERSONALITY AND BEHAVIORAL
Learning Objectives
Keywords and Phrases
Introduction
There are different strategies on how to treat or cure these
behaviors and personality disorders:
Summary

Suggested Readings
Exercises/Written Assignment
References/Bibliography

POLYTECHNIC UNIVERSITY

OF THE PHILIPPINES

OPEN

UNIVERSITY

Sta. Mesa, Manila

GENERAL

PSYCHOLOGY
DR. CAROLINA S. BAUTISTA
PROF. BARBARA P. CAMACHO
DR. ZENAIDA C. SANTOS

COPYRIGHTED 2009
ISBN NO.: 978-971-0169-18-4

THE OPEN UNIVERSITY

BRIEF HISTORY
The Polytechnic University of the Philippines Open University (PUP OU)
otherwise known as the "Pamantasang Bayan", which formally
commenced in 1990, is a fresh and innovative system of delivering higher
educational services in a manner that differs from the formal, highly
structured, and classroom-oriented traditional approach.
The PUP OU is in consonance with the 1987 Philippine Constitution. Article
IV mandates that quality education at all levels should be made accessible
to all Filipinos and self-learning, independent, out-of-school study
programs, non-formal, informal and indigenous learning systems, be
developed particularly those which respond to community needs.
The PUP OU caters primarily to the needs of the economically
disadvantaged students, out-of-school youths, teachers, administrators,
managers, professionals and ordinary employees who want to pursue
degree or non-degree courses but are unable to do so due to accessibility,
time, domestic and economic constraints.
Ideally, under the Open University System, the students do not have to
attend classes inside a classroom. They do not even have to enter the
physical campus(es) of PUP. However, because of the discovered need of
the PUP student to meet and encounter their classmates and subject
specialists (instructors), they are required to attend contact sessions per
subject.
The PUP OU's thrust answers the call to higher education institutions to
continue contributing to the efforts of the government of realizing its
objectives of poverty alleviation, global competitiveness and sustainable
development, for the benefit of the present and future generations of
Filipinos.
The PUP Open University was established in the 1970s. The initial
offerings were non-degree (technical-vocational) courses. PUP first
thought of the Open University concept when then PCC President Nemesio

E. Prudente saw the need to provide access to educational opportunities

to millions of Filipinos who wanted to study but were constrained by time,
distance and other circumstances. He was assisted by then Assistant Vice
President for Branches and Head of the OU and now Vice President for
Academic Affairs Dr. Samuel M. Salvador together with Prof. Teofilo H.
Montemayor. They worked relentlessly in establishing linkages with
different organizations and laid down the foundations of the OU system in
PUP. However, the initial implementation fizzled out when Martial Law was
declared in 1972.
When Dr. Prudente was reinstated as PUP President in 1986, he again
revived the concept of the Open University System. It was formally
launched in March 1990. Dr. Prudente and Dr. Salvador believed in
bringing education right at the doorsteps of the people. This concept was
supported fully by Dr. Zenaida A. Olonan during her presidency. The
appointment of Dr. Ofelia M. Carague as president of PUP in 1998 augured
well for the PUP OU since she has been one of the prime movers of the OU
in the University. In the presidency of Dr. Dante G. Guevarra, the PUP OU
has grown leaps and bounds as it established the three schools that
presently compose it.
While broadcast-based distance learning systems in the Philippines were
popular in the 1960s, it was PUP which first implemented the concept of
the Open University, that is, a university within a university offering both
degree and non-degree programs in the country duly certified by
corresponding certificates or diplomas upon satisfactory compliance of
course requirements.

GOALS

Relevant degree and non-degree graduate and undergraduate

programs;

Innovative teaching-learning systems;

E-learning;

Effective and efficient technology-based instructional strategies and

approaches;

State-of-the-art instructional materials;

Pertinent and productive researchers;

E-linked; and

Quality administrators, subject specialists and graduates.

MISSION
The PUP Open University System is committed to provide quality
education through the open and distance learning system, which is
responsive to the needs and challenges of a technologically advanced and
globally linked society.

OBJECTIVES
The PUP Open University programs will:

1.

provide an affordable and portable education for all, and thus

help bring about a better quality of life for all Filipinos;

2.

offer an effective and efficient alternative delivery of instruction,

and training;

3.

Re-engineer the traditional learning approaches through the use

of printed modules, audiocassettes, video tutorials, multimedia
course wares and other creative, innovative, and cost-effective
learning delivery channels;

4.

establish linkages and networking strategies with national and

international institutions and government and non-government
institutions for the optimum use of resources;

5.

promote general efficiency and self-reliance among students,

teachers, school and public administrators, and managers of
corporations and business enterprises.

OU SUPPORT PROGRAM
Although you will not be attending classes every week, the same support
is available from PUP SDE. The number of hours for a 3-unit course is 54,
18 offline (face- to- face) and 36 online.

OU LEARNING APPROACH
Each course guide follows a special format designed for optimum learning
at a distance. It contains the learning content, objective, activity, material
and learning outputs outcomes.
The course modules are prepared by the course author/facilitator. Each
lesson starts with a brief summary of what you will learn. The learning
goals identify the most important concepts that will be discussed in the
lesson. Following the learning goals, you will have a list of key words and
phrases that are defined in the context of the lesson and in the glossary at
the back of the course manual. Even if you are familiar with these terms,
it is important to take note of how the professor will define the term in the
context of your course. The course contents of each lesson are presented
as reading materials.
The reading assignments are listed and occasionally the facilitator will
give you some special insights into the reading before you begin. The
reading may come from books available at the Ninoy Aquino Learning
Resource Center. Further readings are provided through e-books and ejournals available for officially enrolled students at the PUP OU.
Each facilitator has carefully selected the references, e-books and ejournals that are in the Course Materials List. Exercises are provided at
the end of each lesson for the student to answer and submit to the
facilitator.

EXAMINATION AND PROCTORING

You will have a final examination at the end of every course.
examinations must be proctored during a scheduled date.

Final

Comprehensive examinations are required to earn a Masters Degree;

Comprehensive examinations are given in a written an integrated format.
The comprehensive exams are proctored on a date scheduled by the PUP
OUS.

GRADING POLICY
Any student receiving a grade below 2.0 (for Master's Degree) in any of
his course requirements will either have to repeat the course or take a
substitute course in the same discipline or area with the approval of the
PUP SDE Program Chair. However for purposes of graduation, the overall
average grade in the academic course should be 2.0.
The following rating system shall be adopted by the Open University
System:

A student
course

whose
work is

incomplete at the time the grade is submitted shall be given a grade of

incomplete (INC). If he fails to complete the course work within one (1)
year from the issuance of the grade of INC, the grade lapses to No Credit
(N).
A student who voluntarily drops a course he is registered in automatically
receives W when he files a Withdrawal Form at any time up to the last
day of the last week of class prior to the final examination.
A student who has two or more Incomplete grades shall not be allowed
to enroll until he has removed his Incomplete grades.

COMMUNICATING WITH SDE

Keeping in touch is a very important way to ensure that you will earn your
Masters Degree in a timely fashion. We are here to assist you in any way
possible. If you are having problems or are unclear about policies or
procedures, please let us know. Questions of a procedural nature or
questions that impact on deadlines may best be handled by telephone,
fax or e-mail. Our Office hours are Monday through Friday, 8 am to 8 pm.

PRIVACY
We respect the rights of students that include their academic records and
personal information. Only appropriate personnel have access to this
information. PUP OUS does not make this information available, even to
worthwhile organizations which might be of interest to students, without
obtaining the students permission.

CLOSING
We look forward to serving you. We hold in high regard your academic
qualifications and intellectual capabilities. We will do all we can to assist
you as a PUP Open University System student and look forward with great
enthusiasm to working with you during the next few years. Welcome to
the PUP Open University System family and may God bless you.

MODULE 1: THE NATURE AND SCOPE OF

PSYCHOLOGY
LESSON 1: Psychology as A Science
Learning Objectives
At the end of this module, you should be able to:
1. acquire a thorough understanding of the field of psychology, its being
a science and the scientific approach to the study of human behavior;
2. determine the great contributions of the schools of thought towards
the development of psychology as an applied science;
3. trace the development of psychology as a field of study in the
Philippine setting and the identification of Filipino pioneers in the field;
and,
4. recognize the value of psychology in everyday life.

Keywords and Phrases

Psychology
Filipino Psychology
Business Psychology
Sport Psychology
Developmental Psychology
Psychology as a Science
General Psychology
Schools of Thought

INTRODUCTION
The study of psychology involves three things; acquiring a specialized
knowledge about behavior, learning new ways of thinking about behavior,
and developing attitudes and motivation consistent with the science of
psychology.
As a science, psychology systematically explores behavior, generating
principles to explain behavior, what regularities and irregularities exist in
behavior and how we account for them. Psychologists look or search for
the factors or variables that most likely account for behavior. They

formulated their hypotheses that propose generating evidence to

comprise them. They also propose theories at times based on the
research evidence.
A landmark in the history of psychology was the development of the first
intelligence test by Alfred Binet, a French psychologist. The first test laid
the groundwork for the development of psychometrics, the measurement
of intelligence and aptitude as well as of emotional disturbances.
Perhaps the most controversial figure in the study of human behavior is
Sigmund Freud, an Austrian psychiatrist and founder of the Psychoanalytic
School, which holds that human behavior is guided and controlled by
unconscious thoughts and motivations.
Hence, psychology is considered one of the most interesting fields of
study because it touches almost all aspects of life. This is the reason why
psychologists are very much in demand nowadays in the school setting,
in industries, in the family, in the military and in hospitals giving people
advise on problems so that they will live more useful and happier lives.
The study of psychology is a philosophical concept that dates back to the
ancient civilizations of Egypt, Greece, China and India. Psychology began
adapting a more clinical and experimental approach under the medieval
Muslim psychologists and physicians, who built psychiatric hospital for
such purpose.
Through the use of psychological experimental dates back to Alhazens
book of Optics in 1021, psychology as an independent experimental field
of study began in 1879, when psychologist and physician, Wilhelm Wundt
founded the first laboratory dedicated exclusively for psychological
research at Leipzig, University in Germany for which Wundt is known as
the Father of Psychology. The American philosopher William James
published his seminal book in 1890, laying the foundation for many of the
questions that psychologists would focus on for years to come. Other
important contributors to the field includes Hermann Ebbinghaus (1850
1909) a pioneer in the experimental study of memory at the University of
Berlin and the Russian physiologist Ivan Pavlov (1849 1936) who
investigated the learning process now referred to a classical conditioning
(http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Psychology Retrieved 02-11-09). B. F. Skinner
is one of the most stimulating theorists, who was the proponent of the

Behavior of Organism: An experimental Approach, Appleton-CenturyCrofts, New York, 1938. B. F. Skinner, an American psychologist who began
studying animal learning in 1938. Skinner coined the term reinforcement.
He is also the proponent of the Principles of Learning.
While psychology has its roots in ancient philosophy, it was not until 1879
that the first psychological laboratory was founded and that the discipline
emerged as a science and separate from philosophy and physiology.
THE EMERGENCE OF PSYCHOLOGY AS A SCIENCE
Pre-scientific era
In the ancient world, three important figures: Aristotle, Hippocrates, and
Galen became interested in the study of psychology. Aristotle is known as
the father of modern science, Hippocrates, the father of medicine, and
Galen contributed much on the science of the body (anatomy). The word
psychology was coined by a German scientist, Rudolf Gloclenius in 1693.
1.1

Aristotle encourages us to use logic to make inferences about the mind as

well as to observe behavior. He said that No one loves the man whom he
fears. Socrates urges us to know ourselves. He believes that an
unexamined life is not worth living.
Plato (428 B.C. 347 B.C.) He was an ancient philosopher who wrote the
Republic. He is the founder of the Academy, one of the great
philosophical schools of antiquity. His thoughts had enormous impact on
the development of western philosophy.
Psychology is a relatively new discipline but it has its roots in ancient and
modern philosophy. Philosophers have long sought to answer basic
questions about human nature. The following philosophers have
contributed much to the development of modern psychology:
a.

Rene Descartes (1596 -1650). He was a French

mathematician, philosopher, and physiologist who is
considered to be the Father of Modern Psychology. He
was also the founder of the new Analytical Geometry.
Descartes proposes a mechanism for automatic reaction
in response to external events. He was also the founder
of Reflex Theory.

b.

c.

d.

John Locke (1632 1704) An English philosopher and

considered the first empiricist, but equally important to
social contract theory. Lockes theory of the mind is
often cited as the origin for modern conception of
identity and the self. He postulated that the mind was a
blank slate or tabula rasa. Locke maintained that
people are born without innate ideas. The importance of
his goal is to determine the limits of human
understanding.
David Hume (1711 1776). A Scottish philosopher,
economist, historian and one of the principal early
philosophers of empiricism. He was the first philosopher
of the modern era to produce naturalistic philosophy.
Humes Science of Man is the only solid foundation for
the other sciences and that the correct method for this
science is experience and observation (the empirical
method).
John Stuart Mill (1806 1876). An English philosopher
who helped develop and defend utilitarianism. Mill is an
empiricist, which means, he sought to build a system in
ethics and politics based on experience and observation
as much as people do in science. Mill argues that an act
is good or bad based on its consequences and not based
on the intentions, motives or character of the person
who performs the action.
http://www.jour,uns.edu/donica/ethics/mill.html
Retrieved 02-14-09. He develops the harm principle
which holds that each individual has the right to act as
he wants, so long these actions do not harm others. He
was also the proponent of the Theory of Liberty.

1.2 Scientific Era (School of Thought in Psychology)

Modern psychology is deeply rooted in the older disciplines of philosophy
and physiology. But the official birth of psychology is often traced to 1879,
at the University of Leipzig in Germany. Wilhelm Wundt, a physiologist
established the first laboratory dedicated to the scientific study of the
mind. Wundts laboratory soon attracted leading scientists and students
from Europe and United States. Among these were James McKeen Cattell,
one of the first psychologists to study individual differences through the

administration of mental test, Emile Kraepelin, a German psychiatrist

who postulated a physical cause of mental illness and in 1883 published
the first classification system for mental disorders and Hugo Munsterberg,
the first to apply psychology to industry and law. Wundt was
extraordinarily productive over the course of his career. Wundt is also
known as the Father of Psychology. The American philosopher William
James published his seminal book, Principles of Psychology in 1890 laying
the foundation for many of the questions that psychologists would focus
on for years to come. In 1883 G. Stanley Hall established the first true
American Psychology laboratory in the United States at Johns Hopkins
University and in 1892; he founded the American Psychological
Association and became the first president. Mary Whiton Calkins created
an important technique for studying memory and conducted one of the
first studies on dreams. In 1905, she was elected the first female
president of the American Psychological Association. Edward Lee
Thorndike conducted the first experiment on animal learning and wrote a
pioneering textbook on education psychology.
In 1890, An Austrian physician Sigmund Freud, who was trained as a
neurologist and had no formal training in experimental psychology, had
developed a method of psychotherapy known as Psycho-analysis. Freuds
understanding of the mind was largely based on interpretive methods and
introspection and was focused in particular on resolving mental distress
and psychopathology. Freuds theories became very well-known largely
because they tackled subjects such as sexuality and repression as general
aspects of psychological development. Although Freuds theories are only
limited interest in modern academic psychology but in clinical work these
theories have been very influential and significant.
Schools of Thought in Psychology:
1.

2.

Structuralism. It is the study of mind and its structures. The

structuralists believed that the primary objective of psychology is
to study directly the basic elements of conscious experience. The
elements are images, emotions and sensation. The founders were
Wilhelm Wundt, Titchener, and James. The method used is
introspection, which means self-analysis, of your record,
explanation and interpretation of your own experiences.
Functionalism. The functionalists believed that many
psychological processes could not be meaningfully broken into

3.

4.

5.

more basic components. It stresses that the mind functions to aid

the individual in adjusting to changes in its environment through
learning. The founders are William James, John Dewey, Titchener
and Angell. The methods used are introspection and observation.
Behaviorism. It argued that observable behaviors were the
proper subject matter. They emphasized that what we do is the
ultimate test of who we are. We do things because of the
environmental conditions we have experienced and continue to
experience. This school of psychology studies only the observable
and measureable behaviors. The founders are John Watson, B.F.
Skinner and Ivan Pavlov. The method used is observation and
experimentation.
Gestalt. It focused on describing the organization of cognitive
processes. Gestalt is a German word which means configuration,
pattern, association, and form. It also studies how the mind
creatively organizes pieces of information into unified wholes. The
whole is important than the sum of its parts. The founders were M.
Wertheimer, K. Koffka and W. Kohler. The methods used are group
therapy, observation, and phenomenology.
Psycho-analysis. It focused on the theory that human behavior
and personality development is due primarily to unconscious
motivation. This school of psychology would like to know the
causes and cure of mental disorder as well as personality
disorders. The founders were Sigmund Freud, Alfred Adler and Carl
Jung. The methods used are hypnotism, dream analysis, and
studying slips of speech (Buskist, 1990).

Latest Schools of Thought in Psychology

1.

2.

Existentialism. It is concerned with meaninglessness and

alienation in modern life, for they believe that these feelings lead
to apathy and other psychological problems. Existentialist R. D.
Laing believes that we must reevaluate our attitudes toward
psychotic behavior. The founders are Jean-Paul Sartre, Rollo May
and R. D. Laing.(Morris, 1991).
Humanistic. It emphasizes the whole person and the importance
of each persons subjective experience. The central concept in
humanistic psychology is the need for self-actualization. The
humanistic psychologists believe that the most important is the

3.

4.

underlying need to develop our full potentials. It also emphasizes

our capacity to choose our life patterns and to grow to greater
maturity and fulfillment. Freedom is another key concern in
humanistic psychology. The founders were Carl Roger and
Abraham Maslow. The method used is group encounter.
Cognitive. It refers to the ways we process or transform
information about the world around us. This includes the mental
processes of thinking, knowing, perceiving, attending and
remembering. Cognitive psychology has been applied to help
people overcome psychological problems. Founder is Ulric Neisser
(Crider, 1989). The methods used are cognitive therapies.
Biological. It helps us understand how the body and brain work
to create emotions, memories, and sensory experiences.
Biologically-oriented psychologists may study evolutionary and
hereditary influences on behavior, how messages are transmitted
within the body or how blood chemistry is linked with moods and
motives {Myers, 1986).

Psychology in the Philippines

As early as 1910, two years after the University of the Philippines was
established, psychology was taught at the Department of Philosophy and
Psychology, College of Liberal Arts. The Department was headed by Dr.
Henry S. Townsend, an American who taught all of the Psychology courses
offered then, namely: General Psychology, Genetic Psychology,
Educational Psychology and Test and Measurement. Psychology separated
from the College of Liberal Arts and became part of the College of
Education and Dr. Townsend continued to be the head of Philosophy at the
College of Arts (de la Llana, 1972: 4; Santamaria, 1961; 13 14 as cited in
http://web.kssp.upd.edu.ph/psych/history.htm Retrieved 01-15-09).
Zeus Salazar 1985, a historian identified four traditions upon which
Philippine psychology is rooted: (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Filipinopsychology, Retrieved 02-15-09):
1.
Academic Scientific Psychology, Western tradition. This follows
the tradition of Wilhelm Wundt in 1876 and is essentially the
American-oriented western psychology being studied in the
Philippines;

2.

3.

4.

Academic Philosophic Psychology: Western Tradition. This was

started by priest-professors at the University of Santo Tomas. This
tradition is mainly focused on what is called rational psychology;
Ethnic Psychology. This is the tradition on which Philippine
psychology is primarily based. This refers to the indigenous concepts
that are studied using indigenous psychological orientation and
methodologies.
Psycho-Medical Religious Psychology. The tradition that fuses
native healing techniques and explain it in an indigenous religious
context.

KEY FILIPINO PSYCHOLOGISTS

Dr. Jose Rizal

The first Filipino social psychologist; his paper was about the Indolence
and Motivation of Filipinos. Indolence: The Effects of the Environment.
Dr. Jesus Perpinan
He finished his Ph.D. in Psychology in 1933.
Dr. Angel Blas
The founder of Experimental Psychology in 1938 at University of Sto.
Tomas
Dr. Estefania Aldaba-Lim
A clinical psychologist who started the psychology program at
Philippine Womens University.
Dr. Alfredo Lagmay
A natural scientist and doctor in experimental psychology at the
University of the Philippines.
Dr. Marcelo Ordonez
A clinical psychologist, he was the Director of the Guidance and
Counseling at the Manuel L. Quezon University and a Consultant and
Director of the Polytechnic University of the Philippines. He developed
a standardized test in mental ability.
Dr. Mariano Obias
A comparative and physiological psychologist.
Fr. Jaime Bulatao,SJ
A clinical psychologist who established the Psychology Department at
the Ateneo de Manila University. He is one of the founding Fathers of
Psychology in the Philippines
Dr. Patricia Licuanan
A contemporary psychologist who prepared the modules on Psychology
in the Philippines, History and Current Trends.
Dr. Sinforoso G.Padilla
A Ph.D in Clinical and Experimental Psychology from the University of
Michigan. His leadership proved to be a turning point in the growth
and development of academic psychology. In 1932, he established the

first psychological clinic at UP to provide vocational guidance and

educational testing. It is also during Padillas time that the UP
Department of Psychology announced the offering of psychology as a
major field of concentration in the graduate level. He was also the
author of the Philippine Self-Administering test. Enriquez as cited in
http://web.kssp.upd.edu.ph/psych/history.htm Retrieved 02-15-09.
Dr. Agustin S.Alonzo
Finished his doctorate in Experimental psychology from the University
of Chicago and became the first Filipino Chair of UP Department of
Psychology.
Dean Francisco Benitez
Under the leadership of Dean Benitez, the UP modeled for the entire
country the curricular utilization of psychology in education. In 1959,
the Department of Psychology was transferred to the College of Arts
and Sciences an event which marked the meaning of the discipline
from the apron strings of education in UP (Lagmay as cited in UPDP,
History Retrieved 02-15-09).
Dr. Isidoro Panlasigue
Graduated with a degree in Educational Psychology in 1928 and
authored the first Filipino book on Psychology entitled Psychology: An
Introductory Text
Dr. Fredegusto G.David
He obtained his Ph.D. in Physiological Psychology from Temple
University of Pennsylvania in 1973.
Dr. Virgilio G. Enriquez
Ph.D. in Social Psychology from Northwestern University, Evanston,
Illinois. He established the National Organization of Filipino Psychology
(Pambansang Samahan sa Sikolohiyang Filipino) in 1975. He is
considered the Father of Filipino Psychology.
Dr. Elizabeth Ventura
She was the first female Chair of the Psychology Department. She has
worked extensively in the area of psychological testing and
measurement and child psychology. She was instrumental in the
development of the Philippine Thematic Apperception Test together
with Dr. Alfredo Lagmay.
Dr. Annadaisy Carlota
She developed the Panukat ng Pagkataong Pilipino (PPP) one of the
indigenous personality test that is currently gaining popularity for
school, industry and research use.
Dr. Lynna Marie Sycip
She is known for her work in assessing the construct of well-being
and in developing several aptitude tests.
Dr. Fredegusto G. David and Prof. Amaryllis T. Torres
They were the first two members of UP faculty who used Filipino in
teaching psychology.
Rogelia Pe-Pua

She wrote a book entitled Sikolohiyang Filipino, Teorya, Metodo at

Gamit (Filipino Psychology Theory, Method and Application in 1982
(http://web.kssp.upd.ph/psych/history.htm Retrieved 02-14-09).
Methods of Research Used in Psychology
The goal of research psychology is to produce new knowledge about
human behavior and cognition and to develop theories that explain and
integrate these new knowledge. The following are the methods of
research:
1.
Observational Research. It is designed to observe the existing
relationships among variables.
In observational research, the
psychologists observe and measure the variables of interest without
attempting to influence the values of variable or to intervene in any
other way (Buskist,1990).
2.
Self-Report. It is a technique in which people provide information
about themselves, their age, gender, feelings, beliefs, evaluation and
interest to the researcher. These kinds of studies are aimed chiefly at
discovering peoples attitude about particular topics or at
understanding behavior that is not easily observed under normal
circumstances.
3.
Survey Questionnaire. This is a series of written questions or
statements specifically designed to address a particular topic. A
questionnaire may be administered to one person at a time or to a
group of persons or large group under studied.
4. Interview. An interview is a conversation with a purpose and it is a
face to face interaction. The respondents are required to respond
verbally to the questions and the researcher then records the
respondents answer either in written form or in video
5.
Natural Observation. It is a type of research, where data are
gathered by observing behavior as it occurs naturally. Individuals are
observed in the context of their normal daily routine, often without
being aware that they are part of a psychological study.
6. Case Study. It is an intensive investigation of a single individual or a
small group of individuals over an extended period of time based on
the use of observation technique. The case study examines one
individual in depth, usually through analysis of that individuals selfreport. The case study is particularly useful in clinical setting, where

7.

8.

therapists attempt to understand and modify individuals thinking and

behavior.
Experimental Research. This kind of research is more
comprehensive because the researcher manipulates certain variables
and measures their effects on other variables. There are three types of
variables:
a.
Dependent variable the variable that is being measured.
This factor might be changed by changes in the independent
variables.
b.

Independent variable the variable that is being manipulated

c.

Relevant variable the variable that may affect the

independent and dependent variables.

Correlation. It is a statistical measure of relationship. It indicates the

extent to which two factors vary together and thus how well one factor
predicts the second factor. A positive correlation indicates a direct
relationship, meaning that two factors increase together or decrease
together. Thus, if amount of violence viewed on television positively
correlates with aggressive social behavior, then, peoples viewing
habits will predict their aggressiveness. A negative correlation is
equally predictive it indicates an inverse relationship, meaning - as
one factor increases the other decreases. The findings on self-esteem
and depression provide a good example of a negative correlation.
People who score low on self-esteem tend to score high on depression
(Myers, 1986).

Branches of Psychology
Psychology is the scientific study of human and animal behavior and
cognitive process. There several branches or fields of psychology:
1. General psychology is a study of psychological concepts and
principles governing human behaviors.
2.
Counseling psychology is the study of individuals with less
serious problems and counsels individual with emotional as well
as personal problems.
3. Filipino psychology is the study of psychology that is rooted on
the experience, ideas and cultural orientation of the Filipinos
(http://psychology,wiki,com/wiki/Filipino- Psychology Retrieved
02-07-09)

4.

5.

6.

7.

8.

9.

10.

11.

12.

13.

Sport psychology is a specialization within psychology that

seeks to understand psychological/mental factors that affect
performance in sports, physical activity and exercise and apply
these to enhance individual and team performance.
Developmental or genetic psychology is the study of mental,
physical, social, and emotional growth in humans from prenatal
period to childhood, adolescence, adulthood and old age.
Physiological psychology is the study of the brain, the
nervous system and the bodys chemistry in relation to behavior.
Experimental psychology is the study of the basic processes
as learning, memory, sensation, perception, cognition, motivation
and emotion. The area of interest is in the difference the way
men and women store and retrieve information from memory,
the way they process sensory information and the way they go
about solving complex problems.
Personality psychology is the study of the differences in traits
among people such as anxiety, sociability, self-esteem, the need
for achievement and aggressiveness.
Social psychology investigates the influence of people on one
another. It is also a study on the relationship of people in a group.
Industrial/organizational psychology is the study of
psychological principles in training personnel, improving working
conditions, and studying the effects of automation on humans.
Business psychology refers to the application of organized
knowledge about human behaviors to improve personal
satisfaction and productivity on the job. It is also a study of the
different psychological concepts and principles as applied to
marketing, consumers, and advertising.
Psychiatry is a medical specialty course that legally treats
people with behavioral disorders through drugs, electric shock or
through conversation.
Ergonomic psychology is a combination of engineering and
psychology and is closely related to experimental psychology.
The designed machines must be suitable for use by human
beings and must be concerned on the safety aspects of the
machines (DuBRIB, 1985).

14.

15.

Human Engineering is a field of psychology which attempts to

design machinery, equipment and the work environment to fit
human characteristics, both physical and mental.
Psychometrics is a study that deals with development of valid,
reliable, and standardized test instruments to measure
individuals personality, aptitude, intelligence and interest.

Importance of Psychology
1.

2.

3.

4.

5.
6.

Learning psychology is fun because you begin to appreciate your

totality, individuality and peculiarities;
You start to develop self-confidence because you begin to discover
your own potentials;
You develop effective study skills like reading skills, listening/hearing
skills, note-taking skills, comprehension, preparing for test, learning
from the test like following directions, spelling skills, and avoiding
abbreviations;
You find it easy to adjust, interpret, and understand peoples behavior
or acquire a better understanding of how people behave and think as
they do;
You attain happiness and personal satisfaction; and,
You learn systematic methods to observe, describe, explain and predict
behavior. Everything we think, say, or do is influenced by where we
came from, the people we interact with, what has happened to us in
the past and what might happen to us in the future.

Summary
This module focuses on the nature of psychology, the emergence of
psychology as a science, schools of thought, branches of psychology and
importance of psychology. It introduces an exciting and challenging
nature of psychologys quest to understand the actions, desires and
thoughts of human beings.
Moreover, psychology is both a field of study and a means of improving
life (Kimble as cited by Crider, 1989). Through the knowledge of
psychology, we will become aware of our behaviors, become more
humane, appreciate and accept individual differences and be successful in
our careers.

Further, we can apply the different psychological concepts and principles

in our relationships with our family, friends and co-workers.
In this module, we will explore the background and development of
modern psychology and its roots in the field that belongs to humanities
and sciences. Specifically, you will know that psychology is entirely a
combination of philosophy and physiology the branch of biology that
studies human organism

Suggested Readings
Morris, Charles G. 1991. Understanding Psychology, Prentice-Hall
Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey.
Myers, David G. 1989. Psychology. Second Edition, Worth Publisher, Inc.
New York.

Exercises/Written Assignment
1.

2.

3.

4.

5.

Find out the description or explanation of the different fields/branches

of psychology. Which one of these branches are of interest to you and
why?
Compare the different schools of thought and the methods used by the
founders of each school.
Do you agree that psychology is really one of the most interesting
fields of study? Why or why not?
Why did people in the early times try to find explanations for human
behavior before they know about psychology?
Observation is one of the methods of research used in predicting and
understanding human behavior. In what way is this method scientific?
Cite one or two examples.

References/Bibliography
Buskist, William, & Gerbing, David W. 1990, Psychology: Boundaries and
Frontiers, Scott, Foresman/Little Brown Higher Education.
Crider, Andrew, B; Goethals, George, R; Kavanaugh, Robert D.; Solomon,
Paul R.; and William College, 1989,Psychology, Third Edition. Scott,
Foresman and Company, Glenview, Illinois, Boston.
DuBRIN, Andrew J., 1985, Effective Business Psychology, Second Edition,
Reston Publishing Company, A Prentice-Hall Company.

Morris, Charles G., 1991, Understanding Psychology, Prentice-Hall

Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Psychology ,Retrieved 02-11-09
http://web.kssp.upd.edu.ph/psych/history.htm, Retrieved 01-15-09
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Filipino-psychology, Retrieved 02-15-09
http://psychology.wiki.com/wiki/Filipino-Psychology, Retrieved 02-07-09
http:/www.jour.uns.edu/docian/ethics/mill.html, Retrieved 02-14-09.

LESSON 2: THEORIES OF MOTIVATION

Learning Objectives
At the end of this Module, you should be able
1. identify the different theory of motivation;
2. discuss the similarities and difference of each theories of motivation;
and,
3. Prepare an analysis on the different theories of motivation.

Keywords and Phrases

Theories of motivation
Need Theory
Instinct theory
Maslows hierarchy of needs
Drive Theory
Need for achievement
Herzberg-two factor theory
Incentive theory

INTRODUCTION
Psychologists do not agree on which motivational concepts and theories
best explain behavior. Theories of motivation are usually developed with
a single perspective. For example, a cognitive psychologist might develop
a theory that explains motivation from purely a cognitive point of view,
overlooking other factors that might also be useful for understanding a
given action. Presented below are theories of motivation and these will
help you see the shortcomings of each theory and will give you an idea of
the difficulties that the different psychologists have run to understand
motivation:
The Different theories of Motivation
1.

Instinct theory. Instinct theory views that all behavior is

motivated by instinct, which are innate or genetically determined
tendencies to perform certain acts or respond in particular ways. In
essence, instinctive behavior is any action that is not learned.

2.

3.

Drive theory. Drive theory is based upon the idea of homeostasis,

the tendency for all animals to strive to maintain certain internal
bodily states at constant levels
Cannon as cited in Buskist (1990). At one time or another, however,
an internal state may be thrown out of balance because a basic
biological need goes unsatisfied. The unsatisfied need creates a
state of internal tension or arousal called a drive. For example,
when we have gone for a long period without eating, we usually feel
hungry. Hunger may be viewed as a drive state caused by food
deprivation that motivates individuals to seek food. In this drive
state, the behavior of the individual becomes goal-oriented and the
individual attempts to re-establish homeostasis either by eliminating
or reducing the drive state.
Drive theorists argued that there were two kinds of drives, primary
drives arise from physiological needs and do not involve learning
and the second (or acquire) drives are those brought about through
experience, they are learned drives believed to underlie
psychological motives such as acquiring wealth, desiring affiliation,
seeking approval from parents and significant others.
Need Theories. The concepts of need and homeostasis formed
the cornerstone of Abraham Maslows theory of motivation as cited
in Buskist, (1990)
a.
Maslows hierarchy of needs. According to Maslow, our
motivation for different activities passes through seven states,
with entrance to subsequent stages dependent upon
satisfying the needs in previous stages.

Our most basic needs are physiological, the need for food, water, rest,
sleep. Until these needs are met, we cannot be motivated by needs found
in the next stage. We find ourselves motivated by safety needs, including
the need for security and comfort as well as for peace and freedom from
fear. Once the basic and safety needs are met, we can become
motivated by belongingness or attachment needs, the need to love and
be loved, to have friends and to be a friend. Next, we are motivated by
needs higher in the hierarchy only after lower needs are satisfied. If we
are able to lead a life in which we have been able to provide ourselves
with food and shelter and surround ourselves with loved ones and peace,
we are free to pursue self-actualization or achievement of our greatest
potential as humans whatever that potential might be. Maslow believed
that self-actualized people are recognized by their unique qualities,
including self-awareness, creativity, spontaneity, and willingness to accept
change and confront challenges. Maslow considered people such as Albert
Einstein, Eleanor Roosevelt and Henry David Thoreau to be self-actualized.
b. The Need for Achievement, Affiliation and Power. Henry
Murray believed that human motivation is comprised of a
variety of psychological needs. In describing these needs,
Murray was careful to distinguish between biologically-based
motives and psychologically-based motives. The major
Murrays need was the need for achievement (nAch), the
motivation to meet or surpass performance standards or to
accomplish difficult tasks. In addition, to the need for
achievement, two other powerful motivators of human
behavior appear to be the need for affiliation the need to
form friendships and associations with others and the need for
power the need to be in control of events, resources, or
other people, usually for your own advantage.
c.
The Herzberg-Two Factors Theory. Herzberg says that
man has a lower and high- level of set of needs and that the
best way to motivate someone is to offer the higher-level
needs. The following factors are important under this theory:
1. Hygienic or maintenance Factors such as:

Better working conditions

Salary

Administration and supervision

Companys policies

Relationship with fellow-workers

Relationship with superiors

Motivator Factors

Recognition

Achievement

Responsibility

Personal growth and development

Challenging jobs

2.

4.

5.

6.

Herzbergs theory states that higher level needs such as need for
recognition, achievement, responsibility, personal growth and
development and challenging jobs are considered best motivators.
Optimal-Arousal Theory. This theory of motivation maintains
exactly the opposite: all individuals behave to maintain an optimal
level of arousal Berlyne as cited in Buskist, (1990). If you are bored,
you find something fun or interesting or exciting to do, if you are
worn out you might prefer to take a nap. According to Berlyne, our
desire to engage in arousal-producing activities is motivated by the
difference between our actual arousal level or our current level of
arousal and our optimal arousal level or the level of arousal
necessary for us to function at an efficient level. If there is no
difference between the actual and optimal arousal level, an
individual is functioning efficiently, but if an individuals actual
arousal level is less than his or her optimal arousal level, then he or
she is motivated to increase it.
Opponent-Process Theory. According to Richard Solomon as
cited by Buskist (1990), opponent-process theory, is that for every
emotional experience there is an opposite emotional experience
that maintains an equilibrium between opposing emotional and
motivational states. Thus, we are motivated to maintain a relatively
stable emotional state. The opponent emotion that develops in
response to the initial emotion may persist longer than the initial
emotion, thereby reducing the strength of the first emotion.
Incentive theory. This theory embodies the idea that external
events such as goals or incentives, motivate or pull us to behave.
Incentive theory focuses on behavior-environment interactions
rather than on physiology-behavior interactions. It is an attempt to
account for learned motivation. Incentive theory holds that both
positive and negative incentives motivate our behavior. That is, we

7.

either act to obtain a pleasurable outcome (positive reinforcers) or

act to avoid or escape a negative outcome (negative reinforcers).
For example, ask yourself why you study for an examination. Is it to
earn a good grade or to avoid getting a failing grade. In either case,
the behavior reading and studying is the same but the
motivation is surely different. In incentive theory then, emphasizes
the role of learning in understanding behavior and has some
immediate practical implications for explaining an enormous variety
of everyday actions.
Expectancy theory. Incentive theory is not the most important
factor underlying motivation but rather is the individuals
anticipation or expectancy of the reward that motivates behavior.
Why do you study? An expectancy theorist would answer. Because
by doing so you are expected to get a higher grade and avoid failing
grade. This led to the conclusion that the past experiences with
studying have taught us that such behavior usually pay off; it is this
past experience that gives rise to your expectation (Buskist,
1990).

Motivation Behavior Relationship

Most motivated behaviors have some affective or emotional
accompaniment, although, we may be too preoccupied in our striving
toward the goal to focus on our feelings at the time. When we talk about
motivation, we usually focus on the goal directed activity.

Summary
In every day conversation, the question asked is what motivated you to
work hard?
To psychologists whose discipline aims to reveal the causes of behavior
a motivation is a need or desire that serves to energize behavior and to
direct it toward a goal.
Most physiological needs create physiological drives that motivate need
satisfaction. There are several types of motivation theory namely: Instinct
Theory, Drive Theory, Need Theory, Maslows Hierarchy of Needs and
Herzberg-Two Factor And Incentive Theory.

Motivation is a goal-directed behavior. Motivation cycle starts with motive

followed by instrumental or motivated behavior, attainment of goal and
lastly feeling of satisfaction when you achieved your goal or
dissatisfaction when failing to achieve the goal.

Suggested Readings
Buskist, William, Gerbing, DavidW.; 1990. Psychology: Boundaries and
Frontiers, Scott, Foresman/Little Brown Higher Education.
Crider, Andrew, B.; Goethals, George, R.; Kavanaugh, Robert, D.; Solomon,
Paul, R.; and William College, 1989. Psychology. Third Edition, Scott,
Foresman and Company. Glenview, Illinois, Boston, London.
Morris, Charles G., 1991. Understanding Psychology, Prentice-Hall
Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey.

Exercises/Written Assignment
1.

2.
3.
4.
5.

Differentiate the following terms:

a. Need;
b. Drive;
c. Motive; and,
d. Urge.
Define and classify motivation.
Discuss the different theories of motivation and give examples.
Discuss the motivation-behavior relationships.
Why is motivation the best topic in psychology?

References/Bibliography
Sartain, Aaron Quinn; North, Alvin John; Strange, Jack Roy; Chapman,
Harold Martin, Psychology: Understanding Human Behavior, Third Edition,
McGraw-Hill Book Company.
Tuason, Elsa Hidalgo; Santamaria, Josefina Oliva; Tiongson, Corazon R.,
1978, Behavioral Science As Applied to Business and Industry. University
of the East , Manila.
Myers, David G. 1989. Psychology. Second Edition, Hope College, Holland,
Michigan, Worth Publishers, Inc.

MODULE 2: BIOLOGICAL BASES OF HUMAN

BEHAVIOR
LESSON 1: FACTORS AFFECTING
DEVELOPMENT
Learning Objectives
At the end of this Module, you should be able

explain the factors affecting growth and development;

list down and characterize the different phases of growth and

development;

appreciate the value of human life; and,

describe the interaction of biological and environmental factors.

Keywords and Phrases

Heredity
Environment
Genes
Chromosomes
Development
Growth
Maturation
Cognitive development
Social development
Emotional development
Physical development
Spiritual development

Introduction
Human development is both worldly and mysterious. At the first glance, it
may seem that development is something that simply happens. We grow
older and wiser, so we believe that the process of development
contributes to become an effective individual. We notice that our body
changes, our personalities take shape and our knowledge begin to
broaden. The whole process seems effortless and inevitable. And yet

there is mystery involved. What guides the process of development? At

the moment of conception, we inherit a genetic blueprint from our parents
and we are molded by our environment by the many and different
experiences we encounter during our lifetime (Crider, 1989).
To fully understand the concept of development, we must seek to
understand the processes that underlie and induce developmental
change. One such process is maturation. The developmental changes in
the body or behavior are the results of the aging process rather than from
learning, injury, illness or some other life experiences. Human
development can be seen at many points throughout the life span.
Maturation (the process of growth and development), is partly responsible
not only for readily observable physical changes but also from
psychological changes such as our increasingly ability to concentrate, to
solve problems and to understand what other persons may be feeling.
Second critical process is learning or the means by which our experiences
produce relatively permanent changes in our feelings, thoughts and
patterns of behavior. Thus learning is a relatively permanent change in
behavior or behavioral potential that results from ones experience and
practice (Shaffer, 1989). It may be stated in another way, change in
response to the environments in which we live particularly in response to
the actions and reactions of the people around us. Thus many
development changes are the products of both maturation and learning.
Further, it can be observed that most of our abilities and habits do not
simply unfold as part of the natures grand plan; we often learn to think,
feel, and behave in new ways from our observation of and interaction with
parents, teachers and other significant others in our lives. We are affected
by the events that we experience.
Biological Factors
Children are like parents in many ways, however, they also differ from
them in many ways. We may describe a daughter as having her fathers
nose and her mothers eyes. We may further point out that she has her
mothers intelligence and her mothers talent for music.
Heredity is the transmission of characteristic traits from parents to
offspring through genes. Genes are the carrier of characteristics and

traits. The genes are composed of ribonucleic acid (RNA) and

deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) the unit carrier of heredity. For each human
characteristic a gene or group of genes received from the mother along
with a matching gene or set of genes from the father. In order for a human
being to be conceived, an egg from the mother must be fertilized by a
sperm cell from the father. Once the egg has been fertilized, a new
individual is formed. From the mother comes half the necessary number of
genes and from the father the other half. Hence both mother and father
contribute an equal amount of heredity to the new individual.
As a general rule, each of the billions of somatic cells in human being has
a nucleus containing 46 chromosomes or 23 pairs. When the sperm cells
fertilize the egg cells, its 23 chromosomes pair up with the eggs 23 and
form the 46 needed by the new individual. Thus nature gains variety by
letting two different lines of heredity contributes equally to the new
offspring. The baby will be somewhat like both its mother and father and
yet not exactly like either of them (Sartain, 1967).
In the female ovaries, where egg cells are produced and in the male
testes, where the sperm cells are made, cells with 46 chromosomes each
divide into two cells that have only 23. The process is called reductive cell
division. During the division the 46 chromosomes of the dividing cell line
up in 23 pairs. One member of each pair goes to each resulting cell. But
for each individual pair it is a matter of pure chance as to which member
of the pair goes to which of the two cells. Because of these random
processes, millions of different combinations of chromosomes are
possible. It is more than 8,000,000 that any two eggs produced by the
same woman or that any two sperm cells produced by a given man would
have exactly the same 23 chromosomes (Sartain, 1967).
With the exception of one pair in males each chromosome in pair carries
genes which match the genes on the other member of the pair. That is to
say, each member of a given pair has genes controlling the growth and
development of the same specific set of features and characteristics as
the other member of the pair (Sartain, 1967).
For every chromosome, there are 100,000 genes. Genes, the basic units of
hereditary transmission, are interwoven chains of DNS, a substance that
directs and controls the complex cellular reactions necessary for life.

In human cells, genes come in pairs. But the two members of the gene
pairs are not always alike. Occasionally, one gene that will be dominant is
the one that controls the expression of a physical trait regardless of the
nature of the member of the gene pair. A recessive gene controls the
expression of a physical trait only if it is paired with a similar gene.
Further, a dominant gene is one which when paired with recessive gene
dominates and it shows up in offspring. It dominates but does not
eliminate the recessive gene. Whenever two recessive genes come
together, the recessive characteristic again appears.
Although some relatively simple physical characteristics such as color of
the skin or hair loss are under the direct control of one or two genes, other
complex characteristics such as intelligence or temperament are
controlled by many genes (Crider, 1989).
Moreover, the pair of chromosomes is important because the sex of the
offspring depends on it. If a child receives an X from its mother and an X
from its father, so that it has a matched XX pair, the child is a girl.
Likewise, if the child receives an X from the mother and a Y from the
father, it is a boy. Every girl has two XXs and every boy has an X and Y. In
this instance, the mother has only X chromosomes while the father has 2
chromosomes, the X and the Y. So the father determines the sex of the
child.
Most of the time fertilization of one egg by one sperm cell produces one
offspring. There are instances that when the fertilized egg divides and do
not stick together. Instead, each of these two cells then multiplies
independently and produces infants called identical twins. The important
point is that they come from one egg and one sperm cells and are,
therefore, two individuals with exactly the same heredity or genes. It is
true with triplets, quadruplets, and quintuplets.
Furthermore, occasionally two eggs instead of one are ready at the same
time for fertilization within the mother. In this case two different sperm
cells may fertilize with two eggs and two infants result. These twins are
called fraternal twin and may be two girls or two boys or a girl and a boy.
Moreover, these twins almost certainly do not have identical heredity.

Principles of Development
Development refers to systematic changes in the individual that occur
between the moment of conception and death. Development is
systematic which implies that developmental changes are somehow
orderly and patterned.
1.
Principles of sequential. It tends to see development as a
sequence of genetically predetermined stages or steps. Further,
growth follows an orderly sequence, which in general is the same
for all behaviors;
2. Principles of variation. Developmental rates vary. Each part
of the body has its own particular rate of growth;
3. Growth is cyclical. Several studies conducted on child growth
and development, and came out that the major growth cycles
consist of accelerating and decelerating phases. Thus, when
certain developmental factors are equated, the cycles appear to
be quite similar;
4.
Principles of continuity. It tends to see development as a
slow, gradual and continuous shaping process. A maturing
person undergoes continued and progressive changes in
response to experiential conditions and these result in a complex
network of interaction;
5. Principles of Individual differences. Each individual follows
his developmental pattern in his own way, and some develop
smoothly and gradually while others move in spurts (Hurlock,
1975);
6.
Principles of change. Many behavioral changes occur in the
early months of life are related to maturation of nervous system,
muscles and glands. These changes represent a continuation of
the growth processes that guided the development;
7.
Principles of cumulative process. Human development is
best described as a continual and cumulative process. The only
thing that is constant is change and the changes that occur at
each major phase of your life has an important implications for
the future; and,
8. Principles of holistic process. Holistic perspective is a unified
view of the developmental process that emphasizes the
important interrelationship among the physical, mental, social,

spiritual, and emotional aspects of human development (Shaffer,

1989).

Those
studied
growth

who
physical
and

development including bodily changes and the sequencing of motor skills;

1.
Those who studied the cognitive aspects of development
including perception, language, learning and thinking; and,
2.
Those who concentrated on the psychological aspects of
development including emotions, personality and the growth of
interpersonal relationships.
Today, we know that the classification is somewhat misleading.
Researchers who work in any of these areas cannot help noticing that
changes in one aspect of development have important implications for
other aspects. For example, a bright student who does well in school tends
to be more popular with their peers than a student of average intelligence
or below who performs somewhat less admirably in the class. So ones
popularity depends not only on social skills but also in cognitive prowess
and physical characteristics. From the example, development is not a
piecemeal but holistic human beings are physical, cognitive and social
creatures and each of these components of self depends in part on
changes that take place in other areas of development. Therefore, holistic
perspective is perhaps the dominant theme of human development today.

The following principles regarding physical growth can be helpful in

understanding a childs physical development:
Directional Growth
First, the growth of a childs body follows a directional pattern in
three ways. Knowing this is important so expectations of a childs physical
abilities are appropriate. The patterns of development are:
a. Large to small muscles or gross to fine motor
development. Large to small-muscle development means
large muscles develop in the neck, arms, and legs before
the small muscles in the fingers, hands, wrists, and eyes
develop. Children can walk before they can write or
scribble.
b. Head to toe or top or bottom. A second pattern is
childrens muscles develop from head to toe. This is why
babies can hold up their heads long before they can walk.
c. Inside to outside or center to outside. The pattern is that
muscles develop from the center of the body first and then
toward the outside of the body. Muscles around the trunk of
the body develop earlier and are stronger than muscles in
the hands and feet.
2. General to Specific Growth
Large muscle movement begins with waving of the arms and legs of
infants, and then develops into the more specific movements of an older
child who can walk and draw a picture. So, muscle growth begins with
more general abilities and become more specific and defined as children
get older.
3. Differentiation and Integration in Growth
Differentiation is the process that a childs muscle goes through as
he or she gains control over specific parts of the body and head.
Once children have found (differentiated) the parts of their body,
they can integrate the movements and combine specific
movements to perform more complex physical activities such as
walking, building a block tower or riding a bicycle.
4. Variations in Growth
Children vary in their physical abilities at different ages. Different
parts of the body grow at different rates. The range of physical
skills to be expected in gross- or fine-motor development will be
very different for infants versus preschoolers. Further information
1.

5.

6.

7.

on variations in physical abilities among children at different ages is

explored in a separate publication.
Optimal Tendency in Growth
In children, growth generally tries to fulfill its potential. If growth is
slowed for a particular reason such as malnutrition, the body will try
to catch up when it is able to do so. This is one reason why children
may develop skills in later years even if delays occur at an earlier
point in their development.
Sequential Growth
Different areas of a childs body will grow at different times. In other
words, development is orderly and occurs in a pattern. Children
must be able to stand before they can walk. This pattern is evident
in a number of ways, such as rolling over before sitting up, sitting up
before crawling and crawling before walking.
Growth During Critical Periods
Growth in certain areas of a childs physical development may be
more important at particular times during childhood. For example,
recent brain research indicates the first few years of life are very
important in the development of the brains growth and for
intellectual competence. Similarly, the critical time for the
development of motor skills is between 18 and 60 months of age (1
and 6 months old to 5 years old). Research suggests children go
through four physical growth cycles: two of slow growth and two of
rapid growth. The first period of rapid physical growth goes from
conception to the age of 6 months. The rate of growth gradually
slows during toddler and preschool. The second period of rapid
growth is during puberty in the years of preadolescence and
adolescence. Another period of leveling off occurs after puberty until
adult growth is achieved (Shaffer, 1989).

Environmental Factors
Each of us lives in an environment which includes all the conditions inside
and outside of the organism that influence in any way, his or her growth
and the development or life process (Sartain, 1967).
There are two types of environment, namely:

1.

The internal environment. It is the immediate environment

within which the genes exist and functions as the nucleus of a
cell. The internal environment is composed of two parts:
a.
Intracellular internal environment. The chemical
materials held together by the cell membrane which includes
the cytoplasm, nucleus inside the cell. The chemical
reactions necessary for the maintenance of life; and,
b. Extracellular internal environment. The circulation of
blood and lymph fluid in the body provides a means of
transporting chemical building materials in the cells and
carrying away waste products.

2.

External Environment. Environment is the broad range of

experiences that an individual encounters over a lifetime. While
each of these factors make a unique contribution to
development.
a.

b.

c.

Physical environment is made up of all the things in the

world that affect us directly like food and all the things that
stimulate our sense organs. An example of physical
environment is the material things that we have which may
influence our growth and development. A variety of reading
materials may enhance our cognitive skills. The place we
live may also affect our growth, development, behavior and
personality.
Home and family. Family is the basic social and economic
institution, a group of people related by blood and must
meet certain essential needs of their members. The home is
where the child experiences his first social interaction. The
way the child is trained by his parent is a very important
factor that affects his growth and development. Further, the
child acquires his parents traits, patterns of behaviors,
values, ideals, attitudes and beliefs. The parents patterns of
adjustment and interpersonal relationship are also acquired
by the children.
Culture refers to all the modes of thoughts, behaviors and
productions that are handed from one generation to the next
by means of communicative interaction. A society cannot
exist without culture. It is a way of life.

d.

e.

Role is the sum total of the behavioral patterns, which

includes attitudes, values and expectations associated with a
particular status (Tuason, 1978). It is how an individual
behave in a particular status. In every group there are
socially performing roles. Things improved when we got help
from experience at performing the same role. Status, on the
other hand, means a socially defined position. Father,
mother, son, daughter, student, teacher, and principal are
examples of familiar statuses in the family and school.
Social Agents. Psychologists recognize our social
environment as being extremely important in shaping our
individual behaviors and personality. As a unique person,
each of us is a result of the interaction of our heredity and
social environment.

School. It affects not only the surroundings but also

the daily lives of children. It prepares children for
active participation in adult activities. Education is a
form of socialization carried out by the schools
outside the family. The central feature of the school
is the kind of interactions and patterns of
socialization that occur in school.

Church. It is a place where we express our deepest

yearning
for
spiritual
enlightenment
and
understanding. Religion may be defined as any set of
coherent answers to the dilemma of human existence
that makes the world meaningful (Kornblum, 1991).

Peer Groups. Peer group is an interacting group of

people of about the same age. It is a dominant agent
of socialization. A Peer group exerts a strong
influence on its members attitudes, and values. The
peer group is also an important factor in the
development of the individuals identity.

Mass Media. It is the most controversial agent of

socialization. It may be a powerful and rapidly
changing agent of socialization. Television is a
means of mass media and has the greatest impact on
socialization because of the number of hours children
spend from it. Television has some positive and

negative effects on the development of personality.

There was a study conducted on the relationship
between the mass media and behavioral disorders
ranging from interpersonal violence to depression.
On the other hand, children, adolescents and even
adults learning about current events, social issues,
arts and entertainments are examples of positive
effects of television.
Interaction of Biological and Environmental Factors
One of the oldest controversies among developmental theories is the
nature versus nurture issues. All human beings are the products of
heredity and other biological predisposition or they are shaped by the
environment in which they are raised.
Wiggam as cited by Shaffer, (1989) heredity, and not environment, is the
chief maker of man. Nearly all of the misery and nearly all the happiness
in the world are due not to environment. The differences among men are
due to differences in germ cells with which they were born.
Watson as cited by Shaffer, (1989) on the other hand claimed that given
me a dozen healthy infants, well-formed, and my own specified world to
bring them up and I will guarantee to take one at random and train him to
become any type of specialists I might select, doctor, lawyer, artist,
merchant chief and even beggar and thief, regardless of his talents,
tendencies and abilities, vocation and race of his ancestors. There is no
such thing as inheritance of capacity, talents, temperament, mental
constitution and behavioral characteristics.
Although, few contemporary developmentalists endorse these notions, the
nature/nurture controversy rages on. For example, Jensen as cited by
Shaffer, (1989) has argued that heredity accounts for 80% of the
variability of human intelligence, most developmental researchers
however, considered this an overestimate. On the other end of the
continuum, B. F. Skinner believes that human attributes are determined
largely by environment, biology plays only a minor role.
We cannot say that heredity is more important than environment. Both
are important not only in the development of organic structure but also in
all patterns of behavior. Heredity and environment then share an intricate

relationship. Genes may predispose individual towards a range of

responses, but the environment will help to determine which behavioral
patterns actually develop.
Furthermore, it is important to note that heredity and environment
interact from the moment of conception. Although we often think of the
environment in terms of experiences that occur after birth, the childs
prenatal or pre-birth environment also makes an important contribution to
development.
According to Sartain, (1967) every organism and each part of every
organism is a joint function of the three factors: 1) time; 2) heredity; and
3) environment. Each of the three factors is indispensable. A living
creature must have a life-span (time) in which to grow and develop. Its
growth and development must be guided by a blueprint (heredity) which
controls the selection and use of materials (environment).
The formula for expressing the interaction of these factors are (Sartain,
1967):
O= f(T,H,E.)
O = is an organism that has some function
f = interaction of the three factors
T = Time
H = Heredity
E = Environment
The three dots (. . . ) represent other factors that might be necessary later.
According to geneticists every response we make from conception until
death is a matter of interaction between heredity and environment. This is
also like playing baseball, that the bat is more important than the ball
which is not true because both are important. Without both, the ball and a
bat, a baseball game is impossible. Without both, heredity and
environment, an organism would not exist.

Summary
One branch of psychology which deals with growth and development is
called developmental psychology. It also studies developmental changes
covering the life span from concept to death. Two important factors that
give rise to personality are nature (heredity) and nurture (environment).
The debate as whether which of these two factors is really responsible for

personality development will answer this controversy in the class

discussion. The inaccurate but easy way is to designate various human
characteristics arbitrarily as either being hereditary or environmental.
However, the professional psychologists recognize that both heredity and
environment influence all human characteristics.
This module focuses on the factors affecting development, the biological
and the environmental play important factors in human development.
Human traits and characteristics are completely determined through the
interaction of heredity and environment.

Suggested Readings
Shaffer, David R. 1989. Developmental Psychology: Children and
Adolescence, Second Edition, Brooks/Cole Publishing Company, Pacific
Grove, California.

Exercises/Written Assignment
1.

2.
3.
4.

Discuss fully your observation regarding the rapid growth, maturation

and development of children today. Include events or situations that
you actually saw or experience.
Debate on this argument Which is more important nature or nurture?
Describe the different principles of development.
Do you believe/agree that parenting today is a career? Why and Why
not?

References/Bibliography
Brotherson, Sean, Understanding Physical Development in Young Children,
NDSU Extension Service.
Crider, Andrew B.; Goethals, George R.; Kavanaugh, Robert D.; Solomon,
Paul.; and William College, 1989, Psychology, Third Edition. Scott,
Foresman and Company, Glenview, Illinois, Boston.
Hurlock, Elizabeth, 1975. Developmental Psychology. Fourth Edition,
National Book Store, Inc. By Special Arrangement with McGraw-Hill
International Book Company.
Kornblum, William, 1991. Sociology in a Changing World, Second Edition,
Holt, Rinehart and Winston, Inc.

Sartain, Aaron Quinn; North, Alvin John; Strange, Jack Roy; Chapman,
Harold Martin, 1967. Psychology Understanding Human Behavior, Third
Edition, McGraw-Hill Book Company.
Shaffer, David R., 1989, Developmental Psychology: Children and
Adolescence, Second Edition, Brooks/Cole Publishing Company, Pacific
Grove, California.
Tuason, Elsa, Hidalgo; Santamaria, Josefina, Olivia; & Tiongson, Corazon
R.; 1978. Jonef Publications.

MODULE
3: PHYSIOLOGICAL
DETERMINANTS OF BEHAVIOR
LESSON 1: THE NERVOUS SYSTEM
Learning Objectives
At the end of this Module, you should be able
1.
demonstrate how neurons transmit messages through the nervous
system;
2. outline how the nervous system is divided and organized;
3. identify the functions of the nervous system;
4.
identify and describe the different divisions of the nervous system,
5.

and,
describe how the brain divides its work.

Keywords and Phrases

Nervous System
Central Nervous System
Peripheral Nervous System
Neurons
Parasympathetic Nervous System
Autonomic Nervous System
Brain
Sympathetic Nervous System
Somatic Nervous System
Endocrine Glands

Introduction
Nervous system is made up of billions of the nerve cells called neurons
that relay information to and from the brain by chemical and electrical
means (Buskist, 1990). There are more than billions of neurons in other
parts of the nervous system. There are three general types of neurons, 1)
sensory neurons that transmit information from the receptors to the brain
and spinal cord for interpretation of what you see, hear, taste, feel and
smell. Receptors are highly specialized cells that translate physical energy
from the environment into the electrochemical language of the nervous

system. For example, when you see flowers in the garden, the
characteristics of the flowers will transmit to the brain, and say its
beautiful. 2) Motor neurons transmit signals from the brain and spinal cord
to the effectors, the bodys muscles and glands. For example, you pick up
a hot kettle, you immediately drop the kettle because of pain. 3)
Association neurons are found only in the brain and spinal cord where they
receive impulses from sensory neurons and convey these impulses to
other association neurons or to motor neurons. For examples, you are in
the living room and suddenly you smell something palatable, you go to
the kitchen and saw Adobo in the dining table, you immediately get a
plate of rice and eat.
The questions of how and why we act and react lie at the very heart of
biophysiology. Biophysiology is the study of the nervous system and its
relation to behavior. The biophysiologists attempt to understand our
actions and thoughts in terms of underlying physiological processes
occurring in the nervous system (Buskist, 1990).

The Organization of the Nervous System

All parts of the nervous system are interrelated. However, for purposes
of anatomical discussion, the nervous system can be separated into the
following divisions and subdivisions:
7.1 Central Nervous System
The central nervous system is composed of the brain and
spinal cord. The central nervous system is the part of the nervous
system which lies within the bony case formed by the skull and
spine. Moreover, the central nervous system contains the majority
of the bodys neurons.

Brain
The brain is surely the most fascinating part of the whole
nervous system and it is the seat of awareness and reason, the
place where learning, memory and emotions are centered. It
contains more than 90 percent of the bodys neurons.
There are three distinct parts:
A.

The hindbrain is found near the spinal cord. It contains the

following:
a. Medulla involves with the control of autonomic processes
such as breathing, swallowing, digestion, heart rate and blood
pressure.
b. Pons - connects the top of the brain to the section of the
hindbrain called the cerebellum. It also involves arousal and
dreaming.
c.
Cerebellum controls certain reflexes and coordinates the
bodys movements.
2. The Midbrain is the middle of the brain between the hindbrain
and the forebrain. It is important for the sense of hearing and
sense of sight. It is also one of several places in the brain where
pain occurs.
3.
The Forebrain top part of the brain which includes the
thalamus, hypothalamus and cerebral cortex.
a. Thalamus relays and translates incoming messages from
sense receptors throughout the body. Many messages that
travel from one part of the brain to the other also pass
through the thalamus.
b. Hypothalamus influences many kinds of motivation. The
centers of the hypothalamus govern eating, drinking, sexual
behavior, sleeping and temperature control. It is also directly
involved in emotional behavior. At the time of stress, the
hypothalamus appears to play a central role, coordinating and
integrating the activity of the nervous system.
c. Cerebral cortex/cerebrum involves in mental processes
such as reasoning and decision-making (Morris, 1991). It is
the seat of intelligence
B. Spinal Cord
The motor pathway brings impulses down from the brain
toward the front and sides of the cords. It is also a pathway for
muscles and kinesthetic sensibility. Some aspects of touch
sensibility are towards the back of the cords, those for temperature,
pain and other aspects of touch sensibility are in the two bundles at
the side and front of the cord. It is also a complex cable of nerves
that run down the spine connecting the brain to the rest of the
1.

body. The spinal cord serves as conduction path to and from the
brain and as an organ for effecting reflex action.
7.2 Peripheral Nervous System
The peripheral nervous system carries messages to and from
the central nervous system.
Without the peripheral nervous system, no information could get to
the spinal cord and the brain could not give directions to the
muscles and glands in the body.
It is divided into two parts, namely:
a.
Somatic system- composed of all the afferent or sensory
neurons that carry information to the central nervous system and
all the efferent or motor that carry messages from the central
nervous system to the skeletal muscles of the body.
b. Autonomic system is composed of all the neurons that carry
messages between the central nervous system and all the
internal organs of the body (glands and the smooth muscles such
as the heart and digestive system). The autonomic nervous
system is necessary to such body functions as breathing, and
assuring the proper flow of the blood. Likewise, it is also
important in the experience of various emotions.
The autonomic nervous system is composed of two branches
which act almost totally opposite each other but both are
directly involved in controlling and integrating the actions of the
glands and the smooth muscles within the body (Morris, 1991).
1.
Sympathetic division.
The nerve fiber of the
sympathetic is the busiest when one is afraid or angry.
They carry messages that tell the body to prepare for an
emergency and to get ready to act quickly or strenuously.
In response to messages from the sympathetic division, the
heart beats faster, the pupils of the eyes enlarge, and
digestion stops. The sympathetic division also tells the
endocrine glands to start pumping chemicals into the
bloodstream in order to further strengthen these reactions.
The sympathetic nerve fibers connect to every internal
organ in the body a fact that explains why the bodys
reaction to sudden stress.
2. Parasympathetic division. The nerve fibers connect to
the same organs as the sympathetic nerve fibers but they

cause just the opposite. In case of excitement, your heart

beats faster, but after a while, the heart then goes back to
normal beating, the stomach muscles relax, the digestion
starts again, breathing slows down and the pupils of the
eyes get smaller. Thus, the parasympathetic nervous
system compensates for the sympathetic division and lets
the body at rest after stress.

Summary
Our study of the nervous system has been an interesting and challenging
experience. We have learned that the nervous system, considering all of
its many structures, which collectively comprise of billions of individual
neurons, serves as the seat of consciousness. In other words, the nervous
system defines the boundaries of conscious experience.
The nervous system is composed of billion of cells called neurons, which
receive stimulation by their dendrites and cell and transmit impulses

through their axons. The neuron fibers group together to form afferent or
sensory nerves that carry impulses from the body to the spinal cord and
the brain, and efferent or motor nerves that transmit impulses from the
brain and spinal cord to the muscles and glands. The association neurons
are located in the spinal cord and brain. They connect the nerve impulses
from the axon fibers of the afferent nerves to the dendrite fibers of the
efferent neurons.
The neurons are nerve cells consisting of dendrites, cell body and an axon
and it is the basic structural unit of the nervous system.
The nervous system is divided into 1) central nervous system and
peripheral nervous system. The central nervous system is composed of
the brain and spinal cord while the peripheral nervous system consists of
somatic and autonomic nervous system.

Suggested Readings
Buskist, William; Gerbing, David W. 1990. Psychology Boundaries and
Frontiers, Scott, Foresman/Little Brown Higher Education, A Division of
Scott, Foresman and Company.
Morris, Charles G. 1991. Understanding Psychology, Prentice-Hall,
Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey

Exercises/Written Assignment
1.
2.
3.
4.

Define and explain the functions of the nervous system.

Discuss the relationship between the nervous system and behavior.
Outline how the nervous system is divided and organized.
Demonstrate how neurons transmit impulses through the nervous
system.

References/Bibliography
Birion, Juan C., Asturias, Marilou C.; De Jose, Elmer G.; Salgado, Arnel M.;
and Salise, Perceival B. 2006. General Psychology, Mutya publishing
House, Inc.
Sartain, Aaron, Quinn; North Alvin John; Strange, Jack Roy; Chapman,
Harold Martin; 1967. Understanding Human Behavior, Third Edition,
McGraw-Hill Book Company.

Myers, David, 1989. Psychology, Second Edition, Hope College-=Holland,

Michigan Worth Publishers, Inc.

LESSON 2: THE ENDOCRINE GLANDS

Learning Objectives
At the end of this Module, you should be able
1. list down the endocrine glands and describe the functions of each.
2. discuss the importance of the endocrine system in a persons behavior;
and,
3.
differentiate the duct from the ductless glands and give
examples.

Keywords and Phrases

Endocrine gland
Duct gland
Pituitary gland
Thymus gland
Parathyroid gland
Gonads
Thyroid gland
Islets of langerhans
Adrenal gland
Pineal gland

Introduction
In the human body there are many glands, whose function is to secrete
various substances. Some glands pour out their secretion through tubes
and this is called the duct glands. Example: the tear gland, mammary
gland, and salivary gland. The other glands secrete hormones that are
picked up by the bloodstream. These are called ductless or endocrine
glands.
These glands are messengers of the body; another physiological factor
that plays an important role in the communication and regulations of
bodily processes. They are known as ductless glands because they
secrete hormones which are responsible for growth and development.

The study of the action of the hormones is important to the psychologists

because much of human behavior cannot be understood without taking
into account the different types of endocrine glands.
There are eight (8) types of Endocrine System
1.

2.

3.

4.

5.

6.

Pituitary gland known as the master gland which secretes the

greatest number of hormones. It controls blood pressure, thirst, and
body growth. Over secretion of pituitary hormones may lead to
giantism and under secretion may lead to dwarfism.
Thyroid gland regulates body metabolism. Hormone produced is
thyroxin which is needed for the proper mental development of the
child. Deficiency of this hormone will produce sluggishness, poor
muscle tone and mental retardation called cretinism. For adults,
thyroxin helps determine ones weight and level of activity.
Parathyroid gland regulates the utilization of calcium and
phosphorous, controls the excitability of the nervous system by
regulating iron levels in the neuron. Over secretion inhibits nerve
activity and leads to lethargy ( a state of abnormal drowsiness or
prolonged sleep, tetanus and convulsion).
Pancreas or Islets of Langerhans located in the abdomen and
behind the stomach. Hormones produced are glucagon and insulin;
both regulates sugar metabolism. Over production of these
hormones result to excessive hunger, general weakness and fatigue.
Adrenal gland located atop the two kidneys. Hormones
produced are epinephrine and neonephrine. Both are of particular
importance in reactions to stress. Adrenaline, known as the
emergency hormones, prepares the body to deal with psychological
threats or dangers. Underproduction of these hormones result to
reduced blood volume and body floods delays sexual development,
anemia, extreme weakness, and sluggishness. Overproduction
results early sexual development, excessive body hair, increased
body tissue.
Gonads the sex gland in the male is called testicle (testes) and in
the female is called ovaries. The sex cells in the male is called
spermatozoa; for female, ova or egg cells. The hormones produced
by the female sex glands are called estrogen for secondary sex
characteristics and progesterone in case of pregnancy; for male are
androgen and testosterone. The gonads are responsible for sexual

7.

8.

behavior and motivation and for sexual reproduction. Secondary

sex characteristics for females are the monthly period or
menstruation, breast and hips development, for males are hairy
chest, voice change, muscle development. Another secondary sex
development for both sexes is the pubic hair.
Thymus is called the childhood gland. It is responsible for the
secondary sex characteristics. It is also involve in maturation of
cells of immune system (Birion, Asturias, De Jose, Salgado, & Salise,
2006).
Pineal glands responsible for secondary sex characteristics. It
also helps regulate the female reproductive cycle (Birion, et. Al.,
2006).

Relationship of the Nervous System and Behavior

The nervous system and the glands are directly involved in behavior.
They are important to study in order to understand intelligent, adaptive
behavior. In order words, without understanding these physiological bases
of behavior, there would be no psychological life.
The important factors in all behaviors are the biochemical and
physiological processes of the body. The nervous system has a number of
parts that all work together which may affect our behavior. If one of these
parts is affected, our behavior and even our personality may also be
affected. Example: a damage in the cerebellum may result to paralysis;
dysfunction of the cerebrum may affect the thinking process. The three
distinct parts of the brain: the hindbrain, midbrain, and forebrain describe
the parts of the brain, what they do and how they interact to influence our
behavior.
Relationship of the Endocrine Glands and Behavior
The secretion of hormones may influence our behavior and personality. It
is a fact that any marked in endocrine imbalances are likely to affect our
total functioning and behavior. Moreover, the malfunctioning of a single
gland can affect certain aspect of our behavior more than others.
Example: hypothyroidism causes mental and physical sluggishness. If
there is disturbance in a single gland, other glands are also affected. For
instance, in the hypothyroid woman the ovaries are affected and the cycle

of egg production will slow down. This malfunctioning has both specific
and general effects on behavior.

Summary
Psychology is the science of behavior and very important in all behaviors
are the physiological processes of the body. The study of the functions of
the nervous system shows a process of input, coordination and output.
Behavior from blinking an eyelid to a bright light and solving a
mathematical equation depend on the integration of numerous processes
within the body. This integration and coordination are provided by the
nervous system with the help of the endocrine glands.
This module focuses on the physiological factors in behavior, such as the
nervous system and endocrine glands. Like whenever we think, feel or
imagine, there is an activity in the sensory, central and motor nerves in
the body system.
Further, this module discusses the nervous system-behavior relationships
as well as the endocrine system-behavior relationships.

Suggested Readings
Buskist, William, Gerbing, David W., 1990. Psychology Boundaries and
Frontiers. Scot. Foresman/Little, Brown Higher Education. A Division of
Scott, Foresman and Company.
Morris, Charles G. 1991. Understanding Psychology. Prentice Hall,
Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey.

Exercises/Written Assignment
1.
2.
3.

4.

5.

Enumerate the different endocrine glands and give their functions.

Discuss the importance of endocrine glands on persons behavior.
Prepare a mini-seminar on the Physiological Determinants of Behavior.
Choose one of your classmates as the resource person.
Discuss briefly the relationship between endocrine glands and
behavior.
Discuss the functions of the nervous system.

References/Bibliography
Birion, Juan C.; Asturias, Marilou C.; De Jose, Elmer G.; Salgado, Arnel Ma.;
and Salise, Percival B.. 2006. General Psychology, Mutya Publishing House,
Inc.
Buskist, William; Gerbing, David W. 1990. Psychology Boundaries and
Frontiers,Scott, Foresman/Little, Brown Higher Education, A Division of
Scott, Foresman and Company.
Morris, Charles G., 1991. Understanding Psychology. Prentice Hall,
Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey.
Sartain, Aaron Quinn; North Alvin John; Strange, Jack Roy; Chapman,
Harold Martin. 1967. Psychology Understanding Human Behavior. Third
Edition. McGraw-Hill Book Company.

MODULE 4: SENSATION, PERCEPTION AND

EXTRA SENSORY PERCEPTION
LESSON 1: THE SENSATION
Learning Objectives
At the end of this Module, you should be able
1. identify the general characteristics of sensation;
2.
describe the process of visual, hearing, olfactory, gustatory and
cutaneous processes;
3. identify the common visual disorders; and
4. discuss the importance of studying sensation.

Keywords and Phrases

Sensation
Absolute threshold
Differential threshold
Visual Sense
Auditory sense
Olfactory Sense
Cutaneous sense
Gustatory sense
Hypoguia
Sense of balance
Organic sense
Kinesthetic sense

INTRODUCTION
Sensation is the process by which the sense organs gather information
about the environment. It is also the stimulation of the sense organs. The
process of sensation begins with a stimulus in the environment. A
stimulus is any form of energy that is capable of exciting the nervous
system. Examples of stimulus are: 1) light wave; 2) heat; and 3) an order.
Each of the sensory system is specialized to respond to a different type of
stimulation. The eye is responsive to light, the ear to the movement of
molecules in the air, and the nose and tongue to chemicals. However, in

each case the sensory receptor cell performs the same general function; it
converts the environment stimulus into a neural impulse.
General Characteristics of the Senses
1.

2.

3.

Absolute threshold is defined as the value by which stimulus is

detected 50 percent of the time. Absolute threshold may vary
considerably from person to person, like factors such as arousal
level, physical sensitivity and physical stimulation. The absolute
threshold then, is the smallest magnitude of stimulus that we can
detect from the absence of that stimulus (Buskist, 1990). The
absolute threshold is the amount of light of which we are barely
aware of.
Signal Detection Theory attempts to address these problems by
assuming that detection of any stimulus is a matter of distinguishing
that stimulus from all other stimuli in the sensory world (Green &
Swets as cited by Buskist (1990). It further assumes that sensation
is due to a combination of response bias and the subjects
sensitivity or ability to detect accurately a stimulus against
background noise. The stimulus to be detected is called a signal; all
other stimulation is called noise.
Different threshold. The absolute threshold is defined as the
ability to detect the presence or absence of a stimulus while
differential threshold is defined as the minimal change in stimulation
that can be reliably detected 50 percent of the time. It is also of
value at times to determine the differential threshold of light
sensitivity.
Therefore, differential threshold is the smallest
detectable differences between two lights. If the difference is below
threshold, the two lights will appear to be equal in brightness. We
determine the differential threshold in much the same way as we do
the absolute threshold. The value of the differential threshold is
sometimes called just noticeable difference (jnd). The size of such a
difference is relative to the intensity of two stimuli being compared.
We can distinguish a smaller difference in illumination between two
relatively dim lights than between two bright lights. Example: if we
are barely able to notice the difference between the brightness of a
50-watt light and 51-watt light, our jnd is 1 watt and our ratio is
1:50. We then discover that we can barely tell the difference
between a 100-watt light and one of 102 watts; again, the ratio is

2:100.(Sartain, 1967). So just noticeable difference is the exact

point at which an observer can recognize two stimuli as being
different 50 percent of the time.
The following are the known senses:
1.

Visual Sense man has two eyes that serve as organs of sight.
The eye is shaped like a ball and they revolve within two cavities
of the skull called the eye sockets. It can move in any direction
and this movement is made possible by means of six tiny
muscles but only three of these muscles were identified: namely,
the ciliary, rectus, and the oblique. The eyeball has three coats.
The outer part of the eyeball is called the sclerotic coat. It is a
tough leatherly membrane modified in front to form the cornea,
which is transparent, so as to be able to admit light and light
waves. The second coat is the choroid. The color of the eye is
determined by the pigmentation of the choroid coat. The third
coat is called the retina. Here are the receptor cells, which are
the rods and the cones, and the blood vessel. There are more
rods than cones, (116 millions rods and 6,500,000 cones). The
rods are responsible for twilight or dim-light viewing and are not
sensitive to color, they see everything in terms of white, black
and gray while the cones are sensitive to the various different
wavelengths and are used in color vision. They are closely
packed in the fovea, which is the central area of the retina. For
this reason and because they have a better connection to the
brain, the cones are used for detailed vision and for most
daylight seeing.
a. Structure of the eye
i.
Cornea is a transparent membrane forming the
outer layer of the front of the eyeball. It gathers light
waves and enables them to pass thru the pupil;
ii.
Iris is a circular arrangement of muscles that
contract and expand to change the size of the pupil
depending upon the amount and intensity of
illumination in a process called adaptation;
iii. Crystalline Lens located behind the pupil and the
shape of which is controlled by the ciliary muscles;

iv.

v.

2.

Fovea the most sensitive part of the eye (retina)

and contains only cones lightly packed together; and,
Pupil regulates the amount of light entering the
eye.

Auditory Sense the sense of hearing is in many ways the

human beings most vital channel of interaction with the
environment. The person who is born deaf is under a serious
handicap because he cannot learn the symbolic uses of sound in
language. Since man is a social being, spoken language is vital
in his life. The stimulus for hearing comes in the form of sound
waves produced by vibrations or movements of the sound
source. Three dimensions describing the sound stimulus are its
intensity, its frequency, and of loudness, pitch and timbre.
a. Structure of the ear
i.
Outer ear the visible part of the ear is composed
of the pinna, the auditory canal, and the tympanic
membrane commonly called the eardrum. The pinna
or the auricle is responsible for collecting sound
waves. The auditory canal is also part of the outer
ear which serves two functions: 1) it protects the
tympanic membrane from being struck by large and
potentially damaging objects; and 2) it directs sound
waves toward the tympanic membrane.
ii.
Middle ear is composed of three tiny bones or
ossicles which serve a dual function. They amplify
and transmit the vibrations of the tympanic
membrane to another membrane, the oval window,
which divides the middle ear from the inner ear.
Understanding how the ossicles transmit the
vibrations
of
the
tympanic
membrane
is
straightforward. The malleus or hammer is attached
to the tympanic membrane, and thus vibrates
whenever the tympanic membrane vibrates.
Vibrations of the malleus cause the incus or anvil to
vibrate, which in turn causes the stapes or stirrups,
the bone connected to the oval window. The middle

iii.

ear is a cavity filled with air. It is connected by the

Eustachian tube.
Inner ear- is composed of two parts: the vestibular
portion which is responsible for body balance, and
the cochlea which looks like a snail, a coiled chamber
that houses the auditory receptors. It is important to
note that the cochlear fluid is a poor conductor of
sound waves (Buskist, 1990). The structure of the
inner ear performs the task of transduction. Recall
that transduction is the process by which sensory
receptors convert physical energy into neural
impulses. In this case, the structures of the inner ear
transform the mechanical vibrations produced by the
ossicles into neural impulses that are channeled to
the brain via the auditory nerve. The motion of the
cochlear fluid initiates a wavelike pattern of
movement along the basilar membrane, a structure
that runs nearly the entire length of the cochlea and
functionally divides the cochlea into upper and lower
divisions. Embedded in the basilar membrane are
the auditory receptors, the brain cells. Whenever the
basilar membrane vibrates, it forces the hair cells
upward against another membrane, bending them in
a shearing motion. Deformations of the hair cells in
this manner produce neural responses that are
channeled to the brain via the auditory nerve.
Individual neurons which make up of the auditory
nerve synapse have different sections at the basilar
membrane and with different hair cells that respond
to different sound frequencies.
It is therefore, deep within the brain that sound
waves leaving your stereo speakers are finally heard
as music. (Buskist,1990).

b. Hearing Impairment Imagine a world in which your

ability to hear was partially or completely impaired. This is
probably a difficult task simply because you are so
accustomed to hearing. Hearing impairments stem from a
variety of causes ranging from genetic defects to exposure to

loud noises. Failure to diagnose hearing impairment,

particularly in young children, can have devastating
psychological, educational and social effects. Deficient
hearing can interfere with a childs ability to learn to speak
and understand language as well as with other skills generally
taught in school.
There are two major forms of hearing loss:
1.

2.

Conduction hearing loss refers to the obstruction

or destruction of the conductive structures of the ear,
specifically, the external auditory canal, tympanic
membrane and ossicles. The excessive buildup of
ear wax and puncturing of the tympanic membrane
are two common and nonpermanent causes of
conduction hearing loss. This may be caused by
certain diseases and infection. Because the cochlea
and auditory canal are still normal, this type of
hearing loss can be partially restored by a hearing aid
that amplifies the sound waves.
Nerve hearing loss refers to decreases in hearing
ability resulting from the neural structures involved
in transmitting auditory information from the cochlea
to the brain, including the hair cells, basilar
membrane and the auditory nerve. Noise pollution or
exposure to extremely loud sounds such as those
from jet engines, factory machinery and even loud
music can produce nerve hearing loss.

Unfortunately, because the neural tissue is destroyed, hearing

aids do not help. Diseases during pregnancy such as rubella
(German measles) can produce nerve deafness in the
newborn. It is also accompanies old age.
3.

Olfactory Sense - The stimulus for this sense are gaseous

particles and the receptors for smell are called olfactory rods.
The olfactory region is for odor, the lower portion is for
respiration to filter and warm the air inhaled. Our sensitivity to
smell depends on a number of factors. Obviously, our absolute

threshold for smell varies from odor to odor. Sensitivity to smell

varies from person to person.
The major structures of the human olfactory system, the
receptors for odors are located in the olfactory mucosa. When
struck by airborne molecules, these receptors are actually the
hair cells that relay information to the olfactory bulb. From the
olfactory bulb, this information is sent to the brain via the
olfactory nerve.
Henning as cited by Buskist, 1990 identified six primary
olfactory sensitivities, namely:
1. Fragrant odors of flowers;
2. Fruity odors of fruits;
3. Spicy odors of spices;
4. Burnt or smoky odors of burning tires;
5. Putrid smell of decaying matters, foul-odors; and,
6. Resinous odors of pinewood, leather or wet lumbers.
Partial loss of smell is called anosmia.
In summary, even though many people are not very accurate at
recognizing unfamiliar odors, they do improve with practice.
However, even without practice, people are very accurate at
recognizing gender-related odors. Although smell is not as useful
as vision or hearing, it is nonetheless adaptive. Further, we have
a very keen sense of smell when it comes to identifying the odor
of spoiled food or odors associated with danger. And at the same
way, we easily recognize odors associated with pleasant
experiences such as a freshly baked cake, a cologne or perfume
4.

Cutaneous sense. The skin is perhaps the most versatile of all

human sensory organs. It certainly is the largest. A six foot
person has approximately 3,000 square inches of the skin
(Schiffman as cited in Buskist, 1990). The skin serves a variety
of important functions:
a. It supplies exterior body fluid;
b. It gives shape to the skeleton and viscera;
c. It helps regulate inner body temperature;
d. It protects the skin from the harmful rays of the sun;
e. It wards off bacteria;
f. It helps regulate blood pressure; and,

g.

It keeps us informed about environmental stimuli

contacting our bodies.

Embedded throughout the skin are nerve fibers that convey

information about changes in pressure and temperature and
painful stimuli to the brain. A widely held theory of how
receptors encode different kinds of somatic qualities was
proposed by Ronald Melzack and Patrick Wall in 1962 (Buskist,
1990).They argued that nerve fibers differ from one another, they
also proposed that somatic qualities are encoded according to
the firing pattern of many nerve fibers. Example: we may sense
cold when nerve fibers fire in a particular pattern and feel
warmth when they fire in a different kind of pattern.
The skin has four separate senses namely:
a.
Pain. It plays a critical role in helping us to survive.
Although you may think that a life without pain might be
enviable, it certainly is not desirable. Extreme
temperatures, whether they are experienced by spilling
scalding water on yourself or by grasping an ice cube
with your bare hands, are not only perceived as hot or
cold but are painful as well. Pain has two basic
components: one is biological and the other
psychological. Both components influence our pain
threshold, the lowest level of stimulation at which pain is
sensed. The biological component of pain is the actual
sensation of hurting. One factor that can influence this
component is the physical condition of pain receptors
which are nerve endings that lie next to the skin. The
psychological component involves the emotional
reaction to both the sensation of pain and potentially
painful situations. Emotional states can raise or lower
pain threshold depending upon the situation. Consider
having a tooth drilled by the dentist. If you are like most
people, you feel nervous while waiting for the dentist to
begin work on your tooth. Even though you have
received an ample dose of anesthesia, which should
give you some relief from pain, every muscle in your
body is braced for the pain that you know is coming

b.

c.

(Buskist, 1990).
Therefore, pain is sometimes
psychological.
Pressure. The sensation produced by any contact of an
object with the skin is pressure. Sometimes the contact
may be light and pleasant, such as a lovers caress,
while at other times, it may be more forceful and
unpleasant such as someone pushing you while you are
in line.
The physiological basis for the sensation of pressure is
the Pacinian corpuscles, a nerve ending that responds to
touch and vibration. When pressure is applied to or
removed from the skin, Pacinian corpuscles become
excited, sending impulses toward the somatosensory
cortex, located in the parietal lobe via one of the three
neural pathways However, Pacinian corpuscles do not
respond to constant pressure. For example: they
become excited when some first grasps or lets go of
your hand, but they do not respond to the stimulation in
between, as you are holding hands with a friend
(Buskist, 1990).
Warmth and coldness. The stimuli for warmth and
coldness are objects that are warm or cool respectively.
By warm or cool means warmer or cooler than the skin
itself. Since the skin temperature continually adapts to
the environment, an object of a given temperature may
feel cool or warm according to whether we have been
standing by the fire or have just come in out of the cold.
The sense organs for the cutaneous sense are very
small free nerve endings in the skin or sometimes more
specialized structures. For pressure, the most common
specialized structure is a nerve fiber entwined in the
follicle at the base of a hair. Whenever the hair moves,
impulses are aroused and sent to the spinal cord and
brain.
Pressure and pain are referred to as factual experiences.
Warmth and cold are referred to as thermal experiences.

5. Gustatory Sense. The sense of taste is excited by substances

in solution in the mouth. Some liquids such as pure water have

little or no taste, while others are extremely effective stimuli. The

tongue is the sense organ for taste. On the tongue are many
small holes. At the bottom of these holes are certain other cells
that are sensitive to the taste stimuli. These taste cells are
connected to nerve cells, so that when they are stimulated a
nerve impulse is sent to the brain. It is only when liquids enter
these holes that stimulation can occur. If we dry our tongue with
a piece of cotton and place a lump of dry sugar on the tongue,
we find that as long as we keep both tongue and sugar dry, we
do not taste anything. If we dissolve the sugar in the saliva of
the mouth, then it can be tasted (Sartain, 1967).
There are only four different qualities of taste: sour, sweet, salt
and bitter. The tip is most sensitive to sweet and salt, the sides
to sour and the back of the tongue is bitter.
The sense of smell and taste are somewhat related with each
other. It can be observed that the food does not seem to have
much taste whenever our nose is stuffed up because of a head
cold. For example: the taste of vanilla ice cream comes from the
smell of vanilla extract. Loss of taste is called Hypoguia. This is
usually accompanied by anosmia.
6. Kinesthetic sense (Sense of Body Movement). Deep in our
muscles and joints are little capsules whose function is to
respond to the movement of the muscles or joints. For example,
when a muscle stretches, one of these receptors sends a nerve
impulse to the central nervous system, though we are seldom
aware of it.
Information from the kinesthetic sense causes us to make various
responses and muscular adjustment. If not for the kinesthetic
impulses, we could not perform any coordinated actions or
movements. Coordinated behavior calls for a feedback system,
which is provided by the kinesthesis. When a muscle moves, it
reports to the brain and it moves. Walking for instance, would be
impossible were it not for our kinesthetic feedback. Imagine a
person without kinesthetic sense, he should be helpless,
bedridden, and invalid. We could not depend upon our vision, for
focusing of our eyes depends on the eye muscles which in turn
must be coordinated through kinesthetic.

The receptors for kinesthesis are nerve endings found in the

three parts of the body the muscles, joints and tendons.
Without this sense, we would have great difficulty in maintaining
posture, walking, climbing and in controlling voluntary
movements such as reaching, grasping and manipulating.
Tendons are the source of strains and aches of extreme exertions.
7. Static or Sense of Balance. The ears possess another
sensation. In the middle ear is found a certain kind of fluid. From
this liquid projects tiny hair cells quite sensitive to any change of
position of the body. These senses provide the messages needed
to keep us in balance and oriented to the force of gravity. The
messages operate by reflex action to produce the muscular
movements required to preserve our equilibrium.
Similar to kinesthetic sense, we are seldom aware of our sense of
balance. Yet when something disturbs it even momentarily, we
are helpless in moving about. For example, alcohol may interfere
with nerve connections in the central nervous system and cause
a loss of equilibrium. Even after only a few drinks, we may have
uncomfortable feeling of unsteadiness.
8. Organic Sense (Sense of Nausea or Stomach cramps). These
are diffused feelings seldom localized with any great degree of
exactness. Organic sensitivities are found in the visceral organs
like the stomach, intestines, sex structures, the heart, throat and
lungs. These organic sensations are related to biological drives
and emotions like hunger, thirst, nausea, bladder tension and
intestinal tension and sex drives.

Summary
Our various receptors or sense organs are the means by which we become
aware of our environment. They are the windows, so to speak, through
which information comes to us. They provide our first contact with the
objects. Without our sense organs, there will be no messages or impulses
to be transmitted or integrated by the nervous system.
Awareness of our environment is necessary before any form of adaptation
whether simple or complex is possible. Because awareness of our
environment is possible only through one or a combination of these
receptors, we must recognize the fact that sensory control is essential to

any form of adaptation, therefore, we can safely state that behavior is

fundamentally an adaptation to the environment under sensory control.
Without our senses, it will be impossible to perceive, to pay attention, and
to learn.

Suggested Readings
Morris, Charles G. 1991. Understanding Psychology. Prentice-Hall
Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey
Myers, David G. 1989. Psychology. Second Edition, Worth
Publishers, Inc. New York

Exercises/Written Assignment
1.
2.
3.
4.

5.

Prepare an analysis on the functional characteristics of sensation.

Identify the different sense organs and discuss its functions.
Identify the common visual disorders.
From your own understanding, discuss the importance of studying
sensation.
Identify the six primary olfactory sensitivities and give examples.

References/Bibliography
Buskist, William, Gerbing, David W. 1990. Psychology: Boundaries and
Frontiers, Scott, Foresman/Litille Brown Higher Education.
Crider, Andrew B.; Goethals, George, R.; Kavanaugh, Robert G.; Solomon,
Paul R.; and William College, 1989. Psychology, Third Edition, Scott,
Foresman and Company. Glenview, Illinois, Boston, London.
Sartain, Aaron Quinn; North, Alvin John; Strange, Jack Roy; Chapman,
Harold Martin 1967. Psychology Understanding Human Behavior. Third
Edition. International Student Edition, McGraw-Hill Book Company.
Sevilla, Consuelo G.; Punsalan, Twila G.; Rovira, Lyz G.; and Vendivel, Jr.
Fortunato G.; 1998. General Psychology with Value Development Lessons.
Third Edition. Rex Book Store.

LESSON 2: PERCEPTION
Learning Objectives
At the end of this Module, you should be able
1. understand the meaning of perception and how it is related to sensory
input;
2. list down the factors that influence perception; and,
3. identify the causes of errors in perception.

Keywords and Phrases

Perception
Selectivity of perception
Organizations and forms
Law of similarity
Law of proximity
Figure-Ground relationship
Law of closure
Law of Pragnanz
Law of Simplicity
Illusion
Hallucination
Law of Good continuation
Delusion
Extra Sensory Perception

Introduction
Our sensory experiences are organized and interpreted through our
perception. Perception is so closely related to sensation that is often
difficult to make a distinction between the two. Perception is the process
which involves the receiving, organizing, and interpreting stimuli through
our sense organs, or it is the process of organizing and interpreting
sensory data according to the results of the previous experience.
Humans vary in their ability to discriminate among the qualities of a given
kind of sensation. What a person senses must be converted into

meaningful information. Perception then is the organization of sensory

input into meaningful experiences.
Perception serves a function for us. It converts raw sensory input into
useful information. It helps us to know what is out there and what is going
on within our own bodies. Thus perception enables us to deal more
effectively with our environment in relation to our motives. It also serves
as a guide to action.
People differ in their perception of objects, events and persons because of
their cultures, educations, motives, attitudes and interest. We are
different in the sense of vision, hearing, taste and smell. For example:
When we see a flower, this flower may be beautiful to one person but not
to other people.
Sensation and Perception Relationship
The sensory channels consist of the receptor organs and the nerve fibers
from the receptors to the brain. The physical energy in the world around
us is coded by the receptors into a pattern of activity in the nerve fibers.
Thus, the characteristics of the physical energy are converted into a kind
of input code in the nerve fibers. This input code is known as the afferent
or input code for experience. This process by which the physical energy is
changed or transduced into the activity of the nerve contains the
information necessary for perception.
Some of our experience is very closely tied to the activity in the channel
or the afferent code itself. In vision, for instance, our perceptions of
brightness and color are largely determined by information coming
directly from the receptor. And hearing perceptions of loudness and pitch
are closely linked to the afferent code.
If the primary function of sensation is to take information, the primary
function of perception, then is to help us make sense of that information.
Perception allows us to improve a logic and order on the chaos of the
millions of stimuli that bombarded our senses. Even our eyes detect lights
and colors, and our ears react to tones of different loudness, pitch and
timbre. We do not see or hear the world as a random array of light, dark
and colors, nor do we hear random tones of different loudness and pitch.

Instead, perception allows us to make sense out of these sensations.

(Crider, 1989).
There could be sensation without perception but there could not be
perception without sensation. In other words, the stimulation of the
senses that is sensation and interpretation of the sense stimulation is
perception.

Perception, therefore, is defined as the process by which sensory input is

interpreted. And this sensory input consists of nerve impulses. These
nerve impulses then travel to the brain for interpretation of what you see,
hear, or taste.
Psychologists divide the process of perception into three
processes, namely:
1.

2.

Selection. Our perceptions are selective. We do not react to all the

stimuli striking upon us, instead we focus upon a few. This
perceptual focusing is called attention. Attention is selecting
specific sensation. Through attentive processes we keep in focus on
selected stimuli and resist distracting stimuli. As we monitor the
thousands of sensations in our environment, we focus on some and
disregard others. In the selection process, attention is very
important. Attention is the process by which we determine which
sensations will be perceived. In other words, we become more
selective on what we want to perceive. Individuals may perceive
similar events or objects but the interpretation may be different
because of experiences. Thus, attention is a basic factor in
perception.
Organizations and Forms.

a.

Perceptual organization. Organizing sensation is the

fundamental perceptive process. There are three basic types
of perceptual organization:
First, form perception refers to how stimuli are organized into
meaningful shapes and patterns;
Second type of perceptual organization deals with depth and
distance perception. How we perceive depth into a twodimensional picture;
Third type of perceptual organization deals with perceptual
constancies For example: Why do we perceive the shape of
an object to be constant, even though the shape of the image
that strikes our retina is affected by the angle from which the
object is viewed (Crider, 1989).

b.

Perceptual Form. It is how sensory stimuli are organized into

meaningful shapes and patterns.
The first groups of psychologists who study systematically the
form perceptions were the gestalt psychologists, Wertheimer
as cited by Crider (1989). Gestalt is a German word which
means whole. The Gestalt psychologists felt that to
understand humans perception, it was necessary to
understand how humans organize many stimuli into a single,
meaningful, whole image. Their views were that The whole is
greater than the sum of its parts. As a result of many
experiments conducted in the 1920s and 1930s, the gestalt
psychologists proposed basic laws/principles of form
perception:

3.

Principles of Form Perception

a. Figure Ground Relationship
One of the basic laws is the principle of figure-ground
relationship which states that we organize stimuli into figures and
grounds. In general, the figure in a figure-ground relationship takes
on a meaningful form, and the background is perceived as formless
and neutral (Coren as cited by Crider, 1989).

b.
Similarity
Another law
gestalt
is the
that similar

proposed by
psychologists
similarity
elements

perceptual
be grouped

within a
field tend to
together.

People perceive this as horizontal rows of circles and squares, not as

vertical columns that contain circles and squares alternately. Similar
objects are grouped together: square with other squares and circles with
other circles.

c.

Proximity

The law of proximity (nearness) states that objects near

each other tend to be grouped together.

This
the
lines
to
the

occurs
because
circles and
are closer
one
another on
vertical

dimension. The circles and lines are closer vertically and perceived
as a set of columns.
Closure
The Gestalt Law of Closure states that we tend to fill in the gap in
incomplete stimuli. If part of a familiar pattern or shape is missing, our
perceptual processes complete the pattern and allow us to perceive the
whole form.
d.

An interesting phenomenon that is closely related to closure is

subject contour. There are contours that are perceived even though they
do not physically exist. Some researchers interpret subjective contour as
special instances of closure (Kanizsa as cited by Crider, 1989).

Law

Continuation

e.
of

The
Good

The gestalt law of good continuation states that we tend

to organize stimuli into continuous line or patterns
We tend to
think that
the
two
lines
AB
(straight)
and
CD
(curved)
are
continuous
lines and
patterns.
We do not
break the
figures
show into
lines
created by
such an arrangement are not continuous. We expect the curved line to be
curved throughout the figure and the straight lines to be straight (Crider,
1989).
f. The Law of Simplicity
The law of simplicity predicts that we will organize a
stimulus pattern into its simplest
components.

Figure 8 is
perceived
rectangle

usually
as
a
with
an

overlapping triangle and not as a complex and nameless shape (Crider,

1989).
The laws of perceptual organization are apparent in
many situations. For example the laws of proximity and similarity are
often used by advertisers. Zaika as cited by Crider, 1989
g. The Law of Pragnanz

One of the most general principles of perception has

been called the law of pragnanz. This law states that we tend to perceive
a stimulus as a good form or at least as good as the stimulus
conditions permit. There are certain stable, normal forms toward which
our perception and memories tend to perceive as good. There are socalled good forms. In general good forms tend to be symmetrical,
balanced and complete (Sartain, 1967).

According to the Law of Pragnanz, poor forms tend to be perceived and

remembered as being like the corresponding good forms (Sartain,
1967).
The law of Pragnanz also refers to the tendency to fill in
the gaps perceptually when the stimulus is incomplete. This is similar to
the law of closure.
4.

Interpretation and Perception

The third process in perception is interpretation.
The following factors influence our perception:
a. Perceptual set.
It refers to the tendency of our perception of
an object to be influenced by what we expect to see,
hear, touch, smell or taste. Closely related to
perceptual set is the perceptual context which refers to

other stimuli that are present at the time it affects our

perception of a stimuli.
The work on perceptual set and perceptual
context demonstrate that we often see what we expect
to see. The role of expectancy in perception has some
important applications, such as in eyewitness
identification.
b. Motivational Factors.
We tend to perceive objects which are related
to our motives both those that are potentially satisfying
and those that are potentially threatening.
The more ambiguous or indefinite the stimulus
situation is the more motives are likely to influence the
way we perceive it. Our desires and needs may strongly
influence our perceptions. People in need are more
likely to perceive something that they think will satisfy
that need.
The influence of motives on perception is
especially apparent in times of crisis. If two persons
have had a quarrel and consequently are unsure of their
attitudes toward each other, the meanings of each ones
act become uncertain to the other. Hostile feelings,
anxiety or a desire for reassurance are likely to influence
how they perceive each others behavior.
It can not be denied that our needs and
motives, both learned and unlearned, have influence on
perception.
When individuals are motivated or
emotionally involved, they tend to see what they want
to see, hear what they want to hear and believe what
they want to believe.
Further, our motives influence our perception,
their effect being marked when the stimulus situation is
ambiguous and our tensions are strong. And perception
is a joint function of the stimulus and of the perceiver
with his motives, emotions, attitudes and frame of
references (a system of related categories in terms of
which judgment are made).

c. Early Experience
Evidence shows that both humans and animals
indicate that sensory experience in early life can alter
the way an organism perceives the world. Our
experience with the stimuli, therefore, could actually
sharpen our perception on the said stimuli.
Further, perception is influenced by a variety of
factors including what we expect to see perceptual
set; the other stimuli present perceptual context; our
needs, desires motivational states and even our early
experiences.
Factors Influencing Perception
1.

2.

3.

4.

5.

The role of the senses. The role of the senses is vital in

perception. We looked at perception as the meaningful
interpretation of sensory input. The stimulation of the senses
could lead to a meaningful interpretation of what we see, hear,
smell, feel and taste.
Culture. Cultural background can also influence peoples
perceptions. The language that people speak can affect the way
in which they perceive their environment. The language that we
use may be different from one culture to another thus, may have
different meanings. It is through language that members of any
society learn to structure perception. That is, we see, interpret,
and understand the world through the screen of culture
embodied in their languages. And cultural differences in peoples
experiences can also influence how people use perceptual cues.
Training. People may have different trainings that could
influence our perception. We are trained to be courteous,
punctual, disciplined that could give us good impression.
Social Factors. Human beings do not live in an objective world
alone but are very much at the mercy of their parents and
friends. We learn how to socialize because of our interactions
with the significant others. We perceive and imitate the behaviors
of our parents and role models.
Intelligence. Mental alertness is one of the factors of intelligent
behavior. It is the quickness of observation, understanding and
reaction to any eventuality that will come.

6.

Interest. Our sense of attention is much affected by our

interest. Our view is that we tend to perceive those stimuli which
are interesting to ourselves.

Errors of Perception
Under certain stimulus conditions, certain errors of perception occur in
nearly everybody. Such errors depend on stimulus conditions and occur in
normal persons:
1. Illusion. Under some circumstances our perceptions tend to be
misleading. They give erroneous pictures of our environment.
The most common type of illusion is the visual. Visual illusions
graphically demonstrate the ways in which we use a variety of
sensory cues to create perceptual experiences that may or may
not correspond to what is out there in the real world. By
understanding how we are fooled into seeing something that is
not there, psychologists can outline how perceptual processes
work in the everyday world and under normal circumstances.
Psychologists generally distinguish between physical and
perceptual illusions.
An example of a physical illusion is the bent appearance of a
pencil when placed in a glass of water an illusion that can be
explained by the fact that the water acts like a prism bending the
light waves before they reach our eyes. This type of illusion does
not startle us because it is a common and easily understood part
of our experience (Morris,1991).
On the other hand, some illusions depend primarily on our own
perceptual processes, of which we are not ordinarily aware, and
these illusions can be quite surprising and startling. Perceptual
illusions occur because the stimulus contains misleading cues
that cause us to create perceptions that are inaccurate or even
impossible. Therefore, illusions are misperceptions of real objects
or
events
(http://www.moillusions.com/2006/04/pencil-inwatch.illusion.html

2.

Hallucination. It is a false perception. Hallucinations are

sensory experiences that occur in the absence of external
stimulation of the corresponding sensory organ, for example: the
individual may see an object that appears to be real but are not.
Further, under the influence of drugs a person may see visions
and hear voices which bear no relation to reality. People with
severe personality disturbances may also hallucinate events
which do not exist or are extreme distortions of reality (Sartain,
1967).

3.

Delusion. It is a false belief about reality. The common

delusions are the following:
a. Delusion of grandeur. It is a false belief that one is an
important or powerful individual. This delusion may entail
assuming identity of that person whether he or she is dead
or alive. An example: An individual thinks he is more
powerful than God.

b.

c.

Delusion of persecution. It is a false belief that other

persons are plotting, against, abusing or attempting to kill
him or her.
Delusion of reference. It is a false belief that he or she
is the topic of conversation.
Both illusions and hallucinations are inaccurate perception
but hallucinations occur when there is no apparent external
stimulus Sevilla, Punsalan, Rovira, and Vendivel, 1998).

There are many different reasons for errors in perception,

namely:
1. The opportunity to observe may be poor, as in dim light;
2.
Events may take place as rapidly that we fall behind in
interpreting them;
3. Expectations may also distort our perception, sometimes, we so
strongly expect a certain event to happen that nearly anything
that happens will be interpreted as events; and,
4.
Our needs, motives and attitudes can cause us to perceive
wrongly (Sartain, 1967).
Extra Sensory Perception
Extra Sensory Perception is most commonly called the Sixth Sense. It is
the sensory information that an individual receives which comes beyond
the ordinary five senses, sight, hearing, smell, taste and touch. It can
provide the individual which information of the present, past and future,
as it seems to originate in a second or alternate reality.
Some people claim to have an extra power of perception, one beyond
those known to the normal senses. This is called the extrasensory
perception. It is defined as a response to an unknown event not
presented to any known sense Moconnel as cited by Morris (1991). The
operation of ESP and other psychic phenomena is the focus of a field of
study called parapsychology.
Examples of Extrasensory Perception cover a variety of phenomena:
1.

Extrasensory Perception
a.
Telepathy or thought transference from one person to
another. It is also a mind to mind communication one
sending thoughts to another or perceiving anothers thoughts;

b.

c.

2.

Clairvoyance or the perception of objects or events not

influencing the senses. It could perceive remote events, such
as sensing that a friends house is on fire.
Precognition or the perception of future events. It could
perceive future events such as the death of a political leader.
A strong earthquake will be coming.

Psychokinesis (PK) where a mental operation affects a material

body or an energy system (Hilgard, Atkinson& Atkinson, 1975). It
is also mind over matter acts such as levitating a table or
influencing the roll of a dice (Myers, 1989).

The Rhine Experiments

The first card-guessing ESP experiments were conducted by Rhine at Duke
University in 1930. The cards consisted of five designs now called the ESP
symbols, a square, a circle, a plus sign, a five printed stars and a set of
three wavy lines. The symbols were printed singly in black ink, on cards
resembling playing cards.
In the classical Rhine experiments on ESP, the subject tries to guess or
call the order of the five symbols when they are randomly arranged I a
deck of 25 ESP cards. The likelihood of calling a card correctly by chance
is one in five. Therefore, it is possible to calculate how often a particular
score is likely to occur by chance in a given number of cards. It was Rhine
argument that when his subjects made high scores that could be expected
by chance only once in a thousand tries or once in a million, they display
extrachance
results
or
ESP
(http://www.themystica.com/mystica/articles/e/esp-extrasensoryperception.html. Retrieved q4-l0-09).
Extrasensory Perception In General
In the New Frontiers of the Mind (1937), it was said that ESP experiments
were changing the way people thought the mind sensed information.
Historically, learned people held the mind received information through
the ordinary five senses and that therefore, the mind is subject to the laws
of the mechanical world.
There are theories concerning individuals who possess ESP and how they
acquired this ability. One theory holds that some people such as seers,

prophets and diviners were born with the gift which was inherited by their
relatives. Another theory holds that it is a primordial sense which has
decreased in population or their culture advanced. Still another theory
claims ESP is a supersense which evolves in the nervous system.
Physical research does support the theory that everyone is born with ESP
capability, though some may possess more than the others. Most people
have experienced at least one ESP experience in their lives. A survey
conducted by the University of Chicagos National Opinion Research
Council in 1987, that 67 percent of all adult in America believed they have
experienced ESP. Eleven years earlier, the figure was 58 percent. It was
thought the increase indicates an increase in acceptance of the possibility
of
ESP
among
the
general
public
(http://www.themystica.com/mystica/articles/e/esp-extrasensoryperception.html Retrieved 04-10-09)
Can We Develop Extrasensory Perception?
We believe that everyone has psychic abilities and that we may use these
very often however, usually they escape from our notice. The trick, then,
is not developing our psychic abilities but learn to notice them when they
do occur. The best approach to this would be to pay close attention to
everything that happens in our life. Pay close attention to so-called
coincidence, they may have psychic components. If you think you have
these psychic abilities practice them and eventually you may have this
ESP.

Summary
All our information about the world comes to us by the way of our senses.
It furnishes us the information needed to interpret events and situations
and anticipates the brighter future.
To understand behavior, we need to know something on how the sensory
mechanisms are constructed and how they mediate the sensations of light
sound, touch, taste and smell. But perception goes beyond the
discrimination of single stimuli, the human beings must be able to
interpret and react to patterns of stimuli for effective human relations.

Suggested Readings
Buskist, William, Gerbing, David W. 1990. Psychology: Boundaries and
Frontiers, Scott, Foresman/Little Brown Higher Education.
Myers, David G. 1991. Psychology, Second Edition, Worth Publlishers, Inc.
New York.
http://www.themystica.com/mystica/articles/es/esp-extrasenssoryperception.html

Exercises/Written Assignment
1.
2.

3.
4.
5.
6.
7.

Differentiate sensation from perception.

Describe the following laws:
a. Law of proximity;
b. Law of similarity;
c. Law of simplicity;
d. Law of Pragnanz;
e. Law of good continuity; and,
f. Law of closure
What are some of the causes of errors in perception?
What are the factors that influence our perception?
Is there perception without sensation? Justify your answer.
What are the rods and cones? How they are alike? How do they
differ with one another?
How are kinesthetic, organic and equilibrium senses of
importance to an individual?

References/Bibliography
Buskist, William; Gerbing, David W., 1990. Psychology: Boundaries and
Frontiers, Scott, Foresman/Little Brown Higher Education.
Crider, Andrew, B; Goethals, George, R; Kavanaugh, Robert D; Solomon,
Paul R; and William College, 1989. Psychology, Third Edition. Scott,
Foresman and Company, Glenview, Illinois, Boston, London.
Morris, Charles G. 1991. Understanding Psychology. Prentice-Hall
Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey.
Myers, David G. 1989. Psychology, Second Edition, Worth Publishers, Inc. ,
New York.

Sartain, Aaron Quinn; North, Alvin John; Strange, Jack Roy; Chapman,
Harold Martin; 1967. Psychology Understanding Human Behavior. Third
Edition. International Student Edition, McGrawHill Book Company.
Sevilla, Consuelo G.; Punsalan, Twila G.; Rovira, Luz G. and Vendivel, Jr.
Fortunato G;. 1998. General Psychology With Value Development Lessons,
Third Edition. Rex Book Store.
http://www.themystica.com/mystica/articles/e/esp-extrasensoryperception.html Retrieved 04-10-09
http://www.moillusions.com/2006/04/pencil-in-water-illusion.html

MODULE
5: INTELLIGENCE, THINKING
AND CREATIVITY
LESSON 1: INTELLIGENCE
Learning Objectives
At the end of this Module, you should be able
1. understand clearly the meaning of intelligence, problem solving and
decision making;
2. identify the classifications of intelligence;
3. describe the different measurement of intelligence; and
4. identify their levels of intelligence through the intelligence tests

Keywords and Phrases

Intelligence
Fluid intelligence
Crystallized intelligence
Emotional intelligence
Artificial intelligence
Multiple intelligence
Intelligence test
Theories of Intelligence

INTRODUCTION
Intelligence is one of the major differences among people that affects
academic and job performance. Intelligence is not a pure characteristic
but a specialized aptitude that contribute to problem solving ability. The
studies conducted by noted psychologist, Han Eysenck cited by DuBRIN,
(1989) indicates that highly intelligent people also deal quickly with
elementary problems. Among the most important human intelligence are
verbal comprehension, numerical comprehension, visualization, inductive
reasoning, word fluency, and syntactic evaluation.
Intelligence may be defined in several ways. According to Buskist (1990),
intelligence is the capacity to acquire knowledge and to use that
knowledge to solve problems. David Wechsler, a well-known student of

psychology as cited in Crider (1989), believes that intelligence is the

capacity to understand the world and the resourcefulness to cope with its
challenges. Further, Wechsler has also suggested that intelligence is the
capacity to act purposefully, to think rationally, and to deal effectively
with the environment.
Other psychologists see intelligence as a cluster of relatively distinct
abilities such as memory, reasoning, and verbal fluency. Some
psychologists believe that the limit of intelligence is fixed by heredity,
others think that experience plays an important part in its development
(Sevilla, 1998).
Robert Sternberg and William Salter cited by Myers (1989) reports that
most experts view intelligence as a persons capacity for goal-directed,
adaptive behavior- that by learning from experience, solving problems and
reasoning clearly, successfully meet challenges and achieve its aims and
objectives.
Primary Factors of Intelligence
Cattell cited in Buskist, (1990) claims that intelligence consists of
two primary factors, namely:
1. Fluid intelligence is the ability to perceive complex relations
and engage in short-term memory, concept formation, and
reasoning and abstraction.
2.
Crystallized intelligence is influenced more heavily by
education and experience.
Therefore, fluid abilities are those that require the kind of abstract
reasoning while crystallized abilities are those learned in school for solving
verbal and quantitative problems (Buskist, 1990).
Further, there is no single test that measures both fluid and crystallized
intelligence. Moreover, fluid intelligence is generally thought to peak in
adolescence and crystallized intelligence is believed to increase or remain
stable during adulthood.
It can be seen that intelligence can be defined in several viewpoints and
all are acceptable to the researchers and psychologists. In spite of the

diversity of viewpoints, several topics recur again and again in expert

definition of intelligence such as:
1. The capacity to learn from experience;
2. The capacity to adapt to ones environment; and,
3. The ability to solve problems.
It can be concluded that all learning, adaptation and solving problems are
significant to intelligence (Santos and Pastor, 2008).
Classifications of Intelligence
1.

Social Intelligence. According to Edward Thorndike as cited in

(http://en.wikipedia.og/wiki/ Social IQ Retrieved January 08, 2009) It
is the ability to understand and manage men and women, boys and
girls, to act wisely in human relations. Social Intelligence is
equivalent to interpersonal by Howard Gardners theory of multiple
intelligence. It is also defined as the intelligence that lies behind
group interaction and behavior.
In 2005, Karl Albrecht, a business writer, proposed in his book,
Social Intelligence: The New Science of Success, presented an
Acronym S P A C E, which means Situation Awareness, Presence,
Authenticity, Clarity and Empathy. Further, he defined social
intelligence as the ability to get along well with others while winning
their cooperation. It is a combination of sensitivity to the needs and
interest of others. Social Intelligence therefore, provides a highly
accessible and comprehensive model for describing, assessing, and
developing
social
intelligence
at
a
personal
level
(http://as.Wilely.com?WileyCDA/Wiley Title/productcd/html Retrieved
January 8, 2009).
Daniel Goleman, a popular science writer has drawn on social
neuroscience reach to propose that social intelligence is made up of:
a. Social Awareness such as empathy, attunement, empathetic
accuracy and social cognition;
b.
Social facility which includes synchrony, self-presentation,
influence and concern.

Social intelligence is a measure of social intelligence compared to other

people of their age. Social IQ is based on the 100 point scale in which 100

is the average score. Scores of 140 and above are considered to be very
high social intelligence quotient.
2.

Emotional Intelligence. Salovey and Mayer(1990) defined

Emotional Intelligence as the ability to monitor ones own and
others feelings and emotions, to discriminate among them and to
use this information to guide ones thinking and action.
Later, Salovey and Mayer revised their definition to the ability
to perceive emotzion, integrate emotion to facilitate thought,
understand emotion and to regulate emotion to promote personal
growth and development.

a.

Emotional Intelligence has three (3) models

Ability Emotional Intelligence Model. It proposes that
individuals vary in their ability to process information of an
emotional nature and in ability to relate emotional processing
to a wider cognition. This model includes four (4) types of
abilities:
1. Perceiving emotion is the ability to detect and decipher
emotions in faces, pictures, voices and cultural artifacts,
including the ability to identify ones own emotion.
2.
Using emotion is the ability to harness emotions to
facilitate various cognitive abilities such as thinking and
problem solving.
3.
Understanding emotion is the ability to comprehend
emotion language and to appreciate complicated
relationship among emotions.
4.
Managing emotion refers to the ability to regulate
emotions in both ourselves and in others. Therefore, the
emotionally intelligent person can harness emotions
even negative ones and manage them to achieve
intended goals.

Measurement of the ability-based model. Different models of emotional

intelligence have led to the development of various instruments for the
assessment of the construct. The Mayer-Salovey-Caruso Emotional
Intelligence Test is based on a series of emotion-based problem solving
items. This instrument could measure the ability to solve problems

b.

Mixed Model of Emotional Intelligence. It is concerned

with
the
emotional
competencies.
The
Emotional
Competencies Goleman Model was introduced by Daniel
Goleman. It focuses on Emotional Intelligence as a wide array
of competencies and skills that drive leadership performance.

The Golemans model outlines four (4) Emotional

Intelligence constructs namely:
1.

2.

3.

4.

Self-awareness is the ability to read ones emotion and

recognize their impact while using gut feelings to guide
decisions;
Self-management involves controlling ones emotions
and impulses and adapting to changing circumstances;
Social awareness is the ability to sense, understand and
react to others emotions while comprehending social
networks; and,
Relationship management is the ability to inspire,
influence, and develop others while managing conflict.

Measurement of Emotional Competencies.

There are two tools to measure the Goleman Model:
1. The Emotional Competency Inventory which was created in
1999 and the Emotional and Social Competency Inventory
which was created in 2007.
2.

The Emotional Intelligence Appraisal which was created in

2001 and which can be taken as a self-report or 360-degree
assessment.
The other instrument used to measure emotion and social
skill is the Bar-0n Model of Emotional-Social Intelligence.
The Bar-On Emotional Quotient Inventory (EQ-i) measures
the mental ability to be successful in dealing with the
environment demands and pressure. This test measures
the
interpersonal,
intrapersonal,
general
mood,
adaptability, stress management, positive impression, and
consistency.

c.

The Trait Emotional Intelligence Model. Petrides (2007)

proposed a conceptual distinction between the ability basedmodel and a trait-based model of Emotional Intelligence. The
Trait Emotional Intelligence model refers to individuals selfperception of his emotional ability.

The measurement of the Trait Emotional Intelligence

Model.
The Trait Emotional Intelligence Questionnaire (TEIQue)
encompasses 15 subscales organized under four factors namely; well
being, self control, emotionality and sociability (Petrides, Fumham and
Marroveli, 2007).
3.

Artificial Intelligence is a field of study concerned with

designing and programming machines to accomplish tasks
that people accomplish using their intelligence. It also
attempts to understand how human beings think, by
studying the behavior of machine design and programs
that model current hypotheses and conjectures about some
aspect of the human cognitive process (Schutzer, 1987)..

4. Physical
muscles
activities.
use your
game.

Intelligence focuses on the mind and bodycoordination.

It is related to sport-based
In winning in any game competition, you need to
mind in order to work effectively and win the

Other Psychologists classified intelligence into nine (9) types:

1.

2.

3.

4.

5.

6.

Factual intelligence. People who enjoy the games belong to this

type. It is also called the Human Encyclopedia.
Analytical Intelligence. People who thrive on solving puzzles and
problems;
Linguistic intelligence. People who can speak several languages
and can learn easily new things;
Spatial intelligence. People who can see pattern in things, artist,
and mathematician.
Musical intelligence. People who can create music and can easily
identify the music keys;
Practical intelligence. People who can dismantle gadgets and
can put it back;

7.

8.

9.

Physical intelligence. People who have the mind and muscles

coordination;
Intuitive intelligence. People who can see things which others
cannot; and,
Interpersonal intelligence. People who can easily get along with
others.

The following are the different theories of intelligence

1.

Howard Gardners Theory of Intelligence. Researchers in the field of

intelligence have realized that people have a variety of different
intelligence. Gardner has proposed a theory of multiple intelligence
and identified seven (7) components of intelligence:
a. Bodily kinesthetic is the ability to use ones physical body
well;
b. Interpersonal refers to the ability to see others feelings and
be in tune with others;
c. Intrapersonal is a self-awareness concept. It is the ability to
know your own body and mind;
d. Linguistic is the ability to communicate well both orally and
in the written form;
e.
Logical/mathematical is the ability to learn higher
mathematical and the ability to handle complex logical
arguments;
f. Musical is the ability to learn, compose and perform music;
g. Spatial is the ability to know where you are relative to fixed
location. It is the ability to accomplish tasks requiring the
three dimensional visualizations.
h. Further, Gardner (1999) concluded that there are still three
types of intelligence added to the original seven intelligences,
they are:
i.
Natural is the ability to understand, relate to, categorize,
classify, comprehend and explain the things we encountered
in the world of nature;
j.
Spiritual/moral. It refers to the ability to search for
meaning. According to Wiggleworths, spirituality is the innate
human need to connect with something larger than ourselves.
She defines spiritual intelligence as the ability to behave with

compassion and wisdom while maintaining inner and outer

peace regardless of the circumstances.
2. David Perkins Theory of Intelligence. According to Perkins (1995) as
cited
in
(http://uoregon.edu/
~moursund/Books/PSExpertise/Chapter 3.htm) that intelligence has three (3) major
components or dimensions:
a. Neural intelligence refers to the efficiency and precision of
ones neurological system;
b. Experiential intelligence refers to ones accumulated
knowledge and experiences in different areas; and
c. Reflection intelligence refers to ones based strategies for
attacking problems, for learning and for approaching
intellectually challenging tasks.
3. Robert Sternbergs Theory of Intelligence. He focused on just three
main components:
a. Practical intelligence refers to the ability to do well in formal
and informal education settings, adaptive to and shaping
ones environment;
b. Experiential intelligence is the ability to deal with new
situations, the ability to effectively automate ways of dealing
with new situations so as to handle easily the future; and,
c. Componential intelligence. It is the ability to process
information effectively and strongly.
Sternberg believes that intelligence can be increased by study and
practice. If you will analyze all the theories, there are similarities in the
components or dimensions. The Gardners theory indicates specific
potentials
that
an
individual
has
(http://uoregon.edu/~mpursund/Books/PS-Expertise/Chapter 3.htm).
Factors Affecting Intelligence
1.

2.

Biological. Genetic variation has a significant impact on IQ.

Genes have been found to have a substantial effect on
intelligence. It is a product of interaction between multiple
genes.
Environment. Evidence suggests that family environmental
factors may have an effect upon childhood intelligence. A

3.

4.

5.

6.

7.

8.

9.

10.

school is also a major influence on a childs sense of

competence and achievement.
Culture. It plays an important role in intelligence. Culture is
a way of life. Language is part of culture. All human
languages are of equivalent value and represent the crowning
achievement of evolution: the capacity for reflexive thought
(Hess, 1992).
Health. Several studies have been conducted and concluded
that developed nations have implemented several health
policies regarding nutrition and toxins known to influence
cognitive functions;
Gender. Men outperform women on average by 3-4
intelligence quotient points. Studies illustrate consistently
greater variance in the performance of men compared to that
of women;
Age. Older children do not just think faster on more than
younger children. They also think in entirely different ways,
employing cognitive abilities and structure that enable them
to understand some problems and concepts beyond the grasp
of younger children.
In short, intelligence develops
qualitatively with age as well as quantitatively (Fancher, 1996,
http://search.yahoo.com/search?p=levels
+
intelligence
el.=UTF Retrieved, December 20, 2008).
Ethical Issues is the ability to influence intelligence raises on
ethical issues. Transhumanist theorists study the possibilities
and consequences of developing and using techniques to
enhance abilities and aptitudes
Experience is the ability to learn from past experiences. We
learn so much from travelling. As the old saying goes
Experience is the best teacher.
Training is the ability to practice the mental skills for
effective performance.
Nutrition - eating a well-balanced meal is important in
learning. It helps the brain to work faster if proper nutrients
are taken by the learner.

Levels of Intelligence
The levels of intelligence could be attributed to the score of a person in
the intelligence tests. Psychologists vary in identifying the levels of
intelligence. Morgan on the distribution of intelligence quotient based on
the Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scales as cited in Sevilla (1998):

A score of 90-109 is the average performance on most common

intelligence tests. However, because every individual obtains this exact
score, it is important to consider variations around the average. For
example, on the above distribution of scores, the scores of 50 percent of
the population fall between 90-109. Almost the entire population (100
percent) receives a score between 70 and 130. Beyond these two
extremes lies a small number of people who represent two distinct groups:
the mentally retarded and the intellectually gifted.

In practical terms, the retarded people may be deficient in their academic

skills however; they are capable of holding simply tasks and can deal
adequately with many social situations.
The Measurement of Intelligence
In 1884, Sir Francis Galton first explored the measurement of intelligence.
Galton held two strong convictions about intelligence:(1) that intelligence
was largely a matter of superior perceptual and physical attributes, and
that intelligence was inherited from some members of the family showing
clear biological superiority over others (Crider, 1989). Galton claims he
could determine which physical measurement such as the head size,
muscular strength and visual acuity that corresponds to intelligence; he
could demonstrate the intelligence that was passed from generations to
generations. Galton had taken these measurements on more than 9,000
subjects and discovered that the head size, muscular strength and other
physical attributes were not related to intelligence. Thus by the end of
the 19 century, psychologists leave the idea that perceptual and physical
skills were the best indicators of intelligence.
th

Modern
abilities
abilities
interest

tests of intelligence emphasize the measurement of mental

such as reasoning, remembering, abstract, and imagining. These
were first identified in the work of Alfred Binet, with a strong
on how mental abilities differ from one person to another. Binet

was a French psychologist who was interested to study individual

differences. In 1905, Binet was commissioned by the French government
to devise a test that would distinguish children of average intelligence
from those who were below normal. The government wanted to establish
special classes for retarded children but afraid that teachers would be
unable to evaluate their students objectively. Thus the Ministry of
Education called on Binet to develop an objective assessment procedure.
Binet and his collaborator Theophile Simon responded with a 39 question
test that becomes the forerunner of all modern tests of intelligence. The
Binet-Simon test successfully distinguished retarded from normal children
thus confirming Binets idea that abilities such as memory, imagination
and reasoning were better indicators of intelligence than were perceptualphysical measurement developed by Galton (Crider, 1989)
Binet and Simon revised their test. They began to learn about the average
performance of children of different age. Binet and Simon created a
concept of mental age (MA), an index of the childs problem-solving ability
that is independent of the childs actual or chronological age (CA).
Lewis Terman, a psychologist at Stanford University was the principal
author of the first major revision of the Binet-Simon test in 1916. The test
became known as the Stanford-Binet and was then further revised in
1837, 1960, 1972 and most recently in 1986 (Crider, 1986). Although,
Terman was responsible for a number of major changes in the Binet-Simon
test, his greatest contribution was to institute a numerical index that
express intelligence as a ratio of mental age to chronological age. This
index was first suggested by the German psychologist, William Stern
which became known as intelligence quotient or IQ, the formula of which
is IQ = MA/CA x 100. Example, there were two boys who took the
Stanford-Binet intelligence test, Billys Mental Age is 14 and his
Chronological Age is 12 while Johns Mental Age is 14 and his
chronological age is 14. Which of the two boys got a higher mental score,
Bill got a mental score of 116.6 or 117 and John got 100 mental score.
Therefore Billy has above average IQ while John has an average
intelligence.

Later the intelligence test was converted individuals score into percentile
that indicates how much an individual deviates from the average.
David Wechsler is also one of the most prominent psychologists in the
field of psychological testing. He had a different idea about the
measurement of intelligence. He believed a test developer should
acknowledge explicitly that intelligence is a complex trait composed of a
number of different abilities. He constructed a test that divided questions
into subscales measuring specific abilities. He then classified the test into
verbal and performance scale. The performance scale deals with nonverbal measurement of intelligence.
He developed two types of intelligence test, one for the adults and the
other one for the children. The Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale (WAIS)
for adults and Wechsler Intelligence Scale for children for children (WISC).
The following standardized instruments are presently used to
measure intelligence:
1. Otis-Lennon Mental Ability Test
2. Culture Fair Intelligence Test
3. Purdue Non-Language Test
4. OLSAT Multi - Level Norms
5. MD5 Mental Ability Test
6. Kaufman Assessment Battery
7. For Children Slosson IQ Test
Revised 3
These testing instruments are therefore, could determine the levels of
intelligence of an individual. These psychological tests can be used in
educational, industrial as well as the clinical setting.

Summary
Today, there are two major schools of thought on the nature of
intelligence. The first, supported by the following psychologists Eysenck,
Galton, Jesen and Spearman believe that all intelligence comes from one
general factor known as g. While other psychologists such as Gardner,
Sternberg, and Thurstone think that there are more than one general type
of intelligence.
Further, there is a consensus that there are different levels of intelligence,
and different individuals have different capacities of intelligence. It

cannot be denied that individuals differ from one another in their ability to
understand complex ideas, to adapt effectively to the environment, to
learn from experience, to engage in various forms of reasoning, and to
overcome obstacles by taking different ways to solving the problems
(Neisser, et. Al.,1996).
The study of intelligence is one of the most interesting and controversial
subjects. Psychologists have conducted several studies on the nature of
intelligence and have developed many programs aimed at improving
intellectual performance.
Psychologists also pioneered in the
development of intelligence tests. It was in the 1900s, when the first
intelligence test was developed, and has laid claim to the empirical study
of intelligence. In fact, the measurement of intelligence is one of the most
important functions that psychologists perform.
It is difficult to find an all-encompassing definition of intelligence.
Satisfactory academic performance may be one expression of intelligence
while interacting effectively with others is another form of intelligence.
As cited by Thorndike in Crider (1989) in a conference, there were
seventeen (17) leading scholars who were invited to attend the
conference to express their opinions on the nature of intelligence, it came
out that seventeen (17) different definitions of intelligence emerged from
the conference. Therefore, it can be observed that psychologists have
different ways and approaches in defining the word intelligence based
on their understandings.

Suggested Readings
Morris, Charles G. 1991. Understanding Psychology. Prentice-Hall
Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey.
http://research.yahoo.com/research?p=levels+intelligence el=UTF

Exercises/Written Assignment
1.

2.
3.

Define intelligence according to your own understanding and

knowledge.
Identify the classifications of intelligence and give example of each.
Discuss the different theories of intelligence. Among the theories,
which do you think is the best?

4.
5.

Discuss the factors affecting intelligence.

How is intelligence measured? Identify the different types of
measuring intelligence and how it is administered, scored, and
interpreted.

References/Bibliography
Buskist, William, Gerbing, David W. 1990. Psychology: Boundaries and
Frontiers, Scott, Foresman/Little Brown Higher Education
Crider, Andrew B.; Goethals, George R.; Kavanaugh, Robert D.;
Solomon,Paul.; and William College, 1989. Psychology, Third Edition, Scott,
Foresman and Company, Glenview, illlinois, Boston, London
Myers, David G. 1989. Psychology, Second Edition, Worth Publishers, Inc.
New York.
http;//as Wiley,com?WileyCDA/WileyTitle/productcd html Retrieved1-08-09.
http://wikipedia.org/wiki/Social IQ Retrieved 01-08-2009

LESSON 2: THINKING
Learning Objectives
At the end of this Module, you should be able
1. understand the meaning of thinking;
2. describe the importance of thinking in our daily life;
3.
identify the things involved in thinking based on a given statement;
and,
4. determine the relations of problem solving with decision making.

Keywords and Phrases

Thinking

Problem solving
Decision making
Thinking process

INTRODUCTION
Thinking may be defined in two main ways, one is through introspection
method, by observing and reporting your own cognitive processes.
Another method is by objective observation of other people. In other
words, we can learn about thinking by observing how people solve and
make decisions that requires thinking.
Thinking plays a role in many psychological functions. A clue to the vast
range of things involved in thinking can be seen in different ways we use
the word. Morris (1991) states the following statements: Ive given it
some thoughts implies reflection or meditation. I think this town is like
the one I grew up in indicates coceptualization. What does she think of
all this? is a way of asking for an evaluation. Aha! I think I hnave the
answer, reflects problem solving and insight. I think Ill buy the red
one, indicates a decision. These are all examples of thinking. Therefore,
thinking includes the processing and retrieval of information from memory
and requires manipulation of information in various ways.
Thinking like all other behaviors is motivated. It is a fact that motivation
is quite apparent when we have a problem to solve. Not only do we think

in a way of trying to solve problem but we may think for the enjoyment of
the process. Many times we get enjoyment out of trying to solve a puzzle
or explain an unusual event. Some of us get
real satisfaction from
putting order into our experiences, even where such order has no
apparent use. In other words, thinking itself may be enjoyable.
Some of our thinking is more undirected in nature. Thus, we might review
in thought the pleasant and unpleasant features of our past experiences.
We daydream about what happened to us in the past events. A large
amount of thinking is of a wish-fulfilling character. We daydream about
our success in our profession and business is wish-fulfilling. Such thinking
serves the purpose of self-enhancement. Daydreaming is the product of
thinking.
Thinking is the most important skill in human activity. Thinking is so much
part of our everyday life that it is difficult to imagine a moment when we
are not thinking. We can say that a person who does not think is a dead
person. Even a retarded person has his/her own story to tell and it is
related to thinking.
Thinking as defined by Crider (1989) is a mental process that involves
organization, categorizing, planning, reasoning and problem solving.
Thinking is for everybody but what is really the definition of thinking? The
information approach to cognition or thinking provides us with a basis for
viewing thinking as a form of computation that is not necessarily
restricted to humans (Buskist,1989). Thinking, therefore, is the
manipulation or construction and modification of internal symbolic
representation. Also thinking involves a series of process that can be
observed directly by anyone.
So, thinking involves the mental manipulation, as when we form concepts,
engage in problem solving, reasoning and making decisions.
Process of Thinking
The process of information includes the representation of information or
encoding. Specifically, information must be encoded into the language of
the cognitive system. One way in which this encoding is accomplished is
through symbols or mental construction that represent an event, object,
and person.

An information processor, the human being builds symbolic

representations that are then manipulated in various ways. To think is to
process symbols. Using language involves symbols to communicate with
others. Symbol manipulation is the key to the computational metaphor
both people and computer programs process information by manipulating
symbols. One of the most basic assumptions made by cognitive
psychologists is that understanding how people manipulate symbols is
crucial to understanding human behavior (Buskist, 1989).
Steps in the Thinking Process
There are a number of different aspects to the complex process of
thinking. One of these involves organizing objects and events into specific
mental categories known as concept. Concept is very important in the
process of thinking. Concept means grouping of similar objects, events or
people into categories. Concept allows us to simply representation of the
world by organizing our knowledge and they serve as building blocks.
Standards in the thinking processes domain are organized in
three dimensions, namely:
1. Reasoning, process and inquiry dimensions;
2. Creativity; and
3. Reflection, evaluation, and metacognition
1. Reasoning,
Process
and
Inquiry
Dimensions.
It
encompasses the knowledge, skills and behaviors required to enable
individuals to inquire into the world around them, and to use critical
thinking to analyze and evaluate information they encounter. The
Individual learns to assemble and question information and develop
opinions based on informal judgment. It also develops the capacity
to transform information into coherent knowledge structures.
2. Creativity. The capacity to think creatively is the central
component of solving problems. Be innovative. In creativity
dimension, the individual learns to seek innovative alternatives and
use his imagination to generate possibilities.
3. Reflection, Evaluation, and Metacognition. Learning is
enhanced when the individual develops the capacity to reflect on,
and refine his existing ideas and beliefs. In reflection, evaluation
and metacognition dimension, the individual learns to reflect on
what he knows and develops awareness that there is more to know.

He learns to question his perspectives and those of others. He

evaluates the validity of his own and others ideas. He also
develops his metacognition skills in planning, monitoring and
evaluating his own thinking processes and strategies.
(http://cels.vic.edu.au/essential/interdiscipline/thinking/index.html
Retrieved 01-11-09).
Problem-Solving
All of us like to be more efficient in using our cognitive processes in order
to solve problems better. Although there is no simple formula in solving
problems, however, it is very important to know or learn the effective
ways in solving problems. The way we formulate the problem determines
how readily it may be solved or whether it can be solved at all. A problem
solving situation ranges from relatively simple tasks to difficult tasks that
require detailed planning and a thorough consideration of alternatives.
Problem solving, which involves thinking, begins with a problem as
perceived. A problem is a situation in which there is a goal that is not
solved immediately but instead involved in a series of stages that lead to
an eventual solution. Further, a problem is experienced as a state of
tension, a feeling of incompleteness and frustration. Problem-solving
involves processing of information about the situations. It is also a form of
learning in which thinking processes play an important role.
Stages in Problem Solving
Although different psychologists have different notions about the stages
involved in a problem, Newell and Simon as cited in Crider (1989)
proposed three distinct stages in problem solving:
1. Try to divide the problem into smaller, manageable segment;
2.
Look for a rule of hypothesis that will solve the particular
segment they are considering; and,
3. Evaluate the hypothesis
Strategies for Problem-Solving (Morris, 1991)
There are different approaches used to problem solving:
1.

Trial and Error approach. When the possible solutions to a

problem are few, we may use the trial and error approach.

2.

3.

4.

5.

This is a haphazard problem solving in which one solution

follows another until success is achieved. We normally try to
solve a problem and if it does not work then we try another
approach. Even when we are faced with a more complicated
problem, trial and error may be useful.
Hypothesis Testing approach. Sometimes, however, the
problem we are faced with may have a large number of
possible solutions. In this instance, hypothesis testing may be
the best strategy. Hypothesis is an intelligent guess based on
the problem. Trial and Error approach, for example, if the
program in my computer manual is unclear in the direction on
how to exit from a program, I could start hitting keys hoping
some combination might produce the desired effects. If Trial
and Error approach is not effective, utilize the hypothesis
testing, form a hypothesis and just try or test it. There are
eighty-five (85) keys on the keyboard. Knowing what
keystrokes normally work to exit from a program and knowing
how this particular program operates, I would conclude which
alternatives might be most likely to work.
Information Retrieval Approach. People use this approach
when solution to a problem may be as simple as retrieving
information from long-term memory (Crider, 1989).
Information retrieval is an important option when a solution
must be found quickly.
Algorithms. Some complex problems require more complex
methods, if this is the case, then use the algorithm approach.
Algorithms are problem solving methods that guarantee a
solution if they are appropriate for the problem and are
properly carried out (Crider, 1989). It is also a step by step
method of problem solving that guarantee a correct solution
(Morris, 1991). For example, an algorithm for solving
anagram, (a group of letter that can be rearranged to form a
word) entails trying every combination of letters until we come
up with the right word. Suppose you are given four letters
akbc. You try kabc, cabk, acbk, and finally come with back
whereby the problem is solved.
Heuristic. It is a rule of thumb that help us solve problems.
Some heuristic methods work better in some situations than in

others. Some have special purpose only such as those applied

to word puzzles and chess. But other general heuristics can
be applied to a wide range of human problems.
There are two types of heuristic approach as follows:
a.

b.

Hill-climbing method. It is the process whereby we try to

move continually closer to the final goal without turning aside
from the main subject or going backward.
Create a sub-goal. In setting sub-goals, we can often break
a problem into smaller more manageable pieces, each of
which is easier to solve than the problem as a whole.
Example: A student whose goal is to write a thesis paper, he
might set a sub-goal by breaking down the work into a series
of separate tasks: choosing a topic, doing the research,
preparing an outline, writing the first three chapters, editing
and rewriting. Sub-goals make problem solving more
manageable and easy to solve.

Knowing and learning the stages of problem solving and the strategies
used in solving the problems, everyone could benefit from this topic.
Decision Making
Decision making differs from other kinds of problem solving because we
already know all the possible solutions or choices. The only task is to
select the best alternative by using some predetermined criteria.
There are two basic aspects of decision making, namely:
1.
Factors that influence the choices people made. A person is
assigned to the choices involved in decision. Example, If you feel
to go out for a vacation and enjoy being with friends or start you
research paper. If you think that vacation is a necessity and you
will enjoy rather than doing your research paper.
2. Factor that interfere with decision making. You prefer to have a
vacation but you do not have enough money, this will interfere
with your plan of having a vacation. So you might choose doing a
research paper.
There are cases that we have to juggle a fairly large and complex set of
criteria. As this set grows, so do the difficulties in reaching a goal
decision. We use some kind of compensatory model to arrive at a

decision. Compensatory model is a rational decision-making model in

which choices are systematically evaluated on various criteria (Morris,
1991). For example, you are planning to buy a house, certain criteria
must be considered like the location, pleasing environment, wider garden,
and the price of the house.
It can be observed that for every problem there is a corresponding
decision to make or solution be it effective or not effective.

Summary
Thinking is the most important human activity and so much a part of our
everyday life. We think as we read and comprehend the words on the
material that we are reading. We think during classess and examination.
Yet, on most occasions, thinking is not simply a contemplating process but
a goal- directed activity like when we have a problem to solve or a
decision to make.

Suggested Readings
Sevilla, Consuelo G.; Punzalan, Twila G.; Rovira, Luz G. Vendiel, Jr.
Fortunato G.; General Psychology with Values Development Lessons,
Third Edition, 1998, Rex Book Store, Inc.
DuBrin, Andrew J.; 1985 Effective Business Psychology. Second
Edition, Reston Publishing Company, A. Prentice-Hall Company.

Exercises/Written Assignment
1.
2.
3.
4.

Discuss briefly the nature of thinking;

Explain Why is thinking the most important human activity?;
Discuss the process of thinking; and,
Discuss the steps in the thinking process and discuss each step.

References/Bibliography
Criders, Andrew B.; Goethals, George R.; Kavanaugh, Robert D.; Solomon,
Paul R.; and William College, 1989. Psychology, Third Edition, Scott,
Foresman and Company, Glenview, Illinois, Boston, London.
Morris, Charles G. 1991, Understanding Psychology, Prentice-Hall
Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey.

Buskist, William, Gerberg, David W. Psychology Boundaries and Frontiers,

Scott, Foresman/Little Brown Higher Education.

Lesson 3: Creativity
Learning Objectives
At the end of this Module, you should be able
1. describe the characteristics of a creative person;
2. identify how to improve creativity;
3. identify the relationship of creativity and intelligence; and,
4. synthesize the different studies on Filipino ingenuity

Keywords and Phrases

Creativity
Internal motivation
Creative thinking skills
Intrinsic motivation
Imaginative thinking skills
Extrinsic motivation

INTRODUCTION
Some evidence shows that people who frequently find creative solutions
to problems rely more on the right side of the brain. The right brain works
with emotion, picture, wholes and relationships while, synthesis (putting
together), simultaneous and holistic thinking, time free, a sense of time
together, governs the left side of the brain. While the left brain works with
logic, words, parts and specific, analysis, sequential thinking, time bound,
sense of time and goals and your position in relation to goals govern the
right
side
of
the
brain
(http://www.1000advices.com/guru/creativity_vk.html Retrieved 01-11-09).
Creativity is the ability to produce ideas that are both new and valuable.
Results from an intelligence test and creativity suggest that a certain level
of intelligence is necessary but not sufficient for creativity. In general,
people with high IQ scores tend to do better on creativity test and in their
professions than people with low scores.
Further, people with high IQ scores can be more or less creative hence;
intelligence is but one component of creativity. Sternberg as cited in

Myers (1989) studies of creative people suggests three (3) components of

creativity:
1.
Expertise. It is a well-base of knowledge. People who are
experts in their own field of interest are more creative than those
who are not expert in their area of specializations;
2. Imaginative thinking skills. It is an ability to see things in new
ways, to recognize patterns, to make connections; and,
3. Intrinsic motivation. It is a principle of creativity. People will
be most creative when they feel motivated by the interest,
enjoyment, satisfaction and challenge of the work itself.
Amabiles experiments cited in Myers (1989) states that a creative person
focuses not so much on meeting the deadline, impressing people or
making money but on the pleasure and challenge of their work. Moreover,
Amabiles experiment illustrate the point: social conditions that free
people from concern about social approval enhance creativity.
Therefore, to foster creativity is to provide a conducive and stimulating
environment that allows individuals to freely set their talents while at the
same time eliminating potential barriers.
There are three (3) components of creativity in individuals:
1.

2.

3.

Creative thinking skill is composed of capacity to think outside

the box and put existing ideas together in new combinations;
Internal Motivation. It is motivation from within, your need or
passion to be creative; and,
Resources. Your knowledge, expertise and access to relevant
information
(http://www.1000advices.com/guru/creativity_vk.html,Retrieved
01-11-09).

Personality Characteristics and Behaviors of a Creative Person

1.
2.

3.

4.

A creative person tends to be bright rather than brilliant;

A creative person tends to have a positive self-image, he feels good
about himself;
A creative person is emotionally expressive and sensitive to the world
around him;
A creative person is original and imaginative in his thinking;

5.

6.

7.
8.
9.
10.

11.
12.

A creative person tends to be interested in the nature of the problem

itself;
A creative person does not judge immediately without enough data on
hand;
A creative person is frequently non-conformist;
A creative person leads a rich, almost bizarre, fantasy life;
A creative person tends to be flexible and not authoritarian;
A creative person is more concerned with meanings and implications of
problems;
A creative person tolerates ambiguity and complexity; and,
A creative person has a youthful curiosity even when he is in his
seventies and eighties (DuBRIN, 1985).

Ways on How to Improve your Creative Thinking

1.
2.
3.

4.

5.

Break out of self-imposed limitations;

Look for wider solutions;
Think sideways, explore the least likely directions, abandon step by
step approach, master the lateral thinking;
Sharpen your brain by communicating and exchanging ideas with
other creative people as often as you can;
If you are thinking along a certain line and nothing happens, stop for a
while, analyze the problem again and see if you can come up with a
new approach;

In the Philippines, there are numerous studies on Filipino

ingenuity:
(http://www.geocities.com/benign/org.disagr/83filpride.htmlRetrieved 01-13-09)
1.

2.

Aberlardo Aguilar, a Filipino doctor who created the drug

Erythromycin (Illosone) from Iloilo soil.
Gonzalo Catan Jr. invented the water-based insect buster called
Household Insecticide (HI) won the Silver Medal at the 27
International Exhibition of Inventions in Geneva, Switzerland. The
Filipino innovation makes use of 21 useful microorganism, among
other material to kill flies, mosquitoes, termites, ants, roaches, as
well as dog ticks, fleas and lice.
Doroteo Gaerlan developed patented system on safe oil retrieval
operations on sunken vessels that was adapted in case sea
tragedies
that
occur
in
the
premier
Freeport
Zone

th

3.

4.

5.

6.

7.

8.

9.

10.

11.

12.

(http://www.globalpinoy.com/news_inside.php?newsnum=5940
Retrieved 01-12-09.
Diosdado Banatao, an engineer from Cagayan, Philippines, made
graphical user interface (GUI).
Dr. Rafael F. Guerrero III demonstrated that tilapias fry feed with
sex hormones can turn female potential fry into male.
(http://www.geocities.com/benign/org.disagr/8-3filpride.html
Retrieved 01-13-09)
Eng. Cornelio Seno of Los Banos, Laguna and Rolando de la Cruz
garnered gold for their inventions called Pressure Fluid Machine and
Topical Formulation in Removing Warts, Moles and the like using
Cashew nuts (Annacardium Occidentale). De la Cruz spent 25 years
of research for his winning cashew nut preparation known as Denart
and Denale.
The University of the Philippines developed an Anti-Cough medicine
(Ascof) and diuretic (Releaf) from Phil Herbs lagundi and sambong
respectively which won a silver in 1997 International Inventors Fair
in Switzerland. The research papers were organized by Fr. Francis
Gomez.
Maria Carlita Rex-Doran produced an ampalaya (bittermellon)
concoction for diabetes mellitus and HIV infection. The World
Intellectual Property Organization (WIPO) conferred on her the Gold
Medal in 1989 four years after another Filipino inventor, Olympia
Gonzales, achieved the same award.
Maria Ylagan Orosa of the Philippines, who first made the banana
catsup and the pineapple vinegar.
Ramon Barbar discovered that spraying mango trees with
potassium nitrate induced flowering all year round. This technology
made the Philippines a leading exporter of mangoes and mango
products such as candy, puree and juice.
A team led by Emerita de Guzman made the first makapuno
(coconut mutant for delicacies) harvest from a test tube in 1971.
Milagros Ramos invented the submerged method of cultivating
edible mushroom mycelium (the vegetable stage of mushroom) in
liquid medium in 1969. Her concept departed from the traditional
bed-culture method.

13.

14.

15.

16.

17.

18.

Dr.Rodolfo Aquino, the Philippine foremost rice breeder was one of

the scientists who developed IR8, the 1966 strain of the rice variety
that launched Asias Green Revolution.
Marc Loinaz, inventor of the one-chip video camera, a Filipino
resident of New Jersey who works with Lucent Technologies.
Dr, Jose B. Cruz used engineering and mathematics to device the
comparison sensitivity matrix for evaluating changes occurring in
different components- from the parts of an ordinary flashlight to the
automatic control and feedback of a Patriot missile from the
University of the Philippines.
Eduardo Sanchez, a mensan, nagged the grand prize in the first
Philippine Search for Product Excellence in Information Technology.
Filipino Astronomers Edwin Aguirre and Imelda Joson discovered
Asteroid 6282 (called Edwelda after their first names) an asteroid
orbiting the sun between Mars and Jupiter.
Eduardo San Juan, a Filipino employee of Lockhied, created the
Lunar Rover or moon buggy used in 1969 by American Astronauts
who first landed the moon.

From the above-mentioned inventors, we can say that Filipinos

are very creative and talented.

Summary
DuBRIB (1989) defined creativity as a process of information in such a way
that the result is new, original and meaningful. A person should be aware
of his/her creative potentials in comparison with other people. People
have different ways in solving problem and making decisions because of
our creativity. Moreover, creativity helps us to consider options and
ultimately to progress in our personal and leadership growth and
development.

Suggested Readings
DuBRIN, Andrew J. 1985. Effective Business Psychology, Second
Edition, Reston Publishing Company, A Printice-Hall Company.
Sevilla, Conuelo G.; Punsalan, Twila G.; Rovira, Luz G.; Vendivel, Jr.
Fortunato G. 1998. Generak Psychology with Values Development
Lessons, Third Edition, Rex Book Store, Inc.

Exercises/Written Assignment
1.
2.
3.

4.
5.

Discuss the differences of the following terms:

Give some suggestions on how to improve creativity.
Research on the contributions of Filipino inventors to uplift the
Philippine Society.
Discuss the three components of creativity in an individual.
From you own observation and experiences, what are the
characteristics and behavior of a creative person?

References/Bibliography
Buskist, William, Gerbing, David W.; 1990, Psychology: Boundaries and
Frontiers, Scott, Foresman/Little Brown Higher Education.
Crider, Andrew, B; Goethals, George, R. Kavanaugh, Robert D; Solomon,
Paul R. and William Collge, 1989, Psychology, Third Edition. Scott,
Foresman and Company, Glenview, Illinois, Boston, London.
DuBRIN, Andrew J., 1985, Effective Business Psychology, Second Edition,
Reston Publishing Company, A Prentice-Hall Company.
Hess, Beth, B., Markson, Elizabeth, W., Stern, Peter J., 1992, Sociology,
Brief Edition, Macmillan Publishing Company, New York.
Morris, Charles G., 1991, Understanding Psychology. Prentice-Hall
Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey.
Myers, David G. 1989, Psychology, Second Edition, Worth Publishers, Inc.
New York.
Neisser, Boodoo; G. Banchard, T. J. Jr. Baykin,; A. W. Brody; N. Ceci; S.J.
Holpen, D.F.Lochlin; J. C., Perloff; R.Sternberg; R.J. and Urbina, S. C. 1996,
Knowns and Unknowns, America Psychologists.
Paik, Hans S. One Intelligence or Many Alternative Approaches to
Cognitive Abilities, (http://www.personalityresearch.org/papers/Paik.html).
Petrides, K.V. and Fumham A.2000a, The Dimensional Structure of
Emotional Intelligence.
Santos, Zenaida C.; Pastor, Gloria N., 2008, Psychological Measurement
and Evaluation, Rex Book Store, Manila.
Schutzer, Daniel, 1987, Artificial Intelligence: An Application-Oriented
Approach, Van Nostrand Reinhold Company NewYork.
Sevilla, Consuelo G., Punsalan, Twila G., Rovira, Luz G., Vendivel, Jr.
Fortunato G., General Psychology With Values Development Lessons, Third
Edition, 1998, Rex Book Store, Inc.
http://wikipedia.org/wiki/Social-IQ, Retrieved January 8, 2009.

http://uoregon.edu/~moursund/Books/PS_Expertise/Chapter3htm
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Social_IQ, RetrievedJan.8,2009
Salovey
and
Mayer,http://en.wikipedia
org./wiki/Emotional_IQ
RetrievedJan.8,2009.
http://as.wiley.com/WileyCDA/WileyTitle/Productcd-0787970384.html,
RetrievedJan.9.2009, Karl Albrecht.
http://www.Feu.edu/~adult_ed/jenny/learning.html,RetrievedJan13.2009.
http://research. yahoo.com/ research? p=levels+intelligence $el.=UTF.
http://www.geocities.com/benign/org.disagr/8-3filpridehtml,
Retrieved
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RetrievedJan.12,2009.
Fancheer,1996,http://search/yahoo.com/search?p=levels
+intelligence
el=UTF Retrieved, December20, 2008.
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2009.
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January 11, 2009.

MODULE 6: LEARNING AND MEMORY

LESSON 1: LEARNING
Learning Objectives
At the end of this Module, you should be able
1. understand the importance of learning;
2. describe the strategies for effective learning skills; and,
3. explain and apply the principles of learning.

Keywords and Phrases

Learning
Rational learning
Motor learning
Associational learning
Appreciative learning
Learning theories
Operant conditioning
Classical conditioning
Contingency learning
Social learning

Introduction
Learning is closest to the heart of psychology. Learning plays an
important role in many areas of psychological inquiry. For example, in the
area of social psychology, learning must explain why children who watch
televised violence tend to be aggressive. Learning may also play a role in
acquiring certain types of fears. Interestingly, therapy is designed to
eliminate these fears that often applies learning principles to help unlearn
the fears. Learning may also play a role in development process, such as
identifying with the appropriate sex and acquiring language (Crider,
1989).
Learning shapes our thought and language, as well as our motivation, our
personalities and attitudes. Through learning, we may acquire a desirable
personality and attitude that could enhance our social interaction.

Further, learning enables us to adapt to our environment. This module will

discuss, how we learn to anticipate and prepare for significant events such
as food and pain. We learn to repeat acts that give good results and we
can acquire directly new behavior by watching others.
Therefore, learning helps us to become an effective and functioning
member of society. Psychologists also consider that the capacity to learn
constitute the best single measure of mans intelligence.
Nature of Learning
Learning as defined by psychologists, is a relatively permanent change in
behavior based on experience and practice. Learning cannot be observed
directly but it can be inferred from the changes in behavior. The common
element of all types of learning is that it always involves observable
changes in behavior due to experience and practice.
Psychologists study the relationship between behavior and learning by
manipulating environment variables; that is, experience. It can be
observed that the extent to which changes in the environment can affect
behavior is limited by certain biological constraints. Therefore, learning is
affected by both biological and environmental factors.
One school of thought holds that most behavior is a result of instinct, an
innate tendency that it is due to inborn or genetically determined factor.
An early psychologist, William McDougall as cited in Buskist (1990) argued
that most behavior (including human behavior) could be understood in
terms of instinct. Thus, an individual was thought to be contentious
because of an instinct to be aggressive or friendly because of an instinct
to be social.
Another school of thought led by John Watson cited in Buskist (1990)
argued that labeling behavior as instinctive does little to explain the
origins of that behavior. Instead, Watson and his colleagues argued that
most behavior is learned and that psychologists should look solely to the
individuals environment for the explanation of behavior.
Psychological research conducted has not provide equivocal support for
either McDougalls and Watsons position, rather in many instances,
changes in behavior seem to reflect the interplay of both genetics and
environmental factors. An individuals genetic blueprint essentially

determines the capacity to learn. The genetic factor could only be

enhanced by the environment. For example, the learning abilities of a
bright child who lives in a poor environment maybe affected. While an
average child who lives in a good and well-provided environment may
result to good academic performance. From this view, the learner has an
inherited capacity to be modified through interaction with the
environment. So biological and environmental factors play a vital role in
the learning process.
Types of Learning
A better understanding of the nature of learning may be achieved by
classifying learning according to the psychological functions which are
involved in response to situations or based on the outcomes sought.
There are four (4) types of learning and the types include the
major activities of the school:
1. Rational learning. The outcome sought in this type of learning
is knowledge. It is described as the assimilation of any object,
fact, principle or law within the natural or supernatural order.
Rational learning is clearly intellectual in nature and involves the
process of abstraction by which concepts are formed. It is also a
form of cognitive learning. It also involves general concepts,
judgment, reasoning, understanding of relationship and reflective
thinking. Example: solving problems in geometry and
mathematics, discovering the meaning and application of a
scientific law.
2. Motor learning. The outcome sought in this type of learning is
skill. It is described as the adaptation of movement to stimuli
resulting in speed and precision of performance. Skill may vary
from simple muscular reactions to complex motor process.
Examples: typing, industrial arts, playing a musical instrument
involves sensation, perception, muscular responses and the
elements of observation and practice.
3.
Associational learning. The outcome sought in this type of
learning is the acquisition and retention of facts and information.
This type of learning involves the development of associative
patterns by which ideas and experiences are retained, recalled
and recognized through the process of linking together or
establishing relationships between and among these ideas and

4.

experiences so that one will serve as the stimulus for the revival
and recall of the others previously experienced. Example:
spelling, committing a poem to memory dates and events which
involve the process of association.
Appreciative learning. The outcome sought in this type of
learning is an attitude of value appreciation. Appreciative
learning involves the process of acquiring attitudes, ideals,
satisfaction, judgment and knowledge concerning values as well
as the recognition of worth and importance which the learner
gains from participating in the learning activities. The activities
under appreciative learning are fine arts, creative work art,
appreciation of music, and development of task in literature.
(Kelly,1965)

Theories of Learning
1.

Classical conditioning. According to John Locke and David Hume

cited in Myers (1989), the key ingredient in learning is through
association. Our mind naturally assumes that events occurring in
sequence are connected and we associate them.

Pavlov the proponent of classical conditioning who began a series of

experiments that have had a lasting influence on the way psychologists
view the learning process. Pavlovs experiments were the first systematic
study of the simple type of learning that came to be labeled classical
conditioning (Crider, 1989). He studied the dog, the meat powder and the
salivation. The dogs salivated by placing meat powder in his mouth. He
observed that the meat powder was not the only stimulus that caused the
dog to salivate. Stimuli that come just before the dog received the meat
powder, such as the sight of the food dish also produced salivation.
Pavlov, therefore, recognized the importance of this accidental discovery.
He reasoned that the dog have learned to associate the sight of the dish
with the delivery of the meat powder.
In the experiment, Pavlov found that whenever he placed meat powder in
the dogs mouth, the dog salivates. Pavlov recognized that the response
to the meat was simply a reflex (is a specific and involuntary response to
a stimulus and does not require any learning. To reflect the nature of this
response, Pavlov named the dogs natural response to a stimulus
salivating in the presence of meat powder the unlearned or

unconditioned response (UR).The stimulus (the meat) that produced the

unlearned response (salivation) is the unconditioned stimulus (US).
Pavlov then began to condition the dog to associate the bell with meat
powder by first ringing the bell and then presening the meat powder.
Each time the bell rings and the meat powder were presented together,
paired one trial occurs.
After twelve (12) trials, Pavlov simply rang the bell and did not present
any meat powder. Just ringing the bell, the dog salivates and called the
bell the conditioned stimulus (CS). The condition stimulus is the neutral
stimulus that is paired with the conditioned stimulus (CS) and eventually
comes to elicit the conditioned response (CR). The conditioned response
(CR) is a response that results from the pairing of the conditioned stimulus
and unconditioned response.
To appreciate how classical conditioning might enter into a human
learning situation, imagine you have a friend who had the habit of
greeting you with a loud Hello and slapping you hard on your back.
Whenever your friend slapped you (US) you would shout loud (the UR).
After a number of trials pairing with Hello with the slap you probably
shout loud. Just hearing your friend says Hello. In this instance, Hello
become the CS and shouting loud to Hello becomes the CR.
It can be observed from our own experiences, there are full of examples of
classical conditioning, from the scent of a special perfume, the memory of
a favorite song, the sight of a particular article of clothing and the sight of
certain insects or snake are but a few of the neutral stimuli, that may
become transformed into conditioned stimuli that elicit a conditional
response on our part.

a.

b.

c.

d.

There are four elements of classical conditioning, namely

CS In conditioned stimulus, any neutral stimulus paired with the
unconditioned stimuli that eventually elicit a response;
CR In conditioned response, the response elicited by the
conditioned stimulus;
UCS - In unconditioned stimulus, any stimulus such as food that
naturally elicits a reflexive response such as salivation; and,
UCR- In unconditioned response such as salivation that is
naturally elicited by the unconditioned stimulus.

In Classical conditioning, the form of learning in which one

stimulus or event predicts another
stimulus or event.
2.

Operant Conditioning. Burrhus Frederick Skinner, a Harvard

psychologist as cited in Buskist (1990) who championed the
laboratory study of the law of effect and who advocated the
application behavior analysis and its methods to solve human
problems. He devised rigorous laboratory method for studying
behavior, invented laboratory apparatus and method for observing it
can create his own philosophy for interpreting it. Further, he has
written several books showing how his discoveries might be used for
the betterment of society. Moreover, he has made many
contributions to behavior analysis. Skinner invented operant
chamber, an apparatus in which animal behavior can be easily
observed and manipulated and automatically recorded. Behavior
analysts who studied human behavior use special modified operant
chambers suitable to the unique characteristics of their subjects. In
his example, points as in a video game or points exchangeable for
money can be given for responding instead of food (Buskist, 1990).

Behavior analysis are primarily interested in manipulating environmental

events to determine their effects on response rate, the number of
responses emitted over a given unit of time. Events that increase
response rate are said to strengthen the response; events that decrease
response rate are said to weaken the response. The behavior of
individuals in the operant chamber, then, measured in terms of its rate of
response or the number of times the individual responds per unit of time.
To record response rate, Skinner devised the cumulative recorder, a
mechanical device that records each response as it occurs in time.
Operant or instrumental conditioning is a form of learning in which
behavior is affected by the consequences it produces. Reinforcing a
behavior strengthens it, whereas punishing behavior weakens it. Every
time, you read a book about your lesson, recite and give the correct
answer in which you are given a high grade, is an example of operant
conditioning because a high grade is a reinforcement that tends to repeat
it. In operant conditioning, once the response has been made, if it is
followed as soon as possible by reinforcement, (reward) then the strength

of the operant response is increased. Reinforcement must be presented

immediately following the response if conditioning is to occur.
Applying operant conditioning in real life situation, involves the skillful and
economic use of reinforcement to human learning. It can be found in
school situations like in programmed learning which utilizes teachinglearning machines. Such machines operate on a general principle, if you
take the test on the computer, (like a personality test, a multiple choice
test), the computer will shut down, this means you have to stop answering
and you will see on the screen your scores. If you get a high score, you
feel happy. While a low score makes you frustrated and sad. High score is
reinforcement while a low score is a punishing factor.
Types of Reinforcement
1.

2.

Positive versus Negative. Describing a positive reinforcement

means that it adds something rewarding to a situation, such as a
good grade, food, pleasant music, money and praises. While a
negative reinforcement means behavior is weakened because of its
negative effects. The withdrawing of negative reinforcers following a
response is called a negative reinforcement. For example, the
response of taking an aspirin when you have a headache is
negatively reinforced by pain relief. Obeying the school regulations
and policies is another example of negative reinforcement.
Both positive and negative reinforcement increase the likelihood
that a given response will occur again. However, positive
reinforcement involves the presentation of a stimulus whereas
negative reinforcement involves the removal, reduction or
prevention of a stimulus.
Primary versus Secondary. A primary reinforcement is one that
is rewarding in and of itself, without any association with other
reinforcers. Biological factors such as food, water and sex are
primary reinforcement. While secondary reinforcement is one
whose value must be learned through association with other
reinforcers. It is secondary not because it is less important but
because it is learned. A student learns to get high grades whenever
he answers the questions correctly, then his name is placed on the
bulletin board. Placing the name on the bulletin board is a
secondary reinforcement. Money is a secondary reinforcement

3.

4.

5.

because it is associated with food, clothing, toys and other primary

reinforcement.
Delayed versus Immediate. In delayed reinforcement, it is
important to recognize that there is an unavoidable delay between
time that the desired behavior occurs at the time that the
reinforcement is given. The length of this delay is significant to the
success of learning. The longer the interval, the less effective the
reinforcement will be. Delayed reinforcement can affect choices we
make, particularly those involving self-control (Morris, 1991). Human
cognitive abilities, our capabilities to recall our past, and project our
future enable us to respond to reinforcers that are greatly delayed.
Example: paycheck at the end of the month, the grade at the end of
the semester. While immediate reinforcement refers to the behavior
that occurs, the person is immediately rewarded by the behavior
itself. Nevertheless, many of our behavior are influenced by the
immediate reinforcement. Example: smokers, alcoholics, drug users
may know that the immediate reinforcement accompanying
consumption is more of an effect by the punishment or danger that
lie in the future. Still the immediate reinforcement prevails. Also a
dieter may choose to eat a piece of cake because that is a primary
reinforcement that is much immediate than the reinforcement of
loss of weight.
Contingency Theory. It proposes that for learning to take place,
the stimulus must provide the learner with information about the
likelihood of other events occurring.
Social Learning Theory. Bandura is the proponent of social
learning theory. Social learning theorists are impressed by the
extent to which we learn not just from first hand experience, the
kind of classical and operant conditioning but also from watching
what happens to other people or by being told about something. In
fact, we can learn new behaviors without ever actually carrying
them out or being reinforced. In this theory, observational learning
is quite common. By watching videos, we can learn how to drive a
car. You are likely to drive carefully because you have been told to
do so and by watching other persons drive their cars. We also learn
how to show love and respect or concern as well as hostility and
aggression. Social learning theory accounts in several ways: First,
you must not only see but also pay attention to what the model

does; this is more likely if the model commands attention. Second,

you must remember what the model did. Third, you have to convert
what you have learned into action. It is very impossible to learn a
great deal from watching a model but have no particular reason to
convert what you have learned into behavior. This distinction
between learning and performance is very important to social
learning theorists.
Theory and Research-Based Principles of Learning
The following list presents the basic principles that underlie
effective learning. The following principles were obtained from various
researches:
1. Prior Knowledge. Prior knowledge can help or hinder learning.
It is the lens through which we view all new information. If the
lens is inaccurate, incomplete or unsophisticated, it can interfere
with or detect the integration of incoming information (NEC,
2000).
2. Motivation. Motivation generates, directs and sustains learning
behavior. Motivation influences the amount of time and effort a
student should devote to learning and supports his continued
engagement when difficulty arises.
Motivation may be
influenced by a number of factors such as interests, goals and
expectations (Hidi and Renninger, 2004). Cited in Carver and
Scheier (1990), students beliefs, about learning (Dweck, 2002)
and emotional experiences surrounding the learning context.
Lastly, knowledge itself can be a powerful motivator the more
students know, the more they want to know.
3.
Organization.
The way students organize knowledge
determines how they use it. Knowledge representations that
reflect accurately the concepts, the relationship among them and
the context of use, enable the student to retrieve and apply
knowledge both effectively and efficiently.
4. Engagement. Meaningful engagement is necessary for deeper
learning. Meaningful engagement such as posing and answering
meaningful questions about concepts, or theories to solve
problems, lead to more elaborate, long lasting and stronger
representatives of the knowledge (Craik and Lockhart, 1972).

5.

6.

7.

8.

Mastery. Mastery requires developing component skills and

knowledge, synthesizing, and applying them appropriately. To
master complex skills such as problem solving, writing or
reading, a student must practice and gain proficiency in the
discrete component skills, to perform complex tasks. A student
must also practice and gain proficiency in synthesis, thus
organizing and integrating component skills into a coherent
whole. He must understand the conditions and context of
application and must practice applying the skills and knowledge
appropriately in new context.
Practice Feedback. Goal-directed and targeted feedback are
critical to learning. Goal-directed practice involves working
toward a specific level of performance and continually monitoring
performance relative to the clearly defined goals. Feedback
enhances students performance. Be sure the feedback is timely,
frequent and constructive.
Self-directed. The student must learn to monitor, evaluate,
and adjust his approaches to learning to become a self-directed
learner. The student must become conscious of his thinking
processes. Help the student to develop his academic skills by
requiring him to monitor, evaluate and reflect on his own
performance and also provide him with feedback on these
processes. Show the student how problems are approached, how
strategies are used, and how performance is monitored.
Holistic. Because a student develops holistically, his learning is
affected by social, emotional, and intellectual and the climate of
the classroom. The student is not only intellectual but also an
emotional and social being and thus his dimensions interact to
learning and performance (Pascarella and Terenzini, 2005). The
emotional and social aspects of the classroom climate affect the
student in ways that can enhance or hinder learning (Ford,
1992).
Universal Principles of Learning
(http://www.learninginfo.org/principles-of-learning.htm)

1.

Learning is a stratified process. Human learning does not take

on a single level but is a stratified process. The school systems
throughout the world are organized and structured in an identical

2.

3.

manner. The child starts his schooling first in the nursery before
he can enroll in higher grade level. This means that there is a
sequence that is to be observed in teaching.
A pyramid of repetition has to be constructed. The importance
of repetition in the learning situation cannot be denied. There is
no single person in this earth who learned to speak a language,
learned to swim and drive a car without repetition. In the
pyramid of repetition, the learner must start by repeating a
limited amount of materials many times over and over.
Opportunities for Application. While a student is learning to
master the skills that form the basis of reading, and
mathematics, he should already be given opportunities to apply
those skills.

The three (3) universal principles of learning should be looked upon as a

whole and should not be viewed in isolation.
Applications of Principles or Theories of Learning
The various theories of learning seek to provide information concerning
how learning takes place, what can be learned and the specific ways in
which definite types of materials can be learned.
The theories of learning are more applicable in educational settings. In
classroom situations, teachers should provide an incentive to students
who submit their assignments on time. This means that a reinforcement
is an important tool to motivate the student to participate in the
classroom discussion. Social learning theory, on the other hand, is very
significant in value formation, right attitude in performing certain activity
or task. It is an effective way of studying by observing a role model.
Further, we should consider that students learn best when they are
physically, mentally, emotionally and intellectually ready to learn. The
teacher should also be aware that learning is strengthened when
accompanied by pleasant or satisfying feeling and weakened when
associated with unpleasant feeling. The teachers should provide a wellorganized lesson and healthy atmosphere in the classroom.
In the work place, I believe that employees productivity is influenced by
reinforcers. Some supervisors are capitalizing on psychological research.
Pedalino and Gamboa as cited in Myers (1989) showed how reinforcement
could decrease absenteeism. In one manufacturing company, they invited

all employees who showed up on time to pick a card from the clown box
each day. At the end of the week, an employee in each department with
the most number of cards won Php 500.. Immediately, absenteeism
dropped 18 percent and remained lower for as long as the incentive is
offered.
Positive reinforcement for a job well done can also increase productivity.
This is especially so when the desired performance is well-defined and
attainable.
Study Tips for Effective Learning
Effective learning involves the following strategies or tips to guide the
students in the acquisition of desirable mental habits:
1.

2.

3.

4.

5.

Develop good study habits. Good study habit is essential to

succeed both in school work and in your career;
Prepare each lesson everyday. Get the most difficult work first.
Question statements that you do not understand and so with
challenging questions. Take your questions and ideas to class for
clarification. Try to apply the material that you are studying in
your own experience. Preparing each lesson every day will
develop habits of regularity and punctuality;
Budget your time. Try to distribute the time among various
activities. Establish a routine. Good studying is time and energy
saving thus, contribute to effective learning. Schedule your daily
routine to discover how much time is consumed each activity.
Prepare a chart analysis and fill in your daily activity to determine
if you spend too much time in one activity and if too much time is
consumed find ways on how to budget your time. Remember time
is gold.
Take notes. Listening to the lecture or class discussion and taking
down notes lead to the acquisition of new knowledge and put into
practice all facts and information which you acquired. You should
do as soon as possible and as much as possible by thinking,
communicating, and writing about the information which you have
learned from the lecture and class discussions.
Study actively and with determination. You should not lose time
in getting ready to study. You should begin work at once and
concentrate on your work;

6.

7.

8.

Work independently. You should learn to form your own judgment

and solve your own problems. You should develop self-reliance,
determination and independence in your work;
Develop interest in school subjects. This is the most important
factor in the process of effective learning. A good learner develops
interest in his work and feels accomplished; and,
Strive to excel. You must excel in all your school work. Have faith
in yourself and be able to perform your work with confidence and
satisfaction (Kelly, 1965)

Summary
Learning is composed of nature and types of learning, principles of
learning and its applications and study tips for effective learning. Human
beings are very complicated organisms. We live for a comparatively long
time in environments that are constantly changing. In order to survive in
these kinds of environment, we must adapt to these changing
environment.
According to Crider (1989) adaptation is the process of changing behavior
to fit in changing circumstances. Learning is an adaptive behavior
because it enhances our ability to change. Looking for food and shelter,
avoiding danger, making friends and reading are activities that require
learning.

Suggested Readings
Carver, C. S.; & Scheier, M. F.; 1998. On the Self Regulation of Behavior,
New York, Cambridge University Press.
Myers, David, 1989. Psychology. Second Edition, Hope College, Holland,
Michigan, Worth Publishers, Inc.

EXERCISES/WRITTEN ASSIGNMENT
1.
2.

3.
4.
5.

Discuss the different learning theories and give examples;

Differentiate and give examples of proactive and
interferences;
Give some study tips for effective learning;
Discuss the importance of learning in your life; and,
Enumerate and explain the types of learning.

retroactive

References/Bibliography
Crider, Andrew H.; Goethals, George R.; Kavanaugh, Robert D.; Solomon,
Paul R.; William College. 1989. Psychology, Third Edition, Scott Foresman
and Company, Glenview, Illinois.
Buskist, Wiiliam & Gerbing, David, 1990. Psychology Boundaries and
Frontiers, Scott Foresman and Company, Glenview, Illinois.

LESSON 2: MEMORY
Learning Objectives
At the end of this Module, you should be able
1. Differentiate the types of memory;
2. Analyze the different researches and studies; and,
3. Identify the different strategies on how to improve memory.

Keywords and Phrases

Memory
Sensory memory
Short-term memory
Long-term memory

Introduction
Our memory is our minds storeroom -the reservoir of our accumulated
learning. Cicero as cited in Myers (1989) states that memory is the
treasury and guardian of all things. To the psychologists, memory is an
indication that learning has persisted over time. Imagine your life
without memory. There will be no savoring the remembrance of happy
moments, no guilt feelings or misery over painful experiences. Each
moment would be a fresh experience for every person. However, each
person would be a stranger, each task as in cooking, dressing, biking, new
challenges, and even for every language foreign language would be
unfamiliar.
Therefore, memory is an individuals mental ability to store, retain and
recall information. According to Crider (1989), one of the most remarkable
aspects of human memory is that it takes just a few seconds to form a
memory that may last for a lifetime.
Types of Memory
The following three types are contributors to human memory:
1.

Sensory memory. This registers information that enters

through one or more of the five senses. It also holds a nearly

literal image of sensory stimulus for a very brief period of time.

For example, the phone number is presented visually, so it enters
through the eyes. Sensory memory holds an enormous amount
of information. When you look up the phone number in the
directory, the number 458-3784 gets stored along with many
other names and number on the page. Although sensory
memory can store an enormous amount of information, it is not
very useful to memory that lasts less than a second. To
remember the phone number long enough to dial, we have to
transfer it from sensory memory into a somewhat longer-lasting
memory called the short term memory (Crider, 1989).
Sensory memory has two important characteristics, namely:
a.
It can store an enormous amount of information on almost
everything that we see or hear; and,
b. It can store the information for only a very brief period of
time.
2.

Short-term memory. It is a temporary storage system that last

less than 20 seconds and the capacity to hold only about seven
separate pieces of information. Like for example, the telephone
number with this number 573-4560, this is ideal since phone
number has only seven digits and need to remember it long enough
to dial the phone, about 15 to 20 seconds. Once we have finished
using the information in short-term memory, it can either be
transferred to a permanent memory system called long-term
memory or it can be lost or forgotten. Short-term memory is also
called a working memory.

3.

Long-term memory. It is a relatively permanent storehouse of

knowledge. It has the capacity to store enormous amount of
information over a long period of time, perhaps even for a lifetime.
Long-term memory is often compared to a reference book or even to
a reference library because it holds a storehouse of information. It
also enables us to remember events that occurred as recently as 5
minutes or even as far back as our early childhood. Everything we
store for future reference is encoded into long-term memory (Crider,
1989).

a.

Figure 11 An overview of the three human memory system

B.
1.

2.

3.

4.

The four processes in studying human memory:

Encoding. How information is coded in each memory
system. Encoding means putting information into memory by
using symbols. This often requires changing information into
a form that a human can handle.
Storage. How information is stored. Storage refers to how a
system maintains or remembers information.
Retrieval. How information is recalled. Retrieval refers to
getting stored information out of memory. Human retrieves
information by searching the contents of memory for the
desired information.
Forgetting. How information is lost. Forgetting is the
inability to recall a particular piece of information accurately.

Improving Memory
James, a pioneer in psychology and one of the earliest students of
memory as cited in Crider (1989) believed that memory might be like a
muscle that could be strengthened and improved through exercise. To
test his idea, he first determined to memorize how long it took him to
memorize a series of passages from a book. After noting the results, he
exercised his memory by memorizing Miltons Paradise Lost. He then
retested his memory on a series of passages. The result is no
improvement.
James heroic demonstration indicates that simply using memory will not
necessarily improve it. However, psychologists now know that using
memory in certain ways will help.
There are several techniques on how to improve memory:
1. Study repeatedly to increase long-term recall. To learn a name,
say it to yourself after being introduced, wait for a few seconds
and say it again, wait longer and say it again.

2.

3.

4.

5.

6.

7.

8.

9.

Spend more time rehearsing or practice actively the material to

have better recall. Speed reading of complex material with more
rehearsals yield to good retention. It pays to study.
Make the material meaningful and make it your own.
Concentrate on repeating information by spending time in
forming picture images, understanding and organizing
information, associating the material with what you already know
or have experienced and putting it in your own words.
Use Mnemonic devices to remember a list of unfamiliar items.
Associate items with peg words, make up a story that incorporate
vivid images of items, chunk information into acronyms.
Mnemonics refer to memory aids, especially those techniques
that use vivid imagery and organizational devices (Myers, 1989).
Form as many associations as possible to maximize retrieved
cues. Take photographs if you can. These images will later serve
as reminders.
Refresh your memory by seeking retrieved cues. Mentally
recreate the situation and the mood in which the original learning
transpired; return to the same location; jog your memory by
allowing one thought to cue the next.
Recall events while they are still fresh before you encounter
possibly misleading information. If you are an eyewitness to an
important event, recall it before allowing others to suggest what
may have occurred.
Test your own knowledge, both to rehearse and to help you
determine what you do not yet know. If you are required to recall
information later, do not be lulled into overconfidence by your
ability to recognize it.
Minimize interference. Study before sleeping; do not study
topics that are likely to interfere with each other such as
psychology and sociology- in close proximity (Myers, 1989)

Summary
Memory is very important to learning. We can differentiate short term
memory which is a temporary storage system that lasts less than 20
seconds and the capacity to hold only about seven separate pieces of
information. While long term memory is a relatively permanent storehouse
of knowledge, it has the capacity to store enormous amount of

information over long period of time. We still can improve our memory
through exercise. There are several techniques on how to improve
memory such as make the material meaningful, use mnemonic devices to
remember a list of unfamiliar terms and minimize interference,etc.

Suggested Readings
Craik, F. I. M. & Lockbart, R. S. 1972. Levels of Processing: A Framework of
Memory Research, Journal of Verbal Learning and Verbal Behavior.
Myers, David, 1989. Psychology, Second Edition. Hope College Holland,
Michigan Worth Publishers, Inc

Exercises/Written Assignment
1.
2.
3.
4.

5.

Define memory and discuss its nature;

Give the types of memory; explain each type and cite examples;
Can you improve your memory skills? If yes, justify your answers;
Give some techniques on how to improve you memory skills;
and,
Analyze different researches and studies on memory.

References/Bibliography
Bransford, J.; Broan, A. & Cooking, R. 1999. How People Learn: Brain,
Mind, Experiences and School (on-line http://slits.nap.edul/htm/how
peoplel/2004 Oct.
Kelly. William A. 1965. Educational Psychology, Revised, The Bruce
Publishing Company.

LESSON 3: FORGETTING
Learning Objectives
At the end of this Module, you should be able
1. understand the meaning of forgetting;
2. illustrate and explain the theories of forgetting; and,
3. read and analyze the different researches/studies on forgetting.

Keywords and Phrases

Forgetting
Decay memory
Interference theory
Proactive interference
Retroactive interference

Introduction
Memory failure can be attributed to failure in attention and encoding,
storage, or of retrieval. It may be caused by interference, by insufficient
cues or even by motivated forgetting.
Bjoik as cited by Myers (1989), found that it is more difficult than others
with lesser memories to think abstractly to generalize, to organize and
to evaluate. A good memory is beneficial but so is the ability to forget.
Forgetting can be a problem at times, however, it also serves a useful
purpose. For example, you have a painful experience but if you forget
that experience, it may lead to a happy life.
Herman Ebbinghaus was one of the pioneers in memory research. He
performed his studies over 100 years ago with a particular interest in
forgetting as cited by Myers (1989). Using himself as the only subject,
Ebbinghaus studied nonsense syllables three letter syllables consisting
of vowel sandwiched between two consonants. By carefully constructing
the syllables to avoid forming words, he hoped to minimize the effects of
previous knowledge. Ebbinghaus constructed 2300 nonsense syllables,
read them aloud at a fixed pace in groups of 3 to 36 and then tried to

recite them from memory. He continued with each list until he could
recite them all correctly. He then waited varying amounts of time and
tested his memory. Ebbinghaus found that even after 20 minutes he
could only remember 25 percent of the list and after 48 hours he could
remember less than 40 percent. Ebbinghaus further claimed that
forgetting is an important aspect of memory.
Bahrik, Harry as cited by Crider (1989) compared knowledge of Spanish
vocabulary among people who had just taken a Spanish course and those
who had studied Spanish up to 50 years ago. Compared with students
who had just taken the course, those who had taken at one to three years
ago had forgotten much of what they had learned. But after three to five
years, forgetting stopped, even if the subjects had not taken Spanish at all
for 50 years.
Psychologists have proposed three major theories of interference
in forgetting:
1.

Decay memory. Memory of an item spontaneously fades or

decays with the passing of time. Plato was one of the earliest
proponents of this theory. Plato likened the initial formation of
memory to a fresh imprint of a seal on a block of wax. Plato
further, argues that just as the wax imprint loses its shape over
time, so does the memory trace. At first the memory trace loses
its shape detail and eventually it fades beyond recognition.
In an experiment to study the role of decay in forgetting,
there were two persons who learned the information and then do
nothing either mentally or physically for a certain period of time.
Then, we asked the persons to recall the information. Since the
persons performed no activity and thus nothing could interfere
with the information, thus forgetting would be due to decay.

2.

Interference theory. Other memories interfere with the

retrieval of the particular memory we are searching for (Crider,
1989).
It may also be that learning of some items interferes
with other retrieving others especially when the items are similar.
There are two types of interference, namely:

a.

Proactive interference. It means that new information

interferes with the recall of old information (Myers, 1989). It
also refers to the disruptive effect of previous learning on
the recall of new information. For example, after buying a
new combination of lock, the old one may interfere.
Benton Underwood as cited by Myers (1989) found out that
people who learned different lists of words on successive
days have more and more difficulty remembering new lists.
Proactive means forward-acting.

b.

Retroactive interference. It means that old information

interferes with recalling new information. It also refers to
disruptive effort of new information on the recall of
previous information. For example, the learning of new
students name typically interferes with a professors recall
of names learned in previous classes. Retroactive
interference can be minimized by reducing the number of
interfering events like going to sleep shortly after learning
new information.

The interference theory states that either or old (proactive

interference) or new (retroactive interference) information interferes with
recall (Myers,1989)
3.

Retrieval Failure. The information is there but cannot be

located because the proper cues are not present. It would be like
searching for a book in a big library without the proper aids,
perhaps because the signs directing you to the proper shelf have
been removed.

It holds that memories cannot be recalled because the

proper retrieval cues are not available.

Summary
Most memory fails because the information never gets into the memory
system. Memory failures can be failures of attention and encoding, of
storage, or of retrieval (caused by interference, by insufficient clues or
even by motivated forgetting). Moreover, forgetting can be a problem at
times and also serves a useful purpose. You may have a very painful
experience but if you forget that experience, it may lead to a happy life.

Suggested Readings
Myers, Daivd. 1989. Psychology, Second Edition, Hope College, Holland,
Michigan Worth Publishers, Inc.
Crider, Andrew H.; Goethals, George R.; Kanavaugh, Robert D.; Solomon,
Paul R.; William College, 1989. Psychology, Third Edition, Scott Foresman
and Company, Glenview, Illinois.

Exercises/Written Assignment
1.
2.

3.
4.
5.

Discuss the different learning theories and give examples;

Differentiate and give examples of proactive and
interferences;
Give some study tips for effective learning;
Discuss how you can improve your memory?
Discuss some principles of learning and its applications.

retroactive

References/Bibliography
Bandura, A., Self-Regulation of Motivation and Action Through Internet
Standards and Goal System. In L. A. Pervin (Ed) Good Concepts in
Personality and Social Psychology, Heills dole, N.J. Erlbaun.
Bransford, J., Braon A., and Cocking, R. 1999, How People Learn:
Brain,Mind, Experience and School (on-line http://stils.nap.edu/html/how
people l/2000, Oct.4.
Buskist, William, & Gerbing, David., 1990, Psychology Boundaries and
Frontiers, Scott Foresman and Company, Glenview, Illinois.
Carver, C. S. & Scheier, M. F. , 1998, On the Self-Regulation of Behavior.
New York, Cambridge University Press.

Craik, F. I.M. & Lockhart, R.S. (1972) Levels of Processing: A Framework of

Memory Research, Journal of Verbal Learning and Verbal Behavior.
Crider, Andrew H., Goethals, George, R., Kavanaugh, Robert D., Solomon,
Paul R., William College, 1989. Psychology, Third Edition. Scott Foresman
and Company, Glenview, Illinois.
Dweck, C.S. (2002), Belief that Make Smart People Dumb. In R. J.
Sternberg (Ed), Why Smart People can be so Stupid, New Haven, ct; Yale
University Press.
Ford, M.E., 1992, Motivating Humans: Goals, Emotions, Personal Agency
Beliefs, Newbury Park, Ca. Sage Publication, Inc.
Kelly, William A., 1965, Educational Psychology, Revised Edition, The
Bruce Publishing Company.
Myers,
David,
1989,
Psychology,
Second
Edition,
Hope
College,Holland,Michigan, Worth Publishers,Inc.
National Research Council, 2000, How People Learn: Brain, Mind,
Experience, and School, Washington, D.C. National Academy Press (On
line http://stills.nap.edu/html/how people l /2000, Oct.4.
http://www.learninginnfo.org/principles- of- learning. html.

MODULE 7: EMOTIONS AND ATTITUDE

LESSON 1: EMOTIONS
Learning Objectives
At the end of this Module, you should be able
1. differentiate the different theories of emotion;
2. describe how emotions can be controlled; and
3. demonstrate the different types of emotion.

Keywords and Phrases

Emotion
Theories of emotion
Common sense theory
James Lange theory
Cannon-Bard theory
Emotional intensity
Two-theory of emotion
Primary emotion

Introduction
Our emotions such as anger, love, fear and rage are what give warmth
and color to our lives. Emotions may be felt and known consciously or
they may be felt unconsciously.
Emotions are motives, for an emotional individual is also goal-directed.
We can classify emotions in terms of whether they cause us to avoid
something (fear), or approach something aggressively (anger) or approach
something with acceptance (joy, love). Emotions can either help or hinder
our performance.
Emotions can be a product of our behavior, they can sometimes serve as
a motivator, such as when our behavior brings about a particular pleasing
emotional state or when we act to avoid or escape a particular negative
one.

Emotions are psychological responses of the whole organism that involve

interplay among physiological arousal, expressive behavior and conscious
experience.
Further, emotions give color to our lives. More often than any other
creature, we express fear, anger, sadness, joy, and love. No one needs to
tell you that emotions add color to our lives, that in times of stress they
can disrupt your life or save it.
Nature of Emotion
Emotion is also considered as a motive because it is directed towards a
goal. An emotion as defined by psychologists usually includes three
components, namely: 1) a characteristic of feeling or subjective
experience; 2) a pattern of physiological arousal; and 3) a pattern of overt
expression (Crider, 1989). The subjective component is conveyed in the
labels that we attach to our emotions such as fear, anger, joy and
sadness. The physiological component includes all of the bodily changes
that occur in emotion. Our languages contain many phrases that explain
these physiological experiences. For example, a butterfly in the stomach
when afraid, a lump in the throat when sad. Such sensations are derived
from changes in the internal organs such as the heart and stomach that
accompany emotion.
Lastly, the expressive component which includes the body postures and
facial expressions are characteristics of different emotions. For example,
stooped shoulder and downcast expression often betray sadness while
tense muscles and wide-eyed stare often express fear. Sometimes
emotional feelings can be provoked or inspired simply by assuming the
characteristic posture and facial expression: compare how you feel when
you are tense, your body and muscles become stiff and when you are
happy, it can be seen from your facial expression and through your smile
Classifications of Emotion
Emotion exists in a variety of forms and intensities; it is difficult to classify
emotion. However, there are many different systems of classification that
have been proposed, there is no universal agreement among
psychologists on any single classification but a number of distinctions are
commonly used such as:

1.

2.

3.

4.

Positive versus negative. Positive emotions (like joy, love and

happiness) tend to enhance ones sense of well-being and
promote constructive relationship with others. While negative
emotions (such as fear, anger, sadness and rage) tend to
decrease ones sense of well-being and create disturbed
relationship with others.
Primary versus mixed emotions. Primary emotions include at
a minimum, happiness, disguise and surprise, sadness, anger
and fear. A complex emotion such as disappointment is often
considered a mixture of sadness and surprise, while jealousy is
considered a combination of love and anger (Plutchik as cited in
Crider, 1989). Many psychologists compare emotions with colors,
dividing them into a limited number of primary emotions and a
larger number of mixed emotions constructed from a
combination of primaries.
Opposite emotions. Many emotions exist as pair of polar
opposites. Thus, we recognize joy as opposite of sad, and love as
opposite of hate.
Emotional intensity. Emotions vary in the degree of intensity.
Different words used to describe emotion sometimes simply
reflect different intensities of a common underlying situation. For
example, fear can be described in increasing degrees of intensity
as follows; uneasy, tense, terrified, apprehensive and afraid.

Theories of Emotion
The theories of emotion aim to specify exactly how emotion-provoking
events and physiological arousal interact to produce subjective emotional
experiences. The following theories present the different ways on how to
express emotion.
1.

Common-sense theory of emotion. Common-sense view hold

that subjective emotional experience preceded physiological
arousal, we feel sad, therefore we cry (Sartain, 1967).

Example: A person is
when a fire breaks
this person knows
knowing and feeling
after the perception
dangerous. And the
person running out of
other
physical
escaping
like
the
heartbeat
and
2.
James-Lange
American
psychologist
this
theory

in a crowded theater
out.
Immediately
and feels fear. This
is the second step
of
the
fire
as
third step is the
the theater and all
activities involved in
accelerated
perspiration.
theory. A famous
philosopher
and
was the proponent of
(Myers, 1989).

In the James-Lange
perceive
the
we react our heart
beats faster and find
away.
Third,
we
afraid
and
feel
Lange theory, bodily
directly
the
exciting fact, our
as they occur is the

theory
first
we
situation.
Second,
pounds and pulse
ourselves
running
know that we are
afraid. In the Jameschanges
follow
perception of the
feeling of the same
emotion.

Cannon-Bard

theory
or
Hypothalamic
Cannon-bard as cited
(1989) argued that
autonomic nervous
allow
for
the
patterned
visceral
he believed that the
division
of
the
nervous system was
that
only
a

3.

theory.
in
Crider,
anatomy of the
system did not
possibility
of
arousal. Rather
sympathetic
autonomic
so constructed

generalized state of arousal was possible in any and all emotional

situations.

According to the Cannon-Bard Theory of emotion, the emotional sequence

is as follows: First the perception of the situation. Second, the
hypothalamus takes over and at one and at the same time impulses go
out from this central portion of the brain and to various parts of the body.
This theory states that both conscious awareness and bodily changes
occur together as soon as the hypothalamus takes over (Sartain, 1967).
The Common-sense Theory states that experienced emotions
precede the physical reaction.
The James-Lange theory states that physical reactions precede
the experienced emotion.
The Cannon-bard states that the experience of emotion occurs
simultaneously with biological
changes.
The best general conclusion concerning all three theories is that
no one of them is completely correct and that each of them contributes in
understanding emotion.

Another theory of emotion is the Two-Factory theory by Stanly Schackler.

Most psychologists today believe that our cognition- our perception,
memories and interpretation is an essential ingredient of emotion (Morris,
1989).
Schachler, whose influential two-factor theory proposes that emotions
have two ingredients; namely, physical arousal and cognitive label. Like
James and Lange, Schachler presumed that our experience of emotion
grows from our awareness of our bodys arousal. But he also believed in
Cannon-bard, that emotions are physiologically similar, so he argued that
an emotional experience requires a conscious interpretation of arousal.

In the

two-

theory of emotion, to experience emotion, one must be aroused and must

cognitively label the arousal.
Management of Emotion
1. Expression of emotion either verbally or non-verbally;
2. Identify the cause of emotion and find the best way on how to
express your emotion;
3. Emotional disclosure to the person whom you trusted;
4. Join activities to release your emotional tension; and,
5. Immediate expression of emotional tension is an effective tool to
get rid of the tension.

Summary
The definition of emotions must take into account the following dimension;
namely, the processes that occur in the brain or nervous system, the
observable expressive patterns of emotion, particularly facial expression
and the experience or conscious feeling of emotion. All of us
communicate non-verbally as well as verbally. If we are irritated, we may
tense our bodies, press our lips together, and make gesture with our
hands. It can be concluded that most of us are good enough at reading
nonverbal cues that we can easily detect the emotions being expressed in
old silent ways

Suggested Readings
Buskist, William, Gerbing, David W.; 1990. Psychology: Boundaries and
Frontiers, Scott, Foresman/Little Brown Higher Education

Exercises/Written Assignment
1.
2.
3.
of
4.

Differentiate the different theories of emotion and cite examples.

Describe how emotion can be controlled.
Discuss the effects of positive and negative emotional states in the life
an individual.
Discuss on how you would manage your emotion.

References/Bibliography
Morris, Charles G. 1991. Understanding Psychology, Prentice-Hall
Englewood, Cliffs New Jesry.
Sartain, Aaron Quinn, North, Alvin John, Strange, Jack Roy and Chapman,
Harold Martin, 1967.
Psychology Understanding Human Behavior, Third edition. McGraw-Hill
Book Company.
Crider, Andrew B.; Goethals, George R.; Kanavaugh, Robert D.; Solomon,
Paul R.; and William College, 1989. Psychology, Third Edition, Scott,
Foresman and Company.

LESSON 2: ATTITUDES

Learning Objectives
At the end of this Module, you should be able
1.
discuss the effects of positive and negative attitude in the life of a
person;
2. understand the nature of attitude;
3. explain the relationship between attitude and behavior; and
4. describe how attitudes are measured.

Keywords and Phrases

Attitudes
Questionnaire
Rating scale
Projective test
Attitude questionnaire
Likert scale

Introduction
The knowledge of attitude is helpful in understanding human behavior. An
attitude is a tendency to react positively or negatively in regard to an
object and event (Sartain, 1967). For example, a person who has a
positive attitude toward education is likely to enjoy going to school,
believing that the school fosters learning and contribute to social mobility.
An attitude is always directed toward some object such as the school,
church and workplace. The object may be general social significance such
as students organizations, administrator relation or it may be purely
personal such as a feeling of stamp collection.
Another important source of attitude is judgment based on our own direct
experience and reasoning (Gerard & Orive as cited by Crider, 1989). Very
often we go beyond what we have been told by other people and figure
things out for ourselves. Many studies have conducted on attitude change
and they show that ones attitude can be logically derived from others.
Measurements of Attitude
Various techniques of attitude measurement have been developed. Some
of these are the use of various psychological indices which are used
mainly for research purposes. Other methods, however, are widely used

for market research, public opinion, survey and others for practical
purposes.
The following are commonly used measurement of attitudes:
1. Attitude questionnaire. This type of questionnaire consists of a
set of statement to which the subject is required to respond in some
ways.
a.
Thurstone type of scaling was developed by Thurstone.
The statements are composed of 22 statements which vary
from highly favorable to highly unfavorable. The person who
completes the form is instructed to check the statements in
which he agrees. Each statement has a scale value
determined by an extensive and technical procedure. A
persons score is the median, which is a special kind of
average of the scale values of the items vary from 1.0 which is
at the highly favorable extreme, to 1.0 which is at the highly
unfavorable extreme.
b. Likert type of scale. The selected items were developed for
measuring attitude towards religion. The respondent is told to
rate the statement from 1 5; from strongly disagree to
strongly agree. The number 1 indicates strongly disagree
while number 5 indicates strongly agree on the items
regarding religion. His score is the sum of the scale values of
the degrees of agreement or disagreement.
2.

Projective test as a means of measuring attitude. Projective

test is a method which requires a person to respond to an indefinite
(unstructured) stimulus situations. The reason behind this test is
that, when the stimulus situation is unstructured, the individuals
responses are determined by his motives, expectations and other
personal factors. There are different types of projective tests ,
namely. The Rorschach or Inkblot Test, Thematic Apperception Test,
Draw a person Test, House-Tree-Person Test and Sentence
Completion Test. An example of this type of measurement is a
picture of a lonely sad woman. The subject is instructed to tell what
the picture is all about, the feelings of the old woman, what led up
to this situation and how it is going to turn out. Suppose the subject
said something like, the old woman is lonely and sad maybe
because her daughter left and got married. She does not have any
means to protect herself. The whole story is the projection of the

respondent attitudes and beliefs and it strongly indicates a

prejudiced attitude. Projective tests of attitude are particularly
valuable in the study of prejudice, since so many of our prejudices
operate at an unconscious level or are deliberately disguised to
conform with prevailing taboos against the expression of overt
prejudice.
Rating Scale. It presents a list of descriptive words or phrases
which are to be checked by the rater. To obtain personality or
attitude rating of students in schools, the rating scale is often used.
Advantages of the Rating scales are:
a. They serve as a means of quantifying observation;
b. They serve as a means of which several observers can rate the
same individual
3.

Attitude-Behavioral Relationship
Given that attitude consists of cognitive, affective and behavioral
components, how interrelated are these three components to one
another?
The general attitude measures data collected by questionnaire or
interview and can predict general classes of behavior quite successful.
Predicting specific behavior, however, requires a specific attitude
measures (Fishbein & Azjen as cited by Buskist, 1990).
Often attitude and behavior do not correspond when there are negative
social consequences for acting in a manner consistent with the attitude
(Fishbein as cited by Buskist, 1990). For example, you have finished
watching a concert and as you begin to leave your seat, the entire
concert audience stands to applaud the concert. Even though you were
not overly impressed by the concert your attitude is not as positive
toward the concert as was that of the majority of the audience you
nonetheless join along in ovation, thereby avoiding the looks of
disapproval that might otherwise be directed your way.
Poor attitude-behavior relationship may occur when the behavior is
habitual, that is, when it occurs with considerable frequency. A cigarette
smoker for instance, may think or even know of the harmful effects of
smoking and may have negative feelings about his habits. The behavioral

habit may persist, however, despite negative cognitive and affective

components of the attitude.
Further, peoples attitude is their own behavior. Attitude may influence
behavior or behavior may influence peoples attitude.

Summary
Attitude is a relatively, enduring and consistent predisposition to react
positively or negatively to an object. Attitude when aroused, may have
affective, cognitive, and action components which are in turn related to
overt behavior. The stronger an attitude, the less the stimulation which is
necessary to arouse it, the greater the degree of arousal of the affective
component of an attitude, the greater the strength of reaction to other
attitude related stimuli.
Various methods such as tests and interviews have been devised to
measure attitude. In general, people tend to be more confident about
their more extreme attitudes. Factors such as the form of questions asked,
may motivate the respondents in reporting their attitude. For example, a
girl who won at the beauty contest was given a favorable remark by the
audience. She was congratulated by her friends and felt elated. She
cannot stop smiling. She feels more alive, more confident and more in
control of her behavior.
Further, attitudes are formed as a result of specific experience,
communication with others, identification with models and institutional
factors.

Suggested Readings
Buskist, William, Gerbing, David W., 1990, Psychology: Boundaries and
Frontiers, Scott, Foresman/Little Brown Higher Education.
Crider, Andrew, B.; Goethals, George; R. Kavanaugh; Robert D; Solomon,
Paul R. and William College, 1989, Psychology, Third Edition. Scott,
Foresman and Company, Glenview, Illinois, Boston, London.

Exercises/Written Assignment
1.

Discuss the nature of attitude.

2.

3.
4.

What are the different techniques in measuring attitude? Give some

examples.
Discuss briefly the relationship of attitudes and behavior
Discuss the kind of attitude you have developed

References/Bibliography
Morris, Charles G. 1991, Understanding Psychology, Prentice-Hall
Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey.
Sartain, Aaron Quinn; North, Alvin John; Strange Jack Roy; and Chapman,
Harold Martin, 1967, Psychology Understanding Human Behavior, Third
Edition, McGraw-Hill Book Company.

MODULE 8: MOTIVATION
LESSON 1; MOTIVATION
Learning Objectives
At the end of this Module, you should be able
1. define and classify motivation;.
2. compare and contrast theories of motivation;
3.
discuss the meaning, advantages and disadvantages of the three
ways of motivating people; and,
4. discuss the relationship between motivation and behavior

Keywords and Phrases

Motivation
Motives
Needs
Wants
Desires
Biological Motive
Ego-integrative motive
Social motive

Introduction
To understand human behavior better and to gain insight into and to
explain actions of people, the study of motivation is of prime importance.
Motivation plays a vital role in human behavior. It runs the gamut from
basic wants such as hunger, sex and pain to more complicated long term
motives such as political ambition (power) and desire for self-fulfillment.
A motivated person will engage in an activity more vigorously and more
efficiently than an unmotivated one. Further, to a readiness for action,
motivation also tends to focus on behavior the hungry person is ready to
seek food and eat, the thirsty one to drink, the one in pain to escape from
painful stimulus. Therefore, people are usually motivated or driven to
behave in a way that may satisfy their biological needs.
Motivation is viewed as an intervening variable that cannot be observed
directly, since intervening variable cannot be seen or manipulated
directly, their existence is inferred based on the changes in an individuals
observable behavior. Intervening variables are believed to be either
genetic, learned or a combination of heredity and learning (Buskist, 1990).
Everybody is familiar with the basic idea of motivation. Television and
newspapers often describe athletes who spend years of training for the
Olympics, entrepreneurs who seek to make their first millions before age
30, teachers who enroll in Masters Degrees to become more professional
and effective. The common denominator in each of these activities is the
need, desire and determination to strive for a goal or accomplishment.
Therefore, motivation is a goal-directed behavior.
Nature and Types of Motivation
Motivation is derived from Latin word movare which means to move, or
arousal of a strong need. It implies action to satisfy a need. It is also an
inner directing force a need or want that arouse an individual and directs
behavior toward a goal.
Motivation is defined as the desires, needs and interests that arouse or
activate an organism and direct it toward a specific goal (Crider, 1989).
Thus, we would expect the behavior of a motivated person to differ

sharply from that of an unmotivated person. For example; a singer who

wants to join and win in a singing contest will train vigorously than an
individual who has only a causal interest in singing. Similarly, a hungry
person who does not have the money to buy food will search for food
more purposely than a person that has not been deprived of food.
Motivation can arise from either internal or external sources. The desire
for food and water arises from internal, physiological needs. On the other
hand, the desire for affection, social approval and for achievement result
from external, social circumstances.

motive is triggered by some kind of stimulus a bodily need or a cue in

the environment. A motive in turn activates and directs behavior. When
one or more stimuli create a motive, the result is goal directed behavior
(Tuason, 1978).

1.
2.

3.

This cycle is composed of three parts, namely:

Motive or need a motivating state within the individual;
Instrumental or motivated behavior an action directed to
achieve the motive; and,
Goal a goal toward which the behavior is directed.

When the goal is achieved, the state that caused the behavior subsides,
thus, ending the cycle until the state is aroused again by another motive
or need. Motivation, therefore, is a cycle of these three stages. For
example, a person is thirsty, that is a motive. An instrumental behavior is
to explore for water to reduce the tension. The exploratory behavior is
instrumental in satisfying or reducing the motive however, it is only a
means toward the goal satisfaction. The third stage is the satisfaction of
the thirst need and terminates the motivational cycle until the need for
water builds up again.
Classifications of Motive
Motives are classified in three general categories:
1. Physiological or biological. These motives are needed in
order to live or survive.
a. Hunger motive. The body is always using up materials
in growth, in the repair of tissues and in the storage of
reserve supplies. Indeed, every function of our bodies,
from heartbeat to thinking requires energy, and this

b.

c.

d.

e.

f.

energy must ultimately come from the metabolism of

food. Thus, a tissue need for food is important.
Thirst motive. Water is just as necessary for survival as
food. It is an important item in the bodys use of food and
it is constantly being lost through the lungs, skins and
kidneys. What is it about the need for water that makes
us thirsty and therefore, motivated us to drink.
Sex drive. Sexual motivation is classified as
physiological because hormone plays a vital role in
physical growth and development.
Pain Avoidance. Pain is a sensation but it can be a
powerful motive. The individual then strives to remove
the injurious stimulus. If that cannot be done or if it does
not help, he looks for some ways to relieve the pain. We
cannot stand the pain, for instance having toothaches; we
should do something to ease the pain by taking some
medicine.
Maternal drive. The basic source of the maternal
motive is found in certain hormones put into the mothers
bloodstream by the pituitary gland at the time of the birth
of the offspring and for a period thereafter (Sartain,
1967). In nearly all animals, parental attention depends
upon the presence of the proper hormones. In man
however, social learning has come to play an important
role.
Rest, sleep and comfort. If a person performs
strenuous exercises, he hastens the fatigue effects. In
addition, there is a gradual but temporary decline in
strength that accompanies the accumulation of a
substance called lactic acid in the muscles as they
repeatedly contract. It is true that during resting the
lactic acid is removed by the bloodstream and the
muscles recover their strength. If we are over fatigue, the
tendency is to rest. The sleep drive is certainly related to
the rest drive but is not identical with it. We may rest
without sleeping, but we seldom sleep without resting.
We cannot accomplish our task effective without resting

g.

2.

and sleeping. We feel comfortable if we have enough

sleep and rest.
Exploration, Manipulation and Curiosity. Exploration
appears to be motive activated by the new and unknown
and directed toward no more specific goal than find
out. Human being will learn a behavior just to be
allowed to explore the environment. Curiosity is a
stimulus motive that pushes us to investigate unfamiliar
stimuli and as we learn to explore our environment, our
curiosity becomes more ambitious. Unlike exploration
and curiosity, manipulation is directed toward a specific
object that must be touched, handled, played with and
felt before we are satisfied (Morris, 1991). The desire to
manipulate seems to be related to two things: a need to
know about something at a tactile level and sometimes a
need to be soothed.

Social Motive. The social motives are centers around the

relationships with other people. These motives are learned
motives. We learned our first socialization in the family. The
social motives vary in degree of learning, in the amount of
planning and conscious reactions, and in the circumstances
under which methods are expressed.
a. Affectional drive. Love is a powerful motive in human
affairs. Peoples love is extended in many directions to
their parents, brothers, and sisters, their wives, and
husbands, their children, their friends. Affection can be
unlearned or learned. It may be an unlearned motive that,
given the opportunity, emerges in the normal course of
maturation. And it may be learned through experience
with people, because people are instrumental in satisfying
physiological motives for food, drink and others.
b. Affiliation drive. Affiliation is aroused when people feel
threatened. The feeling of being part of sympathetic
group. Often, affiliation behavior results from another
motive entirely. For example, you may give a party to
celebrate getting a job because you want to be praised
for your achievement. It has also been suggested that
fear and anxiety are closely related to the affiliation

c.

d.

e.

f.

3.

motive. We joined different associations to have a sense

of belongingness.
Power drive. This is another learned motive, the need
for power. It may be defined as the need to win
recognition or to influence or control other people or
groups. John F. Kennedy is among the six American
presidents scoring highest on the power motive. Kennedy
also scored high on the need for achievement.
Social approval. Everybody needs to be approved in all
their ways and tasks. There is a sense of accomplishment
if our works are accepted.
Nurturance/altruism. The need for protection and
care. The parents nurture their children to become better
persons.
Achievement. Need for achievement varies widely from
person to person. McClelland as cited in Morrris, (1991)
developed several ways to measure need for
achievement experimentally. One method uses responses
from the Thematic. There are three separate but
interrelated aspects of achievement-oriented behavior:
1.
Work orientation, the desire to work hard and do a
good job;
2. Mastery, the preference for challenging tasks; and,
3. Competitiveness, the enjoyment of seeing how ones
skills stack up against those of others.

Ego-integrative Motive. This is the motive built around

the self, for self-enhancement.
a. Autonomy. This motive is to become independent, and
self-actualized. The need to choose our own friends.
b. Defensiveness. A person uses defense mechanisms to
protect
himself
from
embarrassment.
Defense
mechanism is a device to protect the self from ridicule. It
is also a desire of a person to defend his self/herself from
blame, ridicule, and criticism.
c. Recognition. Recognition inspires people to work hard.
The drive for prestige and the drive for status are related
to the drive for recognition. Prestige refers to the desire
to feel better than other persons with whom one

compares himself (Sanchez,1997). For example, people

who are living in a posh village, having a brand new car,
and having expensive jewelries are symbols of affluence
are better recognized and highly regarded. The status
refers to position in a society. Having a higher position in
government agencies is a sign of higher status.
d. Achievement. This is a drive to achieve something in
order to have a feeling of having done something
important and beneficial. Passing the board examination
is an accomplishment.
e. Power. This is a need to control or influence other
people. Everybody is seeking for power so as to compel
the obedience of others. Thus, power motive may be
defined as the need to win recognition or to influence, or
control other people or groups. As cited in Morris, (1991)
college students who score high on the need for power
tend to occupy power positions such as offices in
student organizations, residence counseling positions and
memberships on important committees.
General Ways of Motivating People
How to motivate other people is a very important way to become
successful not only in your home life but in your work life as well.
1. By force. One way in which a leader may bring others to follow
him is by the use of force or threats of force. A supervisor, for
example, may threaten to discharge or may discharge an
employee in order to bring workers to do what he demands. It is
impossible to deny, first, that threats of force and the use of force
often serve as powerful motivators and second, that there are
instances where these may properly and wisely be used (Sartain,
1967).
2.
By enticement. A second way in which it is possible to get
followers to do what one wants is to give them some sort of
external rewards for doing such job. Example; A student may be
motivated to do the assignment by the desire for good grades.
3.
By identification or ego-involvement. The best way to
motivate people whenever it can be done effectively, is to bring
them to work or study or contribute to group objectives not

because they have to but because they want to, because they
have identified with the goals of the group and hence contribute
to their self-respect or self-esteem through working for them
(Sartain,1967).

Summary
Motive is an inner directing force, a need or want that arouses the
individual and directs behavior toward a goal. All motives are triggered by
some kind of stimulus: a physiological need such as thirst or hunger; a cue
in the environment, such as beautiful flowers in the garden, or a feeling
such as loneliness, guilt and anger. When one or more stimuli create a
motive, the result is goal-directed behavior.

Suggested Readings
Morris, Charles G. 1991. Understanding Psychology, Prentice Hall,
Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey
Sanchez, Custodiosa A.; Berin, Elvi S. Psychology Applied to Business and
Industry, 1997.Third Edition, National Book Store

Exercises/Written Assignment
1.
2.
3.
4.

5.

Differentiate the three classifications of motive and also cite examples.

What is the strongest type of human motive? Give your justification.
Compare the theories of motivation and what interests you most?
Discuss the general ways of motivating people, which of the three
ways do you think is the most effective in motivating others?
Discuss the motivation cycle.

References/Bibliography
Myers, David G. Psychology, 1989. Psychology, Second Edition, Hope
College, Holland, Michigan, worth Publishers, Inc.
Crider, Andrew B.; Goethals, George R.; Kavanaugh, Robert D.; Solomon,
Paul R; and William College, 1989. Psychology, Third Edition, Scott,
Foresman and Company, Glenview, Illionis, Boston, London
Sartain, Aaron Quinn; North, Alvin John; Strange, Jack Roy; Chapman,
Harold Martin. 1967. Understanding Human Behavior. Third Edition,
McGraw-Hill Book Company.

Tuason, Elsa Hidalgo, Santamaria, Josefina Oliva, Tiongson, Corazon R.

1988. Behavioral Science Applied to Business and Industry, University of
the East, Manila

MODULE 9: PERSONALITY
LESSON 1: PERSONALITY
Learning Objectives
At the end of this Module, you should be able
1. discuss the different components of personality.
2.
explain the different theories of personality and what theories hold
true to Filipino behavior.
3. discuss how values affect personality, and,
4. explain the strategies on how to improve personality.

Keywords and Phrases

Personality
Personality Dynamics
Theories of personality
Material self
Social self
Spiritual self
Self-image
Projected self
Real self
Self-concept

Introduction
One of the most interesting and challenging topics of discussion in
psychology is personality. Psychologists define personality in different
point of views, such as personality refers to the total person. Personality
is what you are. From a laymans term, personality is your personal
appearance.
According to Napoli (1988) personality may be defined as the individuals
unique and dynamic pattern of thoughts, feelings and actions. Most
psychologists agree that at least three characteristics of personality
should be taken into consideration, namely:
1.
Uniqueness. No two personalities are exactly alike, even
identical twins are different from one another;

2.
3.

Adaptability. Personality can be changed or improved; and,

Organization. A personality is not just a collection of behaviors; it
is a patterned response to the environment that shows some
degree of consistency.

Further, psychologists describe personality in much the same way most

people do, by traits and types. For instance, you were asked to describe
the personality of your best friend, the first approach is to list some of the
consistent characteristics of her personality her traits. You may say, she
is understanding, loyal, sincere, and fun-loving. Generally, the description
that emerges from the trait approach emphasizes the uniqueness rather
than the organization of the personality.
Another approach is to describe personality as a type, a set of interrelated traits that seem to form a consistent behavior. You may refer to
individuals who are shy, timid, passive and indifferent as those who have
introverted personality. Notice that the traits mentioned seem relatively
consistent with one another. Thus, the type approach emphasizes
organization rather than uniqueness.
While each of these approaches emphasize a different attribute of
personality, that is although trait approach emphasizes uniqueness, it is
still possible to find some degree of consistency among the traits
expressed in a given personality (Napoli,1988).
Further, although the type approach emphasizes organization, it is
possible to find inconsistency, among the traits in a given type of
personality. The same principle holds true for the third personality
characteristic, adaptability. Personality can change or improve, but the
amount and kind of change vary from one individual to another.
It can be concluded that personality is the sum total of all the natural and
acquired traits that make an individual unique from others; that can be
changed or improved and a patterned response to the environment that
shows some degree of consistency.
This module focuses on the concepts of personality, theories of
personality, the Filipino values and personality dynamics and strategies in
improving personality.

1.

Documented interviews of beauty experts on the

techniques/strategies in improving personality; and,

2.

Better recognition of the importance of coping mechanism to

normally adjust to any conflict and frustrations.

Concepts of Personality
The following are the concepts of personality
1.
Biological inheritance. Genetic inheritance is one factor
that influences personality. For example, the genetically
controlled production of certain hormones may cause a person
to display certain behavior or emotional reactions.
2.
General physical health, diet, exercise and rest are
other factors that may influence personality. Modern scientific

3.

information suggests that there is a great relationship that

exists among body, mind, emotions and behavior with each
affecting the others in their functioning. For example, a man
who fails to get enough sleep may eventually begin to
experience a kind of depression that causes him to become
irritable and upset.
Environment. Environment is another factor that may
influence personality. Environment is anything that surrounds
the individual that influences and modifies his growth and
development. For example, a person who is living near the
seashore may be a good swimmer; the same with those living
in the rural areas where there are so many coconut trees may
be a good climber.

Components of Personality
Personality can be described in five classifications based on the
patterns of behavior:
1.
Physical aspect. This refers to physical make-up of a
person. This includes the physical appearance such as the
posture, health, body built, ways of communicating, facial
expression, mode of dressing, grooming and physical
hygiene. Sometimes, we give names out of the physical
appearance like the ugly duckling.

2.

3.

4.

5.

Emotional aspect. This refers to the feelings, temperament,

mood, how an individual responds when things become
difficult and how an individual handles frustration, anger and
conflict. Emotions give color and meaning to our lives.
Social aspect. This focuses on how to deal with others and
how well an individual conducts himself with others. Building a
constructive relationship with others is an important factor in
good human relations. Another factor that contributes to
social aspect is to understand the needs and problems of
other people.
Mental aspect. This is also known as intellectual aspect of
personality. Different individuals have different capacities of
intelligence. Moreover, different individuals differ from one
another in their ability to understand and solve problems. A
person who is intellectually capable are creative
Moral aspect. This aspect focuses on the spiritual values.
This includes your philosophy in life, his moral principles,
beliefs and attitudes toward life. A persons philosophy of life
and his values are the result of meaningful and satisfying
learning experiences from which inner feelings and beliefs
develop
(Sferra,1971). A person with moral aspect is considered a
God-fearing person.

Theories of Personality
The individuals common and unique experiences interact with inherited
potential to shape personality, how this occurs and described are the
subjects of many theories. Most personality theories can be grouped into
one of the four classes and the modern psychological study of personality
has been marked by the development of the following major theories:
I.Psychodynamic theory. Freud central idea was that
personality characteristics, including symptoms of psychological disorders,
grow out of unconscious conflicts about sexual and aggressive drives. In
addition, Freud emphasized that personality is largely determined during
the first five years of life, when the person develops characteristic ways of
dealing with internal drives and conflicts.

Freud developed a configuration of personality as composed of three

different mental structures, namely:
a. The Id. Freud held that at birth the childs personality consists
solely of unconscious drives for pleasure and destruction (Crider,
1989). The id strives for immediate satisfaction of its drives. It is
called the seeking pleasure principle. According to Freud, the
satisfaction is obtained by the elimination of tension.
b. The Ego. It is the portion of the mind that is largely conscious
and reality oriented. It comprises information that the child
perceived and remembers, along with the cognitive processes
that develop to process this information such as thinking,
reasoning and planning. The ego is conscious of what happens in
the childs world and by perceiving the difference between the
child and the external environment, it is also responding for the
childs capacity for self-awareness. One important characteristic
of the ego is that it develops in order to help the id obtain real
rather than imaginary satisfaction (Crider, 1989). It is called the
reality principle.
c. The Superego. It contains moral principles and values that have
been acquired from the childs parents and society. It is
composed of two subparts, the conscience which contains moral
prohibitions against certain behaviors especially those expressing
the sexual and aggressive drives of the id. The other subpart of
the superego is the ego-ideal, this is the image of what one
ideally can be and how one might behave. We can think of the
conscience as containing dictates about what is immoral, or
about what one should not do, and the ego-ideal as containing
models about what is moral or about what one should do.
The Psychological Stages of Personality Development
The different psychological stages of personality development are named
according to the zone that a particular age is most sensitive to tension
and most in need of tension-reducing stimulation:
1. The oral stage. Freud proposed that during the first 18 months
of life, the most sensitive zone is the mouth. So the first stage is
called the oral stage, the period in which the mouth experiences
the most tension and requires the most tension-reducing

2.

3.

4.

stimulation. Thumb-sucking or the use of pacifier is one way of

reducing tension.
The anal stage. At about the age of l8 months, the child enters
the anal stage when the locus of gratification changes to the anal
region. The child derives satisfaction from stimulation in the anal
region, either from the retention or elimination of feces. At this
stage, the parents begin to toilet train their children at this age.
Parents want to control when and where the child eliminate
feces. Given the childs desires, this imposition of control comes
at exactly the wrong time. A childs pleasure in retaining or
eliminating feces at his choice of time and place can lead to
conflict with the parents efforts to dictate new times and place
(Crider, 1989).
The Phallic stage. At the age of 3 or 4, the child enters the
phallic stage during which the genitals become the most
sensitive area and the child derives pleasure from manipulating
them. The phallic stage is marked by the Oedipus or Electra
complex, a set of desires that produces conflict and discord
within the family. Oedipus complex is experienced by boys and
Electra complex by girls. Freud proposed that all children
experience a desire to have a sexual relationship with their
parent of the opposite sex. Boys want to have a sexual
relationship with their mothers and girls with their fathers. These
sexual wishes are one key aspect of the Oedipus and Electra
complex. Like other desires emanating from the id, the Oedipus
and Electra complexes are unconscious. Boys try to be as much
like their fathers as they can and girls try to be like their
mothers. By being similar to the same sex parent, children can
vicariously express for the same sex-parent. For example, a little
girl might be as much like her mother as possible and then enjoy
the fact that she is very similar to the one the father loves. It is
important to identify with the parent because many of our
characteristic ways of behaving are determined by our
identification with our mothers and fathers.
The Latency stage. Freud proposed that once the phallic stage
is over at about age 5, there is a long latency period during which
no major unconscious drives press the ego for satisfaction. This
period extends through late childhood to puberty. During this

5.

stage children may learn a good deal about the world around
them, other people and their own skills, potentials and interests.
However, there is little pressure from the id and little internal
conflict.
The Genital stage. When a young person reaches puberty or
sexual maturation, he or she enters the final stage during which
the person feels strong and adult sexual desires for the first
time. Under this stage, the ego should work hard to balance the
demands of the id for sexual gratification with the constraints of
reality and the prohibitions and exhortations of the superego.
The adult personality reflects how well the ego manages to do
this.

The following theorists sympathized to Freuds theory but they are critical
of his assumptions about the principal motives that guide human
behavior. Further, they accept the importance of unconscious motives
and conflicts but doubt that all of them are related to sex or aggression
1.
Alfred Adler. In his theory Adler discussed two important
motives. First, he discussed a drive for power, which he later
called a drive for superiority. This drive often emanates from
having an inferiority complex at an early age, a feeling that one
does not measure up to ones peers. Adler also believed that
people have social interest, a desire to help construct the best
possible society.
2.
Erich Fromm. He proposed the theory of human motives.
Fromm believed that people are principally motivated by a need
for relatedness with other people and unity with the world rather
than by sexual needs.
3. Karen Horney. She believed that sex and aggression are not
the primary human motives. Instead, she argued that the
primary need is for security. The need for security arises out of
basic anxiety, a generalized fear stemming from feeling alone
and threatened during childhood. As a result of basic anxiety,
people spend a great deal of time seeking safety or securing.
4.
Carl Jung. Both Freud and Jung emphasized the role of the
unconscious in determining human behavior, however, Jung saw
the unconscious as the egos source of strength and vitality.
Jung, further, believed that there are two distinct levels of
unconsciousness, a personal unconsciousness contains our

5.

repressed thoughts, forgotten experiences and undeveloped

ideas. And the other one is collective unconsciousness which
consists of memories and behavioral patterns inherited from past
generation.
Erik Erikson. He agrees with much of Freuds thinking on
sexual development and the influence of libidinal need on
personality. But important to Erikson is the quality of parent-child
relationships. Children can be disciplined in a way that leaves
them with a feeling of being loved or of being hated. The
difference is largely due to the atmosphere of the home. The
important point is that children should feel that their needs and
desires are compatible with those of society. Erikson outlined
eight ages of man as cited in Morris (1991):
a. Trust versus mistrust. Occur during the first year of life.
b. Autonomy versus shame and doubt. During the first three
years.
c. Initiative versus guilt. Between the ages of three and six.
d. Industry versus Inferiority. During the next six or seven
years.
e. Identity versus role confusion. At puberty, childhood ends.
f. Intimacy versus isolation. During young adulthood.
g. Generativity versus stagnation. During middle adulthood.
h. Integrity versus despair. Old age.

II. The Trait Theory. This theory assumes that personalities are
defined by the various combinations of traits people possess. Traits
are relatively stable characteristics of a person that can be
measured. The trait theory assumes that peoples behavior in many
different situations will reflect these personal traits. That is, behavior
is generally caused by internal factors, traits, rather than external
pressure and situations. Modern trait theories grew out of earlier
type theories. Type theories and trait theories differ in two key ways:
First, type theories focused more on groups such as extraverts,
while trait theories emphasize individuals some of whom may have
high degrees of extraversion.
Second, type theories assumed people fall into one particular
category or another, they are either introverts or extroverts. Trait
theories on the other hand do not categorize individuals but assume
that a given person may have any amount of a particular trait.

Gordon Allport contributes to the study of individuals and their

traits. Allport thought of traits as internal structures that direct the
behavior of an individual in consistent and characteristic ways. He
distinguished several different kinds of traits. First, he distinguished
common traits from unique traits depending on whether they are
characterized by many people or by a few. Second, he distinguished
cardinal, central and secondary traits depending on how
pervasively; they manifested themselves in an individual
personality. Another studies conducted by Hall Eysenck on
personality traits. He studied the basic dimensions of personality
and he concluded that there are two basic dimensions of
personality: 1) introversion versus extraversion and defines these
traits slightly differently. Introversion is composed of reserve, lack
of sociability, caution, and emotional control. Eysencks second
dimension is stability versus instability and sometimes called
neuroticism. The stable individual is well-adjusted, calm, relaxed
and easy going. While the unstable individual or neurotic person is
moody, anxious, restless and temperamental (Buskist,1990).
III. Type Theories. Type theorists assume that individuals can be
assigned to one of a small number of types or groups. All
individuals within each type are assumed to be similar to each other
on dimensions that define the type and they are assumed to be
quite different from another type. For example, a type theorist might
hold that people can be divided into either active or passive types.
Such a theorist would hold that active and passive people form two
groups and that members of each group share many similarities.
Carl Jung presented the idea that people could be grouped into one
or two basic types, introverts and extroverts on the basis of their
attitude.
IV. The Behavioral theory. According to this theory, the
personality characteristics of an individual results from the external
events, especially on reinforcement-related. As a result of external
forces, people learn specific patterns of behavior in specific
situations. People can have new experiences and learn new
patterns of behavior that will change their personality. B.F. Skinner is
one of the proponents of behavioral theory. Skinners key concept is
that behavior is determined by its consequences. The most

important factor in shaping behavior, according to Skinner is

reinforcement (Crider,1989). Skinner further suggests that most
behavior that we observe in people is maintained because it is
reinforced in some ways.
V. Social Learning Theory.
According to this theory,
reinforcement alone does not account for the learning of all the
behaviors that constitute personality. Albert Bandura as cited in
Morris (1991) suggested that people observe which behaviors are
rewarded and which are punished and that these observations
eventually lead them to develop unique performance standards by
which they guide their behavior.
Bandura further, suggests that people continuously evaluate their
current behavior against an individually developed standard of
excellence and are variously successful in meeting the performance
standards that they have been internalized.
VI. Humanistic Personality Theory. This theory emphasizes the
fact that humans are positively motivated and progress toward
higher levels of functioning that there is more to human existence
than dealing with hidden conflicts and life crises.
William James devoted a great deal of attention to the psychological
concept of the self. According to James self is the sum total of
everything that a person calls as his/her possession, family, job,
friends and enemies. Further, James divided the self into four parts,
as follows:
1. The material self refers to material possession;
2.
The social self is a description of how we are viewed by
other people;
3.
The spiritual self refers to psychological faculties like
reasoning, or emotional disposition; and,
4.
The pure ego is simply the individuals internal stream of
consciousness.
Carl Rogers is one of most famous humanistic theorists who believed that
men and women develop their personalities in the service of positive
goals. According to Rogers, every organism is born with innate capacities,
capabilities or potentialities sort of genetic blueprint, to which substance
is added as life progresses. The goal of life according to Rogers, is to fulfill
this genetic blueprint, to become whatever each of us is inherently

capable of becoming. Rogers called this biological push toward the

fulfillment of the actualizing tendency (Morris, 1991).
Another proponent of humanistic theory of personality is Abraham
Maslows Self- Actualizing Person. Maslow proposed that humans are
motivated by a hierarchy of needs. If our physiological needs are met, we
become concerned with personal safety, if we achieved a sense of
security, we then, are motivated to love, to be loved and to love
ourselves. After we achieve our needs for self esteem, we ultimately seek
self-actualization, the process of fulfilling ones potential of becoming the
self, one that is capable of becoming. Maslow developed his ideas of
studying healthy, creative people rather than clinical cases (Myers, 1989).
Personality Dynamics
To live in social groups, we cannot act on our sexual and aggressive
impulses openly. We must control them. When the ego fears losing control
of he inner conflict between the demands of the id and the superego, the
result is anxiety (Myers, 1989).
Freud proposed that the ego protects itself against anxiety with what he
called ego defense mechanisms. Defense mechanisms reduce anxiety
unconsciously by distorting reality: The following are some of the defense
mechanisms: (Myers, 1989).
1. Repression vanishes anxiety-arousing thoughts and feelings from
consciousness. According to Freud, repression underlies the
other defense mechanism, all of which serve to disguise
threatening
impulses
and
keep
them
from
reaching
consciousness. Freud believed that repression explains why we
do not remember our childhood lust for our parent of the other
sex.
2.
Regression going back to childhood or infantile behavior. A
frustrated child may result to thumb sucking or nail biting.
3. Reaction formation, the ego unconsciously makes unacceptable
impulses look like their opposites. I hate him because I love him.
4. Projection disguises threatening impulses by attributing them to
others.
5.
Rationalization lets unconsciously generate self-justifying
explanations so we can hide from ourselves the real reasons for

6.

7.

our action. Thus, habitual drinkers may explain that they drink
with their friends just to be sociable.
Displacement diverts ones sexual or aggressive impulses toward
more psychologically acceptable object than the one that
aroused them. A child who does not feel free to express anger
against his parent will sometimes displace his anger onto
someone.
Sublimation is transforming impulses into socially valued
motivations. A frustrated person may sublimate his frustrations
by writing a beautiful poem.

Summary
Personality psychology is the study of different traits or characteristics
among people such as anxiety, sociability, self-esteem, the need for
achievement and aggressiveness. We are all interested to know the
differences of men and women in terms of traits, characteristics such as
intelligence and self-concept.
Psychologists do not agree on a single definition of personality. One
current definition according to Morris (1991), personality refers to the
pattern of characteristics thoughts, feelings and behaviors that persists
over time and situations and distinguishes one person from another. A
wide variety of theories have been developed to explain not only the
common types of personality but also how people come to have the
unique psychological signatures that are called our personalities.

Suggested Readings
Morris, Charles G. 1991. Understanding Psychology, Prentice Hall,
Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey.
Myers, David G. 1989. Psychology. Second Edition,Hope College, Holland,
Michigan, Worth Publishers, Inc.
References
Buskist, William, Gerbing, David, 1990, Psychology Boundaries and
Frontiers, Scott Foresman and Company, Glenview, Illinois.
Crider, Andrew H.; Goethals, George R.; Kanavanaugh, Robert D. Solomon,
Paul R.; 1989. Psychology. Third Edition, William College, Scott Foresman
and Company, Glenview, Illinois.

Napoli, Vince; Killbride,JamesM.; Tebbs, Donald E. 1988. Adjustment &

Growth in a Changing World, Third Edition Miami-Dade Community
College. Miami, Florida, West Publishing Company
Sferra, Adam; Wright, Mary Elizabeth; Rice Louis. 1971. Personality and
Human Relations, 2 Edition, Gregg Publishing Division, McGraw-Hill Book
Company, Inc. Printed by Cacho Hermanos, Inc.
nd

Exercises/Written Assignment
1.
2.
3.

Define personality from your own point of view.

Discuss the different concepts of personality.
Describe personality based on the three characteristics.

LESSON 2: FILIPINO VALUES

Learning Objectives
At the end of this Module, you should be able
1. discuss how values affect our personality;
2. discuss theories that hold true to Filipino behavior; and
3. identify the positive and negative effects of Filipino values in our life.

Keywords and Phrases

Values
Filipino Value
Universal human values
Filipino behavior

Introduction
What are Filipino values? Filipino value system arises from our culture or
way of life, our distinctive way of becoming human in this particular place
and time. When we speak of Filipino values, it is presented in fourfold
sense:
1. Although mankind shares universal human values, it is obvious
that certain value takes on for us a distinctively Filipino flavor
(http://www.crvp.org/book/Series
03/III-7/Chapter-VI.htm
Retrieved 03/02/09,
2.
Filipino values are also present in the value system of other
people and culture. All people eat, talk, and sing but they eat
different foods, speak various languages, and sing different
songs. The difference lies in the way these elements are ranked,
combined or emphasized so that they take on a distinctively
Filipino slant or cast. For instance, in China, honesty and hard
work may rank highest, Chinese and Japanese cultures give great
value to politeness and beauty; American culture to promptness
and efficiency and Filipino culture to trust God and family
centeredness. In this sense of value ranking and priority of
values, we can speak of dominant Filipino values.
3.
Universal human values in a Filipino context like historical,
cultural, socio-economic, political, moral and religiosity take a

4.

distinctive Filipino meanings and motivations. Fr. Horacio de la

Costa, S.J. calls the Filipino nationalistic tradition (pagsasarili,
pagkakaisa, pakikisama, pakikipagkapwa tao at pagkabayan).
Filipino values like bahala na, utang na loob, hiya, pakikisama or
pakiusap are clustered around core values like social acceptance,
economic security, social mobility. They are always found in a
definite context or set of circumstances ( Fr. Gorospe S.J.
http://www.crvp.org/Series03/III-7/Chapter-VI.htmRetrieved 03-0209).

Filipino Values that may influence our personality and

relationships with others:
1.

2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
12.
13.

Close family ties or family closeness and solidarity (pagpapahalaga sa

pamilya;
Concern for the welfare of the family;
Family as the center of the social structure;
Politeness;
Hospitality;
Education-oriented;
Gratitude (utang na loob);
Social acceptance (pakikisama, amor propio);
Economic security;
Trust in God;
Self centeredness;
Manana habit (procrastination); and,
Test of strength (Patigasan).

Values of Modern Filipino

1.
2.

3.

4.

Pananalig Faith (December 01, 2004)

Katapatan Faithfulness to husband or wife as well as
faithfulness to country and all the ideals for which our Republic
stands (November 01, 2004)
Pagaaruga ( Nurturing). Every Filipino child grows and learns
under the wing of a mentor who instills in the child the sense of
love, compassion, heroism and courage (October 01, 2004).
Tibay ng Loob (Courage). The Filipino people can stand the
hardship and can face the reality of life with confidence

(http://guevent.org/bagoblog/Retrieved 03-02-09). Filipino people

have the ability not to back down from a challenge.
Strategies in Improving Personality
1.

2.

3.

4.

5.

Make an inventory of your self. List down your strengths and

weaknesses. Try to do something to improve your weaknesses.
Have a burning desire to improve the less than perfect
personality traits.
Observe a good model and apply all the desirable traits that you
observed from that person.
Attend seminars to update your knowledge on personality
development.
Read books, journals and magazines on how to improve your
personality.
Devote more time and effort to improve or develop your
personality.

Summary
Value means anything good, important, significant and desirable in life.
It can be seen in the way we work and behave. For example, a student
who is an employee in the office and a college student by night, is
motivated by a number of values, among them are the need for college
education, social mobility and for personality development Sanchez,
1997).
Everyone has a set of values which provide a basis around which to orient
his life. These values include material goals such as a home, a car or
financial security (Sanchez, 1997).
According to Father Lynch as cited by Sanchez (1997) the observed
behavior in the lowland Filipino aims at social acceptance, economic
security and social mobility. These findings are corroborated by Father
Bulataos classification of values, namely: emotional closeness and
security in the family; approval by the authority and social betterment;
patience, suffering and endurance.

Suggested Readings
Crider, Andrew, B; Goethals, George, R; Kavanaugh, Robert D; Solomon,
Paul R, and William College, 1989. Psychology,Third Edition. Scott,
Foresman and Company, Glenview, Illinois, Boston, London.
Gorospe, Vitaliano R.S.J. Understanding Filipino Value System,
http://www.crvp.org/book/Serieso3/III-7/Chapter - VI.htm
Sanchez, Custodiosa A.; Berin, Elvi S. 1997. Psychology Applied to
Business & Industry, Third Edition. National Book Store.
References
Morris, Charles G., 1991, Understanding Psychology. Prentice-Hall
Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey.
Myers, David G. 1989. Psychology, Second Edition, Worth Publishers, Inc.
New York.
http:/guevent.org/bagoblog
Napoli, Vince, Kilbride, James M.; Tebbs, Donald E. 1988. Adjustment &
Growth in a Changing World, Third Edition. West Publishing Company
http://uoregonedu/~moursund/BooksPS-Expertise/Chapter3.html
Retrieved01-08-09.http://guevent.org/bagoblog/Retrieved 03-02-09.
http://www.crvp.org/ Series 03/III-7 ChapterVI htm Retrieved03-02-09.

Exercises/Written Assignment
1.
2.

3.

Debate on The Positive and Negative Effects of Filipino Values.

Recommend some approaches on how to improve your character
traits.
Prepare a mini seminar on Personality Development.

MODULE 10: ADJUSTMENT, BEHAVIORAL

DISORDERS AND TREATMENT
LESSON 1: ADJUSTMENT
Learning Objectives
At the end of this Module, you should be able
1. discuss how adjustment mechanisms are experienced;
2. explain the different types and examples of coping mechanism; and,
3. define the adjustment process.

Keywords and Phrases

Approach-approach conflict
Adjustment
Frustration
Defense mechanism
Avoidance-avoidance conflict
Conflict
Approach-avoidance conflict
Environmental obstacles

Introduction
As we go through life, our natures or constellations interact with our
environment. There are certain traits that come out into view, certain
motives are learned and normal strategies are developed for adjustment
to the inevitable conflicts and problems of life. However, in some people,
heredity and environment interact in ways that produce behaviors which
are identified as abnormal.
Freud, (Sartain, 1967) claims that a normal personality is found only when
the individual possesses a strong ego capable of resolving internal conflict
and coping with the external world. However, even a well-adjusted
person, the ego has difficulty in carrying out its assignments and must
resort to mechanism of defense. We sometimes become adjusted to the
situations because we utilize defense mechanism (a strategy used to

protect the self or ego). If our motives are not fully satisfied, we become
depressed and sometimes neurotic.
No matter how resourceful we are in coping with problems, the
circumstances of life inevitably involve stress. Our motives are not always
easily satisfied; obstacles must be overcome, choices are made and
delays are tolerated (Hilgard, 1975). Each of us develops characteristic
ways of responding when our attempts are thwarted. These responses to
frustrating situations determine, to a large extent, the adequacy of our
adjustment to life (Hilgard, 1975).
Module 10 discusses the adjustment process, frustration, conflicts, coping
mechanism, behavioral disorders and treatment that could assist the
students
in
coping
with
stress,
depression
and
frustration.

Adjustment Process
All of us are involved with significant new demands from our environment
and we have to find ways of coping with new events and we have to
adjust as expected under the circumstances. Each of us must adjust to
life that is less perfect than we would like, a life in which even pleasures
seem to come with built-in complication. We need to adapt not just to
crises or to unexpected strokes of good fortune but also to the constant
minor demands of life (Morris, 1991).
Morris (1991) further, claims that every adjustment is an attempt
successful or not to balance our desires against the demands of the
environment, to weigh our needs against realistic possibilities and to cope
as well as we can within the limits of the situations.
Frustration. It contributes to stress. Frustration is anything that thwarts
or blocks a person goal-seeking activity. When a person is prevented from
reaching a goal, frustration will take place.
Morris, (1991) identified five basic sources of frustration, namely:
a. Delays. Delays are hard to accept because our culture stresses
the value of time;

b.

c.

d.

e.

Lack of resources. It is frustrating if we want something that is

beyond our economic reach. For example; we want to have a
vacation in Boracay but we do not have the financial capabilities.
Losses. Lost of the loved ones is frustrating because he/she
often makes us feel helpless, unimportant and worthless.
Failure. It is a frequent source of frustration in this globallycompetitive society. We feel guilty if we did not accomplish our
goals and needs or failures in doing the assigned tasks.
Discrimination. It can also be a source of frustration. Being
denied the opportunities and recognitions simply because of
ones sex, age, religion or race regardless of ones qualifications
or accomplishments is immensely frustrating (Morris, 1991).

There three Types of Frustration

1.

2.

3.

Environment Obstacles. Environment obstacles may be

simple to complex, big or small but they always prevent us from
getting what we want or from doing what we aim to accomplish
(Tuason, 1978). For example; a student was caught in a traffic
jam and was not able to take the examination, a ball pen that
refuses to write while taking an examination, a date with the
boyfriend but there is a flood that prevents the girl in going to
the place.
Physical Deficiencies. It may be physical, mental, and
psychological. A most common personal deficiency is a persons
attitude toward himself/herself and others (Tuason, 1978). For
example: a tall girl attended a birthday party, and serves only a
wall-flower because of her height, no body wants to dance with
her.
Conflicts. Of all lifes frustrations, conflict is probably the most
common. In everyday life, we encounter conflicts in one way or
the other. Conflict arises when a person faces two or more
incompatible demands, opportunities, needs or goals.
Four Types of Conflict
a.
Approach-Approach conflict. In this type of conflict,
there are two desirable goals but mutually exclusive goals
(Tuason, 1978). For example: a woman wants to pursue a
career and also wants to get married and she cannot
decide which is to be considered.

b.

c.

d.

Avoidance-Avoidance conflict. In this type of conflict,

there are two undesirable goals but cannot avoid one
without encountering the other. For example: a student
who is interested in his studies knows that he must study
or fail the subject.
Approach-Avoidance conflict. In this type of conflict, a
person may have ambivalent feelings. This occurs when a
person is both attracted and repelled by the same object,
event or person. (Tuason, 1978). For example: one likes
chocolate but he does not want to be fat, one likes to swim
but he does not want to be drowned.
Double Approach-Avoidance. In this type of conflict, the
individual is attracted to two positive goals but each one
has a negative alternative (Tuason, 1978). We are caught
between two goals, each of which has good and bad
features (Morris, 1991).

Consequences of Frustration (Tuason, 1978)

1.
Aggression. Frustration may always lead to some form of
aggression be it physical or verbal, direct or indirect;
2. Restlessness and Tension. These are also signs of frustration. A
frustrated person may be unable to sleep, become restless by
smoking repeatedly.
3.
Apathy. A passive reaction to frustration is like being inactive,
silent and sleepy.
4. Fantasy or daydreaming. It is an escape to a world of reality to
the world of make believe.
5. Stereotype. It means doing things over and over again.
6.
Emotional state. It is observed that too much emotional stress
may lead to physical deficiency such as ulcer. However, there is no
indication that ulcers in human beings are always produced by
emotional stress, there is no doubt that they occur more frequently
in people undergoing prolonged anxiety.
Patterns of Adjustment
People differ in the manner of coping with stress and frustration. In
encountering obstacles, some people give up, some persist in their
undertaking, while others break down under stress. Tuason, (1978)
claims that people who withstand severe frustration without breaking

down under stress are said to have a high frustration tolerance.

Frustration tolerance according to Tuason, (1978) is defined as the
capacity to withstand frustrations without resorting to inadequate modes
of response. An individual with low frustration tolerance resorts to
inadequate modes of behavior such as overdependence on defense
mechanisms and to neurotic or psychotic reactions.
According to Morgan (1971), adjustment refers to the process of
accommodating oneself to circumstances and more particularly, to the
process of satisfying ones needs or motives in various circumstances.
There are a number of characteristic models or ways of adjustment. Most
individuals at one time or another use all of them, yet each person relies
more on some than others.
Defense mechanisms are important adjustment techniques. It is a device
which a person uses unconsciously and automatically to protect himself
against fear, anxiety or feelings of worthlessness that are the
consequences of motive frustration.
The Different Types of Defense Mechanism
Depression, anxiety, and feelings of guilt are destructive to positive selfconcepts. We use psychological defenses to protect ourselves from harm,
ridicule, embarrassment and emotional hurt. The following are the
common coping mechanisms:
1.

2.

3.

Flight or withdrawal. This is an escape mechanism which may

take the form of physical withdrawal or flight. Withdrawal can
sometimes be the most realistic form of adjustment. For
example: A young lady was scolded by her mother so she
immediately runs to her the room and sleep.
Repression. It involves obstructing from awareness the
instincts of the id and the emotions entailing guilt and regret of
the superego (Buskist, 1990).
Denial. It is the common defense mechanism or the refusal to
acknowledge a painful or threatening reality (Morris, 1991). For
example: a stout person may refuse to admit that he/she is
overweight or that his/her diet is out of control.

4.

5.

6.

7.

8.

9.

10.

11.

Intellectualizion. It is a subtle form of denial in which we

detach ourselves emotionally from our problems by analyzing
them in purely rational terms (Morris, 1991).
Rationalization. It is the justification of an unacceptable action
by more acceptable reasons but false excuses. It works similarly
to Alibis. For example: the student who gets a failing grade in
English may rationalize that the teacher was a poor teacher when
in fact the teacher is a good teacher.
Projection. It occurs when ones own unacceptable behaviors
or thoughts are attributed to some else. For example, a student
who cheats during the examination may feel guilty but to avoid
her own guilt, he will accuse his classmate of cheating.
Compromise. It is one of the most common and effective, ways
of coping directly with frustration and conflict. We often
recognize that we cannot have everything we want and that we
cannot expect others to do just what we could like them to do. In
this case, we may decide to settle for less than what we wanted.
For example, you want to take nursing but you have less aptitude
in biology and science, so you may decide to become a
psychologist, a person who works in the hospital.
Regression. It is a form of defense mechanism where in you go
back to childlike behavior. An example is an adult may use
temper tantrums. In such case, people may be drawing a
childlike behavior to solve current problems, in the hope that
someone will respond to them the way adults did when they were
children.
Displacement. It is the redirection of repressed motives and
emotions from an original object or person to a substitute object
or person. For example: you were scolded by your mother, you
may express your anger to your dog or cat.
Sublimation. It entails redirecting pleasure-seeking or
aggressive instincts toward socially acceptable goals. For
example; a young lady who is frustrated in her love affairs may
sublimate her frustration to other acceptable activity like joining
an aerobic exercise and going out with friends.
Compensation. We try to overcome our weaknesses or
handicaps for some other reasonably satisfying goal and to adopt
it instead of what we would really like to have. Thus joining a

beauty contest may be a compensation for scholarship. I failed

in Mathematics, so I study hard to get a higher grade when I
enrolled again in Mathematics.
People may use defense mechanisms to avoid or reduce anxiety and to
maintain self-esteem. If defense mechanisms are not partially successful,
they would not refused to give up and look for an opportunity to solve
their personal problem. They may provide a protective armor while they
are learning more mature and realistic ways of solving our problems.
When we no longer need the defenses, their importance weakens and
increasingly faces our problems according to the demand of the total
situations. The defense mechanisms thus, help toward satisfactory
adjustment in several ways (Hilgard, 1975):
1. They give us time to solve problems that might otherwise
overwhelm us. Being able to rationalize failures that would
otherwise cause us to despair or to find partial justification for
the conduct that would otherwise make us despise ourselves,
sustain us until we can work out better solutions to our conflicts;
2. The mechanisms may permit experimentation with new roles
and hence teach new modes of adjustment;
3. Rationalization by starting a search for reasons, may lead to
rational conduct in the future. The tendency to justify behaviors
that we have found satisfying may lead to false reasons,
however, it may also lead to a more careful analysis of causeeffect relationships.
According to Morris (1991) defense mechanisms can be an adaptive
means of coping with stress or frustration, particularly prolonged stress.
They are considered maladaptive only when they interfere with a persons
ability to function or when they create more problems.

Summary
Adjustment refers to the individuals response to the physical,
psychological and social demands of the self, other people and the
environment. Thus, adjustment emphasizes the impact of the
environment. When judging the adequacy of an adaptive response, we
must consider social and cultural factors as well as individual needs
(Napoli, 1988).

Further, we may view each potential adjustive choice as a strategy of

adjustment, and the adequacy of each may be judged according to
whether it helps the individual, namely: 1) to secure adequate information
about the environment; 2) to maintain the internal conditions necessary
for action and for processing information; and, 3) to maintain autonomy,
or freedom of movement. Generally, all three criteria must be met for an
individual to interact successfully with the environment and all must be
simultaneous. Sigmund Freud as cited by Napoli (1988) viewed good
adjustment as the individuals effective use of self-deception to satisfy
simultaneously the demands of his or her desires and conscience while
Carl Rogers saw self-deception as maladjustment because it interferes
with the fulfillment of ones potential. B.F. Skinner tends to view good
adjustment from a third perspective; he emphasized learned behavior that
allow the individual to cope successfully with situational demands.
It can also be observed that inevitable conflicts occur in the demands of
desires and conscience, and if these conflicts produce great and
potentially psychologically disabling tensions for the individual, then selfdeception which can reduce the tensions can only be defined a good
adjustment. Freud saw self-deception as the only means available to
avoid maladjustment (Napoli, 1988).
We can therefore, conclude that defense mechanisms are adjustments
made unconsciously to avoid being blamed, ridiculed, and criticized which
threaten our self-esteem and results to psychological disturbances and
disorders.

Suggested Readings
Morris, Charles G. 1991. Understanding Psychology, Prentice Hall,
Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey.
Napoli, Vince; Kilbride, James M.; Tebbs, Donald E. 1988. Adjustment &
Growth in a Changing World. Third Edition, Miami-Dade Community
College, Miami, Florida, West Publishing Company

EXERCISES/WRITTEN ASSIGNMENT
1. Why is it that even a pleasant event, like falling in love can be
stressful?
2. Differentiate the three types of conflicts and give examples for each.
3. Discuss how adjustment mechanisms are experienced.

4. Explain the different types and examples of coping mechanism.

References/Bibliography
Buskist, William; Gerbing, David W, 1990. Psychology: Boundaries and
Frontiers, Scott, Foresman/Little Brown Higher Education.
Hilgard, Ernest R.; Atkinson, Richard C.; Atkinson, Rita L.;
1975.Iintroduction to Psychology, Sixth Edition. Harcourt Brace
Javanovich, Inc.
Morgan, Cliffort T.; Kind, Richard A.; 1971. Introduction to Psychology,
Fourth Edition, McGraw-Hill Book Company.
Tuason, Elisa Hidalgo; Santamaria, Josefina Oliva; Tiongson, Corazon R.
1978. Behavioral Science as Applied to Business and Industry, University
of the East Manila.

LESSON 2: BEHAVIORAL DISORDERS

Learning Objectives
At the end of this Module, you should be able
1. describe the concept of abnormality;
2. differentiate normal from abnormal behavior and cite examples; and
3. identify the different types of behavioral disorders.
Keywords and Phrases

Normal behavior

Abnormal behavior

Personality disorder

Neurotic reaction

Phobic reaction

Obsessive compulsion

Panic reaction

Hypochondria

Neurosis

Psychosis

Paranoid reaction

Manic depressive

Schizophrenia

Catatonic
Introduction
Almost everyone has periods when they feel depressed, afraid, anxious,
unreasonably angry, and inadequate in dealing with lifes complexities.
And each of us at times resorts to self-deceptive defense mechanisms
when confronted with threatening situations. When such reactions
become habitual, do we consider them psychopathological. The term
psycho- pathological includes a variety of disorders in addition to those
most people think of a mental illness. Alcoholism, drug addiction,
compulsive lying and physical symptoms caused by emotional problems
are forms of psychopathological disorder. Psychopathology deals with
abnormal behavior.
When does a behavior become abnormal? When behavior does not
conform to the existing social order, it may be considered abnormal. To

some extent, psychologists use intrapersonal standards of normality - that

is they try to evaluate people in terms of their own lives (Morris, 1991).
Consider the following examples:
*A secretary falls behind in her work because no matter how
often she erases her typing errors, she cannot get the paper neat enough.
Her boss does not understand. And finally one day, she cannot get up to
go to work.
*A young boy of a wealthy family has a substantial allowance of
his own, yet one afternoon, he was arrested for trying to steal a book from
the Book Store. He insists that there is nothing wrong with his actions.
In the examples, the persons are acting in an impaired manner, selfdefeating way. The secretary has set herself an impossible job. Her
needs for neatness is so exaggerated that she cannot possibly succeed.
The young boy is surprised at the reactions of people to his stealing.
What is the problem; he asks. His failure to accept certain basic social
value is a psychological problem.
It can be observed that the behaviors of these persons are considered
abnormal because of their perception is distorted and the ability to cope
with lifes demand is impaired (Morris, 1991).
According to Morris (1991) there are four criteria of
abnormal behavior, namely:
1. Distorted perception;
2. Inappropriate behavior;
3. Discomfort; and
4. Danger to oneself and others.
Personality Disorders. A personality disorder is identified by a
pervasive pattern of experience and behavior that is abnormal with
respect to any of the following:
1.
2.

Thinking, mood, and personal relations; and,

The control of impulses.

The character of a person is shown through his or her personality by the

way an individual thinks, feels, and behaves. When the behavior is
inflexible, maladaptive and anti-social, then that individual is diagnosed

with a personality disorder. Personality disorders emanate from mild to

severe. A person with personality disorder suffers a life that is not
positive, proactive or fulfilling.
There ere are major types of personality disorders, namely:
1.

Neurotic reaction. This a mild form of abnormality. A person

may be constantly apprehensive, worried or full of complaints.
Neurotic people are anxious. Often the anxiety is obvious. A
neurotic person is often sufficiently mild to be treated successfully
without entering a hospital. The following are the kinds of neurotic
reactions:
a.
Phobic reaction. It is an intense and irrational fear. Some
people who are otherwise normal and healthy may have
phobias. A phobia may be so powerful and irrational that alters
the whole course of a persons life.
b. Obsessive compulsion. An obsession is an idea that constantly
enters into a persons thoughts. While being compulsive is an
act that repeatedly intrudes into a persons behavior. Obsessive
compulsive is therefore, a form of anxiety disorder characterized
by persistent and irresistible urges to engage in repetitive,
stereotyped thoughts and/or actions (Crider, 1989).
c.
Panic reaction. A person suffering from a panic disorder
experiences repeated attacks of abrupt, extreme anxiety, usually
lasting for several minutes (Crider, 1989).
d. Conversion reaction. It is used to describe psychologically
caused physical symptoms. This is a somatoform disorder that
involves the actual loss of bodily function such as blindness,
paralysis and numbness due to excessive anxiety. It is called
hysteria.
e.
Hypochondria. The person interprets some small sign or
symptom like coughing, perspiration or bruise as a sign of a
serious disease (Morris, 1991).
f.
Psychosomatic or psycho-physiological illness. This
includes certain forms of hypertension, ulcers and headaches and
are not caused by any known physical disorders but instead
seems to link, in varying degrees to stress. A person under
stress may retain excessive sodium and fluids which together

with constriction of the arteries muscle walls contribute to high

blood pressure ( Light & Others as cited in Myers (1989).
2.

Psychosis. It is a severe form of personality disorder. It is also

disordered state of consciousness occurring in various psychological
disorders. A psychotic person usually requires treatment in a
mental hospital. The psychotic individual typically has lost
considerable contact with reality. The most common types of
psychotic behaviors are:
a.
Paranoid reaction. A personality disorder which shows an
exaggerated and unwarranted mistrust and suspicion of
others. A person with paranoid personality disorder differs
from people with paranoid schizophrenia in that their paranoia
seems less disturbed and exaggerated.
b.

c.

Manic-depressive psychosis. It is a marked disturbance of

mood or emotion. It is cyclical. The patient is manic for a
period and then swings into a depression. The manic
individual is unduly elated and active. She may sing, dance,
run, talk a lot and generally expend more energy than one
would think humanly possible (Morgan, 1971).
Schizophrenia reactions. It is a split or multiple
personality. It is manifested by characteristic disturbances of
thinking, mood and behavior. Disturbances of thinking are
marked by alterations of concept formation which may lead to
misinterpretation of reality and sometimes delusions and
hallucinations, which frequently appear psychologically selfprotective. Behavior may be withdrawn, regressive and
bizarre.
There are four major forms of schizophrenic reactions:
1.

2.

Hebephrenic type. In this type of schizophrenic disorder,

the individual seems to regress to childish levels of
behavior. He may giggle incessantly. In fact everything
may seem funny or foolish to him. He may talk about the
death of his mother and laugh in a silly way.
Catatonic type. It is not common among the type of
schizophrenic reaction but perhaps the most dramatic. The
catatonic person is extremely negativistic, often doing the

3.

exactly opposite of what he is asked to do. He may

completely ignore people around him and refuse to say
anything under any circumstances (Morgan, 1971).
Paranoid type. The paranoid schizophrenic has delusions
of grandeur or persecution. The paranoid schizophrenic
often has hallucinations and unsystematized delusions
delusions that are not very coherent and that he does not
defend with such elaborate rationalizations. He may shift
with apparent reason from one delusion to another,
showing bizarre attitudes and behavior (Morgan, 1971).

Since schizophrenia in all its forms is such an important mental health

problem, much research effort is being conducted to find its causes and
nature of maladjustment for effective interventions.

Summary
Personality disorders are maladjustments characterized by problem
personality traits that deviate substantially from social norms and that
prevent the persons achieving satisfaction that comes with social
acceptance. Personality disorders begin in childhood or adolescence and
continue throughout most of the adult life of the individual. Two factors
are significant in the development of personality disorders, namely:
temperament and learning. Million as cited by Napoli, (1988) that it is
possible that temperament states (activity, boldness, timidity, quietness),
which may be genetically transmitted, interact with learning experiences
to produce deviant personality traits.
There are many different types of personality and behavioral disorders,
each with its own set of symptoms and potential causes. There are two
types of personality disorder, the neuroses and psychoses. Neurosis is a
mild form of psychological disorder than psychoses. Neuroses are
behavior patterns that avoid rather than cope with problems, they are
often extreme forms of normal defense mechanisms used in attempt to
reduce anxiety. The neurotic person can be treated at home but the
psychotic patient needs to be in asylum or mental hospital for treatment.
Psychoses reflect a more severe disintegration of behavior, disturbances
of thought processes and distortion of reality as advanced by
hallucinations (false perceptions), and delusions (false beliefs).

Suggested Readings
Hilgard, Ernest R. Atkinson, Richard C.; Atkinson, Rita L. 1975.
Introduction to Psychology, Harcourt Brace Jovannovich, Inc.
Napoli, Vince; Kilbride, James M.; Tebbs, Donald E. 1988. Adustment &
Growth in a Channnging World, Third Edition, Miami-Dade Community
College, Miami, Florida, West Publishing Company.

Exercises/Written Assignment
1. Describe the concept of abnormality.
2. Differentiate normal from abnormal behavior and cite examples.
3. Describe the different types of personality as well as behavioral
disorders.
4. Discuss the causes of personality and behavioral disorders.

References/Bibliography
Morris, Charles G. 1991. Understanding Psychology, University of
Michigan, Prentice-Hall, Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey.
Morgan, CliffordT.; King, Richard A. 1971. Introduction to Psychology,
Fourth Edition, McGraw-Hill Book Company.
Myers, David G. 1989. Psychology, Second Edition, Worth, Prentice-Hall
Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey.

LESSON 3: TREATMENT FOR PERSONALITY

AND BEHAVIORAL
Learning Objectives
At the end of this Module, you should be able
1.
conduct case studies on the common problems encountered by
students in relation to neurotic behaviors;
2. differentiate neuroses from psychoses;
3.
identify the different psychological interventions or psychotherapies
and discuss its nature;
4. distinguish the types of behavior therapies; and
5. identify the importance of drugs in the treatment process.

Keywords and Phrases

Psychotherapy
Intervention
Family therapy
Medical therapy
Free association
Catharsis
Client-centered
Insight therapy

Introduction
There are ways and means of treating these maladjustments but we are
not certain of the effectiveness of the methods which are now being used
to attack them. However, the treatment of behavior as well as personality
disorders is of such importance that every intelligent person should know
as much about it as he can (Morgan, 1971).
Much attention is given to the forms of treatment that avoid
hospitalization such as family crisis therapy, crisis intervention, day-care
treatment, intensive outpatient counseling combined with medications,
and patients living at home who were trained to cope with daily activities.

There are different strategies on how to treat or cure these

behaviors and personality disorders:
1.

Psychotherapy. This method can be a simple or a very complex

process depending upon the nature of the individuals problem, how
severe it is, the type of therapy and the goals of the treatment. The
psychologists employed interviews, discussions, play acting, and
changes in the patients environment. These methods of treatment
involve psychological rather medical. This type of treatment is used
not only for psychotic and neurotic but also for persons with a wide
range of adjustment problems such as delinquents and maladjusted
children

and

people

with

marital,

scholastic

and

occupational

difficulties.
2.

Medical therapy. It is more drastic than psychotherapy and is

ordinarily restricted to severe cases of disturbed behavior, or mental
illness particularly to the psychoses. Treatment of behavior
disorders are confined mainly to severe psychotic disorders in
mental hospital and therapeutic methods are largely medical. The
psychiatrists prescribe medicine to psychotic patients. Medical
therapy is exclusively for severe cases of disturbed behaviors.

3.

Insight therapy. The main goal of the insight therapy is to give

people a better understanding and awareness of their feelings,
motivations, and actions and the means of coping with unattainable
goals.

4.

Free Association. In psycho-analysis, this is the uninhibited

disclosure of thoughts and fantasies as they occur to the client
(Morris, 1991).

5.

Client-centered therapy. It is a nondirective form of therapy

developed by Carl Rogers that calls for unconditioned positive
regard on the part of the therapist; the aim of treatment is to help
clients become fully functional (Morris, 1991).

6.

Rational-emotive therapy. A highly directive therapeutic

approach based on the idea that an individuals problems have been
caused his/her misinterpretations of events and goals.

7.

Family therapy. It is a pattern of communication and relationship

that connect people to each other and to their social and physical
environments. The technique is concerned with the movement
toward holistic, understanding of the whole system. It is a family
counseling, the recognition of interconnectedness of the individual,
family and socio-cultural context. It also focuses on the entire
family as the unit of analysis in essence, it is the family that is the
client not any particular family member.

8.

Cognitive behavior therapy. This type of psychotherapy

emphasizes the changing clients perception of his or her life
situation as a way of modifying behavior. Beck as cited by Morris
(1991) proposed that depression results from negative patterns of
thought that some people develop about themselves. For example,
a salesman might come to believe that if he is competent and
effective, he will never lose an important account. This is an
unrealistic expectation, yet when he does inevitably lose an
account, he concludes that he is an incompetent and ineffective
person.

Summary
Psychotherapy is a process involving the use of psychological techniques
to help a person achieve better adjustment (Napoli, 1988). People begin
to sense that they may need some kind of help when they realize that
things are not going well, but they do not know what to do to improve the
situation. For instance, problems with sleep such as insomnia, anxiety,
problems related to others, and stress-related disorders. Therapy is
needed if the person perceived that there is a need for relief.
Mental illness is a serious and widespread problem in our society today
and it is important that we focus on its prevention as well as its
treatment. Some of the conditions that promote mental health include
satisfactory social participation, healthy family relations, interesting and
useful employment and find channels for emotional expression.

Suggested Readings
Crider, Andrew H.; Goethals, George R.; Kavanaugh, Robert D.; Solomon,
Paul R.; 1989, Psychology, Third Editon. William College, Scott Foresman
and Company, Glenview, Illinois.
Hilgard, Ernest R.; Atkinson, Richard C.; Atkinson, Rita L.; 1975,
Introduction to Psychology, Sixth Edition, Harcourt Brace Javanovich, Inc.
Morgan, Clifford T.; King, Richard A.; 1971. Introduction to Psychology
,Fourth Edition, McGraw-Hill Book Company.
Napoli, Vince; Kilbride, James M.; Tebbs, Donald E.; Adjustment & Growth
in a Changing World, Third Edition, Miami-Dade Community College,
Miami, Florida, West Publishing Company.

Exercises/Written Assignment
1.

2.

3.

4.

Identify the appropriate treatment and intervention for specific

behavioral and personality disorders.
Discuss the different strategies on how to cure the behavioral and
personality disorders.
Discuss the reasons why there are more suicidal cases among men
than women?
Discuss why family therapy has steadily expanded to become one of
todays most important treatment modes.

References/Bibliography
Morris, Charles G., 1991. Understanding Psychology, Prentice-Hall
Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey.
Myers, David G., 1989. Psychology, Second Edition, Worth Publishers, Inc.
New York.
Sartain, Aaron Quinn; North, Alvin John; Strange, Jack Roy; and Chapman,
Harold Martin, 1967. Psychology Understanding Human Behavior, Third
Edition, McGraw-Hill Book Company.
Tuason, Elsa Hidalgo; Santamaria, Josefina Olivia; Tiongson, Corazon R;
1978. Behavioral Science As Applied to Business and Industry, University
of the East, Manila.