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Thermal Systems
Introduction and Units

System Elements

Mathematical Model

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Introduction
This page comprises all of the pages about thermal systems in a form that is suitable for printing.
Contents
Background
System Elements
Mathematical Models

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Thermal Systems Background

Introduction and Units

System Elements

Mathematical Model

C1

C2

q_12

q_in

q_2a

R1
0

12

theta_1

Printable

R2 theta_a
0

theta_2

12

0
Animation by Ames Bielenberg (note)

Introduction
Thermal systems are those that involve the storage and transfer of heat. Heat stored in a material object is
manifested as a higher temperature. For example, a hot block of metal has more heat stored in it than an
equivalent cool block. Heat flows between objects by one of three mechanisms: conduction, convection (or mass
transfer), and radiation. Conductive heat transfer occurs when a temperature difference exists across an object.
An example is the flow of heat that occurs through the wall of a building if the temperature inside is higher (or
lower) than the temperatures outside. Convective heat transfer involves the flow of heat in a liquid or gas, as
when a fan blows cool air across a hot object; the air carries away some of the heat of the object. Radiative heat
transfer, like conductive transfer, is caused by a temperature difference between objects, does not require a
physical medium for heat flow (i.e., radiative heat can flow through a vacuum). It is exemplified by the heat
transfer from sun to earth, but it is highly nonlinear (it depends on the fourth power of the temperature difference)
and will not be discussed here. Our discussion will also be limited in several other ways listed, and briefly
discussed, here.
A list of the fundamental units of interest is listed below. The next tab (system elements) gives a description of
the building blocks of these system (thermal resistance, capacitance and fluid flow). This is followed by a
description of methods to go from a drawing of a system to a mathematical model of a system in the form of
differential equations. Methods for solving the equation are given elsewhere. The last section discusses topics
relevant to energy storage and dissipation in these systems.
This page does not discuss the solution of these equations, only the development of the equations through a
physical model of the system.

Table of units
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Elements of Thermal Systems

Introduction and Units

System Elements

Mathematical Model

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Contents
Introduction
A Note on Temperature
Thermal Resistance
Heat Transfer via Conduction
Example: Heat Loss through Walls
Key Concept: Notation for Thermal Systems, and Depictions of Thermal Systems
Heat Transfer through Convection
Thermal Capacitance
Example: Thermal Capacitance of Water
Power Source (or heat source)
Temperature Source
Mass Transfer (fluid flow)
Key Concept: Quantities in Thermal Systems

Introduction
There are two fundamental physical elements that make up thermal systems, thermal resistances and thermal
capacitance. There are also three sources of heat, a power source, a temperature source, and fluid flow. All five
of these are described below, along with the important mathematical relationships used to describe each one.

A Note on Temperature
In practice temperature when we discuss temperature we will use degrees Celsius (C), while SI unit for
temperature is to use Kelvins (0K = -273.15C). However, we will generally be interested in temperature
differences, not absolute temperatures (much as electrical circuits deal with voltage differences). Therefore we
will generally take the ambient temperature (which we will label a) to be our reference temperature, and
measure all temperatures relative to this ambient temperature. We will also assume that the ambient
temperature is constant. Thus, if the ambient temperature is =25C, and the temperature of interest is i=32C,
we will say that i=7 above ambient. Note: this is consistent with electrical systems in which we assign one voltage to be ground (and
assume that it is constant) and assign it the value of zero volts. We then measure all voltages relative to ground.

Thermal Resistance
Though heat transfer through via conduction and heat transfer via convection occur as a result of very different
mechanisms, the resulting mathematical relationship is identical. therefore we will cover both mechanisms here.

Heat Transfer via Conduction

Heat flow through an object is determined by several quantities including the thickness of the object (in the
direction of heat flow), the area through which heat can flow, and the thermal conductivity (measured in units of
W/(m-K)). We will consider only objects of uniform cross section, with heat flow in one direction (perpendicular
to the cross section). Consider the circular cylinder shown below.

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Mathematical Models of Thermal Systems

Introduction and Units

System Elements

Mathematical Model

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Contents
Introduction
The Energy Balance
Examples Involving only Thermal Resistance and Capacitance
Example: Two thermal resistances in series
Example: Heating a Building with One Room
Example: Heating a Building with One Room, but with Variable External Temperature.
Example: Heating a Building with Two Rooms
Examples Involving Fluid Flow
Example: Cooling a Block of Metal in a Tank with Fluid Flow.
Aside: Modeling a Fluid Flow with and Electrical Analog
Solving the Model

Introduction
While the previous page (System Elements) introduced the fundamental elements of thermal systems, as well
as their mathematical models, no systems were discussed. This page discusses how the system elements can
be included in larger systems, and how a system model can be developed. The actual solution of such models
is discussed elsewhere.

The Energy Balance

To develop a mathematical model of a thermal system we use the concept of an energy balance. The energy
balance equation simply states that at any given location, or node, in a system, the heat into that node is equal to
the heat out of the node plus any heat that is stored (heat is stored as increased temperature in thermal
capacitances).

Heat in = Heat out + Heat stored

To better understand how this works in practice it is useful to consider several examples.

Examples Involving only Thermal Resistance and Capacitance

Example: Two thermal resistances in series
Consider a situation in which we have an internal temperature, i, and an ambient temperature, a with
two resistances between them. An example of such a situation is your body. There is a (nearly) constant
internal temperature, there is a thermal resistance between your core and your skin (at s), and there is a
thermal resistance between the skin and ambient. We will call the resistance between the internal
temperature and the skin temperature R is, and the temperature between skin and ambient Rsa.
a) Draw a thermal model of the system showing all relevant quantities.
b) Draw an electrical equivalent
c) Develop a mathematical model (i.e., an energy balance).
d) Solve for the temperature of the skin if i, =37C, a =9C, Ris=0.75/W; for a patch of skin and R sa=
2.25/W for that same patch.
Solution:
a) In this case there are no thermal capacitances or heat sources, just two know temperatures ( i, and
a), one unknown temperature (s), and two resistances ( Risand Rsa.)

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References

Copyright 2005-2013 Erik Cheever This page may be freely used for educational purposes.
Erik Cheever
Department of Engineering
Swarthmore College

References

Copyright 2005 to 2014 Erik Cheever This page may be freely used for educational purposes.
Erik Cheever
Department of Engineering
Swarthmore College

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