Review Notes in Modulation

50 dB is the maximum sideband suppression value using filter system

Modulation index determines the number of sideband components in FM
H3E transmit only one sideband
Baseband frequency produces sidebands on FM
Spectrum analyzer displays the carrier and the sidebands amplitude with frequency to frequency
Mixer is also known as converter
A3H emission transmit the lower sideband and half of the upper sideband
An FM receive signal vary in frequency with modulation
The process of impressing intelligence on the carrier is called modulation
Spectrum analyzer is an electronic instrument used to show both the carrier and the sidebands of a modulated signal
in the frequency domain
Amplitude is varied at the carrier by the intelligence during modulation in an AM system
The difference between the RF carrier and the modulating signal frequencies is called the LSB
Buffer stage in a radio transmitter isolates the oscillator from the load
The frequency of the unmodulated carrier in FM system is center frequency
The ratio of maximum deviation to the maximum modulating frequency is called deviation ratio
A carrier signal has a frequency of 20 kHz and above
In a FM system, if modulation index is doubled by halving the modulating frequency, there will be no effect on the
maximum deviation
Armstrong system is considered as an indirect method of generating FM
To generate an SSB or DSB signal one must use a circuit known as balanced modulator
Crystal radio receiver is the first radio receiver
An interfering signal with a frequency equal to the received signal plus twice the IF is called image frequency
A3E double sideband full carrier emission type
R3E single sideband reduced carrier emission type
J3E a single sideband suppressed carrier emission type
B8E independent sideband emission type
C3F vestigial sideband emission type
H3E single sideband full carrier emission type
G3E phase modulation emission type
Better fidelity is not an advantage of SSB over AM
The advantage of a high level modulated AM transmitter is higher value of operating power
The advantage of a low-level modulated AM transmitter is less audio power required
Interference to other radio services is the bad effect caused by overmodulation in AM transmission
Selectivity of a radio receiver refers to its ability to reject an unwanted signal
F3E emission is frequency modulation
AM transmission power increase with modulation
Capture effect locks the FM receiver to a stronger signal
The highest percentage of modulation for AM is 100%
In FM, the Carsons Rule states that the bandwidth is equal to twice the sum of the modulating frequency
and frequency deviation
The carrier swing of an FM transmitter when modulated by 75% is 112.5 kHz
Frequency modulation the modulation system inherently more resistant to noise
Subcarriers that are arranged so that the channels occupying adjacent frequency bands with some frequency space
between them is known as guard bands
Modulation of an RF carrier results in multiple channels, smaller antennas, and directional propagation
Modulation is a process which occurs in the transmitter
Demodulation is a process which occurs in the receiver
Buffer amplifier part of the transmitter that protects the crystal oscillator from pulling
The amplitude of a sine wave which is modulated by a musical program will be complex, contain fundamental
frequencies, and contain harmonic frequencies
The result of the gain level being too high for signals entering the modulator is distortion and splatter
Amplitude modulation causes the amount of transmitter power to increase
When the amplitude of the modulating voltage is increased for AM, the antenna current will increase
A second modulating tone having the same amplitude but a different frequency is added to the first at the input to the
modulator. The modulation index will be increased by a factor of sqr(2)
Unwanted sidebands in SSB equipment can be suppressed by phasing method and filter method

Envelope detection is concerned with the process of rectification

Diagonal clipping in envelope detection will result in distortion
Product detection requires the process of heterodyning
A sine wave which is coherent with carrier has identical frequency and phase angle
Frequency modulation and phase modulation are collectively referred to as angle modulation
In FM the change in carrier frequency is proportional to amplitude of the modulating signal
A louder sound, when generating the modulating waveform for FM, will cause a greater frequency deviation
Varactor diode a device whose capacitance is deliberately made to be a function of the applied voltage
A reactance modulator is one method of obtaining direct FM
VCO a device, now available in IC form, is useful for direct FM and as one element in the phase-locked loop
Multiplication is a frequency change process, whereby the phase deviation and frequency deviation are multiplied by
some fixed constant
Foster-Seeley discriminator a circuit that has the function of demodulating the frequency-modulated signal
The ratio detector is superior to the slope detector because it is less sensitive to noise spikes and interference causing
AM
One implementation of a pulse-averaging discriminator is a triggered multivibrator
Two different signals can be coherent if they have the same frequency
A quadrature detector requires that the inputs are coherent
In a phase-locked loop, the VCO is the abbreviation for Voltage-controlled oscillator
LSB and USB the output of a balanced modulator
If the modulation index of an AM wave is changed from 0 to 1, the transmitted power is increased by 50%
RF carrier is not a baseband signal of modulation
If the unmodulated level peak carrier amplitude is doubled in an AM signal, the percent modulation is 100
Balanced modulator circuit when inserted in the equipment suppressed the carrier
The carrier of a 100% modulated AM wave is suppressed, the percentage power saving is 66.66%
If the modulation index of an AM wave is doubled, the antenna current is also doubled, the AM system being used
is J3E
100% modulation in AM means a corresponding increase in total power by 50%
A single-tone amplitude modulated wave has 3 components
A carrier signal has constant peak amplitude
The modulating system is frequency modulation if the modulating frequency is doubled, the modulation index is
halved, and the modulating voltage remains constant
The modulation index of an FM signal if its modulating frequency is doubled is one-half the original index
A3E standard way of designating AM
Discriminator is the circuit used to detect frequency modulated signal
Baseband is an information signal that is sent directly without modulating any carrier
Both frequency and phase modulation utilize angle modulation
Bandwidth it is the width of frequencies within the spectrum occupied by signal and used by the signal for
conveying information
H3E transmit only one sideband
Continuous modulation is a kind of modulation in which the modulated wave is always present.
Pulse modulation a type of modulation in which no signal is present between pulses
Coefficient of modulation is the amount of amplitude change present in an AM waveform
Carrier shift is a form of amplitude distortion introduced when the positive and negative alternations in the AM
modulated signals are not equal
The advantage of phase modulation over direct FM frequency modulation is that the oscillator is crystal-controlled
If the spectrum is shifted in frequency with no other changes, this is known as frequency translation
Balanced modulator a device which is capable of causing frequency translation
If the frequency of each component in a signal spectrum is increased by the same fixed amount, this is known
as frequency translation and up conversion
Any device to be used as a frequency multiplier must be nonlinear
Push-push a particular amplifier circuit used for frequency doubling
Frequency division is useful in the implementation of a frequency synthesizer
Balanced modulator can be used as a phase detector
A particular frequency synthesizer contains only a single crystal. This synthesizer is known as indirect
A recognizable feature of a CW transmitter is keyed transmitter, power amplification, and frequency generation
The term pulling refers to the change of the crystal oscillator frequency by loading

When frequency modulation is achieved by initial phase modulation, this is called indirect FM
A disadvantage of direct FM is the need for AFC
Direct FM can be achieved by a reactance tube modulator and a varactor diode
A receiver in which all RF amplifier stages require manual tuning to the desired RF is called TRF
It is often necessary to precede the demodulator by amplifier stages in a receiver because of weak antenna signals
A serious disadvantage of the TRF receiver is the bandwidth variations over the tuning range
Modulator is not part of a superheterodyne receiver
R-F amplifier element will not be found in every superheterodyne receiver
Mixer element of a superheterodyne receiver must be nonlinear
The change of the modulated carrier frequency from the original RF to the I-F of the superheterodyne receiver is
known as frequency translation
The key to achieving receiver sensitivity is the reduction of internal noise
In comparing the S/N ratio for the input to the receiver with the S/N ratio for the output, the latter is smaller
Noise figure the characteristic of a receiver that specifies the self-generated noise
The ratio of the superheterodyne receiver response at the desired carrier frequency to that at the image frequency is
called the image rejection ratio
The core of an IF transformer usually contains powered iron
Shape factor is a measure of skirt steepness
AGC is the function which tends to maintain the sound volume level of a voice receiver nearly constant for a large
signal strength range
Squelch the function which tends to silence the receiver in the absence of transmitter carrier
Noise blanker device is incorporated in a communications receiver to reduce impulse noise
If the input to a detector stage is an amplitude-modulated (A3E) IF signal then the output from the stage is the audio
voice information
In a capacitive type, reactance-tube modulator connected across an oscillator tune circuit, a more negative voltage on
the grid of the reactance tube will cause an increase of the oscillator frequency
The limiting condition for sensitivity in a communications receiver is the noise floor of the receiver
When a communications receiver is tuned to a strong signal, the AGC bias is measured and found to be zero. The fault
cannot be caused by an open circuit in the AGCs filter capacitor
Cross-modulation interference the term used to refer to the condition where the signals from a very strong station
are superimposed on other signals being received
The limiter stage of an FM receiver limits the amplitude of the IF signal to the required level
Motorboating (low-frequency oscillations) in an amplifier can be stopped by connecting a capacitor between the B+
and lead ground
Crossmodulation an effect in which, the modulation of an unwanted signal is transferred to the desired carrier
Leads should be kept as short as possible in radio circuit so that stray coupling is minimized
4 voice transmissions can be packed into a given frequency band for amplitude-compandored single-sideband systems
over conventional FM-phone systems
Neutralization of an RF amplifier stage can be necessary in order to prevent the generation of spurious oscillations
The ability of a communications receiver to perform well in the presence of strong signals outside the band of interest
is indicated by blocking dynamic range
RF amplifier, mixer, IF amplifier, and AF amplifier are stages that are common to both AM and FM receivers
Filter ringing occurs during CW reception if too narrow a filter bandwidth is used in the IF stage of a receiver
IF amplifier stage mainly determines a communication receivers sensitivity
The main advantage of FM over AM is better signal-to-noise-ratio
Low-level modulation an amplitude modulation created in an amplifier before the final RF stage
Receiver desensitizing can be reduced by ensuring good RF shielding between the transmitter
In a narrow-band FM system, the deviation ratio is commonly one and the highest audio frequency is generally limited
to 3,000 Hz
A3C a type of emission is produced when an amplitude modulated transmitter is modulated by a facsimile signal
The noise generated which primarily determines the signal to noise ratio in a VHF (150 MHz) marine band receiver is
in the receiver front end

Cross-modulation in a receiver can be reduced by installing a filter at the receiver

F3E is the emission designation for FM telephony
The cause of receiver desensitizing is the presence of a strong signal on a nearby frequency
In a phase-modulated signal (indirect FM), the frequency deviation is directly proportional to the carrier amplitude
only
An RF stage precedes the mixer stage in a superheat receiver. One advantage of including this RF stage is letter
rejection ratio
Bandwidth and noise figure are two factors that determine the sensitivity of a receiver
An undesirable effect of using too-wide a filter bandwidth in the IF section of a receiver is that the undesired signals
will reach the audio stage
FM receiver a system containing a limiter stage, a discriminator, and a de-emphasis circuit
The limiter stage of an FM receiver prevents any amplitude modulation of the IF signal
High selectivity occurs when the degree of coupling between a receivers RF stage is loose
A carrier is phase modulated by a test tone. If the amplitude and the frequency of the tone are both doubled, the
amount of deviation is multiplied by four
2.4 kHz is the degree of selectivity desirable in the IF circuitry of a single-sideband receiver
The component most apt to break down in the radio circuit is the resistor
The base in an RF amplifier is grounded in order to avoid the requirement of neutralizing the stage
The AM detector performs two basic functions in the receiver. It rectifies and filters
A varactor diode can be used in direct FM modulator circuit, AFC circuit in a direct FM transmitter and in phasemodulator circuit
Receiver interference is not reduced by including an insulating enclosure around the receiver
Television is the emission C3F
Limiter stage in an FM receiver is responsible for drastically reducing the effect of static noise during the reception of
a signal
The letter SSSC stand for single sideband, suppressed carrier
For many types of voices, the ratio of PEP-to-average power during a modulation peak in a single-sideband phone
signal is approximately 2.5 to 1
In most mixers, the oscillator frequency is higher than the carrier frequency of the input signal.
Features of a transmitters buffer stage include improvement in frequency stability of the oscillator
A3F type of emission produced when an amplitude modulated transmitter is modulated by a television signal
A pi network is a network consisting of one inductor and two capacitors
A G3E FM-phone signals is produced with a reactance modulator on the oscillator
Installing resistive spark plugs is a way of eliminating auto interference to radio reception
The carrier in an AM transmitter is the transmitters output signal when the modulation is present
Final IF amplifier, which also acts as a limiter stage, feeds the discriminator of an FM receiver
In an FM receiver, the discriminator stage has the IF signal as input and the audio signal as output
Capture effect - the loudest signal received is the only demodulated signal
A double-sideband phone signal can be generated by modulating the plate voltage of a class-C amplifier
Pre-emphasis is used in FM transmitters to improve the signal-to-noise ratio of high modulating frequencies
The result of cross-modulation is that the modulation of an unwanted signal is heard on the desired signal
FM receiver contains de-emphasis circuit
Television is emission F3F
F3C emission is produced when a frequency modulated transmitter is modulated by a facsimile signal
Two AM transmitting antennas are close tighter. As a result the two modulated signals are mixed in the final RF stage
of both transmitters. The resultant effect on the other station is intermodulation interference
Desensitizing the term used to refer to the reduction of receiver gain caused by the signal of a nearby station
transmitter in the same frequency band
Bandwidth of emission and occupied bandwidth is the bandwidth occupied by the carrier, both sidebands and
harmonics
A class-C RF amplifier is collector amplitude modulated and its average dc level collector current does not change.
This means a normal condition
Amplitude of the modulating signal determines the percentage modulation of an FM transmitter
Deviation ratio of an FM transmitter is the ratio of the maximum frequency swing to the highest modulating
frequency
The main purpose of the beat frequency oscillator (BFO) is to generate an output, whose frequency differs from the
IF by 1 kHz
Normally, a linear class B RF power amplifier operates with a bias approximately equal to projected cut-off
The purpose why an RF amplifier is operated under linear class-B conditions (as opposed to class-C) is to amplify an
AM signal
Cross-modulation interference the term used to refer to the condition where the signal from a very strong station are
superimposed on other signal being received
Peak negative voltage is the amplitude of the maximum negative excursion of a signal as viewed on an oscilloscope

FM and double sideband AM type of emission that suffer most from selective fading
In an FM-phone signal, percentage of modulation is the ratio between the actual frequency deviation to the maximum
frequency deviation
Capture effect is used to refer to the reception blockage of one FM-phone signal by another FM-phone signal
A receiver selectivity of 10 kHz in the IF circuitry is optimum for double-sideband AM type of signal
If the envelope of modulation is constant in amplitude this means zero-modulation
Amplitude modulation is the same as linear mixing
The negative half of the AM wave is supplied by the tuned circuit in a diode modulator
Having the carrier vary a resistance can produce AM
Amplitude modulators that vary the carrier amplitude with the modulating signal by passing it through an attenuator
network is the principle of variable resistance
PIN diode is used to produce AM at very high frequencies
Demodulator circuit recovers the original modulating information from an AM signal
Envelope detector is the most commonly used amplitude demodulator
Balanced modulator circuit generates the upper and lower sidebands and suppresses the carrier
Lattice modulator is a widely used balanced modulator
In a diode ring modulator, the diode act like switches
The output of a balanced modulator is DSB
The principal circuit in the popular 1496/1596 IC balanced modulator is a differential amplifier
The most commonly used filter in SSB generators uses crystals
In the phasing method of SSB generation, one sideband is canceled out due to phase shifting
A balanced modulator used to demodulate a SSB signal is called a product detector
Frequency translation is done with a circuit called a mixer
Mixing for frequency conversion is the same as linear summing
Lower complexity and cost is not a major disadvantage of FM over AM
The primary disadvantage of FM is its excessive use of spectrum space
Noise is primarily high-frequency spikes
The receiver circuit that rids FM of noise is the limiter
The Am signals generated at a low level may only be amplified by Class C amplifier
SSB means Single sideband with suppressed carrier
Filter a circuit used to select the desired output from a mixer
DSB is the output of a balanced modulator
The acronym SSSC refer to Single sideband, suppressed carrier
Demodulation process occurs in the receiver
BFO is usually used to demodulate SSB or CW signal
Diode detector is the most widely used amplitude modulator
Lattice modulator is the most widely used balanced modulator

Review Notes in Noise

Jitter is a non-continuous noise of irregular pulses or spikes of short duration with high amplitudes
Shannon-Hartley theorem sets a limit on the maximum capacity of a channel with a given noise level
Quantizing noise occurs in PCM
Noise always affects the signal in a communications system at the channel
Noise is the random and unpredictable electric signals from natural causes, both internal and external to the system
Gaussian noise/White noise/Thermal noise Noise from random acoustic or electric noise that has equal energy per
cycle over a specified total frequency band
The approximation of the quantized signal causes a quantization noise in PCM system
Limiter a particular circuit that rids FM of noise
290 K is the reference noise temperature
Noise unwanted radio signal on assigned frequency
Noise factor is the reliable measurement for comparing amplifier noise characteristics
White noise is measured on a circuit when it is correctly terminated but does not have any traffic
CCITT G. 151 standard recommends crosstalk limits
CCITT Rec. G. 172 standard is utilized in the intermodulation noise rates on PCM audio channels
800 Hz is the reference frequency of CCITT phosphometric noise measurement
290 K reference temperature used in noise analysis
Atmospheric noise is produced by lightning discharge in thunderstorms
Man-made noise is usually from transmission over power lines and by ground wave
Nif stands for Noise improvement factor
Industrial noise frequency is between 15 to 160 MHz
External noise fields are measured in terms of peak values
Precipitation static - form of interference caused by rain or dust storms
Thermal noise is an electric noise produced by thermal agitation of electrons in conductor and semiconductor
Crosstalk is the interference coming from other communications channels
-90 dBm is the reference noise level
pWp is the unit of noise power of psophometer
Solar flare a large emission of hydrogen from the sun that affects communications
Atmospheric noise is known as static noise
290 K standard design reference for environmental noise temperature
C + 273 absolute temperature in Kelvin
If bandwidth is doubled, the signal power is not changed
Galaxies and internal combustion engines are sources of noise bearing on electronic communications
De-emphasis in the receiver in effect attenuates modulating signal components and noise in high frequency range
Atmospheric noise or static is not a great problem at frequencies above 30 MHz
Is the proper procedure for suppressing electrical noise in a mobile station is to apply shielding and filtering where
necessary
The noise generated that primarily determines the signal-to-noise ratio in a VHF (150 MHz) marine-band receiver
is in the receiver front end
The difference between signal strength at a given point and a reference level is level
Interfering effect of noise, C message weighted, is dBrnc
F1A weighting refers to F1A handset
Power is definite amount of energy per time period
Reference noise is a noise that creates the same interfering effect as a 1000 Hz, -90 dBm tone, a noise than creates
zero dBrn in a voice channel
A practical dBrn measurement will almost always in a positive number
-85 dBm is the reference level for noise measurement, F1A weighted
-90 dBm is the reference tone level for dBm
-85 dBm is the reference tone level for dBa
Atmospheric noise becomes less severe at frequencies above 30 MHz
The value of the resistor creating thermal noise is doubled. The noise power generated is therefore unchanged
Input noise voltage is not a useful quantity for comparing the noise performance of receivers
Most internal noise comes from thermal agitation
Thermal agitation is not a source of external noise
Noise can be reduced by narrowing the bandwidth
Noise at the input to a receiver can be as high as several microvolts
Mixer circuit contributes most of the noise in a receiver
The transistor with the lowest noise figure in the microwave region is a MESFET

Transmit-time noise becomes of great importance at high frequencies

The solar cycle repeats the period of great electrical disturbance approximately every 11 years
The square of the thermal noise voltage generated by a resistor is proportional to its resistance, its temperature and
the bandwidth over which it is measured
Quantizing noise noise occurring in the presence of signal resulting from a mismatch between the exact value of an
analog signal and the closest available quantizing step in a digital coder
Impulse noise Noise consisting of irregular pulses of short duration and relatively high amplitude
Crosstalk noise the occurs via capacitive or inductive coupling in a cable
Sources of impulse noise induced in communication channels: Erroneous digital coding bit caused by an error on a
transmission facility, transients due to relay operation and crosstalk from dc signaling systems
Crosstalk due to incomplete suppression of sidebands or to intermodulation of two or more frequency-multiplexed
channels which are unintelligible is classified as miscellaneous noise
Psophometer is a device that measures the internal open circuit voltage of an equivalent noise generator having an
impedance of 600 ohm and delivering noise power to a 600 ohm load
Cosmic noise external noise originating outside the solar system
Solar noise a noise whose source is within the solar system
Noise density the total noise power present in a 1-Hz bandwidth
Lightning is the primary cause of atmospheric noise
Space noise noise coming from the sun and stars
The major cause of atmospheric or static noise is thunderstorms
MESFET is a low noise transistor commonly used at microwave frequencies

Review Notes in Transmission Fundamentals

Impedance is the opposition to the transfer of energy which is considered the dominant characteristics of a cable or
circuit that emanates from its physical structure
When load impedance equals to Zo of the line, it means that the load absorbs all the power
4:1 Impedance matching ratio of a coax balun
dBr stands for dB relative level
1000 Hz Standard test tone used for audio measurement
When VSWR is equal to zero, this means that no power is applied
Reflection coefficient is the ratio of reflected voltage to the forward traveling voltage
Transmission line must be matched to the load to transfer maximum power to the load
Dissipation factor indicates the relative energy loss in a capacitor
0 dBm is the standard test tone
Standing waves the energy that neither radiated into space nor completely transmitted
1 Angstrom (A) is equal to 10^-10 m
It is impossible to use a waveguide at low radio frequencies because of the size of the waveguide
Communications is the transmission and reception of information
Transmission lines are either balanced or unbalanced with respect to ground
The standing wave ratio is equal to 1 if the load is properly matched with the transmission line
Low attenuation is the advantage of the balanced transmission line compared to unbalanced line
Spectral analysis is the method of determining the bandwidth of any processing system
Losses in the conducting walls of the guide causes the attenuation present in a waveguide
Balun a device that converts a balanced line to an unbalanced line of a transmission line
The average power rating of RG-58 C/u is 50 W
RG-211A a coaxial cable used for high temperatures
The velocity factor of a transmission line depends on the dielectric constant of the material used
Impedance inversion can be obtained by a quarter-wave line
Transmission lines when connected to antennas have resistive load at the resonant frequency
Characteristic impedance the impedance measured at the input of the transmission line when its length is infinite
Complex propagation constant is not considered primary line constant
The dielectric constants of materials commonly used in transmission lines range from about 1.2 to 2.8
Typically, the velocity factor (Vf) of the materials used in transmission lines rage from 0.6 to 0.9
For an air dielectric two-wire line, the minimum characteristic impedance value is 83 ohms
When a quarter-wave section transmission line is terminated by a short circuit and is connected to an RF source at the
other end, its input impedance is equivalent to a parallel resonant LC circuit
The concept used to make one Smith chart universal is called normalization
The basic elements of communication system are the transmitter, receiver, and transmission channel
Facsimile is the transmission of printed material over telephone lines
Call waiting tone is a continuous tone generated by the combination of two frequencies of 350 Hz and 440 Hz used in
telephone sets
VF repeaters are unidirectional amplifiers having 20-25 decibel gain that are placed about 75 km apart used to
compensate for losses along the telephone
Induction coil is a component in the telephone set that has the primary function of interfacing the handset to the local
loop
Pulse dialing has 10 pulse/sec rate
Trunk line is a telephone wire that connects two central offices
MTSO the central switching office coordinating element for all cell sites that has cellular processor and cellular
switch. It interfaces with telephone company zone offices, control call processing and handle billing activities
Base station in a cellular system performs radio-related functions for cellular site.
Frequency re-use a technology used to increase the capacity of a mobile phone system
If the grade of service of a telephone system indicated P = 0.05, it means lost call of 5%
3700 Hz is the Out-of-band signaling between Toll Central Offices (Bell System Standard)
If the SWR is infinite, the load transmission line is purely reactive
Not more than 12 digits make up an international telephone number as recommended by CCITT REC. E. 161
One (1) Erlang is equal to 36 CCS
WATS standard tariff for flat rate telephone service beyond the normal flat rate in that area
The standard analog telephone channel bandwidth is 300-3400 Hz
Manual switching type of switching in which a pair of wire from the telephone set terminates in a jack and the
switch is supervised by an operator
Everytime when the telephone is idle, the handset is in the on-hook state.
Varistor is a component in the telephone set that has the primary function of compensating for the local loop length
Electromagnetic receiver is used in conventional telephone handset
A voice-grade circuit using PTN has an ideal passband of 0 to 4 kHz

Basic voice grade (VG) is the minimum-quality circuit available using the PTN
Direct distance dialing (DDD) network is called Dial-up network
The advantage of sidetone is it assures the customer that the telephone is working
Tie trunk is a special service circuit connected two private branch exchanges (PBX)
Tariff the published rates, regulations, and descriptions governing the provision of communications service for
public use
The power loss of a telephone hybrid is 3 dB
Telephone channel has a band-pass characteristic occupying the frequency range of 300-3400 Hz
The first strowger step-by-step switch was used in 1897
G.122 is the CCITT recommendation for a preparation of loss plan, a variable loss plans and a fixed loss plan
Umbrella cells is appropriate for load management, fast moving mobiles and low-usage areas
In cellular networks, standard base station antennas are replaced by adaptive array
Analogue cellular technology is the basis of the first generation wireless local loop
When the calling party hears a busy tone on his telephone, the call is considered completed
Short-circuited stubs are preferred to open circuited stubs because the latter are liable to radiate
Coefficient of reflection is the ratio of the reflected voltage to the incident voltage
Quarter-wave matching - one method of determining antenna impedance
Single-wire line is a single conductor running from the transmitter to the antenna
Coaxial cable impedance is typically 50 to 75 ohms
Waveguide becomes compulsory above 3 GHz
Normal voice channel bandwidth is 4 kHz
Echo suppressors are used on all communications system when the round trip propagation time exceeds 50 ms
Quarter-wavelength line is used as impedance transformer
The transmission lines which can convey electromagnetic waves only in higher modes is usually called waveguide
Nitrogen gas is sometimes used in waveguide to keep the waveguide dry
It is impossible to use a waveguide at low radio frequencies because of the size of the waveguide
To couple in and out of a waveguide, insertion of an E-probe into the waveguide and insertion of an H-loop into the
waveguide is done
A rectangular waveguide is operating in the dominant TE10 mode. The associated flux lines are
established transversely across the narrow dimension of the waveguide
For dominant mode of a rectangular waveguide, the distance between two instantaneous consecutive positions of
maximum field intensity is referred to as half of the guide wavelength
The guide wavelength, in a rectangular waveguide is greater than the free-space wavelength at the same signal
frequency
Using the TE10 mode, microwave power can only be transmitted in free rectangular guide provided the wide
dimension is greater than one-half of the wavelength in free space
If the signal frequency applied to a rectangular guide is increased and the dominant mode is employed, the group
velocity is increased
The frequency range over which a rectangular waveguide is excited in the dominant mode is limited to the difference
between the frequency at which the cutoff wavelength is twice the narrow dimension
If a rectangular waveguide is to be excited in the dominant mode, the E-probe should be inserted at a distance of one
quarter-wavelength from the sealed end
A quarter-wave line is connected to an RF generator and is shorted out at the far end. The input impedance to the line
generator is a high value of resistance
If the SWR on a transmission line has a high value, the reason could be an impedance mismatch between the line and
the load
If a quarter-wave transmission line is shorted at one end the line behaves as a parallel-tuned circuit in relation to the
generator
A 50-ohm transmission line is feeding an antenna which represents a 50 ohm resistive load. To shorten the line, the
length must be any convenient value
The outer conductor of the coaxial cable is usually grounded at the beginning and at the end of the cable
A feature of an infinite transmission line is that its input impedance at the generator is equal to the lines surge
impedance
When the surge impedance of a line is matched to a load, the line will transfer maximum power to the load
SWR - ratio of the mismatch between the antenna and the transmitter power
F3C and A3E emission designation for a facsimile
AWG #19 commonly used telephone wire
Wavelength is the distance traveled by a wave in the time of one cycle
The velocity factor is inversely proportional with respect to the square root of the dielectric constant
Balun circuit connects a balanced line to an unbalanced line
To connect a coaxial line to a parallel wire line, balun is used
Waveguides are transmission lines which can convey electromagnetic waves only in higher order modes
The amount of uncertainly in a system of symbols is also called entropy

The twists in twisted wire pairs reduced electromagnetic interference

Loading means to the addition of inductance
Coaxial is the most commonly used transmission line for high frequency application
The characteristic impedance of a transmission does not depend upon its length
For maximum absorption of power at the antenna, the relationship between the characteristic impedance of the line Zo
and the load impedance Zl should be Zo = Zl
The mismatch between antenna and transmission line impedance cannot be corrected for by adjusting the length of
transmission line
Standing waves is a pattern of voltage and current variations along a transmission line not terminated in its
characteristic impedance
The desirable SWR on a transmission line is 1
The most desirable reflection coefficient is 0
Reflection coefficient is the ratio expressing the percentage of incident voltage reflected on a transmission line
At very high frequencies, transmission lines act as tuned circuits
A shorted quarter-wave line at the operating frequency acts like a parallel resonant circuit
A shorted half-wave line at the operating frequency acts like a series resonant circuit
Coaxial medium is least susceptible to noise
Twisted pair medium is most widely used in LANs
Coaxial cable is the most commonly used transmission line in television system
DC blocks are used in coaxial transmission line for the purpose of preventing AC power supply voltage from being
shorted by a balun or band splitter
Adjacent channel interference is a type of interference caused by off-air TV channels 2 and 4, plus a satellite dish
operating on channel 3
Dithering (in TVRO communications) is a process for reducing the effect of noise on the TVRO video signal
Frequency and voltage are important useful quantities describing waveforms
Halving the power means 3-dB loss
One neper (Np) is 8.686 decibels
Reflectometer is used to measure SWR
214-056 twin lead which is commonly used for TV lead-in has characteristics impedance of 300 ohm
A coaxial cable is a good example of a bounded medium
dNp is known as one-tenth of a neper
The input impedance of a quarterwave short-circuited transmission line at its resonant frequency is infinite or an open
circuit
The ratio of the largest rms value to the smallest rms value of the voltage in the line is called VSWR
The characteristic impedance of a transmission line does not depend upon its length
A power difference of -3 dB means a loss of one half of the power
Low attenuation is an advantage of the balance transmission line
Waveguides are used mainly for microwave transmission because no generators are powerful enough to excite them
The ratio of the smallest to the largest rms current value is called ISWR
A ten times power change in transmission system is equivalent to 10 dB
Parallel-wire line type transmission line is employed where balanced properties are required
To be properly matched the ratio of a maximum voltage along a transmission line should be equal to 1
Absorption coefficient the ratio between the energy absorbed by a surface to the total energy received by the surface
When the diameter of the conductors of a 2 wire transmission line is held constant, the effect of decreasing the
distance between the conductors is decrease the impedance
The higher the gauge number of a conductor the higher the resistance or the smaller the diameter
/4 transformer a short length of transmission line used to reduce/eliminate standing wave in the main transmission
line
Reflectance ratio of reflected power to incident power
The SWR when a transmission line is terminated in a short circuit is infinite

Review Notes in Radiation and Wave Propagation

Field strength is the amount of voltage induced in a wave by an electromagnetic wave
An electromagnetic wave consists of both electric and magnetic fields
D is the lowest layer of the ionosphere
James Clerk Maxwell profounded electromagnetic radiation theory
The D, E and F layers are known as Kennely-Heaviside layers
Band different grouping of the electromagnetic spectrum
90 is the relation in degrees of the electric and magnetic fields in an electromagnetic wave
A changing electric field gives rise to a magnetic field
Frequencies in the UHF range propagate by means of space waves
In electromagnetic waves, polarization is due to the transverse nature of the waves
Electromagnetic waves are refracted when they pass into a medium of different dielectric constants
Ionosphere is the highest layer of the atmosphere
F2 is the thickest layer of the ionosphere
K factor Effective earth radius to true earth radius ratio
Reflection-multipath fading due to interference between direct and reflected rays
D layer reflects very low frequency waves and absorbs medium frequency waves
E layer is used for high-frequency daytime propagation
Critical frequency is the highest frequency that can be sent straight upward and be returned to earth
High frequency range is from 3 to 30 MHz
Medium frequency range is from 0.3 to 3 MHz
In tropospheric scatter propagation, the attenuation is dependent on scatter angle
If the transmitter power remains constant, an increase in the frequency of the sky wave will lengthen the skip distance
The unit of electric field strength is volts per meter
Polarization refers to the direction of the electric field vector space
Circularly polarized a TEM wave whose polarization rotates
300 x 10^6 m/s velocity of light in free spaces
Radiowave that is far from its sources is called plane wave
Light goes from medium A to medium B at angle of incidence of 40. The angle of refraction is 30. The speed of
light in B is less than that in A
In a vacuum the speed of an electromagnetic wave is a universal constant
The depth of an object submerged in a transparent liquid always seems less than its actual depth
Wavefront a fixed point in an electromagnetic wave
VHF ship station transmitters must have the capability of reducing carrier power to 1 W
Most of the effects an electromagnetic wave produces when it interacts with matter are due to its electric field
A mobile receiver experiences dead areas of reception as a result of shading of the RF signal by hills and trees
When the electric field is perpendicular to the surface of the earth, vertical is the polarization of the TEM wave
When the magnetic field is perpendicular to the surface of the earth, horizontal is the polarization of the TEM wave
When the magnetic field is parallel to the surface of the earth, vertical is the polarization of the TEM wave
The two interrelated fields considered to make up an electromagnetic wave are an electric field and a magnetic field
The bandwidth of the transmitted signal affect selective fading because it is more pronounced at wide bandwidths
Spread spectrum communication a wide bandwidth communications system in which the RF carrier varies
according to some predetermined sequence
A changing magnetic field gives rise to electric field
When a space-wave signal passes over a mountain ridge, a small part of the signal is diffracted down the far side of
the mountain. This phenomenon is called knife-edge diffraction
The index of refraction of a material medium is greater than 1
Electromagnetic waves travel in free space approximately 300 million meters per second
Vertical polarization electric field that lies in a plane perpendicular to the earths surface
Horizontal polarization - electric field that lies in a plane parallel to the earths surface
Fading applies to troposcatter propagation
VLF waves are used for some types of service because they are very reliable
High-frequency waves are affected by the solar cycle
Distances near the skip distance should be used for sky-wave propagation to prevent sky-wave and upper ray
interference
A ship-to-ship communications system is plagued by fading. The best solution seems to be the use of frequency
diversity
A range of microwave frequencies more easily passed by the atmosphere than are the other is called a window
Frequencies in the UHF range normally propagate by means of space waves
Tropospheric scatter is used with frequencies in the UHF range
The ground wave eventually disappears as one moves away from the transmitter, because of tilting
In electromagnetic waves, polarization means the physical orientation of electric field in space

As electromagnetic waves travel in free space, attenuation happens

The absorption of a radio waves by the atmosphere depends on their frequency
Diffraction of electromagnetic waves may occur around the edge of a sharp obstacle
In an electromagnetic wave the electric field is perpendicular to both the magnetic field and the wave direction
The highest frequencies are found in x-rays
Electromagnetic waves transport energy
The ionosphere is a region of ionized gas in the upper atmosphere. The ionosphere is responsible for long-distance
radio communications
Blue light of which has the shortest wavelength
The quality in sound that corresponds to color in light is pitch
All real images can appear on a screen
When a beam of light enters on medium from another, a quality that never changes is its frequency
Relative to the angle of incidence, the angle of refraction is smaller or is larger
A light ray enters one medium from another along the normal. The angle of refraction is dependent on the indexes of
refraction of the two media
E layer aids MF surface-wave propagation a little and reflects some HF waves in daytime
Dispersion is the term used to describe the splitting of white light into its component colors in refraction
The depth of an objects submerged in a transparent liquid always seems less than its actual depth
Total internal reflection can occur when light passes from one medium to another that has a lower index of refraction
When a light ray approaches a glass-air interface from the glass side at the critical angle, the angle of refraction is 90
The brightness of light source is called its luminous intensity, whose unit is candela
Luminous efficiency is least for a low-wattage light bulb
The minimum illumination recommended for reading is 8000 lx
The solid angle subtended by a hemisphere about its center is 2 sr
Microwave signals propagate by way of the direct wave
The ionosphere causes radio signals to be refracted
Groundwave communications is most effective in 300 kHz to 3 MHz frequency range
The ionosphere has its greatest effect on signals in 3 to 30 MHz frequency range
The type of radio wave responsible for long-distance communication by multiple skips is the sky wave
Line-of-sight communications is not a factor in HF frequency range
A microwave-transmitting antenna is 550 ft. high. The receiving antenna is 200 ft high. The minimum transmission
distance is 53.3 mi
To increase the transmission distance of UHF signal, increase antenna height should be done
Inverse Square Law states that power density is inversely proportional to the distance from its source
Sky wave gets in contact with the ionosphere and reflected by it
F2 is the highest layer in the ionosphere
E is the next lowest layer in the ionosphere
Ultraviolet radiation is the primary cause of ionization in the atmosphere
F2 layers does not disappear at night
ELF, VLF and MF use surface wave propagation
The ability of the ionosphere to reflect a radio wave back to the earth is determined by operating frequency, ion
density and angle of incidence
MUF highest frequency that can be used for skywave propagation between two given points on earth
Skip distance the shortest distance measured along the earths surface that a skywave is returned to earth
Fading fluctuations in the signal strength at the receiver
Space diversity two or more antennas are used separated by several wavelengths
Frequency diversity two or more receivers are used using a single antenna
Diversity is not a cause of fading
Solar flares the gigantic emission of hydrogen from the sun
SIDs Sudden Ionospheric Disturbance
Troposcatter propagation a means of beyond the line of sight propagation of UHF signals
Troposcatter two directional antennas are pointed so that their beams intersect in the troposhere
Ducting super refraction
Duct a layer of warm air trapped above cooler air
Electric field corresponds to voltage
Shadow zone absence of reception
Huygens principle each point on a spherical waveform maybe a source of a secondary spherical wavefront
Ducting occurs in Troposphere
E region is most ionized at midday
Transequatorial propagation is best during afternoon or early evening
Very high and ultra high frequencies is most affected by knife-edge refraction
F2 layer has an average height of 225 km at night