MEC 322: CONTROL SYSTEMS

AND
INSTRUMENTATION
CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION TO CONTROL SYSTEM

1.1 BASIC CONCEPT, TERMINOLOGY AND PRINCIPLES OF

CONTROL SYSTEM
1.1.1 What is control systems ?

CONTROL

SYSTEMS

A set of things working together

The ability to manage a machine, as parts of a mechanism or an
vehicle or other moving object.
interconnecting network.
(Oxford Dictionaries)
(Oxford Dictionaries)

INSTRUMENTATION

CONTROL

SYSTEMS

INSTRUMENTATION

SYSTEMS
CONTROL

INSTRUMENTATION

1.1.2. Control Systems application ?

Control system have a wide rage of application:
1. Machine tool control.
2. Satellites.
3. Aircraft control.
4. Automatic assembly line.
5. Transportation systems.
6. Robot control.
7. Industrial and commercial facilities.

1.1.3. Important Terminologies.

Control Variable:
It is the quantity or condition that is measured and controlled.
Normally, the control variable is the output of a system.

Manipulated Variable:
It is the quantity or condition that is varied by the controller
to change the value of the control variable. Control means
measuring the value of the control variable of the system and
applying the manipulated variable to the system to correct or
limit the deviation of the measured value from a desired
value.


Plants:
A plant may be a component of equipment, such as a set of
machine parts functioning together, whose purpose is to
perform a particular operation. Examples such as heating
furnace and chemical reactor.

Processes:
A process may be defined as a progressively continuing
operation that consist of a series of controlled actions or
moments systematically directed towards a particular result
or end. Examples of processes include chemical, mechanical,
economic and biological processes.


Systems:
A system is a combination of components that act together to
attain a uniform objective. A system may be physical or
virtual.

Disturbances:
A disturbance is a signal that tends to adversely affect the
value of the output of a system.

Feedback Control:
It is an operation by which the output of a system is
controlled by comparing with reference input.

Flight speed control during autopilot mode

1.1.4. Principle of control system.

Open Loop Control System:
The output is neither measured nor feedback for comparison
with the input.
Example: Washing machine.
Why?:
1. Soaking, washing and rinsing operate on time basis.
2. Does not measure the cleanliness of clothes as the output.


Close Loop Control System:

The actuating error signal which is the difference between the
input signal and the feedback signal is fed to the controller so
as to reduce the error and bring the output of the system to a
desired value.
Example: Flight auto pilot.
Why?:
1. Air speed sensor will detect and calculate the exact air
speed and send the information to auto pilot controller.
2. Auto pilot controller will reduce or increase engine thrust
to compensate the different between the real and desired
air speed value.

Block diagram of open-loop control system

Block diagram of close-loop control system

Closed loop control

system
Possible to use
inaccurate and
inexpensive components
to obtain the accurate
control of a given plant.
Stability is a major
problem.
It is advantageous for
unknown disturbance.
Higher power.
The number of
components used is large

Open-loop control system

It is not possible to use
inaccurate components.
Stability is not a major
problem.
It is advantageous for
known disturbances.
Lower power.
The number of
components used is
small.

1.2. Instrumentation.

Instrumentation vital to modern industries.

Able to save the time and labour cost by act as extensions of
human senses.

Also facilitate the retrieval of information from complex
situations.

Advantages of using instrumentation:
1. Better quality control.
2. Higher plant utilization.
3. Better manpower productivity.
4. Material and energy savings.

1.2.1. Applications of instrument systems.

Measurement of system parameters information
Determine the various parameters/information of the system
or a process.

Control of a certain process or operation (Feedback control)

The measurement system forms an integral part which
provides deliberate guidance or manipulation to maintain
them at a set point or to change it according to a pre-set
programme.


Simulation of system conditions

In the design stage, analytical tools like dimensional analysis
may be employed to translate the experimental results on the
model to the prototype.


Experimental design studies

The design and development of a new product usually involve
trial and error procedures which time consuming. By using
design instrumentation the trial and error stage can be
simplify thus save a lot of time taken.


To perform various manipulations

Instruments are employed to perform operation like addition,
subtraction, differentiation, integration signal sampling and
signal averaging.

Testing of material, maintenance of standard and
specification of product.

Quality control in industry.

1.3. Functional Elements of a Measurement System

Consist of two types:
a. Basic Functional Elements.
b. Auxiliary Functional Elements.
Basic Functional Elements.
1. Transducer Element that senses and converts the desired
input to a more convenient and practicable form to be
handled by the measurement system.
2. Signal Conditioning Element for manipulating/processing the
output of the transducer in a suitable form.
3. Data Presentation Element for giving the information about
the measured variable in the quantitative form.

Auxiliary Functional Elements.

1. Calibration Element to provide a built-in calibration facility.
2. External Power Element to facilitate the working of one or
more of the elements like the transducer element or feedback
element.
3. Feedback Element to control the variation of the physical
quantity that is being measured.
4. Microprocessor Element to facilitate the manipulation of
data for the purpose of simplifying or accelerating the data
interpretation. Always used with analog to digital converter
(ADC) which is incorporated in the signal conditioning
element.

Basic and auxiliary functional elements of a measurement system

1.3.1. Examples of Identification of Functional Elements in

Instruments

Bourdon tube pressure gauge and its functional elements

Bourdon tube pressure gauge with digital read out and its functional elements

Electronic type of displacement measuring instrument and its functional

elements

1.4. Description of the functional elements of the instruments

1.4.1 Transducer Element

Transducer senses the desired input in one physical form and
converts it to an output in another physical form.

The transduction of the input signal may take place in two
stages or even more. (Bourdon tube with digital read out)

Assignment 2:
List at least 4 characteristics of transducer element while
selecting a transducer for a particular application.

1.4.2 Signal Conditioning Element

The output of the transducer usually is too small to operate an
indicator or a recorder.

The signal conditioning operations that are carried out on the
transduced information may be:
a. Amplification. (Increase the amplitude of the signal)
1. Mechanical Amplifying Elements (lever, gears or
combination of the two.
2. Hydraulic/Pneumatic Amplifying Elements (various
valves)
3. Optical Amplifying Elements (lenses, mirrors or
combination)
4. Electrical Amplifying Elements (transistor circuit)

b. Signal filtrations. (Removal of unwanted noise signal

that tend to obscure the transducer
signal).
1. Mechanical Filters.
2. Pnuematic Filters.
3. Electric Filters.
c. Signal Compensation/Signal Linearization.
d. Differentiation/Integration.
e. Analog to Digital Conversion.
f. Signal Averaging/Signal Sampling.

Suitable for
electrical signal.

1.4.3 Data Presentation Element

This element gathers the output of the signal conditioning
element and presents the same to be read or seen by the
operator (human).

The element should have:
1. As fast a response as possible.
2. Impose as little drag on the system as possible.
3. Have very small inertia, friction or stiction.
(Advantage if using light rays and electron beams)

Can be visual display type, graphic recording and analog or
digital depend on its purpose.

1.5. Classification of Instruments

1.5.1. Instrumentation can be classified into:
a. Deflection Types.
b. Null Types.
a. Deflection Types. (Fig 1.9 page 18)
An instrument which the physical effect generated by the
measuring quantity produces an equivalent opposing effect
in some part of the instrument which in turn is closely
related to some variable like mechanical displacement or
deflection in the instrument.

Advantages: Simple in construction and operation and have a

good dynamic response.
Drawback: Loading error may have happen and interfere with the
state of the measured quantity.

b. Null Types. (Fig 1.10 page 19)

An instrument which provided with either a manually
operated or automatic balancing device that generates an
equivalent opposing effect to nullify the physical effect caused
by the quantity to be measured.

Advantages: Do not interfere with the state of the measured

quantity thus extremely accurate.
Drawback: Slow in operation and dynamic response is quite poor.
(can improve by include a feedback type control).


1.5.2. Instrumentation also can be classified into:

a. Manually Operated Types.
b. Automatic Types.


If the instrument requires the services of human operator it

can be category as manual type of instrument.

The instrument becomes automatic if the manual operation is

replaced by an auxiliary device incorporated in the
instrument.


1.5.3. Instrumentation also can be classified into: (refer fig 1.14 page 22)
a. Analog Types.
b. Digital Types.


Analog instruments are those that present the physical

variables of interest in the form of continuous or stepless
variations with respect of time.
Advantages: Less in cost and easy to maintain and repair.

Digital instruments are those in which physical variables are

represented by digital quantities which are discrete and vary
in step.

Advantages: 1. Can be apply with on-line use for data processing.

2. Does not effected by noise during transmission.
Drawbacks: 1. Unable to indicate the quantity which is a part of the
step value.


1.5.4. Instrumentation also can be classified into:

a. Self-Generating Types.
b. Power-Operated Types.


For Self-Generating (Passive) instruments, the energy needed

to operate are gain only from input signal.
Example: Mercury thermometer, Bourdon gauge.

For Power-Operated (Active) instruments, energy needed to

operate gain from auxiliary power such compressed air,
electricity or hydraulic supply.
Example: Digital thermometer, Bourdon gauge with digital
read out.


1.5.5. Instrumentation also can be classified into:

a. Contacting Types.
b. Non-Contacting Types.


For Contacting types instruments, the instrument need to

direct contact with the measured physical form during
operation.
Example: Mercury thermometer.

For Non-Contacting (proximity) instruments, these

instruments measure the desired input even though they are
not contact with the measured physical form.
Example: Variable reluctant tachometer. (Fig 1.16 page 23)


1.5.6. Instrumentation also can be classified into:

a. Dumb Types.
b. Intelligent Types.


Dumb types instruments, which the input variable is measured

and displayed but data is processed by the observer.
Example: Analog weight scale.

Intelligent types instruments, these instruments measured and

displayed the input but the data is also processed by the
instrument with help of microprocessor.
Example: Digital weight scale with body fat calculation features.

1.6. Microprocessor-Based Instrumentation (p)

One of auxiliary functional element is microprocessor
element.

This element give instrumentation vast potential to perform
complex computations with high speed and accuracy.

As its name the microprocessor are small in size and
dimension.

Digital computer device

1.6.1 Advantages & Disadvantages of p.

Advantages
Automatically carry the complex task.
Have signal condition element and
display which are compact and
reliable.
Built in fault detection and auto
correct function.
Function in real time (on-line).
Can be control by remote control.
Lower cost, higher accuracy and
flexible.
Small in size and portable.
Low power consumption.

Disadvantages
Cannot design the program by itself.
The input data must be in digital
form. Need ADC.
Fast technology progress and need a
lot cost to maintain up to date.
Virus and security problem.

1.7. Standard and Calibration.

Measurement is an act of a quantitative comparison between
predefined standard and the unknown magnitude of a
physical quantity.

The are 2 requirement in act of measurement:
a. The standard that been used must be well established,
highly accurate and can be reproduced.
b. Measurement devices and calibration procedures must
have proven reliability.

1.7.1 Standards of Measurements

Standard of measurement defined as the physical representation
of the unit of measurement.

There are 3 of standards of measurements:
a. International standards.
1. Devices designed and constructed to the specifications of an
international forum.
2. Have highest possible accuracy.
3. Standard are maintained by International Bureau of Weights
and Measures in France.

b. Primary standards.
1. Devices maintained by standards organization/national
labaratories.
2. Main function of primary standards is to calibrate/check and
certify secondary reference standards.
c. Secondary standards.
1. Basic reference standards employed by industrial
measurement laboratories.
2. Maintained by the concerned laboratory.
3. Can be used by ordinary user of instruments for calibration
of working standards.
d. Working standards.
1. High accuracy devices that used to calibrate laboratory
instruments. (Block gauge)

1.7.2 Calibration

Calibration is the act or result of quantitative comparison between
a known standard and the output of the measuring system
measuring the same quantity.

Calibration can be classified as:
a. Primary calibration.
1. Device/system calibrate against primary standard.
2. Calibrated device employed as secondary calibration device.
3. Example: Standard cell.
b. Secondary calibration.
1. Secondary calibration devices are used widely in general
laboratory .
2. Example: Standard cell used for calibrating voltmeter.

c. Direct calibration with known input source.

1. In general of the same order of accuracy as primary
calibration.
2. Calibrated device also can be employed as secondary
calibration device.
d. Indirect calibration.
1. Based on the equivalence of two different devices that can
be employed for measuring a certain physical quantity.
e. Routine calibration.
1. Visual inspection of the instrument for physical defect.
2. Proper installation as manufacturer specification.
3. Zero setting of all indicators.
4. Levelling.
5. Checking for calibration validation.

REFERENCES
1.
2.

Nakra, B. C. (2009). Instrumentation Measurement and Analysis. New

Delhi, Tata McGraw-Hill.
Alavala, C.R. (2009). Principles of Industrial Instrumentation and Control
System. Singapore, Cengage learning.