CARDIOVASCULAR ASSESSMENT

LESSON #9

WEB SITES OF INTEREST

Health Assessment Courses from New York University, Division of Nursing:

Features study guides for health assessment and links
to case studies for the following topics:
History-taking & documentation
Techniques & Equipment
Integument
Head & neck
Lung & thorax
Cardiovascular
Abdominal
Male & female genitalia
Musculoskeletal
Neurological
http://www.nyu.edu/classes/kirton/

The Auscultation Assistant: Review of cardiac sounds, murmurs & associated pathologies:
UCLA site:
http://www.med.ucla.edu/wilkes/intro/html

Cardiology Pathology Index: Myocardial Infarction Tutorial: Pathology Slides

http://medstat.med.edu/WebPath/CVHTML/CVIDX.html

Cardiovascular Disease: Anatomy Review

http://www.bu.edu/cohis/cardvasc/intro/hrtlook.htm

EKG Reviews & Links to Other EKG Sites:

http://homepages.enterprise.net/djenkins/ecghome.html

Cardiovascular System:
often described as a maze of tubing and a wondrous pump

Structures of Significance
Heart and neck vessels
Aorta - arch & thoracic
Common carotid arteries
Internal jugular veins
Superior vena cava
Right atrium
Right ventricle
Pulmonary artery
Left atrium
Left ventricle

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 Apex
Base
Pericardium
Myocardium
Endocardium
Septum
Tricuspid (AV) valve
Mitral (AV) valve
Pulmonic (SL) valve
Aortic (SL) valve

Accessible arteries
Temporal
Carotid
Aorta
Brachial
Ulnar
Radial
Femoral
Popliteal
Dorsalis pedis
Posterior tibial

Accessible veins
Jugular
Superficial & deep arm veins
Femoral (deep)
Popliteal (deep)
Great & small saphenous (superficial)

Accessible lymphatic tissue

Cervical chains
Axillary chains
Epitrochlear
Inguinal
Tonsils
Thymus
Spleen

Functions of Significance
Heart
Cardiac Cycle
Conductive system
Peripheral Vascular Circulation
Arterial
Venous
Lymphatics
Conserve fluid & plasma
Major part of the immune system
Absorb lipids from intestinal tract

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Most Common Cardiovascular Problems
Coronary Artery Disease (CAD)
Hypertension (HTN)
80% of US population
Rheumatic Heart Disease (RHD)
Sequelae of beta hemolytic strep infections
Resulting valvular damage more likely seen in older adults,
who may not have been treated for strep
Jones Criteria used to establish new diagnosis
Bacterial Endocarditits (BE)
bacteremia causes valvular damage
Congenital Heart Disease (CHD)
Greatest portion diagnosed early in life

Cardiac History - What are the patient’s risk factors &/or symptoms?

 Risk Factors (Noncorrectable)

What are the unmodifiable risk factors?
 Age, sex, personality type
 Family Hx. - sudden death, HTN, stroke or MI prior to 50,
severe hyperlipidemia, DM
 PMH - arrhythmias, murmurs, CHF, rheumatic disease,
cardiac surgery, bleeding disorders, aneurysms, DVT
(deep vein thrombosis), emboli, or hypo-, hyperthyroidism
 Diabetes mellitus (belongs in both lists)
 Coronary artery disease (belongs in both lists)
 Congenital heart defects

 Risk Factors (Correctable)

What are the modifiable risk factors?
 Smoking
 Employment: physical vs. emotional demands,
environmental hazards, stress management
 Nutritional status: body fat & type of diet
 Anaerobic exercise
 Estrogen replacement (if postmenopausal)
 Drug use - alcohol, cocaine, prescription & OTC
 Essential HTN
 Hypercholesterolemia

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BACKGROUND INFORMATION SIGNIFICANT FOR RISK FACTORS:

 Hypertension Classifications: NIH, 6th Report, 1997

Adults: Category Systolic (SBP) Diastolic (DBP)

 Normal <130 <85
 High normal 130-139 85-89
 Hypertension
Stage I (mild) 140-159 90-99 Lifestyle changes
Stage II (moderate) 160-179 100-109 Lifestyle changes
Stage III (severe) 180-209 110-119 Medication
Stage IV (very severe) 210 120

Children:
 Normal: < 90th %ile systolic & diastolic
 High normal: 90-95th %ile systolic & diastolic
 Hypertension: > 95th %ile systolic &

 Arm Blood Pressure: May be 5-10 mm Hg higher in

right arm than left arm: greater differences between right &
left arm may be associated with congenital aortic stenosis or
acquired conditions, such as aortic dissection or obstruction
of arteries of the upper arm
Supravalvular Aortic Stenosis: HTN in Rt. Arm
& hypotension in lt. Arm

 Leg Blood Pressure: Arm & leg blood pressures are about
equal during the first year of life & after that time the leg blood
pressure is 15-20 mm Hg higher than arm blood pressure
Coarctation of Aorta: Leg BP lower than arm BP

 Pulse Pressure:
difference between systolic & diastolic blood pressures:
 usual adult pulse pressure is between 30 – 40 mm Hg
(even as high as 50 mm Hg): example: pulse pressure
may widen with systolic hypertension, may widen with
increased intracranial pressure
 may be wider in children (between 20 – 50 mm Hg):
examples: wide pulse pressure more than 50 mm Hg in
children may indicate congestive heart failure:
narrow pulse pressure less than 10 mm Hg may
indicate aortic stenosis

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 Orthostatic Hypotension: Decrease in systolic BP of
20-30 mm Hg or more when changing from supine to standing
position, & increase in pulse of 10-20 bpm: sudden drops may
result in fainting. Dizziness & faintness from orthostatic
hypotension may occur when taking antihypertensive
medications, volume depleted, confined to bed or in the elderly

 Korotkoff sounds: Turbulant sounds of partial obstruction

of arterial flow
Phase I: sharp tapping sound (systolic)
Phase II: change to soft swishing sound
Phase III: sounds more crisp & intense
Phase IV: muffled tapping (first diastolic)
closer to true diastolic in children:
record for diastolic in children <13 yrs
Phase V: cessation of sound (2nd diastolic)
closer to true diastolic in adults:
record for diastolic in children >13 yrs
& adults
American Heart Association recommends
Recording systolic/1st diastolic/2nd diastolic

 Auscultatory gap:
silence caused by disappearance of Korotkoff sounds after
initial appearance and are then heard 10-15 mm Hg later:
can be mistaken for lower SBP reading (point of reappearance):
can be associated with decreased peripheral flow, such as
hypertension or aortic stenosis

 Pulse: Common Definitions & Abnormalities

Pulse Deficit: A difference between the apical &

peripheral pulse.(peripheral pulse rate subtracted from
apical pulse): normally “zero;” or no difference:
a pulse deficit indicates weak pulses/heart beats

Bigeminal Pulse: Normal pulse is followed by premature

contractions, which are weaker than the normal pulse.
Rhythm is irregular. Possible causes: premature ventricular
contraction or atrial contraction

Pulses Alterans: Pulses have large amplitude beats

followed by pulses of low amplitude. Rhythm remains
normal. Possible cause: left sided congestive heart failure

Pulsus Paradoxus: An exaggeration of the normal

paradoxical pulse, defined as a normal fall of approximately
5 mm. Hg. in systolic arterial blood pressure during inspiration,
as compared to expiration. A difference of more than
10 mm. Hg is abnormal pulsus paradoxus. Possible causes:
cardiac tamponade, constrictive pericarditis, obstructive
lung disease. It is tested better by BP evaluation of systolic

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 pressure than by pulse palpation.

Palpitations: Unpleasant sensations of awareness of

the heartbeat: described as skipped beats, racing, fluttering,
pounding or irregularity: may result from rapid acceleration
or slowing of heart, increased forcefulness of cardiac
contraction: not necessarily associated with heart disease

 Cholesterol Issues

 Serum Lipid Levels:

 Used to determine risk for coronary heart disease
 TCHOL: Total cholesterol Elevations increase risk
 TG: Triglycerides Elevations increase risk
 LDL: Low density lipoprotein Elevations increase risk
 HDL: High density lipoprotein Elevations decrease risk

Serum Lipids: Optimum Levels

Measured in mg/dl

Adults Children
TCHOL (acceptable) <200 <170
(borderline) 200-239 170-199
(high) >240 >200

Triglycerides <200 <150

LDL (70% of total) <130 <110

(acceptable) <110
(borderline) 110-120
(high) >130
Atherogenic

HDL (25% of total) >35 >35

Protective

 Cholesterol & Children:

 Universal screening not recommended
 Yes: Family history of cholesterol >240,
premature CVD
 Yes: Lifestyle risk factors

CARDIAC CONSIDERATIONS

 Heart
Base: (upper) aortic & pulmonic area
Apex: (lower) mitral area
Left side: high pressure flow

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 Right side: low pressure flow
 Pericardium (pericardial sac)
 Anchors:
Bottom to diaphragm
Top to upper sternum
 Visceral or epicardial sac (inner lining):
Insensitive to pain
 Parietal (outer lining)
Innervated by phrenic nerve & sensitive to pain

 Impulse Conduction:
 Heart is innervated by autonomic nervous system
 Sympathetic: stimulates
 Parasympathetic: slows
 Sinoatrial (SA) node: located in right atria,
Generates impulses that travel through the
conduction system & produce cardiac muscle contractions
 Atrioventricular (AV) node: located in the atrial septum
 Bundle of His: right & left bundle branches
 Purkinjie fibers: located in ventricular myocardium,
where ventricular contraction takes place

 Location of left ventricular apex & PMI (point of maximum impulse)

 Adults: 5th ICS, MCL

 Infants: 4th ICS, left of MCL
 Pregnancy: PMI moves 1-2 cms left of MCL & up to
4th ICS

 Cardiac Auscultation: listening areas

 Stethoscope: diaphragm: high pitched sounds
bell: low pitched sounds
listen: to one sound at a time,
over valvular areas

 Aortic: 2nd ICS, RSB S2 is loudest

 Pulmonic: 2nd ICS, LSB S2 is loudest
 Erbs Point: 3rd ICS, LSB
 Tricuspid: 4th ICS, LSB S1 is loudest
 Mitral (Apex) 5th ICS, MCL S1 is loudest

 Consider Cardiac Cycle When Listening

 S1: Represents ventricular contraction & ejection:

S1 sound is produced by closing of
Atrial ventricular (AV) valves:
Tricuspid & Mitral valves

 S2: Represents ventricular relaxation & filling:

S2 sound is produced by closing of
Semilunar valves:

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 Aortic & Pulmonic valves

 When a clicking or snapping sound is heard, it

Usually means that damaged valves are heard
Upon opening rather than upon closing (which
Essentially reverses the valvular sound patterns:

S1: called an “ejection click”

The sound is produced by the opening
of damaged semilunar valves
(aortic or pulmonic)

S2: called “opening snap”

The sound is produced by the opening
of damaged atrial ventricular (AV) valves
(tricuspid or mitral):
Example: Mitral stenosis produces
An S2 opening snap

 Continued: Cardiac Cycle:

S3: Can be normal in children & young adults

Over 30 years of age: “Ventricular Gallop”
Associated with CHF

Rhythm simulation:

SLOSH- ING- IN TENN- E- SSEE

S1 S2 S3 S1 S2 S3

S4: Possible to be normal in children & young adults

Over 30 years: noncompliant or stiff ventricle
Hypertrophy of ventricle, CHF, CAD

Rhythm simulation:

A- STIFF- WALL KEN- TU- CKY

S4 S1 S2 S4 S1 S2

 Sinus Arrhythmia: Normal rhythm

Normal splitting of S2
 Refers to the physiologic splitting of S2
(reflects the time delay between closure
of the aortic and pulmonic valves)
 S2 split “widens” or increases during
an inspiratory breath (heart rate slows)
 S2 split “narrows” or decreases with
breath expiration (heart rate increases)

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 Abnormal S2 split & selected examples:
See text for additional examples

 Wide: delayed emptying of right ventricle &

delayed closure of pulmonic valve
Examples: Right Bundle Branch Block,
Pulmonic stenosis

 Fixed: split of S2 is affected by respiration

Example: ASD

 Paradoxical:
Physiologic split reverses:
Narrows with inspiration &
Widens with expiration
Example: Left Bundle Branch Block,
Aortic Stenosis

 Jugular Venous Pressure

 Reflects pressures in right side of heart

 Assess the internal jugular vein if possible
 Venous pulsations are visible, but not palable
 Pulsations best visible with patient sitting a
45 degree angle (45-60)
 Measure highest level of pulsations,
From the sternal angle
 Pressures > 3-4 cms above the sternal angle
are elevated

HEART HISTORY: SIGNIFICANT SYMPTOMS

 Chest Pain
 Palpitations or other irregularities of rhythm
 Dyspnea
 Syncope
 Fatigue
 Dependent edema
 Hemoptysis
 Cyanosis

PERIPHERAL VASCULAR & LYMPHATIC HISTORY:

SIGNIFICANT SYMPTOMS

 Pain
 Changes in skin temperature color
 Edema
 Ulceration
 Emboli

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 Stroke
 Dizziness
HISTORY:
What symptoms of abnormalities are present? (Document OLD CART)
Chest pain
Anxiety
Dyspnea
Diaphoresis
Syncope or near syncopal episodes
Nausea
Edema
Lymphadenopathy
Fatigue
Pallor
Palpitations
Leg ulcerations - atrophy, hair loss
Diabetic neuropathy (esp. without sweat)
Claudication

CHEST PAIN: KEY POINTS

 Cardiac Pain
 Levine’s sign
 Exertion, emotion, eating, cold or stress: before pain
 Substernal, retrosternal
 Mild to severe, diffuse
 Deep, pressure, squeeze, heavy, strangle
 May radiate: jaw, arms, neck, back
 Stereotyped for individual:
Variations indicate change, unstable angina
 Subsides with rest, Nitroglycerine

Angina: Episodic, “seizes:

Duration short: 2-3 minutes
Range: > 1 & > 10 minutes

Acute MI: Steady, deep pain: chest constriction, crushing

Lasts 20 minutes or longer
May not be relieved by nitroglycerine
Nausea, vomiting, diaphoresis
May occur at rest, with exertion or stress

 Pericarditits Pain
 Deep, constant or pleuritic
 Pericardial friction rub
 Increases with cough
 Sharp, stabbing
 Fever or recent infection
 Shallow breathing, sitting up, leaning forward relieves

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 Pulmonary Pain
 Onset gradual or sudden (days: viral: hours: bacterial)
 Fever, infection, cough (sputum, blood)
 Pain over lung fields
 Mild to severe, sharp ache
 Air hunger, dyspnea, restlessness
 Splinting, moist air, rest, heat, sitting ;up may relieve

 Respiratory Movement Pain

 Pleurisy, overuse, trauma
 Sharp, burning, stabbing, shooting, deep
 Crushing or tearing sensations

 Musculoskeletal: Chest Wall Pain

 Tenderness to palpation of chest wall
 Chest wall maneuvers may precipitate pain
 Examples: rib fracture, arthritis,
muscle spasm or myositis, chostrochondritis,
slipping cartilage

 Gastrointestinal
 Gradual or sudden onset
 Esophagitis & gastritits may occur after eating, leaning over
 Pain may be burning, retrosternal, epigastric or radiate
 Mild to severe
 Intermittent or continuous
 Food, antacid, standing, belching may relieve
 Emotional stress, caffiene, spices, heavy meals
 Cold liquids, alcohol, exercise, smoking may aggravate

 Palpitations: Arrhythmias: Consider

 Cardiac
 Thyrotoxicosis
 Hypoglycemia
 Fever
 Anemia
 Anxiety
 May not indicate serious disease
 Other factors: caffeine, tobacco, drugs

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PERIPHERAL VASCULAR & LYMPHATIC HISTORY

 Arteries
 Atherosclerosis: ischemia & aneurysms
 Microvascular disease: diabetes, ischemia,
peripheral neuropathy
 Ischemia of extremities

 Veins
 Venous stasis: pigmentation, dermatitis, cellulitis, ulceration
 Thrombus formation

 Lymphatics
 Generalized palpable lymph nodes: 3 or more lymph node chains:
Systemic disease processes
 Lymphangitis: thin red steaks on skin
 Lymphedema: obstruction of lymphatic flow

 Pain
 Intermittent claudication: atherosclerosis,
Lower extremity pain during exercise, at rest
 Pseudoclaudication: musculoskeletal disease in lumbar area

 Skin Changes
 Arterial insufficiency: cool, pale
 Venous insufficiency: warm, erythematous, erosions
Increased pigmentation, swelling, aching or heaviness in legs

 Edema
 Lymphedema: painless, “heaviness,” firm, nonpitting,
Rough skin texture

 Ulceration
 Arterial insufficiency: painful, discrete edges,
erythematous if infected, occur rapidly with trauma
 Venous insufficiency: stasis ulceration, diffusely reddened,
Thickened cobblestone appearance, slowly developing

 Emboli
 Results from stasis & hypercoagulability
 Consider: bedrest, CHF, obesity, pregnancy,
oral contraceptive: associated with thrombus & emboli

 Neurologic Symptoms: due to arterial occlusive processes

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 Dyspnea: Consider
 Cardiac: Left ventricular failure, mitral stenosis
 Paroxsysmal nocturnal dyspnea: CHF
 Orthopnea: CHF
 Dyspnea with exertion
 Pulmonary etiology
 Emotional
 High altitude
 Anemia

 Syncope: Consider
 Fainting, dizziness, blackout
 Cardiac etiology
 Metabolic etiology
 Psychiatric etiology
 Neurologic etiology
 Vasovagal-vasodepression: during periods of emotional strain
 Micturation-visceral reflex: males, straining with nocturnal
Urination, associated with alcohol consumption
 Cough: post-tussive, with COPD
 Carotid sinus sensitivity: carotid pressure, older adults

 Fatigue: Consider
 Decreased cardiac output
 CHF
 Mitral valve disease
 Anxiety & depression
 Anemia or chronic diseases

 Dependent Edema: Consider

 CHF
 Worse as day progresses
 SOB
 Edema rating:
 1+ = 2 mm
 2+ = 4 mm
 3+ = 6 mm
 4+ = 8 mm

 Hemoptysis: Differentiate
 Hemoptysis: red-pink, frothy
 Hematomesis: dark, coffee ground

 Cyanosis: Consider
 In lower extremities: differential: R to L shunt: PDA
 Peripheral: cyanosis of extremities

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  Central: cyanosis of mouth & mucous membranes,
indicating fall in O2 saturation
Physical Examination - Inspection. Palpation. Auscultation
Vital signs
Pulse rate - frequency, regularity & amplitude
Blood Pressure - both arms, use correct cuff size

EXTRACARDIAC MANIFESTATIONS OF HEART ABNORMALITIES

 Skin
 Cold, clammy perspiration in low-output states
 Widespread vasodilatation in high-output states
 Pallor suggests anemia
 Tight, smooth, shiny skin in scleroderma
 Cyanosis from either reduced Hbg in the arterial blood
or to decreased blood flow

Lesions & further inspection

 Xanthomata: firm yellow colored masses,

associated with hypercholesterolemia
 Tendons: located on finger, Achilles & plantar tendons
 Tuberous: located on hands
 Eruptive: acute, associated with uncontrolled diabetes,
located on abdomen buttocks, elbows, knees & back

 Erythema marginatum: in febrile patient:

erythematous rash, with disc-shaped, raised edges
May be associated with rheumatic fever:
 Autoimmune reaction to group A
beta hemolytic streptococcal pharyngitis
that involves joints, skin, brain, serous
surfaces & heart
 Major manifestations:
 Carditis (new systolic murmur)
 Polyarthritis
 Chorea
 Erythema marginatum
 Subcutaneous nodules
 Diagnostic tests:
 Throat culture: strep +
 Antistreptolysin-O-titer + (ASLO)
 Sedimentation rate: elevated
 EKG & chest x-ray

 Rheumatoid nodules: subcutaneous nodules,

associated with rheumatoid arthritis
(firm nontender, usually located on
extensor surfaces of over tendons)

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 Nails
 Splinter hemorrhages: associated with endocarditis
 Clubbing: associated with cyanotic congestive heart
disease (CHD), chronic pulmonary disease,
cirrhosis of liver

 Face, Eyes, Ears

 Xanthelasma: yellow plaques on eyelids,

associated with hypercholesterolemia
 Arcus senilis: white-gray ring around exterior portion of iris:
normal in older adult:
associated with hypercholesterolemia (under 40 yrs)
 Lens displacement: Marfan’s Syndrome:
Genetic disorder,
associated with congenital heart disease
(aortic regurgitation) & other physical
characteristics:
Lens displacement
Arachnodactyly (increased length of
distal areas, fingers, feet…)
Chest: pectus excavatum or carinatum
High arched palate
 Hypertelorism: wide set eyes
may be associated with CHD & other syndomes,
such as supravalvular aortic stenosis
 Ear creasing: before age 60

 Mouth & Neck

 Petichiae on palate: associated with bacterial endocarditis, in

acute phase
also look for nail splinter hemorrhages
 High arched palate: Marfan’s syndrome
 Webbed Neck: Congenital, Turner’s Syndrome,
Associated with coarctation of aorta

 Fundoscopic Exam (Keith-Wagener changes)

KW I: minimal arteriolar narrowing

KW II: nicking + KW I
KW III: flame hemorrhages, cotton wool patches + KW I, II
KW IV: papilledema + KW I, II, III

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 Extremities & Lesions

 Rheumatic nodules
 Osler’s nodes: tender, erythematous, red-blue-purple nodules,
on distal pads of fingers, associated with
bacterial endocarditis or connective tissue disease
 Xanthoma tuberosum
 Varicose veins
 Leg ulcers: differentiate between arterial & venous (see p. 12)
 Ear creasing before 60
 Aarachnodactyly: Marfan’s syndrome (CHD)

 Abdominal & Vascular Assessment (arms, legs, abdomen)

 Ascities: shifting dullness

 Bruits: abdominal (ARIF)
carotid & temporal (auscultate before palpating)
 Pulses: arteries
 Pulsating aorta
 Systemic venous congestion: dilated vessels
hepatomegally or tenderness
friction rub
 Jugular venous distention: JVD by inspection
JVP by measurements above 3-4 cms
 Hepatojugular reflux: abdominal manual compression test:
with patient supine & mouth open,
manual pressure is applied over liver.
Resulting increase in JVD is
associated with right ventricular failure
 Skin temperature: & characteristics (warmth, hair growth)
 Edema: Pitting: fluid retention
Firm, nonpitting: lymphedema
 Deep vein thrombosis (DVT): unilateral swelling, venous distention,
increased warmth, tenderness
Homan’s sign: squeezing of affected
calf or slow doriflexion of ankle produces
calf pain

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CARDIAC EXAMINATION

 Precordium: Observation & Palpation

Inspect - apical impulse, heave
Palpate - PMI, thrills, pericardial areas for thrusts or thrills
Auscultate - five pericardial areas,
(aortic, pulmonic, Erbs, tricuspid, mitral)
bell/diaphram, one sound at a time

 Non Quiet Precordium: areas & limited examples

 Aortic:
Sharp pulsation: HTN
Thrill: aortic stenosis
 Pulmonic:
Sharp pulses: HTN
Thrill: pulmonic stenosis
Forceful:emphysema, pneumonia
 LLSB (Tricuspid, epigastric area)
Strong pulsations or thrusts:
Rt. Ventricular hypertrophy
 Apical:
Thrill: mitral stenosis
PMI left of MCL or below 5th ICS:
Cardiac enlargement

 Auscultation

 Abnormalities: rate & rhythm

 Heart Sounds
S1 - closure of AV valves
S2 - closure of SL valves
S2 splits
physiological
fixed
paradoxical
wide

 Abnormalities in S1 & S2

Diastolic extra sounds

S3 - ventricular gallop (CHF)
S4 - atrial gallop (CAD< HTN)
summation sound or gallop
Opening snap - mitral stenosis

Systolic extra sounds

Ejection click – aortic or pulmonic stenosis
Midsystolic click – squatting may move closer to S2

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  Murmurs

 Timing: S1 or S2
 Duration: early, mid, late, pan
 Intensity: I – VI rating scale

 Pitch: soft, high, low, harsh…

 Location: near valves, where heard best
 Radiation: ie, back, shoulders…
 Relationships: to body position, respirations
(changes in murmur)

 Pericardial friction rub

 Intensity Grading of Murmurs (I – VI)

I Barely audible
II Soft, but easily audible
III Louder, no thrill
IV Thrill, loud, audible with stethoscope
V Thrill, audible with stethoscope barely touching
VI Thrill, audible without stethoscope

SPECIAL MANEUVERS FOR EVALUATION OF SYSOLIC MURMURS

DIASTOLIC MURMURS ARE ALWAYS PATHOLOGICA

 Respiration
 Inspiration - venous return enhanced &
right-sided murmurs may increase
 Expiration - Decrease in venous return &
right- sided murmurs may decrease.
Left sided murmurs may increase

 Valsalva Maneuver
During straining phase, venous return diminishes,
left ventricular volume & BP are reduced
Hypertrophic obstructive cardiomyopathy &
mitral valve prolapse murmurs increase &
aortic stenosis murmurs decrease

 Standing from Squatting

Left ventricular volume is reduced secondary to reduced venous return
Mitral valve prolapse may be enhanced & in absence of murmur
may produce mitral insufficiency murmur.
Hypertrophic obstructive cardiomyopathy murmur
increases & aoritc stenosis murmur decreases

 Passive Leg Raising

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 Increased venous return & increased left
ventricular & right ventricular volume
May enhance murmur of tricuspid regurgitation
 Handgrip
After one minute of patients strongest possible grip
May reduce murmur of aortic stenosis,
increase murmur of aortic regurgitation
& mitral regurgitation.
May increase murmur of VSD

 Arterial Occlusion
Bilateral, upper arms, 20-40 mm hg above BP
Intensity noted after 20 seconds
May increase murmur of mitral regurgitation

“Innocent” Murmurs
Systolic (except for venous hum)
Common - Children, teenage & high output conditions
Grade III or less
Pulmonary or LLSB
Altered by position
Absence of cardiac enlargement
Normal EKG or chest X-ray
Short, Systolic, Soft
If in doubt - echo
Physiologic splitting of S2

 Children - Physiologic Murmurs

Still’s Vibratory Murmur - Systolic, LLSB & apex,
intensifies during supination, early school age
Venous Hum - Continuous at clavicles,
disappears with supination, compression of jugular vein
or turning head, early school years
Pulmonary Flow Murmur - older children,
LUSB, louder in supine position
PPP -Physiologic Peripheral Pulmonic Stenosis Murmur - newborns

 Children - Common Organic Murmurs

ASD
VSD
PDA
Pulmonic Stenosis
Aortic Stenosis
Coarctation of Aorta

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EXAMPLE OF COMMON ABNORMALITY:
CLINICAL PORTRAIT OF CHF
S3 - may be first sign
tachycardia, with decreased BP
cool, moist, pale skin
dyspnea with orthopnea, decreased O2 saturation
adventitious breath sounds
cough
JVD
decreased urine output
edema/ascities

 Diagnostic Evaluation

 History & Physical Exam

 12 Lead EKG
EKG changes reflection ischemia, injury & infarction
Ischemia: Inverted T- wave
S-T segment depression
Injury: ST elevation
Infarction: Significant Q-wave

 Chest X-ray

 Arterial Blood Gases

 Lab Data: CBC & differential

Electrolytes
PT
PPT
Serum Lipids

 Cardiac enzymes: Initial for acute MI

CPK (creatinine phosphokinase)
Begins to rise in 3-6 hours:
Peaks from 12-24 hours
Returns to normal in 3-5 days
LDH (lactate dehydronenase)
Begins to rise within 12 hours:
Peaks from 36-72 hours
Returns to normal within 10 days
CK-MB (creatinine kinase & it’s
Isoenzyme
Rises within 4-6 hours
Peaks from 18-24 hours
Returns to normal within 36-72 hours

 Echocardiogram
 Exercise Treadmill Test
 Exercise Thallium Test

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  Cardiac Catheterization
 Ancillary Tests: such as upper GI, abdominal sonogram,
acid secretion tests

Common abnormalities
Clinical portrait of CHF
S3 - may be first sign
tachycardia, with decreased BP
cool, moist, pale skin
dyspnea with orthopnea, decreased O2 saturation
adventitious breath sounds
cough
JVD
decreased urine output
edema/ascities

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