KENYATTA UNIVERSITY

DEPARTMENT OF GEOGRAPHY

INFILTRATION THEORY AND MODELING

A TERM PAPER PRESENTED AS A PARTIAL FULFILLMENT OF THE DEGREE OF

MSC. HYDROLOGY AND WATER RESOURCES

STUDENT'S NAME:

MWANDOGO MOSES TSUMA

STUDENT NUMBER:

I56/31467/2015

UNIT NAME AND CODE:

AGE 864: HYDROLOGICAL PROCESSES

AND WATERSHED MODELING

LECTURER'S NAME:

DR. LUKOYE MAKOKHA

DATE OF SUBMISSION:

29/02/2016

Contents
1.1 INTRODUCTION .................................................................................................................................. 4
2.1. INFILTRATION THEORY ................................................................................................................... 5
3.1 FACTORS AFFECTING INFILTRATION ........................................................................................... 7
3.1.1. Soil Texture;.................................................................................................................................... 7
3.1.2 Initial Moisture Content ................................................................................................................... 8
3.1.3: Influence of ground cover ............................................................................................................... 9
3.1.4 Topography .................................................................................................................................... 10
3.1.5 Rainfall intensity ............................................................................................................................ 10
3.1.6 Soil Compaction............................................................................................................................. 10
4.1. MEASUREMENT OF INFILTRATION ............................................................................................ 11
4.1.1 Infiltrometer ................................................................................................................................... 11
4.1.1.1Single ring ................................................................................................................................ 11
4.1.1.2 Double ring -Falling or Constant head .................................................................................... 11
4.1.2. The disc Permeameter ................................................................................................................... 14
4.1.3. Estimating catchment scale infiltration. ........................................................................................ 15
5.1. Infiltration Models ............................................................................................................................... 15
5.1.1 The Philip model ............................................................................................................................ 18
5.1.2 The Green and Ampt model ........................................................................................................... 19
6.1. CONCLUSION .................................................................................................................................... 21

LIST OF FIGURES
Fig 2.1 showing cumulative infiltration and infiltration rate curves .. 6
Fig 4.1.1.1 Single ring infiltrometer Cylinder - 30 cm in Diameter . 11
Fig 4.1.1.2 Double ring Infiltrometer . 12
Fig 4.1.1 b Mariotte Bottles 13

LIST OF TABLES
Table 3.1.1: Effects of grain size on infiltration in initially wet soils without vegetation
cover . 7
Table 3.1.2: The influence of moisture content for clay pan soil . 8
Table 3.1.3 Influence of ground cover .. 9
Table 5.1 INFILTRATION MODELS .. 15

1.1 INTRODUCTION
In the study of the movement and distribution of water over the earth surface,
various hydrologic components are used to describe the movements and distributions. These
hydrologic components comprise of processes or working media through which a water molecule
is transmitted from one hydrologic system boundary to another. For instance, water falling on the
earth surface through precipitation is transmitted from the surface hydrologic system by either
flowing on the ground surface as storm runoff or penetrating into the soil profile. The process
into which water enters into the soil profile freely from the ground surface is known as
infiltration.
Infiltration is the major contributor of soil moisture and hence its study has many
applications in agriculture, forestry, environment, water resource conservation and numerous
other areas. Infiltration differs from percolation in that percolation describes the movement of
water through the soil profile while infiltration is the entrance of water into the soil profile.
However, the study of one depends on the knowledge of the other. The study of infiltration has
helped to come up with models that can solve problems in groundwater recharge, soil water
balance models, crop water requirement and many other models that are in great use today in
watershed management and conservation.
Infiltration cannot be studied independently because it depends on many factors
including other hydrologic components such as the intensity and duration of precipitation.
Among the many factors, one most determining factor is the characteristics of the soil strata on
which water is infiltrating. Some soil strata may have layers of different physical properties, for
example a horizon of soil with high hydraulic conductivity overlain by one with low hydraulic
conductivity. Soils also differ in spatial distribution, having a small region with some physical
4

properties bordered with another with totally different physical properties. These variations, both
spatial and temporal make infiltration process a very complex area of study. As a result,
infiltration cannot be satisfactorily described theoretically but only with mathematical
expressions (Bell, 2007).

2.1. INFILTRATION THEORY

Infiltration is the movement of water mainly from precipitation into the soil surface. To
understand infiltration the following definitions are necessary
Infiltration rate is the rate at which water enters into soil surface with known physical
properties. This rate is determined by the infiltration capacity of the soil. Infiltration capacity is
the maximum rate at which a given soil sample can absorb moisture. The infiltration rate can be
defined from the maximum range from zero of the infiltration capacity. The infiltration capacity
decreases with time to a minimum value close or equal to the saturated hydraulic conductivity of
the soil sample. The infiltration capacity can be plotted on a curve know as hyetograph. The area
under the curve represents the cumulative infiltration of the soil sample. Cumulative infiltration
can be defined as the volume of rainfall per unit area of soil surface. Infiltration is highly
dependent on rainfall intensity among other factors. Rainfall intensity is the rate at which
precipitation falls on the soil surface (Davie, 2002).

Fig 2.1 showing cumulative infiltration and infiltration rate curves

The infiltration rate is linear through our the duration of a storm for soils that are initially
moist and the decreases along the storm period. The infiltration rate is determined by two
components namely the transmission component and the diffusion component. The transmission
components is constant and defines the flow through the soil, it is a function of soil transmisivity.
The diffusion component is a function of porosity, it defines the permeability of the soil sample.
The diffusion component is rapid at the beginning of a storm and then becomes slow gradually as
water fills the pore spaces in the soil structure. These two components can be expressed in the
infiltration equation as:

f= A+ B. t -1/2
Where f= the instantaneous rate of infiltration
t = time elapsed since the beginning of rainfall
A = the transmission constant of the soil
B = the diffusion constant of the soil
The transmission term (A) represents an unimpeded laminar flow through a continuous
network of large pores. The diffusion term (B) represents flow in very small discrete steps from
one small pores space to the next, in a random fashion.

3.1 FACTORS AFFECTING INFILTRATION

3.1.1. Soil Texture;
Soil texture affects infiltration by the difference in arrangement of particles and porosity.
The spacing and nature of interstices in soils determine the hydraulic conductivity of the soil.
The table below shows soils of different textures with their corresponding infiltration rates.
Table 3.1.1: Effects of grain size on infiltration in initially wet soils without vegetation
cover
Grain size class

Infiltration rates mm/hr

Clays

04

Silts

28

Sands

3 12
7

From the table we can see that the larger the grain size the higher the infiltration rate and
vice versa. This can be explain in terms of hydraulic conductivity and pore space. Soils with
larger grain sizes like sand soil have a higher hydraulic conductivity and hence water
transmission is easier and faster resulting to high infiltration rates.
3.1.2 Initial Moisture Content
The initial moisture content of soil will determine the rate of infiltration of a particular
soil. This is because the soil moisture content determines the diffusion constant of the infiltration
process. The infiltration process is a process of affinity where water moves from a region of high
concentration to a region of low concentration through a porous media which in this case id the
soil layer. When the top of a soil profile is wet and the bottom is dry, moisture will move
downwards instead of upwards because of the high affinity of water to the dry soil in a diffusion
process. The table 3.3.2 below shows the influence of moisture content tested on clay pan soil.
From the table, one can deduce that the higher the initial moisture content the lower the rate of
infiltration.
Table 3.1.2: The influence of moisture content for clay pan soil
Initial

Infiltration Rates (mm/hr)

Moisture
Content (%)

Good

grass

cover

cover

Top soil
> 13 thick

Poor weed

Top

Top soil <

soil < 13 13 thick

thick

0 14

17

19

14 24

24+

3.1.3: Influence of ground cover

Ground cover intercepts infiltration hence, lowering the rainfall intensity over the soil
surface. This interception causes the moisture to flow slowly from the vegetation down to the
soil surface resulting to high infiltration rates. A comparison has been made in the table below
showing that high ground cover results to high infiltration rates.
Table 3.1.3 Influence of ground cover
Ground Cover

Infiltration rate

Old permanent pasture

57

Permanent pasture moderately grazed

19

Permanent pasture heavily grazed

13

Strip- cropped

10

Weeds or grain

Clean tilled

Bare ground crusted

3.1.4 Topography
The topography of a field influences the runoff during precipitation influencing
infiltration as well. Where the slope is too steep, precipitation will immediately runoff due to
gravitational effect. This reduces ponding time hence reducing infiltration.
3.1.5 Rainfall intensity
Rainfall intensity affects infiltration by the contact impact that rain makes on soil surface.
During precipitation, as raindrops splash the ground surface, soil particles jump up and down and
in that process they block some pore spaces that would facilitate entry of moisture into the soil.
This effect is mostly felt on bare soils without vegetation cove.
3.1.6 Soil Compaction
Soil compaction is another factor that affects infiltration. Highly compacted soils may be
found in street or playing fields. These act as impermeable surfaces and reject infiltration leading
to ponding and runoff. On the other hand, tilled or ploughed fields will have lose soils which will
encourage infiltration

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4.1. MEASUREMENT OF INFILTRATION

4.1.1 Infiltrometer
4.1.1.1Single ring

Fig 4.1.1.1 Single ring infiltrometer Cylinder - 30 cm in Diameter

The working principle of the single ring Infiltrometer is simple. The ring is driven about
5 cm or more into Soil Surface. Water is then applied into it to pond above the ground surface
level. With the help of a ruler dipped into the water, the water level fall is recorded with time
taken. The single ring Infiltrometer measures combined horizontal and vertical flow.
4.1.1.2 Double ring -Falling or Constant head
a) Falling head method:

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This type of Infiltrometer has two concentric rings about 5 cm or more apart. It is a
suitable method for measuring hydraulic conductivity of the surface layer of a soil sample. The
inner and outer rings are inserted into the ground as demonstrated by the figure 3.4.1.2 below.
Water is supplied into every ring at a falling head and the level fall against time is recorded. The
outer ring helps to reduce lateral flow of water hence the double ring minimizes errors of
determining infiltration. The saturated hydraulic conductivity is determined when infiltration rate
becomes constant. The rate of infiltration is determined by the amount of water that infiltrates
into the soils per surface area, per unit of time.

Fig 4.1.1.2 Double ring infiltrometer

Data Analysis
A drop in the height of water level represents infiltration data, this gives the infiltration
per time. A graph of infiltration is then plotted using these data points versus time taken. When
the curve becomes more linearly, it means that a steady state infiltration rate has been reached and
so the soils have become saturated. A line of best fit is then applied to the linearly curve, whose

12

gradient gives the steady state infiltration rate of the soil sample. In order to obtain the saturated
hydraulic conductivity (Ksat) of the soil sample, the gradient of the line of best fit is multiplied by
a constant value of 1.45. This is a measure of the conductivity of a soil sample at saturation,
which defines the soils' permeability .
Some of the weaknesses of the double ring method is that it is time consuming, it requires
frequent observation and collection of records. The rings are heavy and therefore not portable.
Another challenge is site preparation where ground clearance is required and mostly in that
process the ground becomes disturbed making the soils unnatural. Moreover, because of soil type
variation, the infiltration rate estimation for a water shed may not be well captured with this
method since it represents only a point at the field
b) Constant head method

Fig 4.1.1 b Mariotte Bottles

13

This method is different to the falling head in that the water supply to the rings is from
mariotte bottles and makes sure that the water head is constant. The working principle is similar
to that of the falling head. The other difference is that infiltration rate is determined from the
amount of water added into the mariotte tubes against time before saturation (Khne et al.,
2011).
4.1.2. The disc Permeameter

The disc permeameter is also referred to as tension infiltrometer. It works like the
normal tensiometer that is used for measuring soil suction. The tension infiltrometer works
with principle of negative soil pressure know as soil sunction. A ponded water surface is
sucked by negative pressure by having water applied on the top of the tube to create exerting
pressure the negative pressure corresponds to a positive soil air pressure. The limitation of
this device is the infiltration has to be started by ponding the closed-top infiltrometer
applying a positive head, then adjusted to a negative pressure (Khne et al., 2011)

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4.1.3. Estimating catchment scale infiltration.

This is done through simplified infiltration modeling. Base flow in a river is
measured before a rainfall even. When it rains, the total or cumulative rainfall at a definite time
is recorded and rainfall is measured. Stream flow is then determined. Runoff is estimated by
means of base flow separation. Infiltration can then be estimated from the water balance
expression below.
Cumulative Infiltration = rainfall - runoff

(John C. Schaake, Victor I.Koren, 1996)

5.1. Infiltration Models

Soils have great temporal and spatial variability. Soil samples may have horizons
with totally different physical properties. Say for example, a clay soil may be overlain by a sand
soil profile. Also, a patch of soil may be bordered by another patch with total different physical
properties. Because of this variability, infiltration becomes a complex process to define only with
theoretically (Starr, 1998). Several mathematical models have been developed that relate the
various soil properties and are able to define infiltration more accurately. However, this paper
does not discuss the infiltration models in details. But here is a table showing the major
infiltration models. Two of these models, the Philip and the Green and Ampt models shall be
discusses briefly below.
Table 5.1 INFILTRATION MODELS
Autho

Function

Legend

15

i
(t)

Horto

- infiltration capacity during time

[cm/s]
i

- initial infiltration capacity [cm/s]

- final infiltration capacity [cm/s]

- constant depending on the soil

n
f

type

Kosti

- parameter depending on soil

conditions

akov

i
1

- infiltration capacity at time

t=1min [cm/s]

Dvora
k-Mezencev

Holta

- time [s]

- Constant

- factor variable from 0.25 to 0.8

- Holtan equation flow factor

- experimental constant

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approximately = 1.4

- sorptivity [cms-0.5]

- gravity component depending on

Philip
hydraulic conductivity at saturation
[cm/s]

- Constant

- maximal retention capacity

- water quantity retained on soil at

Doog
max

time t

k
s

Green

- hydraulic conductivity at

saturation [mm/h]
h

- surface pressure load [mm]

- pressure load at the humidity

&Ampt

front [mm]
z

- humidity front depths [mm]

17

Adopted from (Starr, 1998)

5.1.1 The Philip model

Philip (1959) solved the Richard's equation under less restrictive conditions by assuming
that K and D can vary in with content where D is moisture diffusion.

That is (

the general form of the Philips model is expressed in powers of the square-root of time
as:
=

(1) Where

I is the cumulative infiltration (L),

S is the sorptivity ( 1/2 ),
t is the time of infiltration (T) and
A is a parameter with dimension of the saturated hydraulic conductivity ( 1 ) and is
equal to transmissivity (LT).
The rate of infiltration is determined by differentiating (eqn) 1. i.e

1
2

1 + (2)

The constant of A and S may be determined by plotting the graph of dI/dt against t-1/2.
Where A
(gravity factor) = intercept and
S (Sorptivity factor) = slope
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During the initial stages of infiltration when the first-term of the model dominates the
process, infiltration proceeds at almost the same rate as absorption or horizontal infiltration while
the gravity components, represented by second-term of the model is negligible. As infiltration
continues, the second-term becomes progressively more important until it dominates the
infiltration process (Ruth, K, & I, 2015)

5.1.2 The Green and Ampt model

The Green Ampt (1911) model is an approximation to the infiltration excess process
described above and depicted in Figure 5.1.2. In Figure 5.1.2 successive soil moisture profiles
were shown as curves, with moisture content gradually reducing to the initial conditions below
the wetting front (Chen & Young, 2006).

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Figure 5.1.2 Green-Ampt model idealization of wetting front penetrating a

soil sample [Musy, 2001]

The method's main hypotheses are:

a humidity front is perfectly defined;

a transmission zone, where in time and space water storage and hydraulic

conductivity are constant;

the suction forces of the humidity front are constant;

The Green Ampt model approximates the curved soil moisture profiles, that result in
practice, and from solution to Richard's equation, as a sharp interface with saturation conditions,
The datum for the definition of hydraulic head is taken as the surface and an unlimited
supply of surface water input is assumed, but with small ponding depth, so the contribution to
hydraulic gradient from the depth of ponding at the surface is neglected. Immediately below the
wetting front, at depth just greater than L, the soil is at its initial unsaturated condition, with
corresponding suction head

It can be summarized as

For horizontal flow infiltration has the relation:

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For vertical flow infiltration becomes:

The green -amp model can also be designed for ponding. This is the case where the
rainfall intensity is greater than the infiltration rate.

6.1. CONCLUSION
Studies on infiltration are very important in watershed modeling. With the knowledge of
infiltration capacity and behavior of a soil sample, watershed characteristics will be know. This
can then be applied in water resource management and conservation within the catchment.
Engineers use knowledge on infiltration to design tunnels, and underground structures.
The agricultural sector also uses infiltration models to estimate the crop water requirement of
some plants. The application of infiltration is inexhaustible in hydrology and watershed
modeling.

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7.1 REFERENCES
Bell, F. . (2007). Engineering Geology.
Chen, L., & Young, M. H. (2006). Green-Ampt infiltration model for sloping surfaces, 42, 19.
http://doi.org/10.1029/2005WR004468
Davie, T. (2002). Fundamentals of Hydrology, Second Edition.
John C. Schaake, Victor I.Koren, Q. Y. D. (1996).
412_SIMPLE_WATER_BALANCE_MODEL_FOR.pdf.
Khne, J. M., Jnior, J. A., Khne, S., Tiemeyer, B., Lennartz, B., & Kruse, J. (2011).
DOUBLE-RING AND TENSION INFILTROMETER MEASUREMENTS OF
HYDRAULIC CONDUCTIVITY AND MOBILE SOIL REGIONS 1, 336347.
http://doi.org/10.5216/pat.v41i3.11376
Ruth, A., K, I. K., & I, D. I. (2015). Philip Model Capability to Estimate Infiltration for Solis of
Aba , Abia State, 5(2), 6368.
Starr, V. C. J. W. H. J. L. (1998). (1998) Parameter Uncertainty Analysis of Common Infiltration
Models.

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