ETYMOL O GY

A ND

OF

E N G L I SH

A ND

B Y T HE R E V

T HE

F R S
o

T HE

L A NG U A G E

E X P L A I N ED

IJ L D

S Y N TA X

I L L U S T RA T ED

A L EX
M R S L
o

FOU RTH

C R O M BI E
F z -s

ED

ITION

PRI N T ED FO R T A Y L O R A N D WA LT O N
B OO KS E LL ER S A N D P U B L I S H ER S TO TH E U N I VER S I T Y O F L O N D O N
3 0 U PP E R GO W ER ST RE ET
,

'

L O N D O N.
P R I NT ED

BY

D o r se t

S A M U EL

tre e t , F l e e t

B E NT L E Y ,

tree t

PREFAC E

TO

T HE

s u cc e ss

a re

t i o n e d t o the

nu

to its

di r e c te d

qu i r y is

ED ITION

w i t h w hi c h the

sci e n c e

art o r

S E C O ND

T HE

mb e r

of

th o s e

wh o se

and

c u l t i v a ti o n

c ss a r i ly th e p a r e n t

l ab o u r s

i mp ro v e me n t

of

k n o w l e dg e

s t a b l ish m e n t

l e dg e

of

Wor k s

p e rh ap s

t r u th

be

p ro mp t e d
,

an d

s c ap e d

ou r

at

on

to

p ro g r e ss

a t te n t o n .

In

rror

l ti mat e ly

i n the

t he

s u bj e c t

nu

th a t i n

kn o w

mb e r

we

el d

w or th y

of n

of

sh o u l d

s ame t i me s o o ft en

o bj e c t

no

t he

i n fe r

the

a re

g r a mm a r fro m

l r e a d y p u b l ish e d

b ly e x p l or e d

h av e

of

s ti m a t e

E n gl ish

c i r c ums c r ib e d
so a

we to

ne e

We r e

an

i n v e s tig a t e d is ge ne r a lly p ro p or

of

p r i n ci p l e s

i ts e l f p ro c e e di n g fro m dis c u ssi o n l e ads

t o the

so

and

o ti c e c o ul d

A n d y e t i n t his ,

as

in

iv

P R EF

v e r y o th e r

c o n vi n c e
a

hat

u ir e r s

g u ag e

i h

w t

c i a ll

th e r e

ar e

m an y

l de d

th e s e

the

ar e

h or is

fa r

T h a t he ha s
c i d at e d

of

a tt e n t

d e fe c t s

aut

idi o m s
of

ion

w hich

s u pp l i e d b y

x a mi n e d

s o m e p r i n ci p l e s
w i ll

s o l ici t s th e n o tic e o f

the

fe w
w

q u ai n t a n c e
a

in

v a n i ty

s ec o n d
t he

in

w i th

to
,

sp e
th a t

i r e ly

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w or k ,

b el i e ve

an d e lu

sc a p e d

t he

he t r u s t s t he

di ti o n

of

w hich

now

p u b l ic is i n t e n d e d chi e y
,

w ho

h a v e ma d e s o m e

c l a ssic l i t e r a tu r e
G r eek

e nt

pr es en t

t he

p e c u l i a r i ti e s

r e ma r k

an d

an d

h ave

hich h a v e

i mp ro v e m e n t o f th o s e

dv a n c e m e n t

cc u r a c y

g r a mm a r i a n s

o ur

fro m h a vi n g

T h e T r e a t is e , t he

s y n t a c t i c a l p r i n ci p l e s

i ts

al l

i n t e ll ig e n t r e a d e r

the

fu tu r e

t he E n gl ish l a n

x ami n e

o b s e r v a ti o n o f o t h e r g r a m m a r i a n s

for

of

i m p e r fe c tly i ll u s t r a te d

b ut

d e g r e e o f c r i t ic a l

are

e u

to

th a t i ts

et

i n g e nu i ty

t he

t he

s ti m u l a t e

to

h ave b e en

h or i n d e e d is fu lly p e r s u a d e d

an

r e ma i n s

w i ll

au t

is i m p o ssi b l e

p e r c e iv e

not

x e r cis e

The

th a t i t

the

x a m i n a ti o n

m u ch m a y

h o u gh

m u ch

an d

cc o mp l ish e d s t i ll

ind ustry
q

o r sci e n c e s t r ic t

art

u s,

A C E TO

an d

Th at

fa ci l i t a t e s

L a ti n

c qu isi t i o n o f e v e r y o th e r l a n g ua g e

an

and

th a t

ao

t he

by

T HE

k n o w l e dg e

for e

f th e s e the

m a t e r i a lly

q u a i n t an c e

w i th

his

w i th
t he
w

an

an

d L ati n

in

p ro g r e ss

xp l a i n

g en e r a l k n o w l e dg e
i mp o ssi b l e ;
c orr e c t

r p r isi n g

l e ar ne d
t u r e,

N0

an d

l an g u ag e

in

E n gl ish

g r amma r is

e n d,

for

Th at it
t his

i i g

a tta n n

w hich the

is

in

pu rp o se

w i ll i n g t o

t he

an

c ou rse

ne

c an

i ts
a

b e l i e ve

be

of

i ts
nor

c r i tic a lly

gen e r a l

not

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h or fr o m

an

f t he

s tr u c

c q u a i nt a n c e

ssis t th e c l a ssic a l

au t

c qu i r i n g

i th e r si n gu l a r

s o m e d e g r e e c al c u l a te d
the

not

w i th o u t

c hi e f th o u gh

p rese nt

o
l
r
b
l
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y

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fa c t

To

w i th

g r a mm a r is i n d e e d

wh a t e v e r

p ec ul i a r p r i n ci pl e s

s ch o l a r

ss o ci a t e d

c r i t ic a l k n o wl e dg e

b y c a r e fu l s t u d y

b ut

r g ue

it w o ul d

i hout

the

wi th

o cc u rr en c e

an

and

w t

E n gl ish

o r an

ac

x t e n siv e

t o n ish t h a t

l an g u a g e

p r i n c i p l e s is
su

of

c qu a i n t a n c e

E n gl ish

et

an e

is o ft e n

T o m ak e

c l a ssic a l c o u r s e

it w o ul d

l a n g u a g e is

hich e x p e r i e n c e d e m o n s t r a t e s

b e d if u l t t o

he re

c r i t ic a l

Bu t t h a t

the E n g l ish

p r i n ci p l e s o f

s u p e r ci a l a c q u a i n t a n c e

and

i m p e r fe c t

i i g

a t ta n n

iv e t o n g u e

d e ny

to

G reek

of

ih

n at

c l a ssi c a l sch o l a r is

ssis t e d

x tr e m e p e r v e r si ty

k n o w l e dg e

SEC O N D ED ITIO N

i ts

t he

wi t h

s ole

c o mp o s e d
to

an

swer

r e c e p t i o n is
,

vi

R E FAC E TO

Hi s o b l ig at i o n s t o

d e p a r t me n t
k n o w l e dg e

l i te r a tu r e he fe e l s

of

tr u s ts

i n t e ll ig en t r e a d e r
c opie d

of

Op in i o n s
e

o th e r s

x e r cis e d his

r espect

all

w hich

ent

o wn

ly h e h o p e s
,

t
b
ha s , i n
u
;

dg
m
ent
j
u

m en

owe

in

n o ur e d

C r i t icis m ,

si n u a te

he

ha s
the

nor

m ay , the

p o int
au t

the

au t

ne

of

th e s e

ne

to

i th e r
the

v e r y qu e s t i o n
of

an d

h at

c o n sis t

w hi c h i s

co n

t o b e ho

d e s e r ve
in t he

c ou rt

p r e s u mp ti o n

s u pp o s e

to

the

b e t he
w i ll

t he

i th e r

l c id a ti o n

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l t i ma t e d e c isi o n

i his

a tta n

r e as o n

to

a
a

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t o ih

I f t h e y be

e u

dis t r a c ti o n s o f

has

th e

d o p te d

con

wh a t i t

a im .

h a v i n g b ee n c o mp o s e d a mids t

an d

h or

h or

T h e w or k

l i c i tu d e s

al l

v an i ty

fo u n d s u b s e r v i en t
t r o v er te d

t o t r u th ,

fa v o u r a b l e v e r dic t

ac

That

w i th

to

h e b e l i e v e s c o n t a i n s s o me or igi n a l

T h e T r e a t is e ,
.

ha s

ob s er van ce

fe s s e d l y d u e t o t r an s c e n d e n t t al e n t s

o b s e r v ati o n s

d e fe r e n c e

w i t h th a t

i mp l i c i tly

nor

s ame

t im e , t h a t

he

th a t

i n t he

his d u t y

s am e

t he

at

p er c e ive

w i ll

s e r vi l i ty

w i th

it

He

his p r e d e c e ss or s

the

so

l a b or i o u s p ro fe ssi o n

pp r e h en d

v e r b a l i n a cc u r a c i e s may h av e e s c a p e d his

th a t

s o me

a t te n t

ion

SE C O N D E D ITIO N

T HE

Bu t, i n w h a t e v e r
be
a

fau l ty h e t r u s t s
,

ble

sa

o th e r r e s p e c t s

w i th

at

ob s cu r i ty ;

i
t
n
h
e
y
,

l e as t

and

of

G ree n wi ch ,
3 d J ul

1 8 09

di c ti o n

is

th e p o et
,

gar vi ce c o t i s a c t m
qu ae ferr um v al e t e x s o s ip s a e c a di
u u

m ay

ch a r g e

n ot

may b e

he

Erg o , fu n

Re d d e r e

the

th a t i t

th a t

h u mb l e l an gu a g e

vii

ble

to

P REFAC E

T HE

TO

T HE
t i me

as

l i te r at u r e
a tte n t

the t e x t

of

ne

and

t he

of

c l a ss o f

L o nd o n,
aut

hich

was

n e w e di

h or s t i m e

c o mp l e t e d

no t

to

unt

an

il

c a me i n dis p e n s ab l e th a t t his v o l u me sh o u l d
to

p r e ss

s u ch

as

the

o n ly

o cc u rr e d

to

p ro c e e di n g th ro u gh
w i ll b e

s i d e r ab l e

and

it

and

o th e r

it b e

be

sent

ddi ti o n s h e r e i n t ro d u c e d

are

th e
t he

fo u n d h o w e v e r
,

E n g l ish

i o n h a vi n g b e e n r e c e n tly d e v o te d

p u b l ic a ti o n

p r e c e p t or

w or th y

The

th e

b oo k s for
c e ss a r y

w i th

Re v P ro fe ss or D a l e ,

the

i n t he U n i v e r si t y

b e c o me

t i o n ha s

b e en for s o m e

s e l e c te d b y th a t l e a r n e d

one o f

o f p r i n t h a vi n g b e e n fa v o u r e d

g r a ti fy i n g a pp ro b a ti o n
an d

E D IT IO N

w or k , w hich ha s

fo ll o wi n g

out

T H I RD

aut

h or

h a n ds

of

to b e i n

is h o p e d

w hi l e

the

w or k w a s

p r in te r

n um

th a t i n

th e
ber

not

Th ey

i n co n

q u a l i t y th e y

w i ll

R E FAC E

b e t h o u gh t
They

n ot unw

mark s

i ll u s t r a ti o n s

as

l r g emen t

of en a
of

the t r u th

t he

mo st

ti on

is

is

of

of

the

aut

h or

Y o rk Terra ce , R e

ge t s

e t

1 82 9

Park,

r e qu i r e

an d

ion

an d
re

s u ch

T his m o d e

p r e fe rr e d p e r s u a d e d
,

of

one

of

c o n ve y i n g i n s t r u o

is r igh t b y sh o wi n g

s o l e cism

of

o b s e r va ti o n th a t

m e th o ds

2 8 th S p

ha s

D r L o wth s

to

a tt e n t

s u c h c r i ti c a l

w i th

s eeme d

th e y

t o t e a ch wh a t

w ro n g

x a mp l e s

rr or s h av e s u gg e s t e d

s u cc e ss fu l

cc o mp an i e d

th e s e

as

or th y o f th e s t u d e n t s

c o n sis t chi e y

i mpr o p r i e t y

T HI R D ED ITIO N

T HE

TO

wh a t

C O NT ENT S

I NT R O D U C T I O N

Pa

O f L an g u age i n

ge n eral

an d

th e

PA RT
0 F ET Y M

En g l

the

13

No u n

17

C H A PT ER II
O f the A

r tic l e

40

C H A P T ER III
Of

t h e Pr o

53

C H A PT ER I V

t ive

68

C HA PT ER V
Of

noun

O f the A dj ec

h ab e t

A lp

OL OG Y

C HA PT ER I
Of

i sh

th e V erb
C H A P T ER V I

o r the P ar

ti i p l e

1 09

C HA PT ER VII

O f A dv e rb s

1 54

C H A PT ER VIII
O f Pr e p o si

t io

ns

157

x ii

ON T E N T S

Pa

C H A PT ER
O f C o nj u n c

t io

I n t erj ec t io

IX

ns

SY N TA X

ns

1 76
.

PART

III

C H A P T ER I
C A NONS

OF

1 74

P AR T 1 1
OF

2 47

C RI TI C I SM

C HA PT ER II
I ll s tra t i o

s
n
u
d
n
k
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r
i
t
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c
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C
SEC T I T he No u
SEC T I I T he A dj ec t ive
SE C T I I I T he P ro n o u
SEC T I v T he V erb
SEC T V T he A dverb
SE C T VI T he Pre p o s i t io
SE C T V I I
T he C o nj un c t i o
.

2 61
2 70

2 82
2 93

1 66

C H A P T ER
Of

315
32 2
32 6

ET Y M O L O G Y A ND S Y N TA X

OF

THE

E NG L I SH

L ANG U AG E

IN T R O D U C T I O N

con s i s t s of i n tell igi ble s ign s an d i s t h e

m ed i u m b y w hi c h the m i n d co mm u n i c a t es i ts t h o u g ht s
I t i s e i th er a r ti c u l a t e or i n a r ti c ul a t e ; a rt i c i a l o r n a t u r a l
T h e fo r m e r i s pec u li a r t o m a n ; t h e l a t ter i s c o m mo n to
al l an i ma l s
B y i n a r ti c u l a t e l an g u a g e w e m e a n t h o s e
i n s ti n c ti ve so u n d s or cri e s by w hi c h t he s ever al tr i be s
of i n fer i o r crea t u r e s a re e n a bled to expre s s t h ei r s e n s a
t i o n s a n d d e s i re s
B y a rt i c u l a t e l a n g u a g e i s u n der s t o o d a
s y s t e m o f expre s s i o n
co mpo se d o f s i m pl e s o u n d s d i ffer
e n tly m od i e d by the org a n s o f s p ee c h a n d v a r i o u s ly co m
L A N G UA G E

b i n ed

li k e e v e ry o th e r a n i m a l ha s a n a t u ral l an g u a g e
i n telli gi ble to al l o f hi s o w n s pe c i e s T hi s l a n g u ag e ho w
ever i s ex t re m ely defe c t i ve bei n g con n e d e n t i rel y to the
g en er al expre s s ion of j o y gri ef fea r a n d the o t h er p a s s i o n s
or e mot i o n s o f the m i n d ; i t i s th erefo re w h o ll y i n a d e
q u a te to the p u r po s e s of r a ti on a l i n terco u r s e a n d the
i n n i tely d i v e r s i ed i de a s o f a n i n tellig e n t be i n g H e n ce
a r i s e s the n e c e s s i ty o f a n a r ti c i a l o r a r t i c u l a t e l a n g u a g e ;
a n ec e s s i ty coev a l w i th t h e ex i s t e n ce of m a n i n hi s r u de s t
s ta t e , i n cr ea s i n g a l s o w i t h t he e nl a r g e me n t o f hi s i de a s
M an ,

I N T R O D U C TIO N

t h e i mprov e men t o f hi s mi n d M an th erefo re w a s

fo r med c a pa ble of s p eech N a tu r e ha s fu r n i s h ed him w i t h
the n ece s s ar y o r g an s a n d w i t h i n g e n u i t y to re n der t h e m
i s p u rpo s e s
s u b s erv i e n t t o h
A n d t h o u gh a t r s t hi s v o
a s hi s w an t s w er e s i m ple
ca b u l a r y w a s do u b tle s s s c a n ty
a n d hi s ex ig e n c i e s fe w hi s l a n g u a g e a n d hi s i n t ellec t w o u ld
A s the l a t t er i m prov e d the fo r me r
n a t u r a ll y k eep p a ce
w o u ld be en la rg ed
O ra l l an g u a g e w e h a ve re a s o n to s u ppo s e con ti n u e d
l o n g to be the o n l y m ed i u m b y w hi ch kn o wledg e c o u ld be
i mp a r ted o r s o ci al i n terco u r s e m a i n tai n ed B u t i n the
pr o g re s s o f s c i en ce v a r i o u s m e th od s w er e dev i s ed for
a t t a i n i n g a m or e p e r m a n e n t a n d m or e ex t e n s i ve ve hi cle
O f th e s e the e ar l i e s t w ere a s s o m e t hi n k
o f t h o u gh t
p i c t u re w r i ti n g a nd hi er o gly p hi c s Vi s i ble obj ec t s a n d
ex tern a l e v en t s w ere d el i n ea ted b y p i c t u r e s w hi le i mm a
t e r i a l t hi n g s w ere e m bl e m a t i c all y expr e s s e d b y g u re s
repr e s en ta ti ve of s u ch p hy s i c al obj ect s a s bore s om e co n
c e i v e d a n a lo gy o r r e s e m bl a n c e t o the t hi n g to be expr e s s e d
*
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I N T R O D U C TIO N

on ly h a ve e mb a rra s s ed b y i t s Ob s c u ri ty b u t
h a ve a l s o b ee n ex tre m ely de ci e n t i n v a r i e t y o f ex

m ust

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le ng th ora l la ng u ag e by a n e ffo r t o f i n g e n u i ty
w hi c h m u s t e ver c o m ma n d a d mi ra ti o n w a s re s olved i n t o
i t s s i mple o r ele m e n t a r y s o u n d s a n d t h e s e w ere c h a r a c t er
i z ed b y a ppropri a t e s y mb o l s e W o rd s t h e s i g n s o f th o u gh t
c a m e t h u s t o be repre s e n t ed b y le t t er s or c h a r a c t er s a rb i
t r a r i l y fo r m ed t o s ign i fy t he d i ff ere n t s o u n d s of w hi c h t h e
w o rd s w er e s ever al ly c o m p o s ed T h e s i m ple s t elem e n t a ry
p a r t o f w ri tte n l an g u ag e i s t h erefo re a le tt er ; a n d t he
ele m e n t s o r le tter s i n to w hi ch the w ord s o f a ny l an g u a g e
m ay be a n a l y se d fo r m the n e ce s sa ry a lp h abe t o f t h a t
l a n g u a ge
At

fr m pr d e ce
i m plicity f m er b t fr m h m ge i
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i t d cti t d i v i e i p i ti i f th i ve ti ve p wer f m b t
d em t b l y q l t th t k P ict e
writi g i ge er lly believed
c mm ic ti g i
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f rm ti b y perm e t ig
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e ted m y b e ily c cei ved He ce th t
ci ti which ex i te d
betw ee th ig d th thi g ig i ed be i g f ded i e emb l ce
w l d i p ce f ti me b e tirely d i l ved T hi h v i g t ke p l ce
hie gl y phic l ch cte w l d t r lly b c verte d i t mere verb l
de t ti ep e e t ti ve f w d d t f thi g He ce G g t
e
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ri e b y p rti l d e y ly i
y ll b ic m d e f de t ti w hich
w l d t r ll y i t d ce lite l l ph bet Thi c j ect re m t eem
highl y p b b l e whe it i c i dere d th t b th verb l d y ll b ic
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I N T R O D U C T IO N

4
I n t he E n gl i s h

lph a b e t

t w en t

ar e

-s

ix

le t ter s

A B C D E F G H I J K L M N O P Q R S T U V

f g hi

O f t h e s e th ere

k l m

n o

p q

r s

u v

X Y Z

w x

o w el s or le t ter s whi c h by th e m
s elve s m a ke e ver y o n e a perfec t s o u n d
T h e re ma i n i n g
t w e n ty a re ca lled c o n s o n an t s o r le tter s w hi ch c an n o t be
s o u n ded w i t h o u t a vo w el
T hi s a lp h a be t i s b o th red u n d a n t an d defec ti ve I t i s
red u n d a n t : for o f the vo w el s the le tt er s i a n d y a re i n
s o u n d t he s am e : o n e o f t h e m t h erefore i s u n n ece s s a r y
Of
the con s o n a n ts
t h e a r ti c u l a to r 0 h a v i n g s o m e ti m e s the
s o u n d of k a n d s o m e t i m e s of 3 o n e o f t h e s e m u s t be n u
n ec e s s ar y
Q h a vi n g i n a ll c a s e s t he s o u n d o f k m a y
li k e w i se be d ee m ed s u per u o u s W a ppe a r s t o me i n
e ver y re s p e c t the s a me w i t h the v o w el u
a n d i s t h e re

fo r e s u p ern u me r ary T h e d o u ble c o n son an t :0 migh t b e

den o ted b y the comb i n a ti on of i ts co mpon e n t le tter s g s
si x v

a re

or

ks

Ob s erved a l so th a t g w h en i t ha s the s oft

s o u n d i s a do u ble co n s o n a n t a n d perfo r ms t he s a m e o fce
a s the le tt er
; e a c h h a v i n g a s o u n d co m po u n ded of t h e
s o u n d s o f d a n d the F re n c h
T h u s g i n g en er a l ha s t h e
s a m e so u n d a s
J h o w ever i s n o t a s s om e h a ve
in j o in
re s olv a ble i n to t w o le t ter s f o r w e h a ve n o
s u ppo s e d
c h a r a c ter to e xpre s s the s i m ple s o u n d O f t h e F re n c h j o f
w hi ch w i t h the con so n an t d the s o u n d o f the E n gl i s h i s
c o m po u n d ed T o re s olve i t i n to dg a s s o me h a ve d o n e
i s th erefore a n err o r ; a s the s o ft g w i th o u t t h e a i d o f the
o th er con s on an t i s preci s ely i den ti ca l i n r e s pec t t o s ou n d
w i t h the con son a n t
T h e le tter 11 i s n o co n son a n t ; i t i s
m erel y t he n o te o f a s p i r a t i o n
I t i s to b e

with i d
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an

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h wever which h ve bee
ig ed f rej ecti g
ti f ct y

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IN T ROD U C TIO N

b y whi ch i t had i n the for mer c a s e b e e n t er mi na ted a s

i n pro n o u n c i n g the s y ll a bl e
I n pro n o u n c i n g the co n s on a n t s t h er e a r e ve d i s ti n
l
l
u i s ha b l e p o s i ti o n s of the or g a n s
i
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T
h
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r
t
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s
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c a t io n o f the l i p s to e a c h o th er s o a s to clo s e the m o u th
T h u s ar e fo r med t he con s on an t s p b a n d m
I n the s econ d po s i ti o n the u n d e r li p i s a ppl i ed to the
fore tee t h of the u pper j a w ; a n d i n t hi s m an n e r w e pro
n o u n c e the con s o n a n ts
an d v
f
T h e thi rd p o s i t i on i s w h e n the to n g u e i s a ppli ed to the
fo re teeth ; a n d t h u s w e pro n o u n ce th
I n the fo u r t h p o s i t i o n w e a ppl y t he fore p a r t o f t he
t o n g u e t o t he fo re p a r t o f t he p al a t e a n d b y thi s a ppl i c a
t i o n w e pr o n o u n ce t he le t ter s t d s z r l n
T h e ft h p o s i ti o n i s w h e n t h e m i ddle p a r t o f the tong u e
i s a ppl i ed t o t h e p a l a t e a n d t h u s w e pro n o u n c e k the h a rd
n
s o un d o f
a
i
n
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s
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d
7
7
s
j
g
g (
g )
I n the r s t po s i t i o n w e h a ve t h ree le tte r s of w hi c h t he
m o s t s i m ple an d i n de e d t he o n l y a r ti c u l a t o r b e i n g ab so
l u tely m u t e i s p I n the for m a ti o n o f thi s le tt er n o thi ng
i s re q u i red b u t t h e s u dden clo s i n g o f the m o u th a n d s top
p in g the vo w e l s o u n d ; o r the s o u n d m ay be a r t i c u l a ted
by the s u dden o pen i n g of t he li p s i n order to e m i t the
co mpre s s ed s o u n d o f t h e vo w el
N o w i f i n s t e a d o f s i mpl y expre s s i n g t he vo w el s o un d
b y o pe ni n g the l i p s i n s ayi ng f o r e x a m ple p a w e s h all
begi n t o fo r m a g u t tu ra l s o u n d t h e po s i t i o n bei n g s till
pre se rved th en o n o pen i n g the li p s w e s h all pro no u n c e
T h e g u t tu r a l s o u n d i s pro d u ced by a
the sy ll able bd
com pre s si o n o f the l a ry n x o r wi nd pi p e ; a n d i s th a t ki n d
o f m u r m u r a s B i s h o p W i l k i n s expre s s e s i t whi c h i s h e a rd
in t he t h ro a t befo re the bre a t h i s e m i tted w i t h the voc a l
B t h erefo re th o u gh j u s tl y co n s idered a s a m u t e
sou n d
i s n o t a perfec t m u t e
,

ae

T he m o u
the o

rg

an

th i

fo r mo

p pe rg f pr d ci g
d l ti g d rtic l ti g th peci c

s n o t the
u a

r o

ro

an

an

u a

or

e s

s o un

s ou n

e ly

bu t m

re

I N T R O D U C TIO N

T h e m o u th bei n g k ep t i n the s a m e po s i t i o n a n d t h e
brea th be i n g e mit ted t h ro ugh the n o s tr i l s the le t ter m i s
pr o d u ce d
I n t he r s t po s i t i o n t h e refore w e h a v e a p e rfe c t m u t e
n g n o a u d i ble s o u n d ; a l a b i a l a n d l iq u i d co n s o n a n t
h
v
i
a
p
m c a p a bl e of a co n t i n u ed s o u n d ; a n d be t wee n t h e s e t w o
ex t re me s w e h a ve the le tte r 6 so m e wh a t a u di ble t h o ugh
d i ffer en t fro m a n y voca l so u n d
H e r e t h e n a r e t h r ee thi n g s to b e d i s t i n g u i s h ed
l st
T he perf e c t mu te h a v i n g n o s o u n d of a ny k i n d : 2 dl y
T h e pe rfec t co n s o n an t h av i n g n o t on ly a prop e r b u t co n
t i n n ed s o u n d
e
w
ee
B
t
n t h e se ex t re m e s w e n d
a n d 3d l
y
t he l e tt er 6 h a v i n g a proper s o u n d b u t s o l i m i t ed t h a t
i n re s pec t to the perfec t co n so n a n t i t m ay be t er me d a
m u t e a n d i n rel a ti o n t o the perfe c t m u te m a y be prope rl y
t er m ed i m perfec t
I n the s eco n d po s i t i o n w e h a v e t h e le tter s f a n d v
T he l e tte rf i s fo r me d
n e i t h er o f w hi c h a r e perfec t m u te s
by h a v i n g t h e a s p ir a ti o n n o t al to ge th er i n terr u p te d b u t
e mi tte d forc i bly be tw ee n the fo re t ee th a n d u n d e r l i p
T hi s i s the s i mple a r ti c u l a ti o n i n thi s po s i t i o n I f to thi s
'
w e j o i n the g u tt u r a l s o u n d w e s h a ll h a v e the le t t er 0 a
le tter s ta nd i ng in n e arly the s ame r el a ti o n to f a s b an d m
T h e on ly d i ff e re n ce b e
i n the r s t po s i t i o n s ta n d to p
t w ee n f a n d v i s th a t i n the fo rm er the co mpr e s si o n o f
the t e e th an d u nder l i p i s n o t s o s tr o n g a s i n the la tt er ;
a n d th a t the for mer i s prod u ced b y t h e brea t h o n l y an d
t h e l a tter b y the voi ce a n d br ea th co mb i n ed
T h e con so n a nt f th e refor e th o u gh n o t a m u t e li k e p
i n h a v i n g t he bre a th a b s ol u te l y c o n n ed m a y n o t w i t h
con s i s te n tly w i t h th a t
s t a n di n g be c o n s i dered a s s u c h
pr i n ci ple b y w hi c h a m u te i s u n der s to od to be a n a s p i ra
t i o n w i t h o u t g u ttu r al s o u n d
A g ree a bl y t o t he d i s ti n c t i on a lre a dy m a de 2) m a y be
t er m ed a perfec t co n s o n an t a n d f a n i m perfe c t o n e h a v i n g
no
proper so u nd th o u gh a u d i ble T h u s w e h a ve fo u r
d i s t i n c t i on s in o u r co n so n a n ta l a l ph a b e t n a mely of perfec t
,

an

N T R OD U C TIO N

i mp erfec t co n son a n t s ; pe rfec t

thu s

i mpe rfec t

an d

m u te s

n
i
u
t
s
a
perf
c
m
u
e
h
v
i
n
g
n
o
d
t
a
o
s
e
,
)
6 a n i mp erfe c t m u te , h a v i n g pr o per s o u n d , bu t

li mi ted
m a perfec t co n s o n a n t h a v i n g s o u n d a n d c o n t i n u ed
a n i m perfec t co n s o n a n t h a v i n g n o s o u n d b u t a u d i bl e
f
I n t he t hi rd po s i t i o n w e h a ve th a s h ea rd i n the w o rd s
t hen a n d thi n for m ed b y pl a c i n g the t i p o f t he t o n g u e b e
t w ee n t h e t ee th a n d pre s s i n g i t a g a i n s t t h e u pp e r t ee th
T h e o n ly d i ffere n c e be t w een t h e se a r ti c u l a t i o n s i s th a t
li ke f an d v the o n e i s fo r m ed b y the brea th o n ly a n d the
l
o th er b y the bre ath a n d v o i ce tog e th er
H ere al s o m a y be d i s t i n g u i s h e d t h e perfe c t an d the im
perfect c o n son an t ; fo r the th i n thi n ha s n o s o u n d b u t i s
a u d i bl e w h er e a s t h e th i n t hi s the r e ha s a s o u n d a n d th a t
.

ae

co nt nu e

t h e fo u r th po s i ti o n

In

h ere

are

ever al c o n so n an ts

I f t h e bre a th be s topped by a p plyi n g the fo re pa r t

o f t he t o n g u e forc i bl y t o t h a t p a r t o f t he p a l a t e w hi c h i s
c n tig u o u s to t h e f re t ee t h w e pro d u ce the perfec t m u t e
t h a v i n g n e i t h e r a s pi r a t i o n n o r g u t t u r a l s o u n d
By a c
c o m p an yi n g thi s oper at i o n o f the t o n g u e a n d p al a te w i t h
the g u tt u r a l s o u n d w e s h a ll pr o n o u n ce t h e le t ter d w hi ch
l i k e 6 o f t he r s t p o si ti o n m a y be co n s i dered a s a m u t e
F o r i n pro n o u n ci n g e d t he t o n g u e
th u gh n o t p e rfec t
u m a n d i s g r a d u a ll y pre s s e d
a t r s t g en tl y t o u c h e s t h e
g
cl o s er t i ll t he s o u n d i s b s t r u c t ed ; wh ere a s i n pro n o u n c i n g
e t t h e t o n g u e i s a t o n ce pre s s ed s o clo s e t h a t t he s o u n d i s
i n s ta n tly i n t ercep ted
2 d ly I f t he t ip o f t h e to n g u e be t u rne d u p t o w a rd s the
an d t h u s t h e bre a t h be
u pper
u m s o a s n o t to t u ch i t
g
c u t b y the S h a rp p o i n t o f t he t o n g u e p a s s i n g t h r u gh the
l s t,

d f th i thi i
ll y m ke d w ith tr ke th gh
th e
d th thick Thi d i ti cti
th h t d i ti g i h it f m i t
e ve d
me w it
i by
h
P
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f
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tt
I
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ti
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K
l
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e
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l
6 88
1
T he

sou n
s

so

on s

e rs r
s

rs e

s o

ro

u s

n,

u su a

r so un

ar

a s

us,

ro u

on

on o

r n

s o

no

vo

I N T R O D U C TI O N

rro w c hi n k left be tw e e n th a t an d the g u m w e pr o n o u n ce

t h e s i b il a t i n g s o u n d O f 3 I f w e a cco m p a n y thi s oper a ti o n
w i t h a g u t t u ra l so u n d a s i n b v a n d th i n then w e s h a ll
pro no u n ce the le t t er z t h e s a m e di ff ere n ce s u b s i s ti n g b e
t ween 3 a n d z a s b e t w ee n f a n d 0 p a n d th a n d th
3 d l y I f w e m a k e t he t i p of t he t on g u e v i br a t e r a p i dl y
be t w ee n t h e u pper an d l o wer j a w s o a s n o t to to u c h
th e l a t ter a n d t h e fo r m er b u t g en tly w e s h a ll pr o n o u n ce
t he le t t er
T h e m o re cl o s el y a n d forc i bly the to n g u e
v i br a te s a g a i n s t t h e u pper j a w the s tro ng er w i l l t he so u n d
be ren der ed I t i s fo rm ed a b o u t t h e sa me d i s tan c e fro m
t h e t ee t h a s t he le t ter d o r r a t h er s o m e w h a t be hi n d i t
4 thl y I f t h e e n d O f t h e t o n g u e be g e n t l y a ppl i e d t o
t h e fore p a rt o f the p al a te a li t t le be hi n d the s ea t o f t h e
le t ter ( I a n d s om e w h a t be fore the pl a c e o f r an d the
voi ce be s u ffered to gl i de g e n tly o ver t h e s i de s o f the
t o n g u e w e sh a ll pro n o u n ce t h e le t te r I H ere the bre a d th
o f t he to n g u e i s c o n tr a ct ed a n d a S p a c e left f o r t he bre a t h
t o p a s s fro m t he u pper to t he u n der p a r t o f t h e t o n g u e i n
for mi ng thi s the m o s t voca l o f a l l the co n so n an ts
5 thl y I f t h e a s p i r a ti n g p a s s a g e i n the fo r m a t i o n o f t he
precedi n g co n so n a n t be s toppe d by ex te n d i n g t h e ton g u e
t o i t s n a t u r a l bre a d t h s o a s t o i n t ercep t t h e v o i ce an d
preven t i t s ex i t by t he mo u th the brea th e mi t t ed t h ro u gh
the n o s e w i ll gi v e t h e le tter 72
I n t h e ft h po s i ti o n n a m el y w h e n w e a ppl y the m i ddle
w e h a ve the c o n
o r b a c k p a r t o f the t o n g u e to t h e p al a te
and n
s o na n ts k g s h j
g
I f the m i ddle of the to n g u e b e r a i s ed so a s to pre s s
clo s ely a g ai n s t the r o o f o f t h e m o u t h a n d i n tercep t t h e
v o i ce a t o n ce yve pro n o u n ce t h e le t t er 1: (ch) I f the
to n g u e be n o t s o cl o s el y a ppli ed a t r s t a n d t h e s o u n d be
c o n t i n u e a l i t t le w e h a ve the le tter g (eg )
a ll o w ed t o
T h u s e h a n d eg be a r t h e sa m e a n a lo gy to e a ch o th er a s et
I f t h e to ng u e be pro t r u ded
a n d e d o f t h e fo u r t h po s i t i o n
t o w a rd s the tee t h s o a s n o t to to u ch t h e m a n d be k ep t i n
a p o s i t i o n s o me w h a t a t ter th a n i n pr o n o u n c i n g t h e le t ter
na

I N T R OD U C T ION

10

voi c e a n d br ea th p a s s i n g over i t th ro ugh a w i d e r

chi nk w e s h al l h a v e the so u n d of es h
I f w e a pply the to n g u e to the p a l a t e a s i n pro n o un ci n g
s h b u t a l i t t le m ore fo rc i bl y
a n d a cco m p an yi n g i t w i t h
t he g u tt u r al s o u n d w e s h all h a ve the s o u n d o f the F r en c h
n a lo g o u s t o the le tt er s 6 2 2
T
h
t
hi
po
i
t
i
o
u
i
n
s
s
i
s
n
a
s
j
th i n the r s t se c o n d a n d thi rd p o s i ti o n s a n d i s a s i m pl e
co n s on an t : i n E ngl i s h i s a do u ble con s on a n t co m po u n d e d
of d a n d t he F r en c h j a s i n j oi n
I f w e r ai s e t he m i ddle of the to n g u e to the pa la t e g e n tl y
s o a s to per mi t p a r t of the vo i c e to i s s u e t h ro u gh t he
m o u th forc i n g t h e r e m a in der b a c k th ro u gh t he n o se
k eep i n g a t the sa m e t i me the t on g u e i n t he sa m e po s i ti o n
a s i n pro n o u n c i n g e
w
e s h a ll h a ve t he a r ti c u l a ti n g s o u n d
g
o f in
o r w hi c h w e h a ve n o s i m ple c h a r a c t er
f
g
T h e on ly rema i n i n g le tte r h i s t he n o te of a s p ir a ti on
fo r m ed i n v a ri ou s po s i ti o n s a ccordi n g to the vo w e l w i th
w hi c h i t i s co mb i ne d
T h e c h a ra c ters of t he s ev e ra l l e t ter s m ay b e s ee n i n the
fo llo w in g ta ble :
t he

3,

I N T RO D U C TIO N

11

W h a t e ffec t the co m pr e s s i on of the l a ry n x ha s i n a r ti c u

ti o n ma y b e s ee n b y co m pa ri n g t he se pa i r s of co n so n a n t s :
With

c mpre i
o

ss o n

With o u t

c mpre i
o

ss o n

Th

T h e s e a s M r T o o ke Ob s erve s di ffer e a ch fro m i ts

p a r tn er b y a cer ta i n u n n o t i ced a n d a l mo s t i m percep ti ble
T hi s co m
m o ti on o r co m pre s s i o n o f o r n e a r the l a ry n x
pre s s i o n he re ma r k s the Wel s h n ever u se F o r i n
s t e a d of
I
w b y G d th t Je k i i
wi rd ;
th e y s a y
I f w b y C t th t Sh ki i
wi
t
.

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s a

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en

ss a

sar

T h e co n s o n a n ts h a ve be e n d i s tr i b u ted i n to d i ff ere n t
cl a s se s a cco rd i n g to the organ s c hi e y em ploy ed i n th e i r
fo r ma ti o n
T h e L a bi a l a re e h e p e f e v
et
ed
e t h e th
D e n ta l
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e a c h be h ea rd or n o t i s ca ll e d a di ph th o n g a n d the co n
c u rre n ce o f th r ee i s c al led a t ri ph th o n g
O f d i ph t h o n g s th ere a r e t w e n ty v i z a i a n ea ee ci
,

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ry

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cw ,

ow

m o no ph

h e n ce t h ey h a ve bee n c a lled i m pr o per di ph

t h o n g s I t w o u ld be i dle to d i sp u te the propr i e ty o f a
t e r m a lmo s t u n i ver sa l l y a do p ted ; b u t to c all t h a t a d i ph
t h o n g w h o s e so u n d i s m o n oph th o n ga l i s a n a b u s e o f Ian

tho n ga l ;
.

I N T R ODU C TI ON

12

g u a ge
7

cr e ates con fu s i on T he o n ly proper d i p h th o ng s

i n o u r l a n g u a g e a r e ea o i C u I n w hi c h e a c h v o w el i s
d i s t i n c tly h e a rd fo r m i n g to g e th er o n e s yll able T h e
t r i ph th o n g s a r e th ree ea u i eu i ew O f th e s e the r s t
a s i n bea u t ; s o m e ti m e s
ca n i s s o m e ti m e s pro n o u n ced ea
y
a s i n bea u : t he o t h er t w o h a ve t he d i p h t h on ga l s o u n d
,

an d

en

E T Y M O L O GY

14

ho w m an y

of th e se belo n g to la n g u a ge ha s be en lo n g a
qu e s ti on a mon g phi lo so ph e r s a n d g ra mm a r i a n s So m e
h a ve reck on ed t wo s o m e t h ree a n d o th er s fo u r ; w hi le
the g e n er a l i ty h a v e a fr m ed th a t t h ere a r e n o t fe w er t h a n
*
e igh t n i n e or t en
T hi s s tra n g e d i ver s i ty of op i n i o n
ha s p a r tl y a r i s en fro m a prope n s i ty t o j u d g e o f the cha
w hi c h i s a m o s t
r a c te r of w ord s m ore fro m t h e i r fo r m
falla c i ou s cr i teri o n th an fro m t h ei r i m por t o r s ign i c a ti on
O n e t hi n g a pp ea rs cer ta i n ho w m u c h s o ever the s u bj ec t
m a y h a ve been o b s c u red b y s c h ol a s t i c r e n e m en ts th a t to
a s s ig n n a m e s t o obj ec t s of t h o u gh t a n d t o expr e s s th e i r
prop er ti e s a n d q u a l i t i e s a re the o n ly i n di s p e n s a ble re q u i
s i t e s i n l a n g u a g e / I f thi s be a d mi t ted i t fo ll o w s t h a t t he
n o u n a n d the verb a r e the o n l y pa r t s o f s pe ec h w hi c h a re
e s s e n ti a ll y n ece s sa r y ; the for m er be i n g the n a m e of the
t hi n g o f w h i ch w e s pe a k a n d the l a tter v erb (o r the w or d
b y w ay o f e mi ne n ce ) expre ss i n g w h a t w e t hi n k o f i t r j
Al l o th e r s or ts o f w o r d s m u s t b e re garded a s s u b s i d i a r i e s
co n ven i en t pe r h a p s fo r t he m o re e a s y com m u n i ca ti on of
t h o u gh t b u t b y n o m e a n s i n d i s pe n s a bl y re q u i s i t e
H a d w e a d i s t i n c t n a m e for every i n d i v i d u a l Obj ec t of
l an g ua ge w o u ld th en b e co mpo s ed
s en s a t i o n o r th o u gh t
p u rely of pr o per n am e s a nd t h u s b e co me to o gr e a t a loa d
for a n y m emory t o r e ta i n L an g u ag e th erefo re m u s t be
co m po se d of g en e ra l sign s th a t i t m ay be re m e mbered ;
.

he they tre t f pr p iti c i de ed th

d th v erb
l y e e ti l p t f pee ch ; the e with t
th
id f
f
m
th
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e
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they we e c lled m p j X
t
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p p
peech T h l tter f th e p hil p he i hi P etic d mit f r
dd i g t th
rt icl e d th c j cti
d th ve b th
Th
el der St ic m de d i v i d i g th
i t p pe d ppell ti ve
l q im
N me d q
1 N
Verb Ve b m
q d l q i m Q i t l ib i 4
H ce h bee th ght b y me t c te ce thi d ct i e whe
P

lt

n o un a n

e a

an

n ou n

an

o un ,
,

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x/ U

as

ss n
a

OT a '
r ot

uo

a ou ,

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rs ,

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n o

r an

ro

ur

so

e c verb q ib v ce
a,

us

No m in aq u e i n v en ere

on

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o un

n an

s a s,

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ou

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an

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an

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o ns,

os

or

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ar s o

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n T ou

es

s eu

v e,

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as

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a o an d

s s en s u s q ; n o taren t,

L ib i

Sa t 3
.

r n

E T Y M O L O GY

15

a n d p e rc e p ti o n s ar e o f s i n g le
i
obj ec ts i t m u s t a l so be c a p a ble o f de n o t i n g i n d i vi d u al s
N o w w h a tever m od e be a d o p te d t o r e n der g e n er al t er m s
s ign i c an t o f i n d i v i d u a l o bj e c t s or w h a te ver a u x i l i a r i e s b e
e m ploy e d f o r t hi s p u rpos e the g e n era l t erm w i th i t s i n di
w
ord
m
u s t b e re g a r d e d a s a s u b s t i t u t e for t he
v i d u a ti n
g
pr o per n a m e T h u s ma n i s a g en er a l t er m t o den o te the
w h ole of a s p e c i e s ; i f I s ay the ma n thi s ma n tha t ma n
i t i s obv i o u s t h a t the w ord s the this a n d tha t t e r m ed de
n i tiv es s erve w i th t he g e n era l t er m a s a s u b s t i t u t e for
the proper n a m e of the i n d i v i d u a l
H e n ce i t i s ev i de n t th a t t h o se w ord s w hi c h a re t er m ed
d e n i tiv e s ho w u s e fu l s oe ver c a n n o t be r eg a rd ed a s i n d i s
pen sa ble
T h e pro n o u n i s cle arly a s u b s ti tu t e f o r the n o u n ; i t
ca n n o t th e refo re be dee me d e s s en ti al T he a dj ec ti ve ex
pre s s i n g merely the pro per ty o r q u al i ty i n co ncreto w i th
m a y be d i s pe n se d w i th t he con n ex i o n o f
o u t a f r m a t i o n
a s u b s tan c e w i th a q u al i t y o r proper ty b e i n g expr e s s i ble

a g ood m an
by the n o u n a n d the verb T h u s
is

Ad
e qu i v a le n t to a m a n of w i th o r j o in g ood n e s s
verb s w hi c h h a ve bee n t er m ed a ttr i bu ti ve s of the se co n d
order a re n o thi ng b u t a bbrev i a tio n s a s her e f o r i n this
r a v el
r a v e l i ke
b
for
b
T
h
e s e t h erefo re ca n n o t be
l
a
ce
p
y
con si dered a s e s s en ti a l s in l a ng u a ge I n the s am e ma n n er
i t migh t be s h o w n th a t all p a r t s o f s p e ec h n o u n a nd verb
excep ted ar e e i th er s u b sti tu te s o r a bbrev i a ti o n s c o n ve n i e n t
i n d eed b u t n o t i n d i s pen s ably re q u i si t e B u t a s th ere
w i ll be occ a s i on to i ll u s tra te thi s th eor y wh en the g e n er ally
r ec ei ved p a r ts of s peec h a re s evera ll y e x a mi n ed i t i s u n
n ece s s ar y t o e n l a r g e o n t he s u bj e c t a t pre se n t
T h o u gh the e s s en ti a l p a r ts o f s p e ec h i n every l a n g ua g e
a re on l y t w o
the n o u n a n d the verb ; y e t a s t h ere i s i n
a l l l a n g u a g e s a n u m ber o f w ord s n o t s t r i c t l y red u c i ble t o
e i th e r o f th ese pr i ma r y d i v i s i on s i t ha s bee n u s u a l w i th
g ra mm a ri a n s to a rr a n g e w ord s i nto a v a r i e ty of d i ff er en t
cl a s se s T hi s d i s tri b u tio n i s p ar tly a rbi tr a r y th e re bei n g

an

al

as

se n s a t o n s

o ur

16

E TY M O L O G Y

d e n i te o r u n i ver s a lly r ecei ve d pr i n ci ple by w hi c h to

d e ter m i n e wh a t d i s cr i mi n a ti ve c i rc u m s ta n ce s a r e s u i ci e n t
t o en ti tle a n y s pec i e s o f w o rd s t o the d i s t i n c ti o n o f a s ep a
r a te o rder H e n ce g ra mm a r i a n s a r e n o t ag reed con cern i n g
t h e n u m ber of t h e s e s u bordi n a te cl a s s e s B u t i n to w h a t
ever n u m ber O f den o min a t i o n s th e y m ay be di s tri b u ted i t
s h o u ld be a l w a y s re m e m bered
t h a t the o n ly n ece s sa r y
p a r ts of s pee c h a r e n o u n a n d verb ; e very o th er s pec i e s of
w o rd s be i n g a d mi tted s o lel y fo r de s p a t c h o r o rn am e n t
T h e pa r ts of s peec h in E n gl i s h m ay b e reck o n ed t en :
N o u n A rt i cle P r o n o un A dj ec ti v e Verb P a r ti ci ple
A dverb P repo s i ti o n C onj u n c ti on I n t erj e c ti on
no

E T YMOLO GY

17

C HA P T E R I

O F TH E

NO UN

S E CTIO N I

N O UN ( N o m e n ) i s th a t p a r t of s peec h whi ch expre s s e s

the s u bj e c t f di s c o u r s e o r w hi c h i s t h e n a m e f t h e t hi n g
f a s t a bl e ho us e r i v er
s p o k en
O f N o u n s th ere a re t w o ki n d s pr o p e r a n d a ppell a t i ve
A prope r n o u n or n a m e i s t he n am e of a n i n di v i d u a l
L o n d o n Ves u v i us
a s A l ex a n d er
expre s se s a ge n u s
r co m mo n n o u n
A n a p pell a t i e
o r cl a s s o f th i n g s
a n d i s co mm o n o r a ppli c a ble t o ever y
i n d i v i d u a l o f th a t cla s s
N o u n s or S u b s ta n t i ve s ( fo r t h e s e t er m s ar e e q u i v a len t )
h a ve a l so bee n d i v i ded i n to n a t u ra l a r t i ci al a n d a b s t ra c t
O f the r s t cl a s s ma n ho rs e t r ee a r e ex a m ple s T h e
n a me s o f t hi n g s of o u r o w n fo r m a t i n a r e t er m ed a r t i c i a l
T h e n am e s o f q u a l it i e s
s u b s ta n ti ve s a s w a tch ho u s e s hip
or
pro per ti e s co n ce i ved a s ex i s t i ng b y th e m s elve s o r
s ep a r a t ed fr m t he s u b s ta n ce s to w hi c h t h ey bel o n g a r e
ca ll ed a b s tr a c t n o u n s ; whi le A dj ec ti ve s expre s s i n g th e s e
q u ali ti e s as co nj o i n ed wi th t h e i r s u bj ec t s a re ca lled c o n
cre t e s H a r d fo r e x a m ple i s t e r me d the co n cre te ha r d
n es s t he a b s t r a c t
N o u n s h a ve a l s o bee n c o n s i dered a s de n o t i n g g e n er a
T h u s m n i s a g e n er i c t er m a n
s pec i e s a n d i n di vi d u a l s
E ng l is hma n a s pec i a l t er m a n d G e o rg e a n i ndi v i d u a l
A ppell a t i e n o u n s be i n g e mpl o y ed to de n o t e ge n era r
s pec i e s a n d th e s e order s c o m pr i s i n g e a c h m an y i n d i v i d u a l s
h e nce a r i s e s th a t a cci de n t of a co mm on n o u n ca lled N u m
o

E T Y M O L O GY

18

ber by w hi c h w e s ig n i fy wh e th er o n e o r m ore i n d i v i d u a l s
o f an
n u s o r s pec i es be i n t e n ded
g
e
y
I n E n gl i s h t h e re a re t w o n u m ber s the s i ng u l a r a n d the
pl u r a l T h e s i n g u l a r expre s s i n g o n ly o n e o f a cl a s s or
gen u s i s the n o u n i n i t s s i mple fo r m a s r iv er the pl u r a l
den o ti n g m ore t h a n o n e i s g en e r a lly for m ed by a dd i n g

s
the le tt er 3 t o t he s i n g u l a r a s r i v er s
T o thi s r u le
h o w ever th ere ar e m an y excep ti on s
N o u n s e n d i n g i n ch s h s s o r
form th e i r pl u r al by
a dd i n g the s y ll a ble es t o t h e s i n g u l a r n u m ber a s c hu r c h
D r W ha tel e y (n o w A rch b i s h o p of D u bl i n )
chu r ches
i n v i o l a ti o n of thi s u n i v e r s a l r u l e w r i te s p r emi ss i n t he
h
ee
i
s
r e mis es i n t he pl u r a l
S
an d
s i n g u l a r n u mber
(
p
P r e mi s e l i k e p r o mi s e i s the proper
L o gi c pp 2 5
P r e mi s s a n d
t er m a n d m a k e s p r emi ses i n the pl u r a l
C h h a rd t a k e s 3
r e mi ses a re rep u g n an t t o a ll a n a lo g
p
y
for the pl u r a l t er m i n a ti on a n d n o t es a s p a tr i a r ch p a tr i
,

d isti ch, d i s ti chs

a r chs ;

N o u n s en d i n g i n f o r f e m a k e th e i r pl u r a l by c h an gi n g
E xcep t
f o r f e i n to v es a s ca lf ca l v es ; kn if e kn iv es
ho of r o of g r i ef dw a rf mis chi ef ha n dker chi ef r e l ief mu ,
72
a
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n a , s tu
s
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h
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if
if
w hi ch i n the fo r m a ti o n o f t h e i r pl u ra l s follo w the g en e r a l
r u le
N o u n s i n o i mpu r e for m th e i r pl u ra l by a d di n g es a s
her o her o es echo echo es : th o s e w hi c h e n d i n 0 p u r e b y
a dd i n g 8 a s
o l io f o l i o s
f
S o m e n o u n s h a ve th e i r pl u ra l i n e n th u s fo llo wi n g the
T e u to n i c t erm i n a ti o n a s o r oxen ; ma n men
S o me ar e e n ti rel y a n om a lo u s a s d i e d i ce p en ny p en ce ;
,

'

'

p l r l mber d
igi ll y f med b y dd i g

ge iti ve i g l r eem t h ve bee

t
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y

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Th w h v e till i
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p l l f hild d th d b le p l l i hild hi ld with th
d b l e ge iti ve i w t w t
T he

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so

s n

e er , o ur .

os

es er n

u a

n o es o r 3 .

s n

on

o u,

as

or

E T Y M O L OG Y
g

o os e,

br o ther m a k e s br ethr en ,

an d

s w in e ;

sow ,

ees e ;
g

19

at

w h e n den o ti n g per so n s o f t he sa m e s oc i e ty o r pro fe s si o n

D i e a s ta m p fo r co i n i n g m a k e s d i es i n t he pl u r al
I n d ex m a k e s i n t he pl u ra l i n d ex es w h e n i t expres s e s a
ta ble o f co n t e n t s a n d i n d i ces w h e n i t de n o te s the expo n e n t
of a n a l gebra i c q u a n t i ty
S o m e a r e u se d a l i k e in bo th n u m ber s a s ho sed d eer
h
s e be i n g e i t h e r s i n g ul a r or pl u r a l
s hee
t
e
p
N o u n s expr e s s i ve of w h a tev e r n a tu re o r ar t ha s ma de
do u ble or pl u r al h a v e n o s i ng u l a r a s bow e ls l u ng s s ci s so r s
.

'

as

hes, bel l o w s

i m p u re fo r m t h e i r pl u r al by c h a n g

in y

i n to i es a s qu a l i ty q ua l i ti es
No u n s p u rel y L a ti n G reek H ebre w
th e i r ori gi na l pl u ra l s
i ng y

e n di n g

N ou n s

F r enc h , 8 w

r e ta i n

S i ng

L at
Fr

L at

H eb
H eb

L at

Gr

L at

Gr

L at

L at

L at

Gr

Gr

Gr

L at

Arcan u m
B ea u
E rr a t u m
M on s i e u r
C h er u b
S era p h
M ag u s
P h en o me n on
S tr a t u m
A u to m a to n
Vor te x
R a di u s
G en u s
C r i si s
E mph a si s
H yp o th e si s
G en i u s

e o

so

o s n an

u a

a s.

s us

u s

B ea u x
E rr a ta

M e s s i e u r s , M e s sr s

an .

S tr a ta

A u t o ma t a

Vo r ti c e s
R a d ii
G en er a

C ri s e s
E m p h ase s
H y po th e s e s
G en ii
,

ro

C h er u b i m
S era phi m
M a gi
P h en o me n a

or

A rc an a

cri p t re i ed f b th

b lete p l r l cc r i th Bib l e
1 Th

th eir h e d h t
D
iii 2 1
Brethren , i n S

in

Pl

er s
.

The e m were b
s

en

o un

E T Y M O L O GY

2 0

w h en d en o ti n g a er i a l s p i r i t s ; b u t w h en s ign i fy i n g men of
e n i u s o r e m pl o y ed t o expre s s the pl u r a l o f t h a t c o m b i n a
g
t i o n o f m e n t a l q u a l i t i e s w hi c h c o n s t i t u te s g en i u s i t follo w s
t he g en er a l r u le
A pro per n a m e ha s a pl u r a l n u mber w h en i t beco m e s
the n a m e of m ore i n d i v i d u a l s th a n o n e a s the tw o S cip i o s
t he t w e l v e C a s a r s
I t i s t o be o b s erved h o w ever t h a t i t
c ea se s t h e n to be s tr i c t ly s pe a ki n g a proper n a m e
S o m e n o u n s h a ve n o pl u ra l 1 s t T h o s e w hi c h den o te
t hi n g s m e a s u red o r w e i g h ed u n le s s w h e n t h e y expre s s
v a ri e ti e s a s s ug a r s ug a r s ; w hea t w hea ts o i l o i ls ; w in e
w i n es
H ere n o t n u mber s of i n d i v i d u a l s b u t d i ff eren t
a re s ig n i ed
I n thi s s en s e t he n o u n s
s pec i e s o r cl a s s e s
a re u s ed pl u r a ll y
2 d N a m e s o f a b s t r a c t a n d a l s o o f m or a l qu al i ti e s a s
ha r d n es s s of tn es s p r u d en ce e n vy ben ev o l en ce h a ve n o
pl u ra l I t i s to be Ob s erv e d h o w e er t h a t s ev e ra l n o u n s
of t hi s cla s s e n d i n g i n y w h e n t h ey d o n o t expre s s t h e
qu al i ty o r prop e r ty i n the ab s tr a c t b u t e i t h er i ts v a ri e ti e s
or i t s m a n i fe s ta ti o n s a re u s e d pl u ra lly T h u s w e sa y
l ev i ti es a n i ti es g r a v i t i es &c
T h ere m a y b e di ff ere n t
deg ree s a n d d iffe re n t ex hi b i ti o n s o f the q u a li ty b u t n o t a
pl u r a l i ty
W h er e d i s pl ay s o f the m en tal q u al i ty a r e to be expr es s
ed i t i s be tte r i n al l ca se s t o e m pl o y a peri p h ra s i s T h u s
i n st e a d of u s in g w i th H u m e ( v o l v ii p 41 1 ) the pl u ra l
i n s o l en ces t he expre s si o n a cts of i n s o l en ce w o u ld be pre
,

f era b l e

S o m e of th o s e w o rd s w hi c h h a v e n o s i ng u la r te r mi n at io n
a re n a m e s of s c i en ce s a s ma the ma ti cs me ta h s i cs
l
o
i
t
i
cs
p y
p
,

e thi cs ,

n eu

ma ti cs , &c

O f t h e s e, the t er m

ethics

is,

I beli e v e con s i dere d

,

as

i th er s i n gu l a r or pl u ra l
M a thema ti cs i s g e n era lly co n s tr u e d a s pl u r al ; so m e t i m e s
h o w ever w e n d i t a s s i n g u la r
I t i s a g re a t p i ty s a y s
L oc k e ( v o l iii p 42 7 8 v o 1 794)
A ri s to tle ha d n o t

E T Y M O L O GY

2 2

H e re ,

i n deed l i e s the j u s te s t a nd m o s t pl a u s ible o b

e c ti o n a g a i n s t a co n s i der a ble p a r t of m e ta p hy s i c s
t ha t
j
they a r e n o t properl y a s c i e n ce
H u me
T h e la tter o f t h e s e u s a ge s i s the m ore c o m m on a n d mo re
a g r ee a ble t o a n a l o gy
T h e s a m e ob s e rv a t i o n i s a ppli c abl e
t o t he t er m s p o l i ti cs o ti cs
n eu ma t i cs a n d o th er s i mi l a r
p
p
n a m e s o f s c i e n ce s
B u t i n o rder t o prove m o r e fu l l y th a t pol i t i c s a dmi t

o f ge n er a l t r u t h s
H u me
H ere t he t er m i s u se d a s pl u ra l
Fo l k a n d f o l ks a re u s ed i n d i s cr i mi n a t el y ; b u t t he pl u ra l
t er m i n a ti o n i s h er e s u per u o u s the w ord
o lk i m pl yi n g
f
pl u ra l i ty
M ea ns i s u se d bo t h a s a s i n g u l a r a n d pl u ral n o u n L o w t h
reco mm e n d s the l a tt er u s a ge o nl y a n d a dm i t s mea n a s the
s i n g u l a r o f mea n s
B u t n o t w i th s t an d i n g t h e a u th or i ty o f
H o o k e r S i d n e y an d S ha k s p e a r e f o r the expre s s i on s thi s
mea n tha t mea n 8 m a n d t he r eco mm en d a ti o n t h e y rece i ve
fr o m an a lo gy c u s t o m ha s s o l o n g deci ded i n fa v o u r of
me a ns rep u d i a ti n g t h e s i ngu l a r t e rm i n a ti on th a t i t m ay
perh a p s i dle as w ell a s fas ti d i o u s to propo se i ts
s e em
d is m i s s i o n
I t i s l i ke w i s e ob ser v a ble t h a t the s i n g u l a r for m of t hi s
a 01 1
n o u n i s n o t t o be fo u n d i n o u r ver s i o n o f the B i ble
t h a t the t ran s la to r s pre
c u m s tan c e w hi c h cle a rl y s h o w s
ferred t h e pl u ra l t erm i n a t i o n
T h a t t he n o u n mea n s has bee n u s ed a s a s u b s ta n ti ve
s i n g u l a r b y so m e of o u r bes t w r i t er s i t w o u ld be e a s y to
pro ve b y n u m berl e s s ex am pl e s L e t a f e w s u fc e
B y thi s m e a n s i t bec a m e ever y m an s i n t er es t a s w ell

Te mp l e v o l iii
t o pre v e n t a ll cr i m e s
a s hi s d u t y
,

'

1
33
p
And

r ea

by

t hi s m

e an s I s h ou ld

no t

do u b t

Wi lkin s s

C ha r a cter

A dd i s o n
o
t
H e b y tha t m ea n s pre s erve s hi s s u per i ri y
B y t hi s m e an s al o n e the g r e a te s t ob s ta cle s w i ll v a n i s h
.

P op e

E TY M O L O G Y

2 3

t h e re w as n o thi n g left to the pa rl i a m en t

a
n
B l a cks t o n e v o l i p 1 02
o f I rel
d
F i t h i s n o t o n l y a m e a n s of obeyi n g b u t a pr i n c i p a l
Yo u ng
a c t o f o bed i en ce
E v ery m ean s w a s l a w ful f o r the p u bl i c s a fe ty
By t hi s m e a n s

G i bbo n

T h a t t hi s w o rd i s a l s o u s ed a s pl u ra l t he m o s t i n a t
t e n ti v e E n gli s h re a der m u s t h a ve fre q u e n t l y ob s erv ed
H e w a s c a refu l t o o b s erve w h a t m e a n s w er e e m plo y ed

by hi s a dver s a r i e s t o co u n ter a c t hi s s ch e me s
W hi le w e o ffer t h e s e ex a mpl e s to S h o w t h at the t erm i s
u s ed e i t h er a s a s i n g u l a r o r a s a pl u r a l n o u n
w e w o u ld
a t t he s a m e t i me re m a r k
t h a t t h o u gh t he expr e s s i o n

a mea n
i s a t pre s e n t ge n e r a ll y c o n ne d to den o t e
a

mi ddle o r m ed i u m be t w ee n t w o e x t r e me s w e ar e i n cli n e d
t o co n c u r w i th t he le a rn e d D r L o w t h a n d t o reco mm e n d
a m ore ex t e n d e d u s e o f t h e n o u n s i n gu l a r
T hi s u sa ge
w a s c o m m o n i n the d a y s of S ha k s p e a r e
I l l dev i s e a mea n to dr a w the M o or o u t of the w ay
,

O thel l o

ble h e a r t w o u ld n ee d s g ra tefu ll y ma k e

Sid n ey
k n o w n the al i a n t mea n o f h er sa fe ty
T h e i r v i r t u o u s c o n ver sa ti o n w a s a mea n to w or k the

H o o ke r
H e a th e n s co n ver s i o n u n to C h r i s t
M el m o th B e a t t i e a n d s e ver a l o t h er w ri t er s d i s ti n
a ve
h
u i she d b y th e i r ele g a n c e an d a cc u r a c y of d i c ti o n
g
A mea ns i n dee d i s a fo r m of expre s
a dop ted t hi s u sa g e
t ho u gh n o t w h olly u n s u ppor ted b y a n a lo gy
s i o n w hi c h
i s y e t s o r ep u g n a n t t o t h e g e n e r a l i d i o m o f o u r l a n g u a g e
a n d s ee m s s o i ll a d a p t ed t o de n o t e the o p er a ti o n of a s i n g le
ca u s e tha t w e s h o u ld be ple as ed t o s ee i t d i s mi s s ed fr o m
I f w e sa y T hi s w a s o n e of the mea n s w hi ch h e e m
u se
pl o y ed t o e ffec t hi s p u rpo s e an al o gy a n d m e ta p hy s i c al
pr o pri e ty co n c u r i n rec o m m en d in g a mea n or o ne mea n
New s a l ms r i ches p a i n s h a v e
a s prefer a ble t o a mea n s
b e en u s ed a s e i th er s i n g u l a r o r pl u r a l b u t w e n e ver s a y

o n e of the r i c he s
o n e of t he n e w s
o n e o f t h e a l ms
P a m el a

no

E T Y M O L O GY

2 4

p a i n s a s w e s a y o n e of the m e an s ; w e
m a y t h erefo re be j u s t i ed n o t w i th s ta n d i n g the a u th o r i ty
a
o f g e n er a l u s a g e
a m ea n s
p alp a bl e
i n pr o n o u n c i n g
a n o ma l y
Ne w s i s l i k e w i s e c o n s t r u ed s o m e t i m e s a s a s i n g u l a r a n d
s o m e t i m e s a s a p l u ra l n o u n
T h e form er u sa g e h o w ever
i s f a r t he m o re gen er a l

A g e n er a l j o y a t thi s gl a d n e w s a ppe a r ed
C o w l ey
S ha ksp ea r e
N O n e w s s o b a d a s thi s a t h o me

one o

f the

R i cha r d I I I
T he

ma z i n g

e w s of C h a rle s

at

o n ce

w as

pre a d

T h e k i n g w a s e m plo y ed i n hi s u s u a l e xerci s e o f be
s1 e 1 n
c
a s tle s
w
h
e
n the n e w s w a s br o u gh t o f H e n ry s
g g
a rr i v a l
S w if t
T h e o n ly n e w s y o u ca n expec t from m e i s n e w s fro m

a
n
h e ve
G ay
This i s a l l t h e n e w s t a l ked o f P op e
S wi ft P o p e G ay w i t h m o s t o th er cl a s s i c w r i ter s o f t h a t
a e
s eem t o h a v e u n i fo r m ly u s ed i t a s s i n g u l a r
g
A f e w ex a m ple s o cc u r of a pl u r a l u s a ge
W h en R h ea h e a rd thes e n e w s
R a l eig h H i s t Wo r l d
S mo l l et t
A r e t h ere a n y n e w s o f hi s i n t i ma t e fr i e n d

I I u me
N e w s w er e bro u gh t to t h e q u e e n
T h e s a m e r u le a s t h a t j u s t n o w rec o m m e n ded i n reg a rd
t o t he n o u n mea n s m igh t per h a p s b e u s efu l h ere a l s o
n a m el y
t o c o n s i der t h e w o rd a s s i n g ul a r w h e n o n l y o n e
a r t i cle o f i n t ell ig e n ce i s c o m m u n i c a ted a n d a s pl u r a l w h e n
s e er a l n e w t hi n g s a r e rep o r t ed
P a i n s i s c o n s i dered a s e i t h er s i n g u l a r o r pl u ra l s o m e o f o u r
be s t w ri ter s u s i n g i t i n e i th er w a y T hi s w o rd i s ev i den t ly
o f F re n c h ex t r a c ti o n
be i n g the s a m e w i t h p ei n e p a i n s o r
t ro u ble a n d w a s origi n a lly u s ed i n a s i n g u l a r fo r m t h u s
Whi c h m a y i t ple a s e y o u r high n e s s t o t a k e the p ay n e
'

f o r to w r i t e
Wo ls ey s letter to H en ry VI I I I t s ee ms
prob a ble t h a t t hi s w o r d a ft er i t a s s u med a pl u r a l fo r m
w a s m o re fre q u e n t ly u s ed a s a s i ng u l a r th an a s a pl u r a l

E TY M O L O G Y
M odern

2 5

ge h o w ever s ee m s to i n cl i n e t h e o th er
wa
a ted g r a mm a r i a n
A
celebr
i
pr
n deed
h
o n o u n ced
a
s
y
thi s n o u n t o b e i n a ll c a s e s pl u r a l ; b u t thi s a s se r ti o n
m igh t be pr o v e d err o n e o u s b y n u m berle s s e x a m p l e s

T h e p a i n s th ey ha d ta k en w a s ver y g re a t
C l a r endo n
G rea t p a i n s ha s bee n ta k en P 0p e

N o p a i n s i s t a ke n
P 0p e
I n a dd i t i o n t o th e s e a u t h or i ti e s i n fa vo u r o f a s i n g u l a r
u sa g e i t m a
be
o b s erved
h
t
a t t he w ord m u ch a t er m of
y
qu a n ti t y n o t o f n u mber i s fre q u e n t ly j o i n ed wi th i t a s

I fo u n d m u c h ar t an d p a i n s e mpl o y ed M i d dleto n
H e w i ll a s s e m ble m a t er i a l s w i t h m u c h p ai n s
no un

u sa

B o l i ng br o ke

T h e w ord

H i s to ry

on

ever j o i n ed to a pl u ral n o u n mu ch
l a bou r s m u chp ap er s w o u ld b e i n s u ffe r abl e j
R i ches i s g en er a l l y n o w c o n s i der e d a s a pl u r a l n o u n ;
t h o u gh i t w a s form erly u se d e i t h er a s s i n g u l a r or pl u r a l
T hi s s u b s ta n ti ve se e m s to h a ve bee n n ot hi n g b u t the F re n c h
w ord r i chess e a n d t h erefo r e n o m ore a pl u r a l th an gen t l e
n es s e d i s tr es se a n d m an y o t h er s o f t he sa m e k i n d
I n t hi s
for m w e n d i t in C h au ce r
mu ch i s

p k e f w i h ge tle e e
de ce d ed t f l d iche e
e t l ve d eth hi h m ge
d h th t

ll fte ti me de e b ght i th riche e

Bu t fo r y e
s
A s is

An
Fu

ou

on s

n o

n ss ,

ss

ou

ss

A ccordin gly h e gi ve s i t a pl u ra l t er m i n a ti o n a n d u se s
i t a s a pl u r a l w o rd
T h o u ha s d r o n ke so m u c h h on y o f s w e te te m por a l
r i ch e s s e s a n d deli ce s a n d h o n o u r s o f t hi s w o rld
I t s ee m s ev i de n t th e n th a t thi s w o rd w a s or igi n a ll y
co n s tr u ed a s a s u b s ta n t i ve s in gu l a r a n d eve n a d m i t t ed a
pl u ra l fo r m T h e or t h o g r a phy v a ryi n g a n d the n o u n
,

ke i cli e l t thi
ge i p efere ce t

pl l
t i m it t b
m e ti me j i ed w ith c lle cti v e
1 M hi
m h mp y
mb e i th ggre g te th
Ba

no

uc

nu

u ra

e a

so

e a

s a so

s u sa

o the o

the

; bu t

d e
o

n oun .

o n

u s,

no u ns

ac

co

an

; b ut

th e e de te
s

no

2 6

E T Y M O L O GY

i g u l a r a s s u mi n g a pl u ra l t erm i n a ti on i t c am e in ti me to
be con si dered by s o m e a s a n o u n pl u r a l
I n o u r t r a n sl a t i o n of t he B i ble i t i s c o n s t r u ed s o m e ti m e s
n e r a ll y a s a pl u r a l n o u n
e
a s a si n g u l a r b u t
g
I n o n e h o u r i s so g rea t r i c h e s co me to n o u gh t
s n

B i bl e

k e t o t h em s elve s w i n g s a n d y a w a y I bid
M o der n u s ag e i n li k e ma n n er i n cli n e s t o the pl u r a l
con s tr u c ti on ; t h ere a re a fe w a u tho r i t i e s h o w ever o n the
o th e r s i de a s
Wa s ever r i ch e s g o tten b y y o u r g olde n m ed i o cri ti e s
R i ch e s

ta

T h e e n v y a n d j ea lo u sy w hi c h gr ea t r i ch es i s a l wa y s

M oy l e
a tte n d e d w i t h
A l ms w a s a l so o r igi n a lly a n o u n s i n g u l a r be in g a co n
t r a c t i o n o f the o l d N or m a n F re n c h a l mes s e t he pl u r al of
w hi ch w a s a l mess es

T hi s al m es se s h o u ld s t th o u do o f thy prop e r thi n g s

C ha u cer
T h e s e b en gen er ally the al m e s ses a n d w o r kes o f
ch a r i ty I bi d
I t w a s in
Jo h n s o n s a y s t hi s w o rd ha s n o s i n g u l a r
t r u th a t r s t a n o u n s ing u l ar an d a ft er w a rd s b y co n
t r a c t i o n rece i v i n g a pl u r a l fo r m i t c a m e t o b e c o n s i dered
b y s o m e a s a n o u n pl u ra l Jo h n s o n w o u ld h a ve ha d e qu a l
a u t h o r i t y f o r s a yi n g t h a t t hi s w o rd
per
h
ap s
be
tt
er
na
y
O u r tr an s l a t o r s o f the B i ble s ee m to h a ve
ha s n o pl u r a l
con s i dered i t a s s i ng u l a r
T o a s k a n a l ms
to g i v e

a n d o t h er
s i m i l a r p h r a s e ol o gi es
m u ch a l m s
o cc u r i n
S cr i pt u re N a y Jo h n s on hi m s elf ha s c i ted t w o a u th or i ti e s
i n w hi c h the i n de n i t e a r ti cle i s prexed to i t
.

rm d k ee
Which b w d b t i my ti p be d li k e hi
Th t h th recei ve d
h Sh k p
My

an a

T h e p o o r begga r h a t h

S w if t
t h e ri c h m an

us

rr u

s,

s ear e

j u s t de m a n d

of an a

l ms fro m

E T YM O L O G Y

2 7

L o w t h obj ec te d to the ph r a s eolo gy a mea ns f o r thi s

re a s o n th a t m ea ns bei n g a pl u ra l n o u n c a n n o t a dm i t the
i n de n i te a rt i cle or n am e o f u n i ty T h e o bj ec ti on w o u ld
be con cl u s i ve i f the expre s s i on s this mea n s tha t mea ns
d i d n o t oppo s e the le a r n ed a u th or s o p i n i on t h a t mea ns i s
a n o u n pl u r a l
T o the s ub s ta n ti ve a l ms a s repre s e n ted
by Jo h n so n to h a v e n o s in g u l a r the obj ec ti o n i s a ppl i c a ble
Tha n ks i s con s i dered t o be a pl u r a l n o u n t h o u gh de
n o ti n g o n l y o n e
expre s s i on O f g ra ti t u de I t occ u r s i n
S cr i p t u re a s a s u b s ta n ti ve s i n gu l a r
Wh at th a n k h a v e
,

e
y

been o b s erved th a t m a n y o f th o se w ord s w hi c h

h a ve n o s i n g u l a r den o t e thi n g s c o n s i s ti n g of t w o p a r t s an d
H e n ce the w o rd p a i r
th erefo r e h a ve a pl u ra l term i n a t i o n
a p a ir
b
el low s
i s u se d w i t h m a n y of th e m a s
a p a ir
of
r a w er s
d
o
s ci s s o r s a
o u rs a p a i r o
r o
l
a
c
o
i
f
f
p
f
I t ha s

S ECT I ON I I

WE

o n l y ob s erv e a pl u ra l i ty of s u b s t an ce s o r of
t hi n g s o f the s am e s o r t w h e n ce a ri s e s t he d i s ti n c t i o n o f
b u t w e d i s ti n g u i s h a l s o a n o th e r c h a r a c ter o f s o m e
n u m ber
E very s u b s ta n ce i s e i th er
s u b s t a n ce s w hi c h w e c all se x
m a le o r fe m a le o r n e i t h er t he o n e n o r t he o t h er
I n Eng
l i s h a ll m a le an i m al s a r e con s i dered a s m a s c u l i n e ; al l
fe m ale a n i m al s a s fe m i n i n e ; a n d al l thi n gs i n a n i m a te o r
d e s t i t u t e o f s e x a r e t erm ed n e u t er a s bel o n gi n g n ei th e r to
I n t hi s di s tr i b u ti o n w e fo ll o w
the m a le n o r t he fe m a le se x
the ord e r of n a t u re ; a n d o u r l a n g u ag e i s i n t hi s re s pe c t
bo th s i mple a n d a n i ma te d
not

E T YM OL OG Y

2 8

T h e d i ffer en c e of
d i fferen t w ord s a s
,

se x

is, in

so m

e ca se s expre s sed by
,

Bo y

G i rl

Bu c k

D oe

B u ll

Co w

B u lloc k

H e i fer

Bo a r

So w

D r ake

D u ck

F ri a r

N un

G a ff er

G a m mer

G a n der

G oo s e

G eld i n g

M a re

H o rse

M i l t er

N eph e w

S p a w n er
Ni ece

Ram

E we

S l o v en

Slu t
H in d
W i do w
Wi tch

S ta g

W i do w er
W i z a rd

S o m e ti m e s t h e fe ma le
t i on es s or i x

is

d i s ti n g u i s h e d b y

F em

A bbo t
A ctor
A d u lterer
A mb a s sa d o r
A rb i ter
Au t h o r
B a ro n
C h a n ter
Co u n t
D ea co n
D u ke

r ina

the te m

A bbe s s
A c tre s s
A d u l te r e s s
A m b a s s a dre s s
A rb i t re s s
A u t h ore s s
B a ron e s s
C h an tre s s
C o u n te s s
D e a co n e s s
D u ch e s s

E T Y MO L OG Y

30

r u l e S om eti me s h ow ever by a g u re i n r h e tori c c a lle d

p e r son i ca ti on w e a s s ign sex to thi n g s i n an i ma t e T h u s

i n s te a d of v i rt u e i s i ts o w n re wa rd w e s o m eti m e s s ay
v i r tu e i s her o w n r e wa rd i n s t e a d o f i t ( the s u n )

r i s es w e s ay he r i se s i n s te a d o f i t (d ea th ) a dv a n ce s

w i th h a s ty s te p s w e s ay he a dv a n ce s
T hi s gu r a ti ve mo de of expre s s i on b y w hi c h w e gi v e
l i fe a n d se x to t hi n gs i n an i ma te a n d em b o d y a b s t ra c t
q u al i ti e s for m s a s i n gu la r a n d s tr i ki n g be a u ty i n o u r l a n
gu a ge ren der i n g i t i n t hi s re s pe c t s u per i or to the l a ng u a g e s
o f G re e c e a n d R o m e n e i th e r of w hi c h a d m i t te d t hi s an i
m a t ed p hr a seo l o gy
W h en w e s a y
Th
hi
ie t b e m h d h e d
,

e sun

the

s or

"

xpr e ss i o n po s ses se s i n n i tel y m ore v i v a c i ty th an

it
ri e t b e m h d h ed
Th

e sun

s o

ig ni n g se x t o thi n g s i n a n i ma te i t ha s b een s u p
po s ed t h a t w e h a v e b ee n g u i ded by c e r ta i n c h a r a c ter s or
qu al i ti e s i n the i n a n i ma te obj ec ts a s be a r i n g s o m e r e s em
bl a n ce to the d i s ti n c ti ve or ch ar a c teri s ti c q ua l i ti e s of ma le
T h u s i t ha s b een s a i d th a t th o s e
a n d fe ma le a n i ma l s
i n a n i m a te s u b s t a n ce s or a b s tra c t q u a l i ti e s w hi c h a r e cha
r a c te r i z e d b y the a tt r i b u t e s o f gi v i n g o r I m p a r t i n g
or
w hi c h c o n ve y a n i d e a of g rea t s tre n g th r mn e s s o r e n ergy
ar e m a sc u lin e
a n d t h a t t h o s e o n t he c o n tr a r y w hi c h a re
d i s ti n g u i sh ed b y the proper ti e s of rec e i v i n g co n ta in i n g
a n d prod u c i n g
or w hi c h co n vey a n i d ea of w e a k n e s s or
ti mi di t y h a v i n g m or e of a p a s s i ve t h an a c t iv e n a t u re a r e
fe mi n i n e H e n ce i t ha s been ob s erv e d t h a t the s u n dea th
ti me the n a m e s a l s o of gr e a t r i v e r s a n d m o u n t ai n s a r e
con si dere d a s m a s c u l in e a n d th a t the mo o n a s hip the s ea
v i r tu e i n al l i t s s p e c i es a r e co n s i d e red a s f e mi n i n e
Of
t h e s e a n d s u c h s p e c u l a ti o n s i t m a
a s the
b
e tr u ly s a i d
y
In

ass

T he

xed

ge de
n

r of

mors ,

v i r tu s, s o l ,

Ga va '
r os,

sr

n,

hN oE, w as

lter b ly

u na

E TYM OL OGY

31

lea rned a u th or of t h e m re m a r k s hi m se lf th a t t h ey a r e a t
be s t b u t i n ge n i o u s conj ec tu re s Th ey ce rt a i n l y wi ll n o t
bea r to b e rigo ro u sl y ex a mi n e d ; fo r t h ere ar e n o t a n y t w o
l a n g u ag e s whi c h h a r mo n i z e i n thi s r e s pe c t a s s ign in g the
sa m e se x t o t he s am e i n a n i ma t e obj e c t s n o r a n
o ne l an
y

e
u a g e i n w hi c h t hi s t h e o r y i s s u ppo r ted b y fa c t
nce
H
g
i t i s ev i de n t t h a t n e i th er re a s o n n o r n a t u re ha s a ny sh a re
i n the r e g u l a ti o n of thi s m a t t er ; a n d t h a t i n a s sign i n g s e x
to i n a n i m a t e t hi n g s t he d e term i n a ti o n i s p u rel y fa n c i fu l
In
I n G ree k d ea th i s m a s c u l i n e ; i n L a ti n fe m i ni n e
i n t h e G o thi c G e r
th o s e l a n gu a g e s t he s u n i s m a s c u li n e
ma n A n glo S a x o n a n d so m e o t h er n o r t h ern l a n g u a g e s i t
I n s e er a l o f t he
i s fe m i n i n e ; i n R u s si a n i t i s n e u t er
l an g u ag e s o f A s i a the s u n i s fe mi n i n e A cco rd i n g to o u r
Th e
n or t h er n m y th ol o gy t he s un w a s t he w i fe of T u i s co
R o m an s co n s i d e r e d the w i n d s a s m a s c u li n e ; the H ebre w s
I I I t he H e
sa y s C a r a m u el repres e n t ed t h e m a s n y m p h s
bre w l a n g u ag e h o w ev er th ey w ere o f the m as c u l i n e g e nder
I n s h or t w e kn o w n o t
a s w ere a l s o t he s u n an d d ea th
t
w
o l a n g u a g e s w hi c h a ccord i n t hi s re s pe c t or a n
an
o ne
y
y
l a n g u ag e in whi ch s e x i s a s s ign e d to t hi ng s i n a n i m a te a o
cord in g t o an y con s i s ten t or de termi n a te r u le
I n s pe a k i n g o f a n i ma l s w h o s e se x i s n o t k n o w n to u s
or n o t rega rd ed w e a s sig n to th e m g en der e i th er m a s c u li n e
o r fe m i n i n e a ccordi n g
a s i t w o ul d a p e a r to t he c h a r a c
p
t e ri s ti c proper ti es of t he a n i mal i t se lf
I n s p e a k i n g fo r
e x a m pl e of the h or s e a cre a tu r e d i s ti n g u i s h e d by u s efu l
n e ss a n d a cer tai n ge n ero s i ty o f n a t u r e u n l e s s w e be a c
u ai n ted w i t h t he s e x a n d w i s h t o d i s cr i m i n a t e
l
w
y
w
e
a
a
s
q
s pea k of t hi s q u a dr u p e d a s of t he m a le se x
th u s
,

Whil e wi n ter s s hi veri n g s n o w affe ct s the h o rs e

With fro s t an d mak es him a n u neas y c o u rse

C r eech

p ea k i ng o f a h a re a n a n i ma l n o ted f o r ti mi d i ty w e
a s s ig n t o i t
i f w e gi ve i t s e x the femi n i n e g e n der ; th u s
In

t eem h we ver t b
th t y ther w ith which
I

an

s,

o an

mo

l
i
c
ab l e do the En
pp

cq i ted
ua n

gli h l g g
s

an u a e

E T YM O L O G Y

32

h a re i s s o ti moro u s a cre a t u re th a t s he c o n ti n u ally

l i s te n s a ft er every n oi s e a n d w i ll r u n a l o n g w a y o n t h e

l ea s t s u s p i ci o n of d a n ge r ; s o th a t she a l wa y s ea ts i n t error
T he el e ph a n t i s g e n er a lly co n s i dered a s of t he m a s c u l i n e
g en der a n a n i mal d i s t i ng u i s h ed n o t onl y b y g re at s tre n g th
a n d s u per i ori t y of s i z e b u t a l s o b y sa g a c i ty doc i l i ty a n d
for ti t u d e
c te y
Th ele p h t h j i t b t
t f
Sh k p
f
ece ity t
H i l eg
T o a c a t w e a l m o s t a l wa y s a s s ign t he fe ma le s e x ; to a
dog o n the con tr a ry or o n e of the c an i n e s pe cie s w e a t tri
b u t e the m a sc u l i n e ge n der
A ca t a s s he beh old s the l igh t dra w s the b all o f her

n
P
e e s m a ll a d lo n g
ea cha m o n D r a w i ng
y
T h e d o g i s a do m e s ti c a n i m a l re m a r k abl y v ar i o u s i n

hi s s pec i e s
I t w o u ld be e a sy t o i ll u s t r a t e by m ore ex a m ple s t hi s
wh e n
a s cr i p t i o n o f e i t h e r m a le or fe m a le s e x t o a n i m a l s
w e s pe a k o f th e m i n the s pec i e s o r a r e n o t a c q u a i n ted w i th
I
the se x o f the i n d i v i d u a l ; b u t th e s e n o w a dd u ce d w i ll
pre su m e be s u f c i en t
By w h a t pri n c i pl e t h i s ph r a s e olo gy i s d i c ta ted o r
w h e t h er i t b e m erel y c a s u a l o r a rb i t ra r y i n i ts o rigi n i t
w o u ld be o f n o u ti li ty a t pre s en t to i n q u i re I t m a y be
n ec e s s a r y h o w e ver t o re m a r k t h a t w h e n s pe a ki n g o f a n i
m a l s pa r ti c u l a rly th o s e o f i n fer i o r s i z e w e fre q u en tl y c o n
I t i s a bold a n d d a r i n g
s i der th e m a s devo i d o f s e x

cre a tu re sa y s a c e r t ai n w r i te r s pe a ki n g o f a c a t a n d
a l s o cr u el to i ts e n e m y ; a n d n ever gi ve s o ver t i ll i t ha s
de s tr o y ed i t i f po s s i bl e I t i s a l so w a tc h fu l dex tero u s
s w i ft an d pl i a ble
B efore I d i s m i s s thi s s u bj ec t I w o u ld re q u e s t the r e a d
e r s a t te n ti o n t o a n i d i o m w hi c h se e m s t o h a ve e s c a ped
t he n o t i ce of o u r g r a mm a r i a n s
I t fre q u e n tly h a ppe n s a s
I h a ve a lre a dy O b se rv e d t h a t o u r l a n gu ag e fu r n i s h e s tw o
di s ti n c t t erm s f o r the m a le a n d the fem a le a s s hep her d
t
a t t he m a s
She her d ess
i
I
be
b
erved
h
o
w
ever
h
t
o
s
s
o
t
p
t he

an

s a re

as

o n s,

or n

ss

or

no

ou r

e xu re

no

ea r e

E TY M O LO G Y

33

c u li ne ter m ha s a ge n eral m e an i n g expre s s i n g bo th m ale

a n d fe m a le a n d i s a l w a y s e m pl o y ed w h e n t h e o fce o c c u
pa tio u profe s s i o n &c a n d n o t t h e s e x o f t h e i n d i v i d u al i s
chi e y to be e xpre s s ed ; an d t h a t the fe m i n i n e t er m i s u s ed
i n t h o s e c a s e s o n ly w h en d i s cr i m i n a ti o n o f s e x i s i n d i s pe n
s a bl y n ece s s a r y
T hi s may be i ll u s tra t e d b y the fo llo w i n g
ex a mp le s I f I say T h e p o e t s o f thi s ag e a r e di s ti n
u i s he d m o re b y c orre c t n e s s o f ta s t e
t
h
n s u bli m i t y o f
a
g

c o n cep tio n I clea rl y i ncl u d e i n the t erm p oe t bo th m a le

a n d fe ma le w r i t er s o f p o e t r y
I f I s ay S he i s the be s t

p o e t e s s i n thi s co u n t ry I a s s i g n h er the s u per i o ri t y o ver

t h os e o n l y o f h er o w n s e x
I f I say S h e i s the be s t p o e t
i n thi s c o u n t ry
I pron o u n ce h er s u peri or to a l l o t h er
w r i ter s of poe t ry bo th m ale a n d fe m a le
S pi nn i ng
sa y s L ord K a m e s
i n hi s S k e t c h e s
i s a f e mal e occ u pa

ti o n an d m u s t h a v e had a fe m a le i n ve n t or
I f h e ha d
s aid
a fe ma le i n ve n t r e s s
t he e xpre s s i o n w o u ld h a ve bee n
pl eo n a s ti c I f h e ha d sa i d m u st h a ve ha d a n i n ve n t re s s
h e wo u ld n o t h a ve s u fc i en t l y co n tr as t ed t h e m ale a n d
t he fe ma le
h e w o u ld h a ve m erel y pred i ca ted the n ece s s i t y
of a n i n v e n tre s s H e t h erefo re pro perly a d o p t s the t er m
i n v en t o r a s a ppl i ca bl e t o e a c h o f t he s exe s l i m i t i n g i t to
the fe m a le b y t h e a ppr o pr i a t e t er m
W h e n d i s ti n c t i o n
of s e x i s n ec e s sa ry fo r t he sa ke o f per s pi c ui ty or w h ere t h e
,

The e b erv ti will f cie tl y exp l i the re

wh y w
t c
c r with D J h
i
thi ki g th t there i
i mpr priety

i th te mi ti
whe w y f w m
p hil ph
Sh i
Th fe m l e termi ti
ch ex mp l e i t w te d ; it w l d b
i
p le tic d i m pr per Th me i g i Sh i per gi ve t th
t d y f t e I f w h d bee p e k i g f l d y d ev ted t p hil
p h y d h d cc i fterw rd t me ti h b y
ppell ti ve w
d i te d f
h l d feel th w t f th pp pri te termi ti
y
i g th p hil
pher w h l d wi h f th k e f d i c i mi ti
ble t y th phil ph
t
em p l y me eq ll y d i
t b
term I th ex m p l e dd ced by th le ed l ex ic g p h er th
ti
ti
d w l d i ti m te
fe m l e te m i ti i pe
d i ti cti
f
;
th l tter b e i g
f
ch
r
ct
er
i
t
e
d
d
i
ti
cti
h
l
f
i
hi
p
p
d e ted b y th fe m l e p
s

no

na

s u

na

so

an

ou

ve

O SO

no

an

o sa

na

ns

ro n o u n

or

an

on

an

sa

na

ra

o n,

ua

s e x,

so

arn

ns

an a

ou

sa

or

on

er

ou

son

er

na

s a

on

u ou s

an

res s ,

s,

O SO

s su

on

an n

os o

s a

no

an

an ,

ou

ro

a a

e a

as o n a

oso

e a

nc

na ur

su

on

e ca n

as o n

a n

e sa

an

ns o n

su

o n,

o n as

on u

ons

on

E T YM OL O G Y

34

r a th er th an the ge n e r al i de a i mpl i e d by the ter m i s

t he pr i ma r y o bj e c t the fem i n i n e n o u n m u s t b e e mpl o y e d
I h ea r th a t s om e a u tho r ess es
t o expr e s s the fe ma l e ; t h u s

P o l iti ca l R eg ister H ere

a re e n g a g e d i n t h i s w or k
t he fe m i n i n e te r m i s i n d i s pe n sa ble
T hi s s u bj e c t w i ll be
re s u me d i n the C r i ti cal R e ma r k s a n d I ll u s tr a t i o n s

se x ,

SEC T I O N

III

0f C ases

T HE t h i rd

cc i d en t of a n o u n i s c a se ( ca s us or fa ll) so

i t i s sa i d
ca lled b ec a u se a n c i e n t gr a mma r i a n s
r e re
p
s e n te d the c a s e s a s decl i n i n g or fa ll i n g fr o m the n o m i na t i ve
w hi c h w a s repre sen te d b y a p e rpe n d i c u l a r a n d t h en c e
ca lled C a s us r ectu s or u prigh t c a se w hile the o th er s w ere
n a me d C a s u s o bl i u i
u e c a se s
or
obl
iq
T
h
e
c
se
s
i
n
t
h
e
a
q
a

We remark

i mil p hr e l gy i G reek d
d d
d em d
c tr d i ti g i hed i E gli h
L ti
d
m
f
d
dd
t
h
f
r
er
e
ch
p
i
r
t
ictl
y
d
e
ti
g
l
e
t
h
m
d
g
g
B t th f rmer w d h
ge eric l me i g
th l tter th fem l e
exp e i g d eity whether m l e fem l e ; d i freq e tl y d
whe th fem l e i de i g ed i f d i vi ity i th b tr ct b th pri m ry
i de with t reg d t th
th
a

an

an

r ss n
n

a,

P 570: p ai l

Here the term

th d i s ti cti
i th ere f re t
o

s,

35's

eu

ss

eo
n

i {4

'

r t;

e ce d
s

nus ,

an n

u n

H m

b 4:61 a m

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E T Y M O L O GY

35

l a ng u ag e s of G reec e a n d R om e w er e fo rm ed by v a ryi n g
t h e termi n a ti o n ; a n d w ere i n ten d e d to e xpre s s a fe w o f the
m o s t O bv i o u s a n d co m m on rel a ti o n s
I n E ngl i s h th ere a r e o n l y t h r e e c a s e s n o mi na t i ve g e n i
t i ve an d obj ec ti ve or ac c u s a ti v e c a s e
I n s u b s t a n t i ve s
the n o mi n a t i v e ca s e a n d t h e obj e c t i ve h a ve l i k e n e u t er
n o u n s i n G r ee k a n d L a ti n
the sa m e fo r m be i n g d i s t i n
u i sha b l e fro m ea c h o th e r b y n o thi n g b u t t h e i r pl a ce
;
g
th u s
,

Nom

O bj

A chi l l es s l ew H ecto r ,

H ecto r s l ew A chi l l es ,

w h er e the m ea n i n g i s rev e r s ed by t h e i n terc h a n g e o f t h e

n o u n s t he n o m
i n a ti ve o r a gen t be i n g k no w n by i ts be i n g
pla ced be fore the v e rb ; a n d the s u bj e c t o f the a c ti o n by
i ts follo w i n g i t
P ro n o u n s h a ve th r ee c a s e s th a t i s t w o
i n e xi o n s fro m the n o mi na ti ve a s I mi n e me ; tho u thi n e
,

t hee

T h e g e n i ti ve i n E ngl i s h by s o m e c alled the p o s se s s i ve

c a s e i s form ed by a dd i n g to t h e n omi na t i v e the le t ter 3
w i th an a po s tr o ph e befo re i t a s king king s I t expre s s e s
a v a r i e ty o f rel a t i on s a n d w a s h e n ce ca ll e d b y t he G ree ks
"
t he g en era l c as e
T he rel a ti o n w hi c h i t m o s t c o mmo n l y
d e n o te s i s th a t of proper ty or po s s e s s i o n a s the king s
cr o w n ; a n d i s
in g e n er a l the s a me w i t h t h a t w hi c h i s
den o te d by the w ord If a s the cr o w n of the ki ng the r a g e
t
e q u i v ale n t t o t he
e d ea th
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.

r of the r ela ti on w hi c h the g e n i ti ve expre s ses

m u st i n s o me i n s ta n ce s b e coll e c te d from t h e s c o p e o f the
con te x t ; fo r i n E n gli s h a s i n m o s t o th er l a n g u a g e s t hi s
ca s e fre q u en tl y i n v o lv e s a n a mb ig u i ty W h e n I s ay
n e i th e r l i fe n o r d ea t h s h a ll s ep a r a t e u s fro m t he l o e o f
T he

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36

ET Y M O L O G Y

i t may mean ei ther fr o m t he l o ve w hich w e o w e t o

G o d o r the l o ve w hich he bears t o u s ; fo r
G o d s l o ve
m a y deno t e ei t her t he rel a t i on w hich t he a ffe c t i on bears
t o i ts s ubj e c t o r tha t w hich i t bea rs t o i t s obj ec t I f the
l a tt e r be the mean i n g i n t e n ded the ambigui ty may b e
preve n t ed by say i n g l o ve t o G o d
A n a mbigui ty l i ke w i s e a ri se s fro m i t as e xp re s sm g ei ther
t he rel a t i on o f t he effe c t t o i t s cause o r t h a t o f the accide n t
t o i ts subj e c t
A l i tt l e aft e r the r e fo rm a t i on o f
say s S w ift T his m a y impo r t ei ther t he chan ge pr oduce d
by L u t her o r a chan ge pr o duced i n him T he l att er i n
deed is pr oper ly t he mean i n g t ho ugh no t t ha t w hich w a s
i n t en d e d b y the au t h o r H e s h o u l d h a ve said t he r e

fo rma t i on b y L u t her
I t i s c l ear t herefore tha t t he
rel a t i on expr e ssed b y the ge n i t ive is no t u n ifo rm ly the
same t hat t he phr a s e m a y be i n t erpr e t ed ei t her i n an
*
ac t iv e o r pas s ive se n se an d tha t t he real imp or t mu st b e
c oll ec t ed no t fr o m t he expre s si on bu t the c on t ex t
M r H ar ri s has said t ha t t he ge n i t iv e i s formed t o e x
pre s s all rel at i on s c o m me n ci n g fr o m i t sel f a n d off ers t he
an al ys is o f thi s cas e i n all m o der n l an guages as a pr oo f
T ha t i t expresses m o re tha n this b o t h i n E ngl i sh an d
L at i n an d t h a t i t deno t e s r e l a ti on s no t on ly c o mmen ci n g
fro m i t s e l f bu t l i ke w i s e direc t ed t o i ts el f t he exampl es
al ready q u o t ed are su fficien t t o pr o ve N ay w ere i t n e c e s
sary i t w o u l d be ea sy t o dem on s t ra t e t ha t t hi s ambigui ty
i n t he u se o f the ge n i t iv e i s n o t c on n ed t o t hese t w o l a n
guag e s b u t is fo u n d i n G reek H ebre w It al ia n a n d I
beli eve i n all the m o der n l a n guages o f E urope
C on cer n i n g t he o rigi n o f t he E n gl ish ge n i t ive gramma
ria n s an d cri t ics are no t a greed T ha t t he cases o r no min a l
Go d ,

D
m t
m t or q
d ot s i th r m q D
i
I
m
o
m
i
t
o
r
t
t
Ref m ti L th i i th r q
q
j
q
ef
w
m
i
b
m
m
w
i
t
h
m
y
ot
h
r
x
l
s
hich
h
t
t
i
d
i
m
i
i
i
d
g
p
p
p r o d c d h v i th r
c t i v o r p ss i v s s y
@
mm D J HN l m o r d D i l mo r d D i s v r lly i v o l v
mb i g i ty w i t h th l o v of G d
th s m
'

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u

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5 011 ,

ET Y M OL OG Y

38

cr o w n i n t o the quee n her cr o w n o r the chi l dren s

bread i n t o t he chi l dren their bread

T his fac t he o b
se rves o ugh t t o have dem on s t ra t ed t o M r A ddis on t he
i n c o rrec t n ess o f hi s o p l mo n L o w th t h e refo re refers t he
E n gl ish t o t he S ax on gen i t ive fo r i t s real o rigi n an d ob
serv e s t ha t i t s deriva t i o n fr o m t ha t ge n i tive decides the

6
ques t i on
H i ck e s i n hi s Thes a u r us ha d prev i o usl y de
l ivered t he same o pi ni on S peaki n g o f t he An gl o S ax on
ge n i t iv e i n es he o bserves I n de i n n o s tra ti u m serm on e
n o m i n u m s u b s t a n t i v o r u m g e n i t iv us s in u l a ri s e t no mi n a
g

Fr o m the i n t r o duc t i on
t i v u s p l ural is exeu n t i n es ve l s
o f the S ax on s i n t o this isl an d t o t he N o rman c on ques t
t he S ax on ge n i t ive w a s i n u n iversal use Fr o m the l att er
peri o d t o the t ime o f H e n ry I I
t h o ugh t he E n g
l ish l an guage u n der w e n t so me al t era t i on s w e s t i ll n d t he
S a x on gen i tive T hus i n a p o em e n t i tl ed T he L ife o f

S t M argare t i n t he N o rm a nno S ax on dial ec t w e n d t he

foll o w i n g am on g o t her examp l es chriss es an gl es an d
t he pr ono u n b y (his) spell ed i s t hus T he o d o sius w a s

S ee H i ckes Til es v ol i p 2 2 6
i s n ame
Webs t er has as s er t ed tha t i n t he ag e o f Ed w ar d the
he d o es no t n d the S ax on ge n i t ive ;
C on fess o r
a n d as a pr oo f tha t t he pr ono u n hi s w a s used i n s t ead of t he
S a x on t ermi n a t i on he qu o t es a passage fr o m a char t er o f

Ed w ard the C on fess o r w here the w o rds b i s s o p hi s l a n d

o ccu r w hich he c on ceives t o be equ i val e n t t o bish o p s
l an d
N o w had he read bu t a small par t o f t ha t char t er
he w o u l d have fo u n d the S axon ge n i t ive ; a n d w ha t he
imagi n es t o be equi val en t t o the E n gli sh gen i t ive is n ei ther
t hat case no r sy non y m o us w i t h i t T he passage ru n s
thus : A n d i c h ke pe e u pa t Al fred have t i sel d Gi se

s i x d cl s io s to e o r oth r of w h ich the l r d D

of l mo s t l l th S x o o s m y b
H i k c o c i v s th i i
r d c d thr fo r m t h ir g i tiv i
w d w d ; mi th mi th
ki d r d l g g
I th M s o g othic
it i v d s i
so m
th g
o s h v i g i s om
d oth e rs
i
/
f

g gj
O f the

i
s
j
g g
a

n ,

en

a
,

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en

e 72 3, a n

n es, a s

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ET Y M OLO G Y

39

hisso p hi s l an d a t L ly to n ; t he mean in g o f w hich is

K no w t ha t A lfr e d ha t h so l d t o B i s ho p G ise his l a n d a t

L u tton
I n t he t ime of R ichard I I (1 385 ) w e n d T re
vi s a a n d C haucer usi n g the S ax on gen i t ive T hus i n
T r e v i sa s t ra n sl a t i on o f t he A t ha n asia n creed w e n d

a m on g o t her examp l es
G od es sigh t
I n G avi n D o ugl as w ho l ived i n the begi nn i n g o f the
s ix t ee n t h cen t ury w e n d i s i n s tead o f es t hu s f a d er is
,

ha n d s

I n the t ime o f H e n ry the Eigh th w e n d i n the w o rk s

o f S ir
M o re b o t h the S ax on a n d t he E n gl i s h gen i t ive ;
an d i n a l e tt er w ri tte n i n 1 5 59 b y M a i tla n d o f L e thi n g
t on t he E n gl i s h g e n i t ive freque n t ly o cc u rs H ad this
ge n i t ive t he n bee n a n abbrevia t i on fo r the no u n a n d t he
prono u n hi s the use o f the w o rds separa t el y w o u l d have
preceded t heir abbrevia ted fo rm i n co mpo si t i on T his
ho w ever w a s no t t he case
T o fo rm the g e n i t ive p l ur al w e ann ex the apo s tr o phe
w i tho u t t he l e tt er 3
as eag l es w ing s tha t i s the w ing s of
T he ge n i ti ve si n gul ar o f no u n s t ermi n a ti n g i n s
ea g l es
is fo rmed i n t he same ma nn er as r ig hteo us nes s s a ke o r
the s a ke of r ig hteo u s n ess
I n ish t hi s ar t icl e w i th o bserv i n g tha t there are in
E n gli sh a fe w dimi n u t ive no u n s so call ed fr o m their ex
pressin g a smal l on e o f the ki n d S o me o f t hese e n d i n
kin fr o m a D u t ch an d T eu ton ic w o rd s i gn ify i n g a chi l d
a s ma n iki n a l i tt l e man l a mbki n p ip kin tho mkin
P r oper n ames e n di n g i n kin bel on ged o rigi n al l y t o thi s
cl ass o f dimi n u t i ves as Wi l ki n Willi el mul u s ; H a l kin
,

H a w ki n , H en r i c u l u s ; To mkin , T ho mu l u s

S i mki n , P e

t er /
t i n, 8 w

S o me di mi n u tives e n d i n as k as hi l l hi l l o ck ; bul l
bu l l o ck ; s o me i n el as p ike p ickr el ; cock co ckr e l ; sa ck
s a tche l ; s o me i n i n
a
s
g
T
hese
seem
t
o
o s li ng
o ose
g
g
be t he on ly l egi t ima t e on es as pr operly bel ongi n g t o our
lan g u age T he res t are derived fr o m L at i n Fren ch
Itali an an d have var io us t ermi n at ion s
,

ET Y M OLO G Y

40

C HA P T E R

11

O F T H E A RT I C L E

LA N G UAG E i s chie y c o mp o s ed o f ge n eral t erms m o s t

sub st a t iv e s bei n g t he n ame s o f g en era o r s pecies When w e
n d a n umber o f subs t an ce s resembli n g on e anot her i n their
pri n cipal an d m o s t obvi o us qual i t ies w e r e fe r th e m t o on e
specie s t o w hich w e a s s i g n a n ame c o mm on t o every i n
I n li ke mann er w he n w e n d
d ividu a l o f t ha t sp e ci e s
several o f these species res e mbl i n g on e a no t h e r i n t heir
chief pr oper ti e s w e refer t hem t o a higher o rd e r t o w hich
al s o w e assig n a c o mm on an d m o re ge n era l n ame t ha n t ha t
T hus w e assi g n
w hich w a s a fxed t o t he i n feri o r c l ass
the ge n era l n ame ma n t o t he human species as p o ssessi n g
a co mm on fo rm an d di st i n gui s hed b y t he c o mm on a ttri
bu t es o f l ife reas on an d speech I f w e c on s ider man as
p o sse ssed o f l ife on l y w e per c eive a resemb l an ce i n t his
re pec t be t w ee n him a n d o t her b e i n gs T o this higher
cl a s s o r gen us t he charac t eris t ic a ttribu t e o f w hich is
*
vi t al i ty w e a f x t he m o re ge n eric n ame o f an im a l H e nc e
w he n w e u se a n appell a t ive o r c o mm on no u n i t de no t es t he
ge n us o r cl ass c oll ec t ivel y o f w hich i t i s t he n a me a s
T he pr o per s t udy o f m a n k i n d is man i e no t o n e
ma n no t m a n y me n bu t all me n
N t on l y h o w ever ha s t his ru l e i ts l imi t a t i on s t h o ugh
the s e s e em g o ver n ed by no x e d pri n cipl e bu t w e fr e
que n t l y n d t he ar t ic l es admi tt ed w he n t he w h ol e ge n u s
o r species is ev ide n t ly impl ied T hus w e m a y s ay
,

I t m s t b o bv i o s th t th t r ms g r l d i v rs l b l o g t
to r l x i s t c s b t
m r ly d o m i t i o s th r s l t of i t ll c t
r l is i g
mb r of i d i v i d l s
dr
h d
g
4"

ea

e ne a

u ,

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na

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un

e u

n e

no

ET Y M OLO G Y

41

specically heavier t ha n w at er i e no t t hi s
or tha t me t al bu t all m e t al s B u t w e canno t say Ve g e
o r M i n era l is
tabl e is s p ecic al l y l igh t er t h a n w a t er

speci cal ly heavier t ha n w a t er

A gai n ; w e say M an
is b or n u n t o t r o ub l e bu t w e canno t s a y T ig e r is fer o

ci on s o r F o x is cu nni ng bu t T he t iger o r a tiger

is fe r o ci o us ;
t he ex
T he fo x o r a fo x i s cu nn i n g
pressi on s be i n g appl icabl e t o the w hol e S pecies It w o u l d
appear i n deed tha t w he n pr o per n ames assume t he ofce
o f appe ll a t ives t he rever s e o f the rul e t akes p l a ce T hus
A D o ugl as bra ves t he p oi n t ed s t eel t he mean
w e say
i n g bei n g
every D o ugl as
S u ppress the i n d e n i te
ar ticl e a n d t he g e n e ra l pr o po si t i on be co m e s i n dividual
B u t t h ou gh o ur w o rd s a r e ge n eral all o ur p erce p t i on s
are i n di vidual havi n g s i n gl e exis t e n ces fo r t heir obj ec t s
It i s o ft e n n ec e ssary h o w e ver to express t w o t hree o r
m o re o f these i n dividual e xis t e n ces ; an d h e n ce arises the
use o f t hat species o f w o rds w hich have bee n call e d n um e
r a l s tha t is w ords deno ti n g n umber T o sig n ify u ni ty o r
on e o f a cl ass o ur fo r e fa t he rs e mpl oy ed a e o r o n e a s a e
ma n a n e 0 50 Whe n u n i ty o r t he n umber on e as o p p o sed
t o tw o o r m or e w a s t o be expressed the empha s is w o u l d
n a t urally b e l a id on t he w o rd sign ica n t o f u n i ty ; a n d
w h e n u n i ty w a s no t so m uch the o bj ec t as t he s pecies o r
k i n d t he t e rm expres s ive o f u ni ty w o u l d na t urally be u m
emphat ical ; an d hen ce a e by cel eri ty o f pr on u n ciat i on
T hese
w o u l d bec o me a a n d o n e be sho r t e n ed i n t o a n
w o rds a a n d a n a r e n o w t erm e d i n de n i t e ar t icl es ; i t is
cl ear h o w ever t ha t t hey are t ruly n umeral s bel on gi n g t o
t he same cl ass w i t h tw o three fo ur & c ; o r perh a ps m ore
pr operly t hese n um e ral s may b e co n s i d e re d as a bbr e via ti on s
fo r t he r epeat ed expressi on o f the t erm o n e B y w ha t ever
n ame these t erm s a a n may b e design ed i t se ems evid e n t
t ha t t hey w ere o rigi n ally sy nony m o u s w i t h t he n ame o f
u n i ty o r ra ther themsel v e s n ames o f u n i ty emph a si s on ly
dis t i n guishi n g w he t her u n i ty o r the species w er e chie y
i n t e n ded H e n ce a a n d a n canno t be j o i n ed wi t h a p l ural
no u n
M e t al i s

E T Y M O LO G Y

42

S o me grammari an s i n d eed have asser t ed tha t i n every

examp l e w here a o r a n o ccurs t he t erm o ne may be sub
s ti t u t ed i n i t s s t ead w i t ho u t i n t he l eas t degree i nj uri n g
t he se n se A s far as the primary i dea de no t ed b y t hese
w o rds i s c on cer n ed t his o pi n i o n i s d o ub t l es s i n co n tr o v er t
ibl e fo r t hey each express u n i ty ; bu t wi th regar d t o the
secon dar y o r impli ed ideas w hich t hese t erms c on vey t he
'
d i e r e n ce i s obvi o us
A n exampl e w ill i ll us t ra t e this : I f

I say Wi ll o n e m a n be ab l e t o c a rry t his burden s o far ?

I eviden t ly o pp o se on e t o m o re a n d t he a n s w er migh t be

N o ; b u t t w o me n w i ll
L e t us subs ti t u t e the t erm a
an d say Wi ll a man be abl e t o carr y t his burde n
Is
t he i dea no w i se chan ged b y thi s al t era t i on ? I apprehe n d
N o ; bu t a
i t is ; fo r the an s w er might n a t urally be

h o rse w i ll
I have here subs t i t u t ed a fo r o ne ; t he c on
verse w i l l equal l y s ho w tha t t he t erms are b y no mean s
m u t uall y c on ver t ib l e o r s t ric tly sy nony m o u s I f i n s t ead

o f say i n g A h o rse a horse a ki n gd om for a ho rse I

sho u l d sa y
O n e ho rse on e h o rse on e ki n gd o m fo r on e

h orse the se n t imen t I c on ceive w o ul d no t be s t ri c tl y the

same I n b o t h expressi on s the species is n amed a n d i n
bo t h on e o f tha t spec i es is deman ded bu t w i th this di ffer
e n ce t ha t i n t he former t he n ame o f t he speci es is t he e m
pha t ic w ord a n d i t o pp o ses t ha t speci e s t o every o t her ;
i n t he l a tter u n i ty o f obj ec t seems t he l ead ing idea on e

I n this respec t o ur l an guage

k i n gd o m fo r on e h o rse
appears t o me t o have a decided superi ori ty o ver t ho se
l an guage s w here on e w ord perfo rm s t he o ffice o f w ha t w e
t erm a n ar ticl e an d a t t he same t ime d e no t es t he i dea o f
u n i ty D o nnez mo i n u l iv r e mea n s ei t her give m e on e

b oo k i e no t t w o o r m ore b ook s ; o r give me a b ook

tha t is a b ook no t so me th i n g el se ; a b ook no t a pen

fo r exampl e
I ackno w l edge tha t i n oral l an guage emp hasis may
serve t o discrimi n at e the se n t imen t s an d preve n t ambi
gui ty B u t e mphasi s i s addressed t o the ear on ly no t t o
t he ey e ; i t can therefore b e o f no service i n w ri tt e n l a n
,

E T Y M OLO G Y

43

guage It is t rue al so tha t b y a tt endi n g t o the c on t ex t

err o r may o ft e n b e av o ided b u t l e t i t be remembered as
t ha t l anguage sho ul d be no t such as
Q ui n t i lia n
the rea der may u n ders tan d i f he w i ll t ake the t r o ub l e t o
ex a min e i t carefu l l y bu t such as he canno t eve n w i th o u t
effor t fai l t o c o mprehe n d W he n i t is asser t ed t herefore
tha t o ne may i n every case be subs t i t u t ed fo r a w i tho u t
i n the l eas t degr ee i nj uri n g the expressi on the po si t i o n
appears t o me err on e o us an d fal se What ever crea t es am
b i g u i ty w he t her w i th respec t t o the primary o r sec on dar y
ideas ann e xed t o w o rds i n so me degree w i th o u t que st i on
vi ol a t es the se n se B e i t observ ed a l so t h a t t h o ugh a
a n a e o n e o n e may have bee n a ll e ty m o l o gica ll y the same
i t d oes no t foll o w no r is i t prac t ically t rue as has bee n
n o w sh o w n
t hat they are all precisel y equival e n t w ords
I n S co tl an d the dis t i n c t i on be t w ee n a an d a e is w ell kno w n

G ive me a b ook mean s a n y b oo k i n con t radi s t i n c t i on

t o any o t her obj ec t as a chair

a pen
a kn ife

give me a e book i s i n c on t ra d is t i n c t i on t o on e o r m ore

S uch al s o i s the di fferen c e be t w ee n a a n d o ne
,

No n

i n tel l i gere p o s s i t, s ed
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44

It seems therefo re u n den iabl e t ha t the w o rd a t e rm e d

t he i n de n i t e ar t ic l e w a s o rigi n ally id e n t ical w it h the n am e of
u n i ty expre s si n g ei t her o n e o f an y species as o pp o s ed t o
m o re o f t ha t s pecies o r on e o f this ki n d as o ppo sed t o o n e
o f tha t Whe t her t he dis tin c t i on o f i t s no t i n g on e o r u n i ty
w i t h l ess empha s is t ha n the appr o pria t e n ame o f u n i ty
s h o ul d e n ti t l e i t t o b e referred t o a di ff ere n t c l ass o f w ords
fr o m the n umeral o n e a n d call e d a n ar t icl e i t is u n im p o r t
an t t o i n quire T o m e h o w ever I m us t ack no w l edge the
di sti n c t ive n ame o f ar ticl e a ssig n ed t o this w o rd appear s
t o b e u s el ess Were e mph a s is t o b e a dmi tt ed a s t he
pri n cipl e o f cl assic a t i on ( a n d I s e e no o t her dis t i n c ti on
be t w e e n a a n d o n e) t he par ts o f speec h migh t b e mu l t i
pl i e d bey on d n umber
B e sid e s t he w o rds a a n d a n t erme d i n de n i t e ar ticl e s
as no t de n i n g w hich of the speci e s is sig n ied w e have
al so a no t her w o rd the n amed t he de ni t e ar t icl e becau s e
i t is said t o p oi n t o u t t he i n dividua l obj ec t T hi s w o rd
I d o ub t no t pr o ceeded fr om t he w o rd thi s o r tha t much
i n the same ma nn er as a a n d a n fro m a e a n d o n e T o
w ha t cl a ss o f w o rds thi s a n d tha t sh o u l d be referr e d ha s
*
bee n a subj e c t o f c on t r o versy
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st ric tly c on s on a n t w i t h t heir imp o r t i t is perhap s t he l ea s t
excep t i on ab l e W he n o pp o sed t o each o t her th ey appear
t o be reducibl e t o t h a t species o f w o rds t ermed adjec t ives
,

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46

ET Y M O L OG Y

dem on s t ra t es the pers on t hus described T he w ord the

has n earl y the same impo r t ; bu t i s l ess empha t ical It
seems t o bear the same a n al ogy t o tha t w hich a d o es t o o n e
H e n ce i n many cases t hey may be used i n di fferen tl y
H app y the man w h o se cau t i o us fee t shu n the br oad

w ay t ha t si nn ers g o

H ere happy tha t man w o u l d ex p ress t he same idea

T he L a t i n s acc o rdi n gl y emp l oy ed t he dem on s t ra t ive w o rd

happy t he man
i l l e bea tu s il l e
Wha t t he n is t he di ffere n ce be t w ee n the a n d tha t ? T o
ascer t ai n this l e t u s i n qu i re i n w ha t cases the is empl oy ed
a n d whe ther tha t can be subs t i t u t ed i n i t s s t ead
T he w o rd the is empl oy ed
1 s t W he n w e express a n o bj ec t o f emi n e n ce o r no t o rie ty
o r the on l y on e o f a ki nd i n w hic h w e are i n t eres t ed as

w he n w e mea n
t he ki n g o f E n gl an d
He
the k i n g

w a s c on cer n ed i n bri n gi n g ab o u t the rev o l u t i on

w he n w e
mea n the rev ol u ti on i n t his c o u n t ry
Virgi l c opied the

Ho mer
I am g oin g t o t he ci ty
G rec i an bard o r

L on d on
I n non e o f t he s e cases ca n w e
w he n I mea n
subs ti t u t e tha t fo r the w i tho u t l ay i n g a par t icul ar e mpha
sis on the subj ec t an d imply i n g t ha t i t s charac t er i s there
described i n c on t radist i n c t i on t o s o me o ther o f the sam e
species T hu s
he w a s c onc ern ed i n t ha t rev ol u ti on

w hich w a s acc o mpl i s hed b y the E n gl ish bar on s

He
c o pied t ha t G recian ba rd w ho d i spu t es t he cl ai m o f an t i

h
i
t
Ho
mer
u it
w
q
y
2 d l y We emp l o y i t i n expressi n g o bj ec t s o f repeat ed
percep t i on o r subj ec t s o f previ o us c on versa t i on I bo r
I f I see fo r the rs t t ime
r o w a n examp l e fr o m H arris
a ma n w i th a l on g he ar d I say t here go es a m an w i th a

I f I se e him again I say t here g o es t he

l on g beard

ma n w i th the l on g beard
Were the w o rd tha t s u b s ti
t u te d fo r the t he same observa t ion w o u l d be app l icab l e as
i n the precedin g exampl es
3 d l y M r H arri s has said t ha t the ar t ic l e a is u sed t o
express objec t s o f primary percep t i on a n d the emp l oy ed
.

ET Y M OLO G Y

47

t o deno t e t h o s e onl y o f secon dary percep t i on T his opi n i on

is c on t r o ver t ed by the au t h o r o f t he ar t icl e G rammar i n
the E n cy cl o pedia B ri t ann ica Ed 3d w ho gives the fo l
l o w i n g examp l e t o dispr o ve i t s t ru th
I am i n c o mpan y
an d n din g t he r oo m w arm I sa y t o the servan t R eques t
the ge n tl ema n i n t he w i n d o w sea t ( t o w ho m I am a n e n t ire

s t ranger) t o dra w d o w n the sash T he exampl e is app o si t e

an d is su fcie n t t o o ver t ur n the hy po t hes is o f M r H arri s
T here ca n be no ques t i on bu t t he is freque n tly empl oy ed
t o de no t e obj ec t s o f primary percep t i on ; an d merel y pa r
t i c u l ar i z e b y s o me discrimi n a t i n g circums ta n ce
an i n
dividual w h o se charac t er pe rson o r dist i n c tive qual i t ies
w ere previ o usl y u n kno w n
I n t he exam pl e n o w qu o t ed
t ha t may be subs t i t u t ed fo r the if w e sa y
w ho is i n the

w i n d o w sea t
4 thl y T he d e ni t e ar t icl e i s used t o dis ti n g uish t he ex
pl i ca ti ve fr o m the de t ermi n a ti ve se n se I n the fo rmer
case i t i s rarel y empl oy ed ; i n t he l a tt er i t sh o u l d n ever
be o m i tt ed u nl ess w he n s o me thin g s t i ll m o re de n i t e sup
pl ies i t s p l ace
M an w ho is b o r n o f a w oma n is o f

f e w day s an d fu l l o f t r o ub l e
H ere the rel a t iv e cl ause is
expl ica t ive a n d no t res t ric t ive ; a l l m en bei n g bo r n o f
a w o man t he de n i t e ar t icl e t herefo re i s no t empl oy ed

T he man w o u l d imp l y t ha t a ll me n are no t t hus bo rn

an d w o ul d con n e t he predi ca t i n g cl au se t o tho s e w ho
are I n the l a tt er se n se tha t may w i th o u t a n y al t era ti on
i n the p hrase ol o gy be subs t i t u t ed fo r the ar t ic l e ; fo r the
ma n a n d tha t ma n are i n t his i n st a n ce equival e n t
5 thl y T he de ni t e ar t icl e is o ft e n used t o de no t e the
T he m o re y o u s t ud y t he m o re
measu re o f excess
l ear n ed y o u w i ll bec o me tha t is
by ho w m uch the
m o re y o u s t udy b y so m uch t he m o re l ear n ed y o u w i ll

b eco me
T he w i ser t he be tt er
t ha t (by t h at)

w i ser t ha t (b y t ha t ) be tt er
T here a l s o tha t a n d the
may be c on sidered as equ i val e n t ; a n d t he L at i n s acc ord

e o meli o r
i n g l y sa i d
Fr o m the preced in g examp l es a n d observa ti on s i t m us t
.

E T YMOLOGY

48

appear t ha t the de n i t e ar t icl e an d the w o rd tha t th o ugh

n o t s t ric t l y s y non y m o us are w o rds n ear l y o f t he same i m
po r t T heir di ff ere n c e seems t o be
l s t T ha t t he a r t ic l e the l i k e a mu s t ha v e a s u b s t an
t ive c onj oi n ed w i t h i t ; w here a s tha t l i ke o n e may h a ve
i t u n ders t oo d S peak i n g o f b ook s I may se l e c t on e a n d

say
give me tha t bu t no t give me the
giv e me

o ne
bu t no t give me a
H ere the an al ogy hold s b e
t w ee n a a n d o n e the a n d tha t
2 d l y A s the di ffe r e n ce be t w ee n a a n d o n e seem s t o be
tha t o ne de no t e s u n i ty i n c on t ra di st i n c ti on t o m o r e w i t h
grea t er empha s is t h a n a s o t he dis t i n c ti on i n ge n eral b e
t w ee n the a n d tha t is th a t t he l a tt er m ark s t he obj ec t
m o r e emph a tically t han t he fo rm er b e i n g i n dire c tly o p
p o s ed t o thi s I canno t s ay
t h e re go es th a t ma n w i t h

t ha t l on g beard w i th o u t imply i n g a c on t ra st w i t h thi s

m a n w i t h t hi s l on g beard
t he w ord tha t bei n g a l way s
empha tical a n d discrimi n a t ive
T he opi n i on her e off e r e d respec t i n g these w o rd s r e
so me c o rr ob o ra t i on fr o m t he foll ow i n g circ um
c ei v e s
s t an ces
I n L a t i n i l l e freque n tl y suppl ies the pl ace o f our d e

n i t e ar ticl e
T h o u ar t t he man
Tu es i ll e ( i s te)
,

homo

i n Fren ch i s cl ear ly a deriva t ive fr o m i l l e o f

w hich t he fo rmer sy l l a b l e i l express e s he an d t he l a tt er
deno t es tha t u n empha t ically s e rvi n g as t he d e ni t e a r
t i ol e Fr o m the sam e s o urce al s o pr o ceed the It alian
ar t icl es i l l o l a
I n H ebre w i n l i k e ma nn er o ur de n i t e ar ticl e i s e x
pres s ed b y t he pre x o f the pr ono u n i l l e t hu s a r etz ter r a

ear th
t he e a r th t he l e t
ha r e tz i l l a s e u ha c te r r a
t er he abbrevi at ed fr o m ho u i l l e expressi n g the
a s hr i

happy the ma n o r tha t man

ha i slm bea tu s i ll e v i r
the he i n l i ke m a nn e r sign ify i n g the o r tha t
I t appea rs t o me then t ha t as a e a ne w hen no t o p
T he le

w as

E T Y M OLO G Y

49

o
sed
t
o
a
n
d
t
eref
o
re
u
n
empha
t
ica
l
b
y
ce
l
eri
ty
o
f
m
ore
h
p
pron un cia t i on w ere chan ged i n t o a a n so tha t w he n no t
opp o sed t o this o r w he n i t w a s u n empha t ical w a s sh o r t
en ed t o the H e n ce t he w o rds t erm ed ar ticl es seem t o
be t he n ame o f u n i ty a n d t he dem on s t ra t ive w o rd tha t
abbrevia t ed
B esides the w o rds a a n the there are o t hers w hich
may be c on sidered as reducib l e t o the s ame cl ass w i t h
t hese ; such a s thi s tha t a ny o ther s o me a l l o n e n o n e
This a n d t ha t I have al ready c on s idered
T h a t t hey a re
no t pr ono u n s i s evide n t fo r t hey are n e ver u sed a s the
repres e n t a t ives o f a no u n a n d al w ays r e quire t o be a s so
c i a t ed w i t h a sub st an t ive
I f ever t h e y a ppe a r w i t h o u t
t his acc o mpa n imen t i t w ill i n vari a bl y be fo u n d t h a t the
expre s si on i s e lli p t ical s o me subs tan t ive o r o t her be i n g
n ecessari ly u n der st oo d I f I say
T hi s w a s a nobl e a c

t i on
T hi s w ha t ?
T his ac t i on
T his i s t rue vir

t ue
T his w ha t i
T his prac tice
th i s habi t
thi s

t empe r
T o w ha t cl ass o f w o rds I c on ceive t hem t o be
l on g has bee n alread y men t i on ed
On e is a w o rd s ig n ica n t o f u n i ty a n d ca nno t w i t h o u t
man ifes t impr o prie ty be c all ed a pr ono mi n al adj ec t ive ;
u n l ess by a n abuse o f all l an gu a g e w e be dispo sed t o
n ame tw o thr ee f o u r pr ono mi n al adj ec t ives
S o me is reducib l e t o t he same c la s s d e no t i n g a n in de
ni t e bu t c o mpara t ivel y t o ma ny a small n umber
M a ny f ew s ev e r a l a r e w o rds o f the same o rder s ig ni
ca n t o f n umber i n de n i t ely
No ne o r n o t o n e imp lies t he n ega t i on o f a l l n umbe r
excl u s ive eve n o f u n i ty i t sel f
O ther w hich is impr o per ly c on sid e red by s o me a s a
pr ono u n is the S ax on 0 6 6 1 c o mi n g fro m o 6 t3c T he
A rabic a hd t he H ebre w ha d o r a ha d the S ax on o 5 6
t he T eu t on ic o d o a n d t he S w edish u d d a w i th o ur E n g
l ish w o rd o d d see m al l t o have spru n g fr o m the sam e
o rigi n the e ty m on express i n g on e separa t ely o r o n e

by i t sel f a n s w eri n g n earl y t o the L a t i n s i ng u l a s T he

,

E T YM OLO G Y

5O

E n gl i sh w o rd o dd pl ainl y i n dicat es i t s affi n i ty t o t he se

We say H e is an o dd char ac t er o r si n gu l ar
w o rds

charac t er
H e had so me odd on es t ha t is
some

s epara t e fr o m t he res t
no t pai red o r c onn ec t e d w i th
them
.

So wi

d ig ity i odd
p r ti g f l w h v

s o u erain e

A s he i n

ll he i l o
n

u e no

e,

es

e o

S ir T M or e

Wor ks

same idea o f si ngul ari ty a n d separa ti on is express

ed by o ther ; w hich is n o w ge n erally u sed as a c o mpara
t ive a n d foll o w ed by tha n
O ther i s s o me t imes used subs t a n t ivel y an d ha s t he n
a p l ural n umbe r as
L e t o t hers serve w ho m t hey w ill :
w e w i ll serve t he L o rd
T he
as fo r me a n d m y h o use
w o rd o n e has a p l ural n umber w he n a n assemb l a ge o f
bu t i n di vidual l y
u ni t s is expressed no t i n t he aggrega t e
an d t he n i t is u s ed as a subs t an t ive as
I s a w a grea t

ma n y n e on es
It is al s o u sed i n de n i t el y i n the same
se n se w i t h t he Fren ch o n as
O n e w o u l d imagi n e t he s e
t o be expressi on s o f a ma n b l essed w i th ease A tter bu ry
A n d i n usi n g i t in this s e n se i t may be observed in
T he

H o r T oo k pp rs to m t h v rr d i d ri v i g dd fro m w d
Odd i s th p r tici p l
th s
Th s w h w
w d
H i w o rd s
c o t i g b y c o p l s o r p irs w y
ir
w
ir
s
t
&
d
p
p
'
tw
m k
w d
t
ot
h
r
p
ir
I
t
h
h
s
m
w d
t
p
i g wh w y
odd m
odd c t i o i t s t ill r l t s to
m
w i th o t
p iri g ; d w m
f ll o w
m t ch d
N w I m st
th i s pp rs to m v ry o dd x p l ti o ; fo r i my pp h
w
s i o i t l d s to c o cl s i o th v ry r v rs of th t w hich th th o r
Th t r m dd i s pp li d to t h
d s b y i ts l f d
w h i ch s t
i t ds
b s t o r w d to c o mp l t th p i r I f I y
t to th t w h i ch i s
th
thr p i rs d odd
th w o r d dd r f rs to th s i gl
o v r d b v th thr p i rs d t to th
ti g ;
w hich i w
t
h
k
T
o
r
f
s
i
t
to
l tt r Hi x p l t io s ms t o c
t
M
y
t r l d b s d H d b s b s ti t t d cc o rdi g t hi s w ty m

h m t I
l o gy dd fo r d s yi g thr p irs d d
w d
t
th i k h v p rc i v d i t i cc r cy I t i th dd d p
of
d
t th
b e t or w d
w h i ch th s i g l r i ty i s p r d i c t d
e a

ne

a re

one

an

n,

ea

n,

ea

n en

na u a

ur

an

an

an

u a

na

no

a
,
a

no

sa

e o

e a s n

e un

r esen

an

us

o ne,

an

ee

an

au

e e

an o

n
, a

an

en

re

an a

e o ne

s e

e a e

n,

u e

u a

a e

as

e e

, an

ee

c . an

an a

o n e,

e o ne

ee

e are

en

u ,

un

an

an

en ,

e er

r.

o e

an

o n e,

ee

an

n,

one

e re are

no

e o

an ,

an

ea n

a e

e sa

e sa

en

e an n

e e

e e :

un

ea

o ne,

one

ET Y M OLO G Y

51

pas s i n g tha t a n err or is o ft e n co m mi tt ed b y empl oy i n g

the p e rson al pr ono u n s as re ferri n g t o o ne t hus
O n e is

ap t t o exagge ra t e his o w n i nj uries i n s t ead o f on e s

o w n i nj urie s
I t is s o me ti mes t h o ugh rarely used as
referri n g t o a pl ural no u n
T he R o man s a n d t he C a r tha
i
n i a n s n o w t oo k t he el d ; t he on e ambi t i o us o f c on qu e s t
g

a n d the o t hers i n s el f defe n ce

T his m ode o f expressi on

i s obj ec t i on ab l e We sh o u l d ra ther say

t he former
an d t he l att er
A ny a n a o n e s eem all to be n ear l y equival e n t w o rds
an d d e rived fr o m on e o rigi n I mea n fr o m a n e t he n ame
o f u n i ty H en ce a o r a n an d a ny are freque n t l y sy n o
n mo u s
A
c
on
sidera
t
e
ma
n
w
o
u
l
d
have
a c t ed
di
f
y

tha t is
any c on sidera t e man
H e n c e al so
f e r e n tl y ;
li k e o ne i t i s o ppo sed t o no ne a s H ave y o u a b oo k (a n y

boo k) w hich y o u ca n l e n d me P
N on e m y b o o k s are
i n the co u n t ry ; no r if they w ere here have I an y ( o r

on e) w hich w o u l d sui t y o u
Fr o m expres si n g o ne i n
de n i te l y l i ke a o r a n i t came by an eas y a n d n at ural

w ha t y o u p l ea s e
t ran si t i on to deno t e w ha tev er i t be

I n t hi s
G ive me on e ( an e ) a ny no ma tt er w h i ch
"
se n s e i t c o rrespon d s t o t he L a t i n qu i v is o r qu i l i bet i n
a frma t ive sen t en ces ; w hereas i n i n t err oga tiv e o r n ega
t ive se n t e n ce s i t c o rrespon ds t o qu is qu a m q u i sp ia m o r
T he precedi n g observa t i on s i t may be u sefu l t o
a l l us
recapi t ula t e
N o u n s are n ames o f g e n era a n d no t o f i n dividual s ;
o ur perce p t i on s are on the con t rary all i n dividual no t
ge n eral H e n ce t o de no t e on e o r m o re i n dividu al s o f a
s peci e s n umeral s o r w o rds sign ica n t o f n umber w ere
i n v e n t ed So me express a p recise n umber a s o n e tw o
ma ny
thr ee ; o t hers n umber i n de n i t el y as s o me f ew
O ur percep t i on s bei n g all i n dividual a n d on e
s ev e r a l
,

qu il i e t af rm at

u i v is s eu

are

the w

l s o th t i L t i
E gli sh i fr o m
,

i n te rro g a t,
a

n,

o r d s of

u l l us , a n

an e,

the

na

y,

me

u is qua m,

; q

p ia m, a tl as ,

u is

au t n e a t au t
g

ci t gr mm ri
I t i s ob s rv b l
i s d i mi ti v fro m
y i
of i ty fo rm erly sed

an

an

en

nu

un

as

an .

a n u s, o n e
u

as an

E T Y M OLO G Y

52

b ei n g the basis o f a l l n umber the t erm sign ican t o f u n i ty

m u st freq u en t ly recur i n expressi n g o ur s e n time n ts T o
de no t e t his idea o ur fo refa t hers empl oy ed a e a n e I n t he
pr ogress o f l an guage w here u n i ty w a s no t t o be expres s
ed as o pp o sed t o t w o o r m ore t he t erms t hus beco mi n g
u n e mpha t ical w o u l d n a t urally be abbr e viat ed i n t o a a n
T hese l a tt er t herefo re are t he o ff s pri n g o f the n ames o f
u n i ty
a n d bel on g t o t he cl as s o f w o rds n amed cardi n al
n umeral s T o w ha t p a r t o f speech t hese ar e reducibl e
f
if
t
h
e
y
ca
n
be
reduc
e
d
t
o
a
n
y
i
t
i
s
di
cu
l
t
t
o
de
t
ermi
e
n
(
)
I n s o me l a n guages t hey hav e the fo r m o f adj ec t ives b u t
if their mean i n g be c on sidered i t is cl ear t ha t t hey have
no c l aim t o this appell a t i on as t hey express no a ccide n t
quali ty o r pr o p e r ty w ha t ever I n fac t t h e y appear t o
be a speci e s o f w o rd s t o t al ly di ffere n t i n charac t e r fr o m
a ny o f t he par t s o f speech gen eral ly received
o f t hem
excep t the rs t o f t he seri es bei n g abbrev i a t i on s fo r the
n ame o f u n i ty repea t ed
It bein g n ecessary no t onl y t o express an i n dividual i n
de n i t el y o f a ny species bu t al s o t o specify a n d s el ec t
s o me par t icu l ar on e w hich a t rs t w o u l d pr obably be
d on e b y po in t i n g t o t he obj ec t if i n sigh t t he w o rds this
a n d tha t he n ce cal l ed dem on s t ra t ives w ere empl oy ed ;
t he on e t o express t he n earer the o ther the m ore di s t a n t
obj ec t Fr o m on e o f t hese pr o ceeded t he w o rd the havi n g
t he same rel at i on t o i t s o rigi n al a s a o r a n has t o t he n a me
o f u n i ty H e n ce t he w o rds sy nony m o us w i t h this a n d
tha t i n t h o se l an guages w hic h have no de n i t e ar t ic l e are
frequen tly emp l oy ed t o supply i t s p l ace
T he use of t hese t erms b ein g t o express a n y i n dividual
w ha t ever o f a cl ass
a n d l i ke w i se s ome cer t ai n o r par t i
c u l a r o bj ec t ; w e have al s o t he w o rds
ew
s o me
m
a
n
f
y
s ev e r a l
t o deno t e a n u mber i n de n i t ely an d the car
di n al n umera l s tw o thr ee f o u r &c a precise n umber o f
i n dividual s
,

ET Y M OLO G Y

54

cases an sw er the same purp o se o r d e no t e the subj e c t w i t h

F o r as th e r e is hardly
t he same precisi on a s t he pr ono u n
a ny n a me s t ric t ly s pea k i n g pr oper o r pecul iar t o on e i n
dividu al t he emp l oy m e n t o f a n ame bel ongi n g t o m ore
person s t h a n o n e w o u l d no t s o cl early sp e cify o r i n di vidu
a t e t he obj ec t as t he appropriat e pr ono u n H e n c e i t w o ul d
o ft e n be n ecessary t o subj o i n t o t he n ame so me d i st i n c t ive
circums t an ces t o discrimi n a t e t he pers on i n t e n ded fro m
o t hers o f t ha t n am e ; o r t he speak er w o u l d be ob liged t o
p o i n t t o the i n dividual if he h a pp e n e d t o b e prese n t N a y
t h o ugh t he per s on o r subjec t design ed migh t be t hus suf
c ie n tl y ascer t ai n ed i t is ea sy t o see t h a t t he phrase ol ogy
w o u l d have no t hi n g o f t h a t simp l ici ty a n d e n ergy w h i ch
acc o mp a n y t he pr ono u n I f i n t he rs t ex a mp l e i n st ea d

o f s a y i n g I a m t he G o d w e sh o u l d say T he L ord is

t he G o d o r i n t he sec on d i n s t ead o f T h o u ar t the man

D avid is the man t he en ergy o f the expressi on w o ul d

be en t irely d e s t r oy ed I f an y pers on s pe a ki n g o f himsel f
sh o u l d dis t i n guish him sel f fro m o t he rs o f the same n ame
by subj o i n i n g t he n ecessar y discrimi n a t i n g circums t an c e s
s o as t o l eave no d o ub t i n t he mi n d o f t he b e ar er i t i s o h
vi o n s t ha t t his phraseol ogy w oul d no t on ly be i n el egan t
bu t al so feeb l e a n d u n impressive T o be c on vi n c e d o f the
t ru t h o f t his observa t i on i t is onl y n ecessar y t o c o mpare
the ex a n ima t e s t i ff a n d freque n t l y obscur e dic t i on o f a
c omm on card w i th t he freed o m perspicui ty an d vivaci ty
o f a l e tt er
P r on o u n s may be di vi ded i n t o subs t an ti ve a n d adj ec t ive
pers on al an d impers on al re l a t ive a n d i n t err oga t ive T he
pers on al subst an t ive pr ono u n s are I thou he she T he
i mpers on al subs t a n t iv e pr ono u n is i t
T he pers on al subs t a n t ive pr ono u n s have t hree cases a n d
are t hus dec l i n ed :
,

ET Y M OLO G Y
P e r s o n M a sc

Fi r s t

55

an

d Fem

I
G en

O bj

We
O urs

M ine
Me

Us

P er s o n M a sc

S eco nd

Fem

a nd

T ho u t
G en

O bj

Ye or you
Y o urs
You

T hee

l o x o t i G rma i h i G r ek y i L a ti g M
W bb d l v r d i t as hi s o p i i o th t th p ro o of th rs t p rs w
d ri ve d fr om th H b r w h o r h
fo r ch d o r
se d b y p o op
dd d
or
i ted I t i d o b tl s t r th t h
hd h
ed
o cc rs i
o r tw p ss g s fo r
E k xvi ii 1 0 d P x li x
8 ; i w h i ch l tte r p s g i t i r d red i
tr s l ti o b oth
d
m
b y R Jo h
pp r h d th t thi s f c t wi ll b y
s
; b t w
j s ti fy hi s c o cl s io A d h c o s id r d th t th p ro o of th rs t
b im gi d th t th p ro o
pe rso r d i lly d o ted
of th sec o d
p rs o c m fro m the m r l d d t th N w i t m s t b gr ted
th t th r i
o bv io s r s mb l c be tw t d h d l s o b tw
d th
b t w r w t dr w
c
o
cl
s
i
o
f
r
o
t
hi
s
s
i
m
i
l
r
d
m
t
y
i ty it w o l d b th r v rs of th t w h i ch th th o r h d ed c d I t
s ms q i t p r p o s t ro s to s ppo s th t the c ss i ty fo r ex p ress i g
th
m be r w o l d p r se t i ts l f be fo r th t of d is cri m i ti g b tw
pe rs o s peak i g d th p rs o dd ress d Th r d s v ge co l d t
c o v rs w i th hi f llo w w i th o t s om s i g of th is d i s ti c t io ; d i f
v i s i b le sig ( is p r ob b l ) w o l d b rs t ad o p t d w m y r s o b ly
pr s m
sev er l gr o d s th t th ese w o l d s oo g iv p l c e to d b l
x p ress i o s
i i i S x o d ec li ed th s
Th p r o o
e

I n A n g -Sa
e i e e

a a

e a

na

ca

e e

uo ,

a , an
u

ee

nu

e u

S ing

S i ng

P l ur

ec

an

an

ean

un

ee n
a

as

na

ee n

no

an

er , an

ne e

un

ea

na

au

D at M e

G en U r e

D at

un

en .

en .

A ce M e
.

We

G en M in

of th s ec o d p r o
Th i
G
N m Th
Ro w r
N m G (h r d ) G

p ro o
o

un

N am I c

The

e,

3.

un

e au

e an

an

n a

u.

e en

P l ur N o m

u,

ec

e, o n

n,

no

ne

e e

a,

e s
n

is

A ce

Us

th s d cl i d
e

ne

D a t The
.

D at

as

an

as

ns

an

e e

an

e e

uo ,

an

n o ur

u e,

on

es

o.

e a

nu

un

ze

see

n e

e e) ,

en

on e ,

en

as

en

s an

one

o ne, u

un

e a

a e

one

c ,

n,

a sa e

ac

ec

on

n o ne

e,

an d

Us

Are T he
.

A cc

Eo w

ET Y M OLO G Y

56

P erson

Thi r d

G en
O bj

T hey
T heir s
T hem

He
H is
H im

F em

S he

G en

My ,

T hey
T he ir s
T hem

''

P er s o n

Thi r d

O bj

Her s
H er

G en

It:
It s
It

T hey
T h e irs
T hem
.

bei
n
g
h
e represe n t a t ives o f
t
y
no u n s have t he e s s e n ti a l charac t er o f prono u n s T hus
w he n D e ciu s s a y s t o C a t o
C aes a r is w ell acquai n t ed w i t h

y o ur vir t ues t he pr ono u n i s e mp l oy ed a s a subs t i t u t e fo r

C a to s A s t hey express no t on l y t he subj ec t bu t al s o
t he r e l a t i on o f pr o per ty o r p o s ses s i on t hey are b y s o me
gr a mmari a n s c on sidered t o be the ge n i t ive s o f th e ir r e s p e c
t ive subs t an t iv e pr ono u n s I n usage h o w ever t hey are
dis t in guished fro m t he E n gl ish g e n i t iv e b y thei r i n capaci ty
t o st an d a l on e T hus w e say It is t he ki n g s
It i s

y o urs bu t w e canno t say It is y o ur t he presen ce o f

a n o u n bei n g n e c e ssa ry t o t he l as t expr e s s i on T h e y are
t herefo r e m o re c o rrec tly n a med pr ono min al a djec tives
th
y

our,

t hei r ,

o ur ,

xo

i s d cli ed th s
His
G
H ir
Si g N m H
G
T hi s p ro o i s fr o m th A gl o S x o
I A gl o S x o hi i T to i c d i
lo

The An g - S a n he
S ing N o m He

1
I

en

eo

un

D at

en .

eu

Dat

a
e

hy t

and

H ir

o r hit

A ce Hi m
.

A ce

or

Il i
th t
.

E T Y M OLO G Y

57

Fo r the pur po s e o f deno t i n g empha t ic al ly t he rel at i on o f

po s sessi on o r pr o per ty the w o rd o w n i s frequen t ly j oi n ed
t o the m as my o w n thy o w n o u r o w n A n d t o mark t he
person w i t h emph a s is t h ey are c o mpo u n ded w i t h the w ord
i n S ax on sy lf ; fr o m the G o thic si l ba ip s e : thu s
The i r s el v es is n o w
my s elf thy self ; o u r s el v es y o u r se l v es
o b s o l e t e t he ms e l v es bei n g u s e d i n i t s s t ead
T he pr ono un s o f the rs t a n d s econ d person s are ei t her
mascu li n e o r femi n i n e T he reason i s says M r H arri s
becau se the s ex o f the speak er an d o f the perso n addres s ed
is gen erally obvi o u s T his e xp la n a t i on w hich ha s bee n
ad o pt e d b y m o st gr a mmarian s , appears to me u n sa ti sfa c
t o r y a n d err on eo u s O t her s have s aid t ha t the pr ono u n s
o f t he rs t a n d s e c on d per s on s have no d is ti n c ti on o f sex
becau se al l di st i n ct i on of t his ki n d is fo reig n t o t he i n te n
t i on o f the spe aker w ho w he n he u se s the pr ono u n I
mea n s t he pers on w ho spea k s be i t man o r w o man ; a n d
w he n he empl oy s t he pr ono u n tho u mea n s t he pe rson a d
dressed w i t ho u t an y regard t o the sex o f the i n dividual
T hi s ma t t e r seems su fcie n t ly pl ai n La n guage t o be
useful m us t be per s picu o u s an d i n t e ll igibl e exhibi ti n g the
subj ec t a n d i ts a tt ribu t es w i t h cl earn ess a n d pre ci s i on I f
i t sh o ul d b e a sk ed w hy the pr ono u n o f t he third p e rson ha s
t hree varie ti e s M r H a rri s w o u l d a n s w er t o mark the

sex
I f i t w ere i n quired w he n c e arises t he n ece s s i ty o f
mar ki n g t he sex he w o ul d an s w er a n d very j us tl y i n
order t o ascer ta i n t he subj ec t o f disc o urse
It is obvi o us
th e re fo re tha t t o no t e the sex is no t t he pri mar y obj ec t
an d t ha t the pri n cipal aim o f t he S pe a ker is t o discrimi n a t e
an d mark the s ubj ec t T he pr ono u n s o f t he rs t an d
n d person s have no varie ty o f fo rm s ign ica n t o f se x
b e c a use t he speaker a n d the p erso n ad dres s ed are evide n t
w i t ho u t i t
M r H arri s t herefo re sho u l d hav e said t ha t
t he pr ono u n s i n ques t i on have no dis t i n c t i on o f ge n d e r
no t becau se the s ea o f t he speak er an d o f t he pers on a d
dressed bu t because t he p er s o n s t hemsel ves a r e i n gen eral
obvi o u s w i t ho u t the aid o f sex ual desig na tion T he i n ts u
,

E TYM OL O G Y

58

t i on o f the speaker i s no t t o de no t e the sex bu t the person

sp ok e n o f w he t her mal e o r fe mal e ; t o a s cer t ai n w hich
person if ab s en t the discrimi n a t i on o f sex i s gen erall y
n ecessary T he sex t herefore e n t ers no t as a n es s en t ial
bu t as a n exp l an a t o ry ci rc u m s tan ce ; n o t as the subj ec t o f
di sc o urse bu t t o dis t i n guish t he subj ec t Where the per
son is presen t an d is ei ther the Speaker o r the pers on a d
dre s sed discri mi n a t i on o f sex bec o mes u nn ecessary t he
pr ono u n i t sel f mar ki n g t he i n d i vidual s Whe n the pers on
o r subj ec t o f disc o urse is abse n t the dis t i n c ti on o f sex
serves freque n t ly t o de t ermi n e t he subj ec t H e n ce t he
pr ono u n o f the t hird person ha s t hree varie ties he fo r the
m ascu l i n e s he fo r the femi n i n e an d i t fo r the n eu t er
T he fo ur pers on al pr ono u n s I tho u he a n d s he have
t hree cases v i z the no mi n a t ive o r l eadi n g c a se ex
pressi n g t he pri n cipal subj ec t an d precedi n g t he verb ; the
geni t ive c ase w h o se fo r m an d o ffi ce have bee n alrea dy de
n ed ; a n d t he obj ec t ive accu sa t ive o r foll o w i n g case (fo r
i t ha s o b t ai n ed t hese t hree n ames ) expressi n g t he obj ec t
to w hich the e n ergy i s direc t ed o r t he subj ec t ac t ed upon
T his case foll o w s t he verb
M i n e thi n e hers thei r s his y ou r s o u r s are t ru l y
pr ono u n s i n the p o ssessive o r ge n i t ive case John s on ha s
i n deed said t hat my a n d mi n e are w o rds precisel y sy n o ny
m o us my acc o rdi n g t o him b ei n g used before a c on s on an t
a n d min e befo re a v o w el ; as my s w o r d mi ne a r m I t is
d o ub tl ess t rue tha t mi n e a n d thin e are so m e t imes u sed as
my a n d thy w hic h are no t subs t a n t ive pr ono u n s bu t pr o
no mi n al adj ec t ives ; bu t t ha t they are no t precisely sy n o
is
o
bvi
o
us
f
o
r
a
n
d
m
n mo u s o r mu t ual l y c on ver t ibl e
;
y
y
ca
nno
t
be
used
f
o
r
m
i
ne a n d t hi n e t h o ugh mi ne a n d
th
y
t hi n e as ha s bee n o bserved m a y be used fo r my a n d

k
h
Examp
l
e
W
o
se
b
oo
is
t
is
?
I
ca
nno
t
a
n
s
er
:
h
th
w
y

i t is m y bu t i t is m in e
We may i n deed say
i t is m y b oo k bu t the a d di t i on o f the subst a n t ive is
n ecessa r y
A s my a n d min e thy an d thin e o u r an d o ur s y o u r a n d
,

ET Y M OLO G Y

59

are
no
t
m
u
t
ua
ll
y
c
on
ver
t
ib
l
e
t
he
y
y
canno t be regarded a s sy non y m o u s each w i th i t s fell o w
Thi s a n d t ha t w hich have impr o per l y bee n referred b y
so me t o the cl ass 9f pr ono u n s have b ee n c on sidered al re ad y
T he fo rm e r mak es i n t he p l ural thes e the la tt er thos e
T he rel a ti ve pr ono u n s s o ca ll ed becau se t hey direc t l y
rel at e o r refer t o a subs t an t ive precedi n g w hich is t here
fore t ermed the a n teced en t are w ho w hich tha t
T he pr ono u n w ho i s o f the m a sc uli n e o r femi n i n e gen der
referri n g t o person s mal e o r fem al e T he pr ono u n w hich
is n eu t er Tha t is c o mm on t o the thre e ge n ders
o ur s ,

an d

thei r

the i r s ,

Wh
Wh o se
Wh o m

No m
G en

O bj

Which
Wh os e
W hich

Lo w th an d several o ther gr ammaria n s have a sser t ed

tha t the pr ono u n w hich admi t s no vari a ti on N umberl e s s
exampl es h ow ever fro m t he bes t au t h o rs migh t be ci ted
t o di s pr o ve thi s a sser t i on S hak s p ea r e occasi on all y u ses
w ho s e a s t he g e n i t ive o f w hi ch a n d si n ce hi s t im e w ri t e r s
o f the highes t e mi n e n ce have emp l oy e d i t i n t he sa me
ma nn er
d th fr i t
s rs t d is o b d i c
Of m
t r w h mo rt l t s t M il to
O f th t fo rb i dd
w ll cc o rd d s tr if
Th l i gh ts
d sh d s w h

1i f
P pe
G i v s l l th s t r gt h d c o l o r of
,

an

en

en

o se

ee ,

an

e n e , an

ose

e ,

an

n.

o ur

A t rue cri t ic i s li ke a d og a t a fe as t w ho s e tho ught s

an d s to mach are w holl y se t on w ha t t he gues t s i n g

a w ay
S w if t
T his u sage i s fav o urabl e to c on cise n ess a n d ca n very
sel d o m creat e ambigui ty
W here obscuri ty i n deed i s
,

I n An

gl o

xo

Sa

l s o hw il
b i g li d d

hw o ne
e n

A
e

n,

c,

hw a, hu a ; G en hw aes
.

h c

w en e ,

sa ys

I Ii ck e s,

hw m A hw
p ro cee d d w hi h th l tter I
D at

ce .

c ,

a ne,

E T Y M OLO G Y

60

apprehe n ded t he periphrasis of w hi ch sh o u l d b e ad o p t ed

I have t herefo re giv e n w hos e as t he gen i t ive o f w hich;
no t on ly becaus e t his u sage is sa n c t i on ed by c l assica l a u
t ho ri ty bu t l i ke w ise becau se t he o t her fo rm (f w hi ch i s
frequen tly a w k w ard a n d i n el ega n t
Who is appl ied t o pe rson s tha t i s t o a n imal s di s t i n
u i s he d b y ra t i on a l i ty o r represe n t ed as po ssessi n g i t
g

Th m
wh h
m s ic i hi ms l f
Sh k p
,

an

as n o

s ea r e

T he a n t ece d e n t ma n bei n g a pers on is fo ll o w ed by w ho

A s t ag w ho c a m e t o dri nk a t a riv e r seei n g his o wn

imag e i n t he cl e ar s t ream said t h us t o himsel f

H e r e the s t ag is represen t ed a s po ssessi n g reas on an d
speech a n d t herefo re t he pr ono u n w ho is emp l oy ed I n
m yt h ol ogica l w ri t i n gs i n ge n e ral such as the Fab l es o f
f E s o p i n fe ri o r a n im a l s are very pr o perl y de no t ed b y the
per s on a l rel a t ive
Which i s app l ied t o t hi n gs i n an imat e an d crea t ures
or r ep re
e i t her dev o id o f a ll i n dica t i on s o f ra t i on al i ty
s e n t ed as s uch
T he ci ty w hich Ro mu l us bui l t w a s

c a ll ed R ome
H er e w hi ch is used the w o rd ci ty bei n g
t he a n t eced e n t t o w hich i t refers
T he s l o t h w hich is a crea t ure remarkab l e fo r i n ac

H ere t he
t iv i ty l ives on l eave s a n d t he o w ers o f t rees
s l o t h a n a n im a l har dl y p o ssessi n g se n sa t i on o r l ife i s
expre s sed by w hi ch
T he rul e here giv e n fo r t he use o f t hese pr ono u n s is n o t
u niform ly ob s e rv e d s everal g o o d w ri t ers o cca s w n a ll y a p
p l y i n g t hem i n di ffe r e n t ly t o i n feri o r a n imal s w i t ho u t a ny
de t ermi n a t e pri n cipl e o f di s crimi n at i on It w o u l d be be tt er
h o w ever w e re t his r ul e u n ivers a lly foll o w ed ; an d if such
m o des o f expres si on as freque n t ed by t ha t fo w l w ho m
n at ure has t augh t w e re e n t irely repudi a t ed
P ries tl ey w h o se d o c t ri n e on t his subj ec t seem s n earl y
t o c oi n cid e w i t h o urs ha s eve n o bj e c t ed t o t he a ppl ica t i on
o f the pr ono u n w ho t o chi l dr en because t hi s pr ono u n c on
vey s an idea o f person s p o ssessi n g reas on an d re ec t i on o f
,

62

E T Y M OLO GY

sa y s he i s t hi s tha t the rel a t ive refers t o a n an t eceden t

an d de n i t e subj ec t a n d t he i n t err oga t i ve t o so me thi n g

T he examp l e w hich he a d
subseq u e n t a n d u n k no w n
duces i n supp o r t o f hi s o pi nion is the foll owi n g : W ho

rs t seduced them t o t ha t fo ul rev ol t ?

T he very

ques t i on say s he
supp o ses a seducer to w h i ch tho ugh

u n k no wn t he pr ono u n w ho ha s a referen ce
A n s w er

H e c on t i n u es
H ere i n t he
T he i n fer n al serpe n t
a n s w er w e have t he subj ec t w hich w a s i n de n i t e a sc er
t a i n e d ; s o t ha t t he w ho i n t he i n t err o ga t i on is as m uch
a r e l at ive as if i t had bee n sai d origi n al ly w i th o u t an y
i n t erroga t i on a t all
I t w a s the i n fern al serpen t w ho

seduced them
O t hers ad o p t a n o pi n i on diame t ri cal ly
o pp o si te c on t e n di n g tha t w ho a n d w hi ch are pr o perly i n
t er r o g a ti v e s a n d t ha t eve n w he n used as rel a t ives t hey
s ti l l ret ai n t heir i n t err oga t ive charac t er T his t heo ry a
f e w exam pl es w i ll su fcie n t ly i ll us t ra t e

?
T he ma n w ho (w hich ma n ?) hi s charac t er f oll o w s

has no m u sic i n himsel f

T he ci ty w hich ? ( w ha t ci ty ?) R o mu l us bui l t was

call ed R o me

H app y t he man who se cau t i o us fee t

H appy tha t ma n w ho ? his ( w h o se) cau t i o us fee t

L igh t i s a b ody which ? (b o dy ) m o ves wi th grea t

vel o ci ty
O f t hese t w o t he o r i es I have no hesi t a t i on i n ad o p t i n g
t he former M y reason s are these T he i n t e n t i on o f l an
guage is t o c o mm u n ica t e o ur se n t ime n t s ; to e x pr e s s w ha t
w e t hi n k feel perceive o r desire
H e n ce i t s ge n eral c ha

r a c te r i s i n dica t ive o r asser t ive

I bel ieve
I w ish

I see are afrma t ive se n t e n ces ; an d w hat ever vari e ty

o f fo rms the phrase ol ogy may as s ume they are a l l s t ric t ly
signi ca n t o f asser ti on a n d a l l res ol vabl e i n t o the l an guage

o f a i rma tio n
t each
read are equival e n t
Go

to
I desire y o u t o g o
t o t each
t o read
H ave

y o u n ished y o ur t ask ? mean s w he n the sen t ime n t

is fully expressed
I desire t o kno w w he ther y o u have

ET Y M OLO G Y

63

ni shed y o ur t a sk
E lli pses o f this ki n d are n a t ural
T hey spri n g fro m a n eage rn ess t o impar t t o t he vehicl e o f
o ur t h o ugh t s a degree o f c e l eri ty sui t ed t o the pr o mp t i t ud e
Veheme n ce o r pas
w i t h w hich t he mi n d c on ceives t hem
si on impat ien t o f del ay uni fo rm l y re s o r t s t o t hem T he
asser t i e fo r m o f expres s i on I t herefo re c on ceive t o be
t he pare n t w he n ce every o ther i s deri v ed an d t o w hich i t
I f t his be t he c a se no i n t err oga t ive c on
i s reducibl e
ce i v ed
purely as such can cl ai m so earl y a n o ri gi n as
de n i t e o r af rmat iv e t erms H e n ce w e may co n cl ude
tha t w ho w hi ch w hen w here w ere a t rs t u sed a s r e
l a ti e s a n d came aft er w ards b y impl ica t i on t o de no t e
i n t err oga t i on s
A ga i n w e kno w t ha t t he mean i n g o f a n expressi on is
freque n tl y c oll ec t ed no t so much fro m the s tric t imp or t o f
the t erms as fr o m the t on e o r ma nn er i n w hich i t is

del ivered I f I sa y
he did i t
the se n t e n ce is a ffi r
m a ti v e ; y e t by t he t on e o f v o ice o r ma nn er o f the speak er
this afrma t ive sen t e n ce may de no t e an i n t err oga t i on

Thus he did i t ? b y a n el eva ti on o f the v oice o r the

m o de o f no t a t i on may be ren der e d equiv al e n t to did

he d o i t ?
Wh o did i t i s i n l i ke ma nn er a n af r
m a ti v e c l ause ; b u t i t is o bvi o us t ha t t his fo rm o f ex
pressi on l ik e the o t her n o w a dduc e d may be li ke w ise
emp l oy ed t o de no t e a n i n t err oga t i on t hus
Who did

i t ? A n d it is evid e n t tha t if t he el lipsis be suppl ied

the sen t en ce w o u l d read t hus
I w an t t o kno w w ho di d

it ?
T he pre ce di n g c l ause ho w ever is s u i c i e n tl y sup
p lied by t he mann er o f t he speak er A n e lli p s is o f t his
ki n d se e ms t o be i n v o l ved i n every i n t err oga t i on
If I

di d he d o i t ? i t i s equival e n t t o
say
t e ll me if
he did i t ? A cc o rdi n gl y w e n d t ha t the L a t i n s i n such
i n terr oga t i on s empl oy ed on ly t he l att er cl ause ; fo r a n
h
h
w
e
t
er) w hich is t ermed an i n t err oga t ive is i n fac t
(
no thin g bu t t he G ree k a v sy non y m o u s w i th s i
am on g
A n f eci t
the L a ti n s
did he d o i t ? i s therefo re

s t ric tly equ i val e n t t o s i f eci t i f he d i d i t the fo rmer

.

ET Y M OLO G Y

64

cl ause
t ell me bein g u n ders t oo d a n d i t s imp o r t s u
pl i e d by the mann er o f t he speaker o r the m ode
no t a t i on
B esides l e t an y pers on a s k himsel f w ha t id e a he
c on sidered as a n i n t e rr o g a t
n e x e s t o t he w o rd w ho
an d I am persu a ded he wi ll be sen sibl e t ha t he can
form an y di sti n c t c on c e p t i o n o f i ts imp o r t
I am i n cl i n ed t h e refore t o t hi n k tha t i n t err oga t ives
s t ric tly r e la t ives ; an d t h a t the s e r el a tiv e s b y the a id
v o ice ges t ure o r s o me expl an a t o ry circ u ms t an c e
the purp o se o f i n t e rr ogat i on
I n u si n g t hese pr ono u n s i n t err ogat i v e ly i t is t
observ ed t ha t w ho an d w hi ch a re each appl ied t o per
w hich is no t t he case w he n t hey are empl oy e d as
ti v e s
T hi s di ffe re n ce h o w ev e r is t o be observed t ha t
w he n t he pr ono u n w hi ch i s used in t err o ga t ive l y a n d a p
p lied t o pers on s i t i s ge n er a lly if no t al w ay s u n ders t oo d
t ha t t he charac t er o f t he i n dividual w ho is t he obj ec t
o f i n qu i ry is i n prese n ce o f t he i n quirer o r is i n so me
degree kno w n Who i s more i n de n i t e I f I say w hich

?
i s the man P I mea n w ho of thos e n ow bef o r e me
o r o f t h o se w ho have bee n described ? Agreeab ly t o thi s

w hich o f t he t w o
no t i on w e say
no t
w ho o f t he
t wo
w a s gui l ty o f t his crim e ?

I f I say W ho i s t he ma n t ha t w i ll d a re t o afrm P
i t I mp l i e s t ha t I am e n t irel y a st ran ger to him a nd t ha t I
e ve n d o ub t hi s
exis t e n ce
Which i s t he m a n P no t
on l y impl ies his exis t en ce bu t al s o t ha t t he aggrega t e o f
i n dividu al s w hen ce t he se l ec t i on is made is kno w n t o
me
Wha t is al s o used i n t err oga t i ve ly a n d i s empl oy ed i n
i n t r o duci n g ques t i on s w he t her the subj ec t he per son s o r

t hi n gs as Wha t man is t ha t P
Wha t b ook is t hi s ?
W he n no subs t a n t ive is subj oi n ed i t is t he n w holly l n

W ha t is man that t h o u ar t mi n dful o f hi mP

d e n i te as
Whe n w e i n quire t herefo r e i n t o t he charac t er o f an y
pers on an d no t fo r the i n di vidual himsel f i t is t o b e r e
,

ET Y M OLO G Y
membered t ha t
,

65

empl oy t hi s pr ono u n

we

, an

no t

w ho

or

w hi ch

T h e re seem s t o be t he same di ffe r e n c e be t w e e n w ho a n d

Wha t
w ha t de n i t e a s b e t w ee n w ho a n d w hi ch I f I s a y
P
w
i
ll
d
a
re
t
o
a
f
rm
t
hi
s
a
n
m
a nd
W hich m a n w i ll

d a re P &c i t i s o bvi o u s t ha t t he fo rmer i n t e rr og a t or y i s

m o re i n d e n i te t ha n t he l a tt e r ; the o n e imply i n g a t o t a l
ignoran ce o f the i n dividu al an d s o me d o ub t o f hi s e x i st
e n ce ; the o th e r t h a t he i s on e o f a n umber i n s o m e
degree kno w n t o t he i n quir e r
W he n any de ni n g cl a u se i s subj oi n ed ei t her may be
u se d a s
W h a t o r w hich m a n am on g y o u h a v i n g a
hu n dre d sh ee p a n d l o s i n g o n e w o ul d no t l eave the n i n e ty
an d ni n e P
T he pr ono u n w hether is equiv al e n t t o w hich o f t he

It i s t he T eu t on ic w o rd w ether b e a ri n g t he sam e
t wo
rel at i on t o w er who o r w hich as ei the r d oe s t o e i n

on e an d n ei ther n emetker t o n ie o r n ehei n non e

T his w ord th o ugh n o w ge n erally e mpl oy ed o r c on sidered
as a c onj u n c t i on i s i n t ru t h reducib le t o the cl a ss o f w o rds
w hich w e are n o w exami n i n g a n d i s prec i s el y sy non y m o us
W he ther is easier
w i t h u te r t r a t r u m o f t he L at i n s

t o say P B i bl e
H er e w hether is t ru ly a pr ono u n a n d is the no mi n a t iv e
t o t he fo ll o w i n g verb
Whe ther i s gr e a t er t he g ol d o r t he t empl e P I bi d
I n t hese examp l e s w hether i s preci s e l y t he sam e w i t h

It s ee m s n o w t o b e givi n g pl a ce
w hich o f t he t w o
t o the w ord w hi ch as the co mp a ra tiv e w h e n t w o t hi n g s
compar ed i s o ft e n s uppl a n t ed by the s uperl a t iv e
are
w hic h i s the
T hu s w e o ft e n s a y w he n s p ea ki n g o f t w o

be st i n st ead o f w he t h e r i s be tt er
T he L a t i n s a l m o s t
U t e r d ig n i o r qui s
unifo rm ly ob s e rved the di st i n c t i on

d ig n i s s i m u s

Q uint

T he pr ono u n i s used i n d n i t ly a n d app lied t o per

s on s o r t hin g s
D r Joh n s on ha s obj ec t ed t o t he u se o f t hi s prono u n i n
it

ET Y M OLO G Y

66

h o s e exampl es w herei n the pr ono u n s o f t he rs t o r se c on d

pers on s are emp l oy ed ; an d D r L o w t h has ce n sured i t
w he n referri n g t o a p l ural n umber as i n t he fo ll o w i n g
examp l e :
T i s th s th t gi v e th g r t At i d e s p o ils P p
I c on cur h o w ever w i t h t he l ear n ed au tho r o f t he P hi
l o s o phy o f R he t o ric w ho regards t he obj ec t i on s o f t h e se
cri t ics as i n t hi s i n s t an ce o f no w e igh t F o r w he n a
ques t i on is ask ed the subj e c t o f w hich is t o t ally u n know n
t h e r e mus t be so me i n de n i t e w o rd emp l oy e d t o de no t e
T he w o rd w hich w e u s e
t he subjec t o f t he i n t err oga t i on

W ha t is i t P
fo r t his purp o se is i t as Who is i t P
T his phras eo l ogy i s e s tab l ished b y u n iversa l usage an d i s
t herefo re u n excep t i on ab l e T hi s b e i n g t he c a se t h e re ca n
be no impr o prie ty i n r e pea t i n g i n t he an s w er t he i n de ni t e
t erm empl oy ed i n the que s t i on We ma y t her e fo re rep ly

I t is I
It is he
I t is she
N o w if t he t erm be a dmi tt ed i n ques t i on s an d a n s w ers
w here t he subj ec t m a y b e ei t her ma l e o r fem a l e a n d o f t he
rs t sec on d o r t hird pe rson i t surel y is admis s ib l e i n
t h o se c a ses al s o w here t he subj ec t is i n t he p l ur a l n umber
N a y t o use i n t he a n s w er a n y o t her w o rd t o express t he sub
ec t t ha n t h a t b y w hich i t i s sig n ied i n the ques t i on w o u l d
j
b e i n all cases if no t pr o duc t i e o f a mbigui ty a t l eas t

l ess precise
Wh o i s i t P s ay s a mas t er t o hi s serv a n t
heari n g a v o ice i n t he hall
I t is t he ge n t l em e n w ho
r e pl ies t he serva n t Wh o s e e s no t t ha t
c a ll ed y es t e rda y
t hey a r e t he ge n t l eme n w o u l d be a n an s w er l es s a cc o rd
a n t w i t h t he t erm s o f the ques t i on an d w o u l d l ess cl ear ly

sh o w t ha t the ge n tl emen an d the subj ec t o f i n quiry

bo th bei n g deno t ed by on e t erm are on e a n d t he same ?
H ad t he mas t er k no w n t hat i t w a s t he v oice o f a ge n t l e
man an d t ha t th e re w ere m ore t ha n on e an d had he
acc ordi ngly s aid
Wh o are t hey P the an s w er w o u l d
have pr oper ly be e n T hey are the ge n t l eme n B u t w hen

Wh o i s i t P I apprehen d the only app o si t e

t he que st i on i s
an s w er is It i s t he ge n tl emen the ide n t i ty o f the t erm s
t

e e,

ea

E T Y M OLO G Y

67

bei n g repea t e d ) c l ear ly evi n ci n g a n id e n t i ty o f sub

e c t i n t he ques t i on a n d i n the a n s w er ; i n o t her w o rds
j
t ha t t he subj ec t o f t he i n quiry a n d t he subj ec t o f t he
an s w er are on e an d t he same
I c on c l ude w i t h observi n g tha t t h o ugh I have here
c on s idered t he w o rd tha t as a pr ono u n t here can be no
que st i on th a t i n i t s impo r t i t is pr e cise ly t he same w i t h
the dem on s t ra t iv e t ha t w hich has bee n al r e ad y exp l ai n ed
T he h o use t hat y o u bui l t is bur n ed is resol vab l e t hus
T he h o us e i s bur n ed y o u b ui l t t ha t
t
i
(

ET Y M OLO G Y

68

C HAP T ER

IV

O F T H E AD JE CTI VE

adj ec t ive has bee n d e n ed b y m o s t gramm a ri a n s to

be
t h a t par t o f s p e ech w hich s ig ni e s a n acciden t
qual i ty o r pro per ty o f a t hi n g
T his de n i t i on appe a rs
t o me t o be s o m e w ha t defec t ive an d i n c orr e c t : fo r the
adj ec tive d o e s no t expre ss t he qu a l i ty s impl y b u t t he
qu a l i ty o r pr oper ty a s c onj oi n ed w i t h a sub st a n c e ; o r
as grammarian s hav e t e rmed i t i n co n cr eto T hu s w hen

w e say
g oo d man g o o d n ess i s t he n am e o f the qu al i ty
an d g o o d i s the adj ec t ive e xpre ssi n g tha t qu a l i ty as c on
j oi n e d w i t h the subj e c t ma n A cc o rdin gly e very a dj e c
t iv e is re s ol vab l e i n t o t he n am e o f t he thi n g impl ied an d
a ny t erm o f refe re n ce o r c onj u n c t i on as of w i th T hus

a
pruden t man i s equival e n t t o a man w i th o r

j oi n prud e n c e o r t o a m an o f p ru d ehc e
An a d
e c ti v e
e
w
e
t
h
r
e
f
o
re
is
t
h
a
t
par
t
o
f
spe
e
ch
hich
de
no
t
s
j
a n y sub st a n ce o r a tt ribu t e no t b y i ts el f bu t a s c o nj oi n e d
w i t h a subj e c t o r per t a i n i n g t o i t s ch a rac t er
T hi s c on
j u n c t i on i s g e n e r a lly m a rk ed by ch a n gi n g t he t ermi n a t i on
o f t he s imp l e n ame o f t he s ubs t a n t iv e o r a tt ribu t e
as
ool
o lish w a r
w
S
o
me
t
imes
no
ch
a n ge i s mad e ;
o
a a en
f
f
a n d t he s impl e n am e o f t he s ubs t a n ce o r a ttribu t e i s
prexed t o t he n ame o f t he s ubj ec t as s ea f o w l r a ce
ho rs e co r n el d
I n w ri t i n g t h e se a n d s imi l ar expr e s
si on s t he c onj u n c t i on i s s ome t imes mar ked by a hy ph e n
as s ea f o w l r i v errs h w in e v es s el
A s every a ppell a t ive deno t e s the w h ol e o f a ge n u s o r
spe cies t he i n t e n t i on a n d effec t o f the a dj ec t ive is b y
l imi ti n g t he gen eric mea n i n g o f the subst a n t ive t o specify
AN

E T Y M OLO G Y

qual i ty o r pr o per ty
as per t a i n i n g o r i n co ncr eto
N o w i t is t o b e o bserved t h a t subs t a n ces d o no t a d
mi t degrees o f mo r e o r l es s i n r e gard t o their esse n

t ial charac t e r
A w oo den t ab le c a nno t be m o re o r l e s s
A n ir on bar canno t be m o re o r l e ss such I n
w oo de n
t he s e ca s e s t he a dj ec t iv e as I have a l read y remark ed by
expre ssi n g t he ma tt er l imi ts t he fo rm t o o n e species o f
sub st an ce T he same obs e r a ti on is a pp l icabl e t o t he c on
verse circums t an c e i n w hich the form s t ric t ly l imi t s t he
ma tte r a s t ri a n gu l a r bo a rd
H er e i t i s obvi o us t ha t
t he sub st an ce l imi t e d t o o n e fo rm b y t he t erm tr ia ng u l a r
,

obj c t w hich i t xp r ss s N w I c o c r w ith M T ooke i thi k

dj c t i v i s b y m s
c ss ry p rt of sp ch I
i g th t th
t
i
l
l
r
i
t
h
l
s
o
o
i
i
o
h
t
c
r
t
i
s
s
o
r
d
s
i
w
h
i
m
w
g
p
o s o r m s B t thi s l tt r d o c t ri s m s d i r c tly r p g t
to th c o c rr t th o ri es of cri t ic s d gr m m ri s i t i ec ss ry to
x p l i i w h t s s th o p i i o of M Took r q ir s to b d rs t od ;
ti g th r d r w i th thi s x p l t i o I sh ll b ri y s t t
d i pr
t h o bj c t o s w hich w ill
t r lly o ff r th m s l v s g i s t th j s t ss
d i lk i s
of thi s th o ry
ch of th m s y s M
d b
G ld
Took th m of thi g d d ot s s b s t c I f th I y
b
s il k s t ri g ; h r
th s b s t
t i v s dj ti e
t b
g ld i g

i
t
m s of t hi gs
d d ot i g s b s t c s
It m y b
p
y t
t d d h o w v r th t t h s
t s bst
t i v s b t dj c t i v s d
th s m
i
l
H
r
o
c
d
s
I
f
g
i
I
k
b
l
d
y
g
p
d
l
il k
i g
b
t b
t i g
d o g ld d b
d ilk
g
d c s to d ot s b s t c s b c s
c s to b th m s of thi g
i s t d of c o pli g th m w i th i g t b
d t i g by
hy ph t h s
I c o pl th m to th s m w o r d s b y dd i g th t r mi t i o 7
I t m y b sw r d th y d o t c s to i mp ly th s b s t c s b t th y
l o g r m s of th o s s b st c s H d i mp li s h rd ss b t i t
i s t th m of th t q li t y A th i i i mp li s A th b t i t i s
m of th ci ty
i
m
A
o
r
t
h
l
t th
b
t
h
t
b
y
g g
c ll d i ts m H o b s rv s I f i t w r tr t h t dj c ti v s w re
m s of thi gs th r c o l d b
ttri b t i o b y dj c t i v s ; fo r
t th

m
c
ot
tt
ri
b
t
ot
hi
T
hi
s
c
o
cl
s
i
o
d
i
s
t
d
b
A
g
y
y
p
dj c t i v m y i mp ly s b s t c q l ity o r p r o p r ty th o gh i t i s t
m of i t
w x
th
i mpli s
w
C
b t it i h
l tt r o ly w hich i s s t ric tly th m of th s b s t c P t i i g t
m d qf w
t s
ly m s of th thi g i ts l f E v y tt i
w
b ti
m s t i mp ly
w h th r v r b o r dj c t iv
ttri b t ; b t i t i t
the

ee

un

e a

na

an

e na

r n

os

a,

en

ea e

a re n o

e na

no

e na

ar ,

v e,

ea e

an

e,

ua

en ,

ar

a re n o
,

u re

cer a ,

an e

an a

c an

no

s t

er a n n

u e

ax

ne

en s

n en

e na ,

na

e,

an e

e a u e,

na

an

en

are

sa

ue,

e no a

a n

an

e on

an

e e

e na

an

ar

ec

er

u e

e co n

ra ss

e n ens s

s r n

an

sa

an

en

u e, a n

r.

en ,

an

s r n

er eus ,

ee

ne

ea e

e e

u e n

an n

ou

an

an e

a e

an

an

ua

e na

no

s, a n

no

en

na

en

a a n

n an

ea

e un

n,

e e are

r n

en

na

e na

no

e e

e,

e an

en

an

r a z en ,

r az en

e na

ea

s n

an

e e a re n o

e n,

an

a
,

e ,

as

en r n

r ass

an

ra ss

na

are

an ,

an a

ee

ea

ee

r.

en e , a

a n

ne

na u a

e,

a ,

n,

r.

ne e

an

e an

en e

e sen

n u

no

u , as

en

a n

s no

ETYM OLOG Y

71

ca nno t b e m ore o r l ess t rian gu lar B u t thi s i s no t the c a se

w i th qual i t i e s o r pr o per t ie s w hic h may exis t i n di ff ere n t
s ubs ta n ces i n di ffe ren t d e grees A n d a s i t is s o me times
n e cessary t o express t he exis t e n ce o f a qual i ty as great er
or l ess i n on e s ubs tan ce t han a no t her hen ce ari ses t he
u til i ty o f so me fo rm o f expres s i on t o de no t e these rel at ive
degrees o f i t s e xi st e n ce It is i n this case on ly that the
t ermi n a t i on of the adj ec t ive admi t s variat i on a n d the n i t
is said t o be i n a s ta t e o f c o mpari s on
I n al l qu al i t i e s suscep tib l e o f i n t e n si on o r remi s si on t he
n umber o f degrees fr o m t he l o w e st t o the highes t may he
.

h w x s yo
it
th r fo r th m of th t tt ri b t J
g x
w
b
t
t
i
t
t
h
r
ss
s
tt
r
b
t
s
h
o
l
d
c
ll
of
i
m
t
h
t
;
j
p
tri b t
I t m y be as k d w h t i th d i ff r
b tw c p t homi i
m
d c p t hm
s h d
h m h e d ? I f h mi i
m

s b d m d o w hy sh o l d t h m m h m
m
b
d m d o l s o ? I t m y b sw r d th t h mi i d o i f c t
t o ly th i d i v i d
r
fo
r
o

c
of
dj
c
t
i
v
x
p
r
ss
i
l
h
m
t
f
g
p
c t i o l s o ; d th t M W lli s ass i g s to th E gli sh g i
b t co j
t i v th m of dj c t iv B s id es d o s t M T o k hi m l f m i
'
h
t
t i th t c s g d r d mb r
r
t
of
o
nd
2
p
d o s i t t h c foll ow t h t th r l o s
t h mi i b t h m
d i v s t d of
? fo r s ch c r t i ly i th ir fo r m w h
t m
b t m
th ose circ m s t s w hich cc o rd i g to M T ook m k
r
t
of
p
th m I f th d oc t ri th r fo r of th l r d th o r b c o rr c t d i f
mb r a
th r
d
l o
x cl d g d r c s
y pa rt of i t
hm
w i th c o s i s t
m m
cy b
h m
ith r homi i
c ll d o s
Too k s rg me t be pp li d to th v rb th p p m
B t l t M
w hich h j s tl y c o s i d rs
s ti l part of s p ee ch
I f v rb s w r
tt rib ti o b y v rbs f w
m s of th i gs t h r c o l d b
t th
c ot ttrib t othi g A w the to c ll p it i it k g it m s ?
I f s o w h v othi g b t m es ; d to thi s c o cl i o M T oo k
m s
f irly b ri gs th d i s c ss i o fo r h s ys th t l l w o rd s
H v i g th s s b m i tt d to th r d r th d oc tri of th is s g c io s
cri tic w i th th o bj c ti o s w hich t r lly p r s t th ms l v s I p ro ce d
to ob rv th t th c o tr o v rs y p p rs to m to b i gr t d gr e
I t i s gr d b oth s i d s th t th dj c tiv x
m r v r b l d i sp t
b
t
w
f
m
r
ss
s
s
b
s
t
c
l
i
t
y
o
r
p
r
o
p
r
t
y
hil
i
t
i
s
r
d
b
y
;
q
p
s o m critic s i t i d i d b y oth rs th t i t i th m of th thi g s i g
e e
e

e na

u e

an a

u e

"

ea

an

a n

no

ea

e a

nu

ea

a e,

nu

un

o,

no

an

an

"

a n

en

se

n s
,

e,

ua

en

au

a n , can ,

es ,

ea n e

an

a n s no r

an ,

n s,

are n o

e,

no

un

a n

no

a re

n s

no

n s,

"

a nu

r.

u e

an e,

ua

en e

sa

en

ea

ee

on

u ,

e na

or

na

n a

r.

a a

e,

us

ne

e en

e e

a re n a

v v

7 0

na u a

ea

e,

an

e no a

na

re

e e

as an e s en

e n

e, e

en

se

a nu

u e n

e e

e e

e an

e na

e e

r.

un

ann

e na

ee n

no

n e,

un

un

n s n or

no

an

an

a n ce

a nu

an

u ve n es c

e e n ce

en e

an s,

en

a e,

no

u n,

an

an a

e na

ne

uve nesc

a n

n un

no

a u

ee

un a

a n

u e

an

ee

an

ea

e a

e e

ET Y M OLO G Y

72

acc o u n t ed i n n i t e H a rd n e ss fo r e xamp l e gravi ty m ag

n i t u d e ge n iu s w i s d o m fo ll y a r e s ever a ll y diver s i e d b y a n
i n n i t u d e o f grad a t i on s w hich i t w o u l d e l ud e the cap a ci ty
o f a n y l an guage t o di s crimi n at e T o de no t e these d egree s
is t her e fore u tt er l y imprac t icab l e as i t i s w h o lly u n n e ce s
s ary
I n E n gli s h as i n m o s t o ther l a n gu a ge s w e emp l oy t w o
vari a t i on s : the on e t o de no t e s impl e exc e ss o r a gr e a t er
d egree o f the qu a l i ty t h a n t h a t w hich i s e xpre ss e d by the
adj ec t i e i ts el f ; a n d t he o th e r t o d e no t e t he grea t es t ex
.

t p hys ic i c o s i d rs w o rd s m r ly s i g s of t h o gh t
d
w hil
t h g r mm ri
r g r d s chi y th ir ch g s b y i i
h c ri s s th t p r pl x i t y i w hich th cl ss i c ti o of w o r d s h b
d s t ill c o t i
s to b i v ol v d N w i t i s v i d t th t v ry w o rd
m s t b th s i g of s o m s s t i o
i d o r p rc p t i o I t m t x
l
w
l
m
m
d
i
r
ss
s
o
s
b
s
t
c
o
r
s
o
tt
ri
b
t
t
hi
s
s
s
o
r
d
s
m
y
p
m s
m of th thi g s i m p ly
b r g rd d
S o m ti m s w h v th
w i t h th
m
m
w
o
t
i
s
h
v
cc
ss
ry
i
d
c
o
b
i
d
m
S
p

s i mp l s i g
ss i o
c o j cti o
c tio
d s o fo rth
po
l
l
l
w
T
hi
s
cc
ss
ry
circ
m
s
t
c
h
v
p
p
y p
y
if
r so to b li v w o ri gi lly d ot d b y d i s t i c t w o rd s i g i c t
of th i d i t d d d th t thi s w o r d w i th p r o gr ss of l a g
bb r v i t d d i c o rp o r t d w i th th p ri m ry t r m i th fo rm of w h t
w
w t rm
f x o r p r x
Th s
d
l
d
ot
i
i
l
i
t
f g
g
th s m p ri m ry i d
i v o l v i g th m of th t q li ty o r of th t
s t i o w hich w t rm ld F ig i s th m of th thi g s i mp ly ;
i
h
i
id
x
r
ss
s
t
li
t
y
o
r
c
o
j
c
t
i
o
o
s
i
d
r
t
C
i
g
p
q
f
g
m s i t m y b r g rd d
th r fo r l l w o rd s
c om p l x m
x p r si g tw d i s ti c t i d s
th t of th q li ty d th t of c o j c t i o
F ig t ( th s bj c t b i g
d rs too d ) m y b r g r d d
m s t il l
m o r c o m p l x ; i v o l v i g rs t th
m of th q li t y ; s c o d ly th
m of c o j
c t i o third ly th s i g of f r m t i o
i th r x p r ss d
m
m
by
r
o
ri
t
o
r
c
o
s
t
r
c
t
i
v
ly
i
q i v l t to t h
pp p
p li d
A cc o r d i g th
t hr w o rd s t mf ig
to thi s m t phy s ic l v i w
of th s bj c t w h v rst m imp l th si m p l m ; s c o d ly
m
d
h
l
t
m
h
m
o
r
of
t
t
hi
i
t
h
t
h
t
of
t
i
m
w
p
j
g
d
c o j c ti o third ly m i m ti m th m of th thi g f rm d
to b c o j o i d
T h s i mp l q s t i o
w i s w h th r
l l w o rd s
th v rb
t v
x c p t d sh o l d b c ll d o s ; o r w h th r w sh ll ss i g th m s ch
m y i d ic t th l d i g circ ms t c s b y w hich th y
pp ll t i o s
d is ti g i h d T h l tt r p p r to m to b the o ly mo d e w h ich
The m e

n i e d .

en

e a

an

e a

as

n , as

s se

n,

an

een ,

n.

us

en e a

e na

ne

n,

ea

n un

as

en

ex o n : a n

an

u e

ea,

n,

e a

en a

as n a

an

e,

an

er so n

as

e e

an

nue

an

an

n,

as

er s o n a

ea

er s o na

ea

e n

n un

an

ee

en

ec

n un

es

cu

ne

u s

e na

or e.

en

ex ,

en a

e na

vu

na

n , as e

e na

e,

n.

ue

as

no

un

a e

ea

ea s

en

an e

no

a en

e na

e a

as a n a
e

s en

n un

ua

en

e x,

en s

no

an

as a

en

e , a

e a

e,

e,

no

va

na

n
o
,

ua

a e

e a

u ag e ,

n un

un

ea

an

ua

e na

n co ncr e o ,

na

ua

as

na

us

us ,

'

e na

co

e, a

es

are

e a,

e e

an e ,

as,

a e

us e

no

n,

en

an a

an

an

na

as

e,

n en

a e

e no
e

er son

ET Y M OLO G Y
ce ss

'3
7

Thus if I c o mp a r e w oo d w i t h s t on e a s po s ses si n g
w oo d i s h ar d
st on e i s
t he qu a l i ty o f h a rd n es s I s a y

harde r
I f I c o mpar e t he s e w i t h ir on I sa y w oo d is
h a rd
st on e hard e r
ir on t he h a rdes t
Th u s i n
t ru t h there a r e on ly t w o d e gre e s o f c o mparis on v i z t he
c o mpara t iv e an d t he s uperl a t i e t he p o s i t iv e expressi n g
the qu a l i ty simp l y a n d a b s ol u t e l y
T he c o mparat ive is formed b y a ddi n g er t o the p o s i t iv e
if i t e n d w i t h a c on s on an t ; o r the l e tt e r r if i t e n d w i th a
v o w el ; a s s of t s of ter s af e s af er
,

ri
ch r of
s cc s f lly d o p t C
t
th t
s bj t i thi s li gh t I m i cli d to y w i th M H rri s
th t th dj c t i v
i mp lyi g o m s b s t c o r ttrib t
t p
m
b t i
i
i
o
r
i
s
or
rly lli d to th v r b th
t
t
i
j
p
g
to th o ; d th t th o gh th v rb d th dj c ti v m y i c o m m o
w i th th
o d ot th thi g th y c ot s tric tly b c ll d i ts m
T o y th t f l i h d f lly
ch m s of th m q li ty w o l d
I pp r h d l d to othi g b t p r pl x i ty d ro r
I t i s tr i f w
to c o th t rm o to th s i mp l m of the
s bj c t w h ll x cl d th g i ti v s i g l r fro m l l ri gh t to thi s p
h
m
h
ll
t
i
o
fo
r
i
t
d
ot
t
t
s
bj
c
t
s
i
ly
b
t
t
s
bj
c
t
i
p
p

t
h
i
t
i
f
l
x
i
o
b
i
i
v
l
t
to
b
l
o
to
T
hi
s
i
d
d
i
e
g
j
g q
g
d
l
w y b
m
i s i c o s is t cy w hich
b y d o p ti g
i
th o p i i o
of W lli s w h ss i g s
c s s to E gli h o s d
s i d rs m
ki g
8 m to b
dj c ti v s A d w r w to d o p t M
d
Took s d i ti o of
dj c t i v
I
t
i
s
t
h
m
t
h
i
y
f
g

w hich i s d ir c t d to b j o i
d to oth r m of thi g i t W ll fo ll o w
'
th t ki g m
dj c t i v s I sh ort i f th q s ti o b c o d to
th E gli s h l
m s t i o r d r to r m o v
l l i c o s i s t cy
w
g g
d w i th W lli s
i th r d y th p p ll ti o of
to th dj c ti v
c ll th g i t i v c
dj c t i v ; o r w m st rs t c ll m
ki g
&
dj c t i v s ; s c o d ly w m s t t r m h ppy t g t m c y
m s;
d t hir d ly w m s t
o
th o gh th y
i g th
S
t
p p ll t i o of o to th v r b i ts l f
F r o m thi s v i w of t h s bj c t th r d r w ill p rc i v t h t th w h o l
c o tro v rsy d p d s th m i g w hich w
x to th t rm
I f b y thi s t rm w d ot s i m ply th thi g i ts l f w i th o t y cc s ry
circ ms t c t h
othi g
c ll d o b t th m i i ts
b
i mp l fo rm I f to th t r m o w s i g m o r x t s i v ig i
c ti o
i m plyi g t o ly th thi g i ts l f s i mply d b o l t ly b t
d s o fo rt h
l o y cc ss ry i d
c o j c t i o c ti o p s i o
th i t fo ll o w s t h t l l w or d s m y be term d m s
r

g a mma
s i d e ri n g t he

the

e a

a n , as

ec

e n

sa

un ,

oo

en

ea

u nc

an

en

ua

e,

ee

un

an

co n

r.

e o

na

ne

en

e , an

co n

ue

u n es s

e.

n ou n

na

"

ua

na

e e

sa

an

e na

o ve

a e

an

an

e re

e,

er se ,

no

ne

an

o ur a

a n s, a re a

s,

n no

s,

u a

a en

er

un

es a

an

e n

ca n

a n s,

en

na

en

es , n o

en

e a

u e no
,

an n

ne

an

on

e nea

sa

an

on

e s u

ne

a re e a

e are

e s

ue ,

an

en

er a n n

an

un

e n

as

o n,

a r , ca n

an

e, a s

n c o n u nc

ea

te

en

u n s,

as e

en

an

e,

a s

en

an

en

en

no

ea

un

as,

n un

a s

n,

un

e e

an

n,

na

as

n,

an

n o u n.

na

en

an

n a

a n

a nn e

as s

s,

er e nar

an ,

e an n

c an

e x r av a

an

ea ,

a n s,

n, as

on

na

a re n o

un

an

e sa

e s

u e

74

T Y M O L OGY

The superl ative is fo rmed by ad d i ng es t o r s t as

s o t es t
sa e
f
f
S o me a dj ectives are c o mpared irregu l arl y as
,

ft

o
s
,

P 03

S up e r

G oo d
Ba d

E vi l

or

L ittl e
M uch
M a ny
N ear
L ate

B etter

B est

W o rse
L ess
M o re
M o re
N earer
L ater

Wo rst
L east
M o st
M o st
N earest o r n ext
L atest o r l ast
.

The c o mparative degree is freque n tl y expressed by the

w o rd mor e a n d the superl ative by mo s t as
,

P 03

S up er

M o re hard

H ard

M o st hard

M ono syll abic adj ectives are ge n erall y c o mpared by a n

n exi n g r o r er s t o r est ; adj ectives o f t w o o r m o re sy l la
b l es by mo r e an d mo s t as s t r o ng s tr o ng er s tr o ng es t ; cer
,

as

mo s t

ce r t a i n ,

mo r e

ta in ,

ce r t a i n

D issyl l abic adj ectives i n y fo rm a n excepti on t o this ru l e

hap py , happ i er , happ i es t

A djectives o f t w o sy llabl es

are also excepted as

,

a bl e, a

e n di n g i n

bl e r ,

bl es t

after a m ute

Ze,

S x f r m d th e i r mp ti by
d
t
t
h
e
i
r
u
p
r
l
t
i
ve
b
y
t
i
t
N
w
t
t
t
t
y
y
d
t
T hu i S x
me
be
f ; h e ce t h e E gl i h w rd
ikt w i
me
m
th
r igh t e u bef
ju t bef b
Th e
mi
d t h e H ebre w prep i t i
u f x i e qui v l e t t th e L t i p m
ig i fy i g l bef
th e ly d i ffere ce be i g thi th t wh t i u f x
t th e S x
dj c t i ve i i H bre w pr x t th c e qu t u bj c t f
d th t i
c mp ri
L t i th e pr p i t i f ll wi g th p i t i ve
t d l e
M B w r th i hi
E l m t f A gl S x G r mm r w rk
d i p l y i g u d p hi l l gi c l pr i c i p l h re m rk ed th t th e G thi c
u perl t i ve i i t be r
bv i u re e mb l c t m f th G r ek
u p rl t i ve
p B
T he

an s

or e

ser e

an s

s an

os

e rs

an.

ore

os

s,

on

en

ar

o n,

"

on

ons

os

s,

or

us ,

an

os

r e,

on

er e a n

er o r er e , a r o r ( er e, e r , or ,

es ,

a s e,

o r e,

so n , a n

ve

ara

as

or e

on a

s a on

a so

co

an

r,

ar,

o ns

n,

s a s

os

so

s, as ,

o o

sa

a s

en s o

an

xa

AAt a r os

es ,

'
ra a ag .

o-

on

as

an e

o so

"

e o

T YMOLOGY

75

E uph on y

seems here t o b e gen eral ly con sul ted a n d the

ear may be all o wed perhaps t o fur n ish the be st rule
S o me fo rm their superl ative by addi n g mo s t t o the co m
l
o w e r l o w e rmo s t
a ra ti v e as n ether n e the r mo s t
u n der
p
o thers by addi n g mo s t either t o the po sitive o r
u n d er mo s t

c o mpa rative as hi n d hi nd mos t o r hi n de r mo s t

u
u mo s t
p p
*
w
or u
F
e have i n mo s t a n d i rzn e r mos t
e
r
o
t
r
o
m
i
n
s
m
pp
B esides this de n ite a n d direct ki n d o f c o mpari s o n
there is ano ther which may be termed i n de n ite o r i n di rect
e xpressed by the i n te n sive w o rds t o o v er
exceed i n g l
c
&
y
y
as to o g o o d v ery ha rd exceed i ng ly g r ea t
When the w o rd v ery o r a n y o ther o f the same impo rt
i s put befo re the po sitive it is ca l led by so me writers the
superl ative o f emi n en ce to disti n g uish i t fro m the o ther
superlative which has bee n al read y me n ti on ed an d i s
cal led the superl ative o f c o mpari son Thu s v ery ha r d i s
termed the superl ative o f emi n e n ce ; mo s t ha r d o r ha r d es t
the superl ative o f c o mparis on
I have said that the co mparative deno tes simpl e excess
a n d the superl ative the greatest I t is n o t h o wever to be
hen ce i n ferred that the c o mparative may n o t be empl oy ed
i n expressi n g the same pre emi n e n ce o r i n feri o rity with the
su perlative I f I say O f all ac q uireme n ts virtue i s the
m o st val uabl e I m ay also con v ey the same s en time n t
by sayi n g Virtue i s m o re valuable than every o ther ac

i
ff
u i r e me n t
I
f
it
be
asked
what
the
n
is
the
d
ere
n
ce
q
bet w ee n the c o mparative a n d superl ati v e ? I a n swer
l s t That the superlative expresses the absol u te l y highest
o r l o west degree o f the qu al ity
as whe n we sa y O Go d
m o st high o r the grea test o r least degree i n relati on
merely to the subj ects o f c o mparis on thus expressi n g a
superi o rity o f excess abo ve the c o mparative as when I say
I n estimati n g the w o rth o f these h uman attai n me n ts
lear n i n g pruden ce a n d virtue it can n o t be den ied that
lear n i n g is val uabl e that pru d e n ce is m o re valuable but
that virtue is the m o st valuabl e
The c o mparative ex
dverb d pr p i t i
w u d
Up
d i
,

an

n a re n o

se

as a

s an

os

o ns

76

T Y MOLOG Y

presses merel y simpl e ex cess but n ever the highest

l o west deg ree o f the qual ity This di sti n cti o n is perba
the m o st precise an d the m o st w o rthy o f atten ti on
I observe h o we v er that the se n time n t
l
e may be expressed b y the c o mparative
p
o r by itself ; thu s L earn i n g i s v a luabl e

valuable a n d virtue m o re val uable still the

implyi n g a c on ti n ued gra d ati on Were this
pre sse d the sen te n ce w o ul d imply that pruden ce
are each m o re valuable than learn i n g but w o ul d
d
n ce
o
f
virtue
t
o
pru
e
T
h
e same se n time n t
s u er i o r l t
p
y
may likewise be expressed by c o mbi n i n g the t w o rst an d
marki n g simply the excess o f the third th us
virtue is

better tha n b o th
2 d l y Whe n we express the superi o rit y o r i n feri o rity
or
o n e o f tw o thi n gs
u se the c o mparative Thu s speaki n g o f C aesar a n d C at o
I say C at o was the m o re virtu o us C aesar the m o re el o

que n t o r o f tw o bro thers we s a y J o h n was the el d er

I n such cases the superlative is s o metimes empl o y ed as

the best o f the t w o i n stead o f the bet ter o f the t w o

The fo rmer phrase ol o gy h o wever is m o re c on s on a n t to
est a blished usage a n d is i n every case t o be preferred

Whether is it easier t o say take up thy bed a n d walk

o r t o say thy si n s are fo rg ive n thee E that is which o f
the tw o is easier no t easiest the simpl e excess o f o n e
thi n g ab o ve an o ther bei n g here de no ted
3 d l y Whe n w e use the superlative we always c o mpare
o ne
thi n g o r a n aggregate n umber o f thi n g s with the
class to which they bel o n g o r t o which we refer them ;
whereas whe n we use the c o mparative except i n the case
j ust men ti o n ed the thi n gs c o mpared either bel o n g o r are
c on ceived as bel o n gi n g t o di fferen t classes bei n g placed i n
o pp o siti on t o each o th er Th us i n c o mpari n g S o crates
w ho was a n A the n ia n w ith the o ther A then ia n s we s a
y

S o crates was the wisest o f t he A the n ian s that is o f

o ut o f o r o f the class o f A the n ia n s

H e n ce i n
,

78

T YMOLOGY

tive is al w ays foll o wed by of an d the c o mparati v e

every ca se except the o n e n o w me n ti on ed fol l o wed

the eldest o f the t w o

the l a t
tha n s o m e writers s a y

w er e the m o st warlike
f o rmabl e to the ge n er al ly d
a r a ti v e a n d superl ative i s repugn a n t t o the c ha r ac ter i
p
p o wer o f th o se degrees by which o n e deno tes simpl e
cess whi l e the o ther hei ghten s o r l essen s the qual ity t o
hi g hest o r l o west degree
F r o m the preced i n g remarks wi ll appe a r the
Jac ob l o ved J o seph m o re tha n all his
o f sayi n g
J o seph bei n g on e o f hi s chi l dren the se n ti
expressed i n v ol ves a n absurdit y it sh o u l d be m o re

I n the be gi n n i n g o f the 1 6t h
all his o ther chi l dre n
ce n tury S pai n i s sai d t o have po ssesse d a th o usan d
mercha n t ships a n umber pr o bably far su peri o r t o that
R
i n E ur o pe i n that age
o f a n y n ati on
( oberts on s
I t sh o ul d be
that o f a n y o ther n ati on i n
A merica )

E ur o pe : fo r S p a i n bei n g o n e o f the E ur o pe an n ati on s

The
s he c o uld n o t po ssess a n umber superi o r to her o w n
c o mparative required the terms t o be c on trasted by the
w o rd o ther
Ad m
i c b r
The c m l i e t f m
Th e f i re t f h d ught r E M l t
Hi

the an tecede n t subj ect o f c o mparis on is here

A dam
impro perl y referred t o the aggregate o f
me n si n ce
b o rn
T o this agg rega te he canno t be s ai d t o bel on g
no t havi n g bee n b o rn no r be i n g reducibl e t o the cl ass
E v e al s o is referre d to a spe cies
his o w n s on s
of
I n n either o f these c o mpari
o f which s he wa s no part
s on s can the sec on d term i n clude the rst ; y et the pre
po siti on refers them t o o n e class S uch phraseol ogies
a s these
th o ug h n o t u n grammatical i n v ol ve an absurdity
an d sh o ul d therefo re be dismissed
m re th
Thi p h r l gy i H ebr i ti c
l l hi c hi l dr
i th e
l it r l tr l ti
f th
i gi l 1533 53 b pr
m i b u fi l i i
m gi
m i b u l ii ui
,

s son s .

o n

en s n e

er

e s

ve

on

aseo o

e a

ans a

s o

on

a s

s s

or

na ,

an a

ae

en

"

s,

s en,

T YMOL OGY

79

A dj ectives

wh o se sign icati on d oes no t admit i n te nsi on

A m on g these are
o r remissi on ca nno t be co mpared
l s t A l l w o rds expres sive o f gure as
to be reck on ed
r en d i cu l a r
r i a ng u l a r
e
s ua r e
t
t
r
g
s
a
i
h
ci r cu l a r
t
f
r
o
;
p
p
q
it i s obvi o us that if a bo dy o r gure be trian gul ar o r
square o r circul ar it canno t be m o re o r l ess so I t is
either circul ar o r no t circul ar ; trian gu l ar o r no t tria n
gular ; straight o r no t straight I f the a ffi rmative be
the case gradati on f ro m m o re o r l ess o r c on verse l y is
imp o ssibl e ; if the n egative be true the n the attributes
de no te d by these adj ectives d o no t bel on g t o it ; a n d
therefo re the epithets ci r cu l a r tr i a ng u la r s tr a ig ht &c
are i n app l icable H en ce such ex pressi on s a s these place
the staff m o re erect
make the el d m o re tri an gu l ar are

highly impr o per We sh oul d sa y se t the staff erect

make the el d trian gu l ar
2 d l y Al l adj ectives wh o se sig n icati on i n the i r simp l e
fo rm impl ies the highest o r l o west po ssibl e degree admit
no t co mpariso n a s chief s up r eme u n i v e rs a l p erf ect ex
t r eme &c
H ume S peaki n g o f en thusiasm says ( E ssays
vol
i p
it begets the m o st extreme res oluti o n s
E x tr e me imp l ies the farthest o r the great e st po ssibl e
a n d ca nno t ad mit i n ten si on
I am aware that u sage may be pl e a ded i n fav o ur o f
mo r e an d mo s t u n iv er s a l mo r e an d mos t p erf ect
This
usage h o wever i s no t such as w ill san cti on the fo rmer
o f these phraseo l ogies ; fo r g oo d writers ge n eral ly av o id
it B esides there i s n o n ecessity fo r re s o rti n g t o this
m ode o f expressi on as we have an attributive appro priate
t o the idea i n ten ded : thus i n stead o f sayi n g L iterature

i s m o re u ni versal in E n gl an d than A meri c a we sh o uld

say
L iterature is m o re ge n eral
I t i s al m o st u n n e ce s
sary t o o bserv e that literature i n E n gl an d i s either u n i
versal o r it is no t : if the fo rmer be true it canno t be
m o re tha n u n iversal ; if the latter the term i s i n a p pl i
cabl e The w o rd g ener a l d o es no t c o mprise the wh ole ;
it admits i n te n si on a n d remissi on : the adj ective u n iv er s a l
.

'

80

T Y MOLOGY

impl ies t o tal ity A gen eral rule admits excepti on s ;

u n ivers al ru l e embraces every particular

The expressi o n mo r e p erf ect is i n strictn ess

spe ech equall y excepti on able ; u sage h o wever has giv
it a san cti o n w hich we dare har d l y c o n tr o vert I t
been pr o p o sed i n deed t o av o id this a n d similar
o
r
i
r ie t i e s by givi n g the phrase o l ogy a n egative
p
fo rm Thus i n stead o f say i n g A time keeper is
perfect machi n e than a watch it has bee n pr op
l
time
keeper
is
a
ess
imperfect
m
a chi n e
sa
A
y

watch
This phra s e o l o gy i s l o gically c o rrect perfecti on
bei n g predicabl e o f n either the o n e thi n g n o r the o ther ;
it might l ikewise i n man y cases be ad opted with pr o
of
a n g uag e
i
I
n
the
l
passi
on
h
o
w
ever
a
n
d
n
r ie t
y
p
the c ol o uri n gs o f i mag i n ati o n such expressi o n s w o ul d
be exan imate a n d i n t ol erable A l o ver
rapture o n the beauty a n d perfecti on o f his m istress
w o ul d hardl y call her the l ea s t i mp e rfec t of her s ex
I n all lan guages i n d eed examples are t o be fo u n d
admits
o f adj ectives bei n g c o mpare d wh o se sign icati o n
n either i n ten si o n n o r remissi on I t wo u l d be easy t o
assign several reas on s f or this did the discu ssi on bel on g
t
S u ffice it t o s a y
t o the pr ovi n ce o f the g r a m ma ri an
that such phrase ol ogies sh o uld n ever be admitted where
the l an guage wi l l furn ish c o rrect a n d equally ap po site
expressi on s
I observe al s o that as th o se adj ectives wh o se s ig n i
cati on can n o t be heighte n e d o r lesse n ed admit n o t c o mpa
ris on s o fo r the s a me reas on they exclude all i n ten sive
w o rds The expressi on s s o u n iv ers a l s o ex tr eme a n d
such li ke are therefo re impr o per The fo rmer is i nd eed
c o mm on en o u gh ; but it is easy t o see as it has bee n
al ready remarked that whatever i s u n iversal ca n n o t be
i n creased o r dimi n ished ; a n d that what is l ess than u n i
S ee
v l u b l l i tt l e v l u m e
E gl i h G r mm r b y M G t

Th e I t i t ute f L t i G r mm r b y th e me u th r w e w u l d
c mm d t th e tte ti f v ry c l i c l t u d t
.

ae

on

on o

e e

s o

ns

en

sa

as s

en

o ,

ran

re

T YMOLOGY

81

versal ca nno t be characteri z ed by that epithet The

phrase s o u n i v ers a l impl ies a gradati on i n u n iversality
s o met hi n g is l ess s o tha n a no ther ; which i s
a n d that
eviden tl y imp o ssible
I t has bee n questi on ed whether p r i o r s up e r i o r u lte
e x te r i o r
an d several o thers which have the fo r m
r io r
sh o u l d be deemed c o mparatives
o f the L ati n c o mparative
I am i n cl i n ed t o thi n k they o ught no t f o r these reason s :
l s t They ha v e no t the fo rm o f the E n gl ish c o mparative ;
2 d ly They are n ever fol l o wed by tha n which u n ifo rmly
acc o mpan ies the E n glish c o mparative whe n the subj ec ts
are o ppo sed t o each o ther o r referre d t o di fferen t cl asses
3 dl y I t is no t t o be c on ceive d that ever y a dj ective which
impl ies c o mpari s on i s therefo re a c o mparative o r super
l ative o therwise p r ef e ra bl e ( better tha n ) p r evi o u s ( pri o r
t o ) might be deemed c o mparatives ; 4 th1y M an y o f these
have trul y a po sitive mean i n g n o t implyi n g a n excess o f
the qual ity but merel y the qual ity as o pp o sed t o its co n
The i n ter i o r mean s simpl y the i ns ide a s o ppo sed
t r a ry
t o the ex ter i o r o r o u ts i de ; the a n ter i o r
the o n e bef o re

o pp o sed t o p o ster i o r
the o n e behi n d
I dismiss this articl e w ith observi n g that the sigu i
ca ti o n o f the p o sitive is s o metimes lesse n ed by the ter
mi n ati on i sh ; as w hi te w hi t i s h; bla ck bla cki sh J oh n
son remarks that the adj ecti v e i n this fo rm may be c on
s i d e r e d as i n a state o f c o mpari son ; it may pr o per l y be
called a dimi n utive
.

82

T Y MOLOG Y

C HA P T E R V

O F T HE VER B

has bee n de n ed t o be that part o f Spee ch

which sign ies t o be t o d o o r t o su ffer o r m o re co r
n
that
part
o
f
speech
which
predicates
s
o
me
acti
o
r ec tl
y

passi on o r state o f its subj ect as

I strike
I am

w o u n ded
I stan d
Its esse n ce c on sists i n affi rmati on
a n d by this pro perty it is disti n guished fr o m every o ther
part o f speech The adj ective expresses a n accide n t
qual ity o r pr o perty o f a thi n g i n co ncr eto that is w hen
j oi n ed t o the n ame o f a substa n ce it expresses that s u b
i n o ther w o rds
s ta n ce a s acc o mpan ied by s o me attribute
it l imits a ge n eric n ame c on n i n g it t o that part o f t he
ki n d which p o ssesses the character which the attributive
speci fies ; but it affi rm s no thi n g Thu s if we say
a

w i s e ma n
which is equi al en t t o a man with o r j o i n

wisd o m there is no afrmati on a n i n divi d ual i s si n gl ed

fro m a species u n der the character o f wisd o m but no thi n g
i s asserted o f this i n divi d ual I f w e s ay
the man is

wise there is s o methi n g afrmed o f the m an a n d the

a frmati on is expressed by i s I f the attribute a n d the
a sserti on be c o mbi n ed i n the expressi o n
as i n L ati n v i r
o f the verb c on sists
it
is
o
bvi
o
us
that
the
esse
n
ce
s a it
p
no t i n de no ti n g the attribute wis d o m but i n affi rmi n g
that qual ity as bel on gi n g t o the subj ect ; fo r if y o u ca n
the verb is immediatel y c on verted i n to
c e l the asserti on
a n adj ec tive an d the expressi on bec o mes v i r s ap ien s a
wise man
The simpl est o f al l verbs is that which the G reek s call
a verb o f existen ce n amely the verb t o be This verb
A

VER B

'

T YMOLOGY ;

83

freque n tl y de notes pure affi rmati on as

G o d is g ood
w here the verb o r cop u l a as i t has bee n term e d serves t o
pred icate o f the D eity the attribute den o ted by the fol
l o wi n g w o rd H en ce as it expresses mere af rmati on
the L ati n s call it a substa n tive verb i n co n trad isti n cti o n
to th o se verbs which wit h a n attribute de no te as s erti on
an d were cal l e d by s o me grammarian s adj ective verbs
S o metimes it predicates pure o r abs ol ute existe n ce a s

Go d i s
that is
G o d ex is ts
I n the fo ll o wi n g ex
ample it occurs i n bo th se n ses
We bel ieve that th o u
art an d that th o u art the rewarder o f them wh o di l ige n tl y
seek thee
A s no u n s deno te the subj ects o f o ur di s c o ur s e s o verbs
predicate thei r a cciden ts o r pro perties The fo rmer are
the n ames o f thin gs the latter what we s a y c on cern i n g
them These t w o therefo re m ust be the on l y esse n tial
parts o f speech fo r to me n tal co mmu n icati o n no thi n g el se
ca n be i n dispe n sab l y requisi te tha n t o n ame the subj ect o f
o u r th o ugh t s
an d to express o ur se n timen ts o f its a ttri
butes o r pro perties A n d a s t he verb es s e n tial ly ex
presses a fr m a tio n with o ut which there c o uld be n o c o m
m u n ica ti o n o f se n time n t it has be e n he n ce c o n sider e d as
the pri n cipal part o f speech a n d w a s therefo re c all ed by
the an cie n t grammarian s v er b o r the w o r d by way o f
emi n e n ce
The no u n h o wever i s u n questi on ably o f
earl ier Origi n T o assig n n ames t o surr o u n di n g o bj e cts
w o u l d be a matter o f the rst n ec essity : the n ex t step
w o u l d be t o express their m o st c o mm on acti on s o r states
o f bei n g
This i n deed is the o rder o f n ature the pr o
o f i n tel l ect
re
s
s
g
M r T ooke o bserves that the verb d oes n o t impl y

a n d that no si n gle w o rd ca n
Ti ll o n e
an y asserti o n
i
n
g
e
thi
n
g
says
he
ca
n
be
f
o
u
n
d
t
o
be
a
c
o
uple
on
e
l
s
si n gl e w o rd ca nno t m ake a n asserti on o r afrmati on ; fo r
there i s j o i n i n g i n that o pe rati on an d there ca n be no

j u n cti on o f o n e thi n g
This theo ry he i ll ustrates by the
te n se i bo which he resol ves th us

'

E T Y MOLOGY

8 42

E ng l i s h

5
*
Hi

L a ti n

I
I

G r eek

Ich

01

Vo l

Boa) .

Em

The rst o f each triad are the simpl e erbs equival e n t

t o g o The sec on d are the verbs Wo l Vo l BouA de
no ti n g w i l l The third are the pr ono u n s o f the rst per
Whatever opi n i on may be fo rmed respecti n g the
so n
truth o f this an alysis its i n ge n uity will n o t be q uesti o n ed
There are t w o o bj ect ion s h o w ever b y w hich its j ust n ess
may po ssibly be c on tr o verted The first is if the per
s on al pr ono u n s are c on tai n ed as M r T oo ke says i n the
G reek a n d L ati n termi n ati on s o f the three pers on s o f their
verbs w hy is the pr ono u n repeated with the erb ? I f
the o i n v o l o be a n abbreviated su f x fo r eg o w hy d o
redu n da n tly say eg o v o l o ? N o w i n an swer t o t his o b
it
might
be
o
bserved
were
e disp o sed t o i n dulge
w
ec ti o n
j
i n mere hypo thesis that the i n v ol uti on o f the pr ono u n
m ay have eluded the atte n ti on o f the L ati n s ; o r if this
it may be
e xpl an ati on sh o u l d be deemed t oo impr o bab l e
supp o sed that u sage agai n st wh o se decree there is no a p
peal may have establ ished the repetiti o n o f the prono u n
at the exp e n se o f strict pr o priety O n e thi n g parti cu l arl y
deserves atten ti on that the pr ono u n w a s seld o m o r n ever
u sed u n l ess i n cases where em phasis was implied o r a n
an tithesis o f pers on s w a s t o be stron gly m a rke d B u t
w ith o ut res o rti n g t o c onj ectures which may be deemed
vague an d u n satisfact o ry we may appeal t o a fact which
I have alread y o b
i s decisive o f the p o i n t i n questi on
served that i n the H ebre w lan guag e w e ca n d isti n ctl y
m ark the pr ono u n s s u f x e d t o the verb ; yet w e n d the
H ebre w writers re peati n g the pro n o u n s eve n i n cases
Thus i n G e n xlviii 2 2
w here no emphasis is i n te n ded
Ve a n i n a tha tti
a n d I have give n J ob xix 2 5 Ve
2
a
n
d
I
k
n
ew
D
eut
ix
t
a h ia d a h h
a n i i a d a h ti
t
a
g
g
v

and

h e ce t
n

h e c i d er t be fr
be der i ved th e L t i verb I

I , hi, hi e,

t o go ,

ons
a

re,

o m l - s vo u,

to

9"

o,

the

Gr

ee k

to hi e

verb ;

86

T YMOLOGY

c on sists i n af rmati o n This theo ry I have rem

is c on tro verted by M r T oo ke I t m ust be o bvi o us
ever fr o m the precedi n g observati on s that the
e n ce between the o pi n i on
that which is here del ivere d
F o r M r T oo ke w ill no t de n y
i n i bo ; he merely o bserves that every asserti on requires

a c o upl e o f term s
N o w it is o f l itt l e m o me n t t o the
po i n t i n questi o n whether the t w o terms be i n c o rpo rated

i n o n e as i n l eg o o r remai n separate a s I read

In
either case the verb a fr m s s o methi n g o f i t s n o mi n ative
whether that no mi n ative appear i n a simpl e o r i n a c o m
po u n d state S o metimes the af rmati on i s expressed by a
separate an d a ppropriat e sig n as i l le es t d iv es
he is
rich an d the verb o f existe n ce ( to be) is suppo sed
by several critics a n d phil ol ogists t o have bee n c o eval
with the earl iest i n fan cy o f l an guage I n E n gl ish the
a frmati o n
a n d al s o the acti on
are frequen t l y deno ted
simply by the j u n cti on o f the n ame o f the attrib ute wit h
the no mi n ative o f the subj ec t whether no u n o r prono u n

Thu s if we say my wi l l
the chi l dre n s wi l l there i s
no a frmati on imp l ied a n d the term w i l l i s c on sidered

as a mere n ame B u t if we s a y I wi ll
the chi l dre n

will it bec o mes i n vested with a d ifferen t character a n d

af rms the v o liti on t o bel on g t o the subj ect Thu s al s o

the her o s mi ght

the her o mi ght
my ke n ( my

k no wledge o r ability )
I ke n I ca n o r I a m a ble ;
my l o ve
I l o ve
M r T ooke observes that whe n

we s ay
I l o ve there i s a n ellipsis o f the w o rd
do
This appears t o me a pr o babl e o pi n i on th o u g h
no t e n tirel y u nobj ecti on abl e F o r th o ugh we n d the
auxi l iary m o re freque n tly used i n o l d E n gl ish than i n
m o der n c o mp o siti on s yet it d o es no t o ccur s o frequen tly
as acco rdi n g t o this hyp o thesis we sh o uld n atural ly
expect M r T oo ke i n deed admits the fact ; but observes
that C haucer had less o ccasi on t o u se it because i n his
time the disti n guishi n g termi n ati on s o f the verb still re
,

T YM O LOG Y

87

mai n ed th o ugh they were no t c on stan tly empl o y ed N o w

I n d as M r T y r whi t remarks that C haucer seld o m
uses the w o rd d o a s a n auxil iary eve n i n th o se cases
where the verb an d the no u n are ide n tical T his cir
c u m s t an c e might l ead us t o i n fer that the E n gl ish prese n t
was derived fro m the S ax on by dr o ppi n g the termi n a
I
l
o v e ; the a frmati on a n d the a cti on
ti on a s i c l im
e
g
bei n g su f cien tly obvi o u s fro m the con st ructi on a n d that

it was o ri gi n all y o pti on al t o s ay either I l o ve o r

I d o l o ve
Be that as it may the ass erti on expressed

by I d o equival en t t o I act appears c l earl y t o

be signi ed by the j u n cti on o f the n o mi n ative pr ono u n
with the sign o f acti on Whether a no te o f afrmati on
w a s at fi rst separatel y empl o yed a n d afterwards i n v o l v
ed i n the verbal termi n ati on o r whether the a fr ma ti on
be merel y i n ferred an d no t si g n ied this is certai n that it
is by the v erb a n d the verb onl y that we ca n expres
afrmati on
A s every subj ect o f disco urse m ust be S p oke n o f as
either d oi n g o r su fferi n g so methi n g either acti n g o r acted
up o n ; o r as n either d o i n g no r su fferi n g ; he n ce verbs
have bee n divided by al l gr ammarian s i n to active passive
an d n euter
The verb active de no tes that the subj ect o f di s co urse
i s d o i n g so methi n g as I w r i te ; the passive verb that
the subj ect su ffers o r i s acted up o n as the bo o k i s bu r ned :
an d the n euter de no tes n either the o n e no r the o ther
but expresses merel y the state po sture o r c on diti on o f
the subj ect , as u n affected by a n y thi n g el se as I s it I
,

'

s l eep

s ta n d

A cti o n ,

e n ergy o r m o ti on may either be c on fi n ed t o

the age n t o r pass fro m him t o s o m ethi n g extri n sic
H e n ce active verbs ha e been divided i n t o tran sitive a n d
i n tra n sitive A n active tran sitive verb den o tes that ki n d
the agen t affects s o methi n g fo reig n
o f acti on by which
t o him sel f o r which passes fr o m th e age n t t o s o methi n g
w ith o ut him a s to bea t a dr u m to w hip a ho r se to ki l l a
,

88

T YM O LOGY

are active tran sitive verb s ; a n d it

is the characteristic o f these verbs that they admit a no u n
after them den o ti n g the subj ect o f the acti o n
A n active i n tran sitive verb de no tes that specie
o r e n ergy
which passes n o t fro m the age n t to a n y thi n g
else ; that is it expresses what has been termed imman e n t
en ergy H e n ce a n i n tran sitive v erb d o es no t ad mit a
no u n after it there bei n g n o extri n sic subj ect o r o bj ect
a ffected by the acti o n Thus I r u n I w a lk the ho r s e

a l l o s are examples o f active i n tran sitive v e r b s

g
p
W ebster i n hi s D issertati o n s on the E n glis h L an guage
delivers it a s his o pi n i on that the divisi on o f verbs i n t o
active passive a n d n euter is i n c o rrect ; a n d that the o n l y
accurate distributi on is i n t o tra n sitive a n d i n tran sitive

I s no t a ma n
says he pass i ve i n heari n g ? yet hear

i n g is cal l ed a n active verb

I t is d o ubtl ess true that to hea r an d m an y o ther verbs
c o mm o n ly cal l ed active den o te chiey perhaps the effect
o f a n ex tri n sic o r fo reig n act
B u t wh ether we view the
m atter as a q uesti o n either i n met a physics o r i n grammar
we shal l perceive but l ittl e impro priety i n ad o pti n g the
c o mm on disti n cti on F o r th o ugh the verb to hea r de
no tes perhaps chiey that a certai n impressi on is mad e
o n the mi n d thr o ugh the audit o ry o rga n yet eve n here
the m i n d i s no t en tirely passive as were this the place fo r
such a discussi on it w o uld be easy to pro ve I s ee I
he r I f eel I p e r c ei v e de no te n o t o n ly the se n sati o n i n
which we are passive but al s o a percepti o n t o w hich
the c on se n t o r acti v ity o f the mi n d is u n questi o n ably
essen tial H e n ce these verbs have i n a l l lan guages bee n
de no mi n ated active B u t if the term tran sitive be the
it
may
be
asked
wh
y
d
o
es
M
r
Web
o n l f c o r r e c t n ame
y
ster cal l this verb by that appellati on
H e w o uld a n s w er
I d o ubt n o t becau se s o methi n g passes fr o m the ag en t t o
d og

B ea t , w hip , ki l l ,

t r i t i ve verb
t w l k th e h r e
t h e i r w ig i c t i
In

an s

o s

n s

s so m

to

o n , a s,

e t i me
u ed t r i t i vely

d c th e c h l d T h ey l
r ce
t
s a re

an e

o ru n a

an s

"

as ,
,

a so a

wh e w e
d mi t
u
n

a no

s ay

n of

E T YM O LOG Y

90

o bj ective case it must be c on sidered gram matical ly as

n euter o r i n tra n sitive a n d has n o passive v o ice To s mi l e
is a n euter verb ; it can no t t herefo re be foll o wed by an
obj ective case no r be c on strued as a passive verb We
canno t s ay s he s mi l ed hi m o r he w a s s mil ed To s mil e o n
acc o rdi n g t o the pri n cipl e n o w pr o p o sed is a c o mp o u n d
active verb ; we therefo re s ay s he s mil ed o n hi m H e w a s
,

mi l ed

by Fo r tu n e i n

on

u n d e r t a ki n

ev er

thi n gs exist i n time an d whatever i s predicabl e

o f a n y subj ect m ust be predicated a s either past prese n t
o r future every acti on
en ergy o r state o f bei n g c o mi n g
u n der o n e o r o ther o f these predicamen ts he n ce arises the
uti l ity o f te n ses t o express the times o r rel ative o rder o f
their existen ce I n regard t o the n umber o f these t e n s e s f
n ecessary t o re n der a l an guage c o mp l ete grammaria n s
have bee n s o mewhat divided i n o pi n i on
I n o u r l an guage we have t w o S impl e te n ses the presen t
a n d the p re ter pe rf e ct i The l atter i s ge n erall y fo rmed
by addi n g d o r ed t o the prese n t as l ov e l ov ed ; f ea r
C
f r m b ly t g e er l O p i i I h er c i der th e E gl i h l g ge
h v i g p i ve v i ce H w f t hi p i i i w ll f u d d h ll be
th e u bj ec t f fu tu r i qui ry
M
m
i
B
w
r
t
h
e
t
t
hi
t
h
t
h
w
rd
d r i v d fr m
t
t
k
r
f th e w rd
th e L t i t
u ed t de t e th t ex t e i
i i

b y whi c h d iffere ce i t i m i i mp l i ed d i ff er c i c t i i ig i fi ed
I m r th r i c l i ed t c
i der i t as der i v d fr m th Fr c h t
t mp
d t h t f r m t mp

m
D
S
e
y
B
e
tt
i
e
wi
ll
ll
w
t
hi
g
be
t
e
t
t
I
y
b u t wh t i
i c t ed w rd xpr e
f r m t i
wi th t i m ; f
th t t h e p r t f th verb
t pr per ly c ll ed t e
e whi c h u m
f u x i l i ry w rd
th t ppe ce b y m e
A t thi r t i E gl i h
w e h u l d h v e tw t
ly th pre t d th p t i th e c t i v
verb d i t h e p i ve t e
t ll
B u t thi i
d l e i ce ty ;
i t th gr mm t i c l t I f
d i f d p t ed w u l d i t r d u c c fu i
t e e wh y h u l d t m t f m ? I f I h d h
m
m be
t e e I d id h I h h d d I h l l h m u t b qu lly e t i tl d

t th t ppe ll t i
H w i mp l i c i t y
i t r d u c c fu i I m u b l e t c mpr h e d
u l w e t f r m th t th e i t r d u c t i f G r ek d L ti m
l gu g e i
tit ie i
ry t i ll u t r t th g r m
t expr e
ec e
As

al l

'

'

on o

as

a ss

os

en s a s ,

s, a n

an

s e

an

a v er a

ns

n es s

ea r ,

ns

on

a re

or

ave

s s

on

n a

en

ea r

an

erns o r

s on

no

a us

ar

e a

ear

e e

ss n

u er a

ear ,

s a

s a n ee

n o

as

on

an

an

o r,

as s

a e,

en s

ns s ,

s.

s en

on

e s s s an a

ex o n o

en e

no

n s es a

no

o a

ss n o n e n

e ns e

ns on o r

en s es o n

c an

a re n o

as s

n on

an s o

s o

no

us

r.

s o

an u a

ons

o ns

sa

ar an

n one

os

a ,

ar

n on

n o ur

on

an

s on

on o

s n

s sa

na

an

a e

n na

es ,

T YMOLOGY

91

S
u i x here is a c on tracti on fo r d i d a s
That
the
f
M r T oo ke suppo ses I ca n easily imagi n e ; th us f ea r
o r d id
ea r ; but the questi on retur n s
ea r d id f ea r ed
f
f
d imp l i fy th tu d y f th l gu g e t t
E gl i h ch l r B u t
m
u th r th ry m t v r i ce wi th i t l f H e d m i t th t w
th
h e c e i E gl i h exc p t th dd i t i f i th g i ti ve wh e ce
w e m y i fer th t h c i der i i
ti l t c
N w if
th e hl y be c e whi c h
f rm d b y i i th
ly h u l d
g r mm t i c lly b d med t e whi c h f rm d i th m m er
m b
W h e h k th r f re i f m
t e e wh y h u l d t m t
h
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me ly bec u
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A d I w ul d
k i f ki g
c mb i t i
ge i ti v c e wh y ao
b
c rd i g t hi t h e ry i t of ki g e ti tl ed t th e me ppe ll ti ?
wer h m t gi v c i t e t ly wi th hi p i i
I ppre h d th
m
pec t i g c e wi l l u f c i tly exp l i wh y m
d I h d
te
whi l m t f m d I h d h d
t
d l e i ce t y t d mi t th
ly t
N y fu rth r i f i t b
whi c h f r m d b y i i i i t t equ lly
d l e i ce ty t d mi t
th c e ly w hi c h
f rm ed b y v ryi g th e termi ti
A d if
c fu i be i t r d uced b y d y i g I h d h d t be te e wh y d
r ed u th r i mp l i fy th e d c t ri e f E gl i h u b y gi v i g
t th l
ki g of
ki g t
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ly
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I
c whi c h i t f rmed b y i i y e t w ul d l d wi th m d
t f rm d b y c h
g e f t erm i ti i
p l p ble t
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r qui re e i th er i ll u t r ti
rg me t t xp i t I f th e e u t h r
w u l d d m i t th t w e h av
m y c e i E gl i h
th r x i t r l
t i e xpr ed b y prep i t i
t h e i deed th ugh th ey m igh t ver
wh l m wi th th u mber w e h ul d t l e t ck w l ed g th c i t
c y f th e i r the ry B u t t d p t th pri c i p l e f i i i
c e
th r pr c i e ly p r ll e l i v l ve
i c i t c y whi ch
d r j ct it i
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m
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me t
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t
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t h e e g e tl e m f v u r wi t h d u l umb r wi th m i dd l e v i ce d
t l m
wi th
p t t i ve m d N y th ey
f d f te e
t
th t w b t h em f l l b u t tw wh y d th e y t ri c h wi th r t
c d r i t d p l p t fu t u re ? d if thi h ul d t u f ce
d
th e y wi l l d i H ebre w r i c h u pply f verb l f rm W e h u ld th e
h ve k l d i phh l p ihh l d p y hh l hiphhil d h p hh l hithp hh l
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92

T Y M OLOG Y

whe n ce c o mes the termi n ati on ed i n d aed fro m which d id

itsel f i s c on tracted ? This query seems to have escaped
f
the atte n ti on o f the l ear n ed a u tho r
,

th e g mm r i i d d r v r c i g th e l d m x i m t m d
i
b
b erve t h t i t i ce ry t t b u d t t hi b u i e
t t
cc i b c u r i ty d perp l ex i ty wh e we m t b i m p l e
f
d per p i c u u
Thi i
g d ; bec u e t h ugh i t v i d i c te
th e i m pr pri e ty i t m de tly w u l d c e i t wi thi dece t b u d B u t
u re ly i t c
t be ece ry t re mi d t hi w r i t er th t wh e th e b u d
m
d
d
be
t
w
ee
r
igh
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pr
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y
i t i ex t r m e ly d i f c u l t t pr cr ibe l i m it t t h e t r g r i
d th t
rb i t r ry d i t i c t i
r ti g
th er f u d t i th prejud i ce
d c pr i c i u
f hi mu t ev r b v gu e qu e t i b l
Th e
t r u t h f whi c h I m per u d d the u th r t wh m I ll ud eed t
hi
B u t i t m y be ece ry t i m pre
tt e ti
t be re m i ded
th er t r u th e qu lly i c t e t b l e th t
u th ri t y h w re pec t bl
ever
c ti i c i t e c y ; d t h t g re t m t h ugh th e y
m y be h
u red b y ig r c d cred ul i ty w i th th m t b e qui u
h m g e W l l ever p wi th th i te ll ig e t re der e i t h er f de m t r
ti
rgu me t T hi u th r i defe c f hi th ry f c e d
f
t e e b erve th t t h e pr per f r m f t e e i t h e G reek d L t i
l gu g e i cert i ly th t whi c h i t h i t h e g r mm r f th e e l
gu ge
O wh t ev i de ce i thi
u m p t i f u ded ? H ere i hi
b i t ed p e ti ti p i ip ii t p l p b l e t e c pe th e det c t i f th m t
i tt e t i ve re der H pr ceed
B ut i th G r ek d L t i g r m
f th e t e
m
f r med b y v ri ti
m r w e u i f rm ly d th t

f h e l p i g verb
d t h er b y t h e dd i t i
f th e pr i c i p l v rb
It i
w red th t th e d m i i f th e e f rm i G re k d L t i gr mm r
i
qu t i f m ere exp d i c y d wi e ffec t th d c t r i e f
f Six c
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l l th
w hi c h w e c
t e d y m re t h th d mi i
f c e ; t h ugh i
ffec t t h e d c t r i
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L t i dec l e i
i h v l l th e c e d i i mi l r t er mi t i
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h e be l i ve t be t h e very m w rd wi th
he h
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erve i m d f expre i g c mp l e t e c t i
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E T YMOLOGY

94

tak e pl ace i n a v a ri e ty o f way s th e y m ay be s po ke n

H en c e
of
a s di v e rs i e d i n th e ir m o d e s o f pr o d u cti o n
e x pr e s s i n g
a ri s e s a n o th e r a ccid e n t o f v e rb s c a ll e d a m o o d
Th e s e m o d e s a r e i n
t he m o d e o r m a n n e r o f e x i s t e n c e
p a rtly e xpr e s s e d by i n e x i o n s partly by
s o me lan g u age s
o r w o rd s s ig n i fican t o f the m o dal div e r
a u x ili ary v e rb s
n a m e ly
h
e
n E n gli s h th e r e i s o n ly o n e m o o d
t
si t
I
y
i n di cativ e T he G r ee k s a n d R o m an s e x pre s s e d by i n
e xi o n s the m o s t c o m m o n m o d es o f ac ti o n o r e x i s t e n c e
p o w e r c o n ti n ge n cy c e rtain ty lib e rty
a s c o n diti o n ality
a n d d u ty
I n o u r l a n g u ag e th e y a r e d e n o t e d by a u xili a ry
v e rb s
T he E n gli s h v e rb ha s o n ly o n e v o i ce n a me ly the a c t
D r L o wth a n d m o s t o th e r gr amma rian s hav e a s
ive
,

i mpl i cati t ca ? Why t t d i t t t

al 7 Why mai tai that i i
ly mak ca
t
d th at
? W h y d i mi
c mb r c
d
i f rm d w i t h t i i
a d mi t a t h r ?
that fr m gr m maria w h f rm th ir i d a
Th a t h r b rv
r p ct i g thi part f g mm
th p i
d m k th eir d c i i
tr c t i o f la g ag which i th e p i t d t i t
d c
ipl
f
w
b t d i ff r c
i d rab ly fr m i t w m y
th p c l iar atur
at rally p c t grammat i cal ch m that
i th r p r p i c
c i t t d whi ch wi ll t d m r t p rp l th i f rm th l ar r
r pr h d i g th a th r w prac tic I h l d hav m
H d I b
H w th
m l a g ag
l
y
d
a
ly
th
a
b
rva
t
i
r
t
a
i
ly
p
b r c c i l d wi th th d ctri
j d ici
f th w i t
d c rrect
hi m l f I m tt ly t a l t c c iv Hi i d
fc
i t cy d
i mpl ic i ty e t m i c mpr h ib l H j c t p p i ti l c
ak f i mpl ici ty d h ad mi t vari m d d t
th
f
q ally f r ig t th g i f
la g ag i rd r t av i d p

i
t
m
h
r
ly
t
hi
c
i
t
t
c
h
t
l
l
N
ty
S
l
i
y
p
that th pri ci pl f i mi tati g th r l g ag i am
d f rm
t
m
th w rd ) w i t h
I
b
c
h
r
a
d
r
ar
k
t
c
rr
d
c
i
h
t
p
(
at r d i d i m w e m igh t ad p t a mb r f d cl i
w ll a
vari ty f cas f E gl i h b ta tiv b t h add
t hi vari ty
d
d wi th the i d i m f la g g
t
t all c rre p
A f t r t hi
b rvat i arg me t r l y b c m
c ary
I hav h r th r ad r will p rc iv a ai l d th a th r d c tri
m er ly
th g
d f i c i t cy I t i l iab l h w r t bj
lv

n e his

e of s

n,

ou

so

no

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se

ex

oe s n o

or

on

ro u n

su

su e
e

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es :

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e,

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es a n

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e

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s u s,

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ec

E T YMOLOGY

95

ign e d it t w o v o ic e s a ctive an d p a s s i v e L o w th ha s i n
t hi s i n s ta n c e n o t o nly vi o late d the s i mplicity o f o u r la n
g uage b u t ha s a l s o a dvan c e d a n o pi ni o n i n c o n s i s t en t wi t h
F o r if he ha s j u s tly e x cl u d e d fro m t he
hi s o w n pri n cipl e s
n u mbe r o f ca se s i n n o u n s a n d m o o d s i n v e rb s th o s e w hich
a re n o t fo r m e d by i n e x i o n b u t by the a dditi o n o f pr e po
s i ti o n s a n d a u x ili a ry v e rb s th e r e i s e q u a l r eas o n fo r r ej e ct
i n g a p as s i v e v o ic e if it b e n o t fo r m e d by v a ri e ty o f te r
We re I to a sk him why he d en i e s f r om a king
m i n ati o n
t o b e an a bl a tiv e c a s e o r I may l o v e t o b e the po t e n tial
m o o d he w o u ld an s w e r a n d v e ry tr ul y that th o se o n ly
by a dif
ca n b e j u s tly r eg a rd e d a s c as e s o r m o o d s which
f e ren t fo r m o f t he n o u n o r v e rb e x pr e s s a di ff e r e n t r e la
ti o n o r a di ffe re n t m o d e o f e x i s t e n ce If thi s an s w e r b e
th e re can be n o go o d re as o n f o r as si gni n g to
s ati s fact o ry
s

fam r
ti
ri
at r ; d w r I t ap pr h iv that I h v
alr ad y xh a t d th pat i c f th rea d r I h l d w pr ceed t
tat th
bj cti
Th r i
b r ati h w v r whi ch I f l
i t eces ry t m ak Th a th r mark that t tak th t
th y c mm ly rec iv d d d av r t asc rtai th ir at r d
m ch m
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that
d ctri i w h rr egregi l y F Wall i
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f th b t f
E gl i h grammari a
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f r ig t
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o bscur i ta te

96

E T YMOLOG Y

l an g u age a p a s s i v e v o ic e wh e n th a t v o ic e i s fo r me d
n o t by i n e x io n
D o oco r i s
b u t b y an a ux i l iary v e rb
tr u ly a pa s s iv e v o ic e ; b u t I a m ta ug ht c a n no t wi t h o u t
i m pro p ri e ty b e c o n s id e r e d a s s u ch B e s id e s a s it i s j u s tly
o b s e r v e d by D r
A s h o u r a u th o r wh e n he par s e s the

cla u s e I a m w e ll p l e a se d t ell s u s that a m i s the in

d i c a t i v e m o o d pr e s e n t t e n s e o f the v e rb to be ; a n d
l
a s ed the
a
s s iv e participl e o f the v e rb t o
l
a se
N
w
e
e
o
p
p
p
i n par s i n g e v e ry w o rd s ho u l d b e c o n s id e r e d a s a d i s
ti n ct p ar t o f s p ee ch : wh e th e r t h e re fo re w e ad mi t p lea s ed
t o b e a p a s s iv e participl e o r n o t ( fo r t hi s p o i n t I s hall a f
t e r w a r d s e x a m i n e ) it i s o bvi o u s that o n the pri n ci pl e n o w
laid d o w n a n d ack n o w l edge d by D r L o wth a m p l ea s ed
i s n o t a pr e s en t pa s s iv e n o r ha s the a u th o r hi m s elf par se d
it i n thi s m an n e r I n t o s u ch i n c o n s i s t e n ci e s d o o u r gra m
m arian s r u n fr o m a pr o pe n s ity t o fo rc e t he gr a m m ar o f
la n g u age i n t o a c o n fo rm ity with the s tr u ct u re o f
o ur
G ree k a n d L ati n
T he s a m e r e a so n i n g will al so acc o u n t f o r my a s s ig n i n g
to E n gli s h v e rb s n o m o r e than t w o t e n s e s a n d o n e m o o d
F o r if w e c o n s id e r t he m att e r n o t m e taphy s ically b u t
gra mmati cally a n d r e gard th o s e o n ly a s m o o d s which a r e
div e r s i e d by i n e xi o n (a n d a s L o w t h hi m s e lf o b s e rv e s a s
far a s gramm ar I S c o n c e r n e d th e re c an b e n o o th e r s ) w e
n d that o u r lan g u age ha s o n ly o n e m o o d a n d t w o t en s e s
Thi s d o ctri n e i n r e s p e ct to the c a s e s i s v e ry ge n e rally
ad mitt e d F o r t h o u gh the G re e k s a n d R o man s e x p re s s
which
e d t he di ffe r en t r e lati o n s by v ari e ty o f i n e x i o n
th e y t e rm e d ca s es it d o e s n o t fo ll o w that w e a re to a c
k n o wl e dge the s am e n u m be r o f ca s e s a s th ey had wh en
th e s e r elati o n s a r e e x pre s se d i n E n gli sh n o t by i n e xi o n s
b u t by pr e p o s iti o n s o r w o rd s s ign ican t o f th e se r elati o n s
T he L a ti n s w o u ld n o t ha v e ack n o wl e dg e d a bs qu e f r u ctu
wi t h o u t fr u it a s fo r mi n g a se v en t h c a s e t h o u gh th ey a c
k n o wl e dge d f r u ctu by fr u it a s m aki n g a n ablativ e o r
A n d why ? b e ca u s e the latt e r o n ly w a s fo r me d
s i x t h ca s e
o ur

'

E T YMO L OGY

98
i n En gli s h

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b
e c a u se o u r lan g u ag e
by
p
f
d e n i ti v e s o r a u x i l iari e s i s capabl e o f e x pr e s s i n g that
ti me O r wh a t s h o u ld w e thi n k o f t h a t p e r s o n s di s ce rn
m e n t w ho s h o u ld c o n t en d that the L ati n s had a n o ptativ e
I wi s h y o u w o u ld
m o o d b e c a u se u ti n a m l eg er es s ign i e s

r e ad
I t i s e q u ally ab s u rd t o s ay that w e h av e a n i m
p e rfe ct pre t e rpl u pe rfe ct o r fu t u r e t e n s e s ; o r that w e
h av e all the G re e k vari e ti e s o f m o o d a n d t w o v o ic es b e
c a u s e by the aid o f a u x iliary w o rd s a n d d e n iti v e t e r m s
w e c o n triv e t o e x pr e s s t h e s e accid e n t s
ti m e s o r s t a t e s o f
be i n g I c o n sid e r th e re fo re t h a t w e hav e n o m o r e c a s e s
m o o d s t en s e s o r v o ic e s i n o ur lan g u ag e a s far a s i t s
gram ma r n o t i t s cap a city o f e x pr e s si o n i s c o n c e rn e d
than w e h av e v ar i e ty o f t e r mi n ati o n to d e no t e t h e se dif
f e r e n t a cc e s sa ry id e a s
A s t he t e r m i n a t i o n s o f v e rb s i n m o s t l an g u ag e s a r e
vari e d by t en se a n d m o o d s o a r e th e y a l so v a ri e d a cco rd
i n g a s the s u bj e ct i s o f the r s t s e c o n d o r third p e r s o n
Th u s i n the o n ly t w o t en se s that w e h a v e in E n gli s h
n a m e ly t he pr e s en t a n d t he pr e t e r e rfe ct t en s e s the s e c o n d
p
p e r so n s i n g u lar o f e a ch i s fo r me d fro m the r s t by a d d
in g s t o r es t a s I l o v e tha n l ov es t ; I l ov ed tho u l o v eds t
a n d t he third p e r s o n s i n g u l a r o f t he pr es en t i s fo r me d by
addi n g 3 o r the syllabl e e th o r th to the r s t a s l ov e
l o v es o r l ov eth r ea d r ea d s o r r ea d et/z
Th e s e a re the
o n ly v a ri a ti o n s w hich o u r v e rb s a d m it
i n c o n c o rd an c e
with the p e r s o n o f t he n o mi n ativ e s i n g u lar T he thr e e
p e r s o n s pl u ra l a r e alway s the s am e with the rs t pe r so n
s i n g u lar
B e fo r e I pro c e e d t o the c o nj u gati o n o f v e rb s i n ge n e ral
I sh all r s t e x plai n the m an n e r in w hich the a u x iliari es
a r e c o nj u g a t e d
O f th e se the m o s t e x ten siv e ly u s e fu l i s
t he v e rb to be d e n o ti n g S i m pl e a ffi r m a ti o n o r e x pr e s s i n g
e x i s t en c e
T he n e x t i s that which s ign i e s a cti o n n a me ly
t he v e rb t o d o
T he t hird i s t he v e rb to ha v e i mplyi n g
p o s se s si o n T he o t h e r s a r e s ha l l w i l l ma y ca n 8 w I
b e gi n w i t h t he v e rb t o be
u tu r e ,

ost

'

E T YMOLOGY

M ood

In d ica ti v e
*S i n

Pl u r

P r esen t Ten s e
Th o u art

I am
We a re

99

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.

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'

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E T YMOLOGY

l 00

It m a y see m i n c o n s i s t e n t with the o pi n i o n w hich I

d e liv e r e d c o n c e r n i n g m o o d s t o a s s ig n a n i n n itiv e t
v e rb ; a n d the e x i s t e n ce o f t hi s i n n itiv e
a
s u ffici e n t r e fu tati o n o f that o pi n i o n
e rhap s
p
t h e r e fo re bri e y r ep e at what I hav e s aid a n d o ff e r a
additi o n al o b se rvati o n s
I hav e r e m ark e d that the rs t car e o f m en i n a r u de
i n fan t s tat e w o u ld b e to a s s ig n n am e s t o s u rr o u n di ng
i
n t he n at u ral o rd e r o f thi n g s
e c t s ; a n d t h a t t he n o u n
j
Th e ir i n v e n tiv e
m u s t hav e b e en t he r s t part o f s p e e ch
p o w e r s w o u ld n e x t b e e m p l o y e d to e x pr e s s the m o s t c o m
m o n e n e rgi e s o r s t at e s o f b e i n g s u ch a s a r e d e n o t e d by t he
v e rb s to d o to be to saf er H e n c e by the h elp o f th es e
c o mbi n e d wi t h a n o u n t h e y m igh t e x pre s s t he e n e rgy o r
o f which t he
n o un
w a s t he n a me
s t at e o f that t hi n g
Th u s I s h all s u pp o s e that th ey a s s ign e d the w o rd p l a n t
a s the n a m e o f a v e g e tabl e se t i n the gr o u n d
T o e x pre s s
t he act o f s e tti n g it th e y w o u ld s a y d o p l a n t that i s a ct
a nt
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a n d c o mm o n t o all la n g u ag e s m ight b e cha n g e d i n t o t o ;
a n d th u s t he w o rd to pr e x e d to a n o u n w o u ld e x pr e s s the
c o rre s p o n de n t e n e rgy o r acti o n
I n what light th e n a r e w e to c o n s id e r the phr a s e t o p l a n t
t e r me d a n i n n iti v e o r t o what cla s s o f wo rd s i s it re d u ci
ble ?
P r e vi o u s ly t o m y a n s w e ri n g thi s q u e s ti o n it i s n e
cessar
t
o r e mi n d t he r e ad e r that a v e rb j o i n e d t o a n o u n
y
fo r m s a s e n t e n c e ; th a t a f rm ati o n i s e s s e n tial to t he cha
r a c te r o f a v e rb ; an d tha t
fo r thi s r e a s o n a n d thi s o n ly
it ha s b ee n p r e e mi n en t ly di s ti n g u i sh e d by the n a m e o f
e rb o r t he w o rd
D e s tr o y thi s charact e ri s tic an d it i s
i mm e diat e ly c o n fo u n d e d wi t h the adj e ctiv e o r the parti
ci l e
i
o w e r o f pr e dicati o n o n ly which c o n s tit u t e s
It
s i ts
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p
it a di s ti n ct part o f s p ee ch a n d di s cri m i n ate s i t fro m e ve ry
o th e r
Vi r s ap i t a n d v i r es t s ap i en s a r e e q u ival e n t e x
e ss io n s
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T he e x p r e s s i o n b e c o m e s v i r s ap iens
a wi s e m a n
Thi s
,

E T YMOLOGY

1 02

It may b e a s k e d what th en i s it to b e c all e d ? I n a h

I o b s e rv e that i t m att e r s littl e what
s w e r t o thi s q u e ry
d e s ign ati o n b e a s s ign e d t o it p r o vid e d i ts ch a ract e r a n d
o f c e b e f u lly u n d e r s t o o d
T he an ci en t L ati n gramma
rian s a s Pri s cian i n fo rm s u s t e r me d it pr o pe rly en o u gh

n o men v e r bi
T o p ro
the n o u n o r n am e o f the v e rb
s cri b e t e r m s
which h a v e be e n l o n g fa miliar to u s an d by
i mm e mo rial po s s e s s i o n h a ve gai n e d a n e s tabli s h me n t i s
a l w ay s a di f c u l t
I
a n d fre q u e n t ly a n u n graci o u s ta s k
s hall t h e r e fo r e r e t ai n i t s u s u a l n a m e
hav i n g s u fci e n tly
g u ard e d the r e ad e r agai n s t a m i s c o n c e p ti o n o f i ts chara ct e r
N o w i n o u r la n g u ag e t he i n n iti v e ha s n o t e v en the
di s ti n cti o n ari s i n g fr o m t e rm i n a ti o n to e n title i t t o b e
ra n k e d i n the n u m b e r o f mo o d s ; i ts fo rm b e i n g the s ame
wi t h th a t o f the pre s e n t t e n se a n d pro bably bo th i n i ts
t e rmi n a ti o n a n d i ts pre x o rigi n ally id e n tic al F o r if the
d o ctri n e j u s t pro p o s e d b e c o rre ct t he w o rd d o w a s p u t
be fo re e ach T o thi s r u l e the E n gli s h lan g u age fu rn i sh es
o n ly o n e e x c e p t i o n n a m e ly the v e rb o f e xi s t e n c e i n w hich
t he pr e s e n t i n dic a tiv e i s a m wh e r e a s the i n n i t iv e i s t o be
Thi s h o w e v e r ca n s c a rc ely b e d ee m e d a n e x c e ptio n w h e n
it i s c o n s id e r e d th a t the pr e se n t i n dic a tiv e o f thi s v e rb w a s
o rigi n al ly be a s w e ll a s a m ; th o u gh t he fo r me r b e n o w i n
a s t at e o f o b s o l e s c en c e o r ra t h e r en tir ely o b so l e t e A t the
s a me t i me a s thi s i s the o n ly v e rb i n which t he i n n iti v e
di ff e r s i n fo rm fro m the pre s e n t o f the i n dicativ e I ha v e
j u dge d it n e c e s s ary to n o te t he e x c epti o n a n d a s sign the
i n n itiv e
P r es en t p a r t
B e i ng
9
Pa s t p a rt
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,

v b c i t i g i pr d icat i which i p c l iar t

i t d i c mm icab l t l l th r p rt f p ch d th i iti
f
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E T YMOLOGY
TO

DO

1 03

Ind ica tiv e M o o d

P r es e n t
Th o u d oe s t o r do s t H e d o e th d o th o r d o es
Th ey d o
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.

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en

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as

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1 04

E T YMOLOGY

S i ng I had

P r eterp erf ect

T ho u had s t

P l u r We
.

Ye

had

or

He

ha d

ou

P a r ti cip l es

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had
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.

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m ay

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Po w e r

ability

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ex

H e migh t

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pre s se d by

CAN

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1 06

E T YMOLOGY

S i ng I s h o u ld

P r eterp erf ect

Th o u s h o u ld s t
Y e o r y o u s h o u ld

P l u r We sh o u ld
.

Vo liti o n

S i ng

fu t u rity

are e x

pr e s s e d by

P r es en t
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ill
We will

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an

Ye

or

h o u ld
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He

the

ve

rb

to w i l l

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ill
*
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will

ou

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.

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wo u

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ld

wou

ld

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wo u

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ld

wo u

ld

Pri e s tl e y an d L o wth w ho h a v e i n thi s b ee n fo llo we d by

m o s t o th e r gram maria n s c all the t e n s e s map ca n s ha l l
w il l
ab so l u t e t e n s es ; might co u l d s ho u l d w o u ld c o n di
ti o n a l
Th a t mig ht co u ld s ho u ld w o u l d fre q u e n tly
,

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I m d t rmi d t c me Th
m
i t m t b that th m t c m i mpo rti g ce i ty ;

i t hal l b that th halt c m i mp ti g ch ic Wi l t th m ?

h t th d t rm i d t c m i m p t i g ch i c H w ill m
h i r
lv d t c me 3
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t d i t i g i h th
f th
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Wi ll i m p ly th f t l th f t r f at
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E T YMOLOGY

07

i mply c o n diti o nality th e re ca n b e n o q u es ti o n ; b u t I a m

pe r s u ad e d that the pro pe r ch a r a ct e r o f th e s e t en s e s i s
a n d fo r th e se t w o r e a so n s :
u n c o n diti o n al a f r m a ti o n
l s t Th e ir fo r mati o n s ee m s to i n dic a t e that th e y a re p r e
t er i tes i n di cativ e pr o c ee di n g fr o m th e ir r e s pe ctiv e pr e s e n t s
i n the sa me ma n n e r a s d i d fr o m d o ha d fr o m ha v e a n d
havi n g t h e r e fo re the sa m e u n c o n di t i o n al m e ani n g Th u s
I may i s e q u ival en t to I a m a t lib e rty I mig ht t o
I w a s at lib e rty I ca n m ea n s I am a bl e
I co u ld
I w a s abl e I w i l l
I a m willi n g
I w o u ld I w a s

W illi n g
2 dl y Th ey a r e u se d to e x pr e s s u n co n di ti o n a l m e an i n g
If w e s ay Thi s m ight pro v e f at al to y o u r i n t e r est t he
a s s e rti o n o f t he p o s s ibili t y o f t he e v e n t i s as u n c o n diti o n a l
Thi s m ay pro v e fatal to y o u r i n t e r e s t
a s a b so l u t e a s

Thi s if y o u d o it w i l l r u i n yo u r ca u se i s preci s ely

e q u i v a l e n t to
Thi s w e r e y o u to d o it w ou ld r u i n y o u r
ca u se e q u ivale n t a s far at l e as t a s the u n co n di t i o n al
afr ma ti o n o f the co n se q u e n c e o f a s u ppo s ed a cti o n i s i n

l
I m ay write if I ch o o s e i s n o t mo re ab so l u te
v o l v ed

than I m ight writ e if I ch o s e

If I sa y
I might
hav e go n e to the C o n ti n e n t the e x pre s s i o n i s a s u n co n di

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,

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E T YMOLOGY

1 08

C o n ti ne n t

c
tr
L
yc
phr
n
u
e
s
o
o
o
n
g
I ca nn o t n o w ;
M ay y o u d o a s y

pl e a se ?
I s t h e re
N o t n o w ; b u t o n c e I mig ht
c o n diti o n ality i m pli e d i n the latt e r cla u s e o f e ach o f t
an s w e r s ? N o t the l e a s t Th ey a r e u n c o n diti o n ally a s
iv e
T he fo r mati o n o f t h e s e t e n s e s t h e r e fo r e b e i n g
l o g o u s to t h a t o f pr e t e rit e s i n dicati ve a n d th e ir i m po rt i n
th e s e e xa m pl e s a s i n m an y o th e r s which m ight b e add u c e d
b e i n g u n c o n di t i o n al a n d ab s o l u t e I a m in cli n e d to c o n s id e r
th e m a s pr e t e rit e s i n dicativ e agre e ably to t h e ir fo r m a n d
a s pr o p e rly u n c o n diti o n al i n r e s p e ct t o s ign ica t i o n
I o b s e r v e h o w e v e r th a t t h o u gh might co u l d w ou ld
s ho u l d a r e pr e t e rit e t e n se s th e y a r e fr e q u e n tly e m pl o y e d
*
t o d e n o t e pr e s en t ti m e ;
b u t i n s u ch e x a m pl e s car e m u s t
b e tak e n that c o ngr u ity o f t e n s e b e pr e se rv e d a n d that the
m e t e n s e with the a n t e
s u b s e q u e n t b e e x pr e s se d i n t he s a
c e d en t v e rb T hu s I s a y
I m ay g o if I ch o o s e wh e re
the lib e rty a n d i n cli n ati o n a r e e ach e x pr e s s e d a s pr e s en t

or
I m ight g o if I ch o se wh e re th o u gh pr e s e n t ti me b e
i mpli ed t he lib e rty i s e x pr e s s e d by t he pre t e rit e a n d the
i n cli n ati o n i s d en o t e d by t he sa m e t en se
B e fo re I pr o c ee d to s h o w ho w t h e s e au xili ary v e rb s a re
j o i n e d with o th e r s t o e x p re s s the i n t en d e d acc e s s a ry id ea s
I s hall o ff e r a f e w o b s e rva t i o n s o n the p a rtici pl e
to t he

Can y o u

b u t o n c e I co u l d

Lat i th i mp f c t p t t ial i f q tly mp l y d i th am

rt d t p
t t i m ; th i m i l l m pr
r
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ma
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l ib ty d i cl i ti
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m
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e o
e

E T YMOLOGY

110

c o n t e mp o rary c o n ti n u ati o n o f a n a cti o n o r s tat e o f

be i n g If w e sa y
Jam e s w a s b u ildi n g the h o u s e the
a rticipl e e x pr e s s e s the c o n ti n u ati o n o f the a cti o n a n d t he
p
the h o u s e
v e rb m ay b e c o n s id e re d a s activ e If w e s ay

the partici p l e the s a m e

w a s b u ildi n g wh e n t he wall fe ll
a s i n the p r e c e di n g e x a m pl e d en o t e s h e r e the c o n ti n u ati o n
o r b e i n g act e d u p o n ; a n d the v e rb
o f a s tat e o f s u ff e ri n g
T hi s participl e th e r e fo r e
m ay b e c o n s id e r e d a s pa s s iv e
d en o t i n g e i t h e r a cti o n o r pa s s i o n can n o t wi t h pr o pri e ty
b e c o n s id e r e d a s i t ha s b e e n by s o m e gra m m aria n s a s
I t s di s ti n cti v e a n d r e al cha
e n tir e ly a n activ e par ticipl e
tha t i n po i n t o f ti m e it d e no t e s the r e lativ e ly
r a c te r i s
pr e se n t a n d m a y th e r e fo r e b e call e d the pr e s en t partici
it
d
n r e gard t o a cti o n o r pa s s i o n
i
e n o t e s t h e ir
l
e ; an d
p
c o n ti n u an ce o r i n c o m pl e ti o n a n d m a y th e r e fo re b e t e r me d
i m p e rfe ct I n r e s p ect to ti me t h e re fo r e i t i s pre s e n t i n
re s pec t to the acti o n o r s tat e o f b ei n g i t i s c o n ti n u e d o r
i m p e rf ec t B u t w h e th e r it e xpr e s s acti o n o r pa s si o n ca n
b e a s c e rtai n e d o n ly by i n q u iri n g wh e th e r the s u bj e ct b e
a cti n g o r s u ff e ri n g ; a n d t hi s i s a q u e s ti o n which j u dg
m en t o n ly ca n d e cid e t he participl e it s e lf n o t d e t e r m i n i n g

If w e s ay
t he pri s o n e r w a s b u r n i n g
o ur
the po i n t
k n o wle dge o f the s u bj e ct o n ly c a n e n ab l e u s to d e t e r mi n e
wh e th e r the pri s o n e r w a s activ e o r p a s s w e ; wh e th e r he
w a s e m pl o yi n g r e t o c o n s u m e o r w a s hi m s e lf c o n s u m i n g
by r e
T he o th e r participl e e n di n g ge n e rally i n e d o r d ha s
b ee n ca lle d by so m e gram m arian s the p a s si v e participl e
i n c o n tradi s ti n cti o n t o the o n e which w e hav e n o w b e e n
c o n s id e ri ng a n d which th e y ha v e t e r me d the activ e par

Thi s p a rtici pl e ha s b ee n so call e d s ay s the

tic i p l e
be c a u se j o i n e d wi t h
a u th o r o f the Briti s h G ra m m ar

If the r e a s o n
t he v e rb t o be it fo r m s the pa s s iv e v o ic e
h e r e a s sign e d j u s tify i t s d e n o m i n a ti o n a s a p a s s i v e partici
th
l
e r e e xi s t s t he s a m e r e a s o n f o r calli n g it a n activ e
e
p
p articipl e ; fo r with the v e rb to ha v e it fo r m s s o m e o f the
c o mp o u n d t en s e s o f the acti v e v o ic e T he tr u t h i s th a t
t he

E T YMOLOGY

111

th o se gra mm aria ns hav e e rr e d w ho c o n s id er the p ar

tici pl e i n i ng a s a n a ctiv e p a rticipl e wh en it i n fact d e
s o th o se o n t he o t h e r ha n d
n o t e s e i t h e r acti o n o r p a s s i o n
c o mmit a s i m ilar m i s tak e w ho r e gard the participl e in ed a s
p u r ely p a s s i v e A littl e att e n ti o n w ill s u fc e to s h o w
t hat it b elo n g s to n e i t h e r the o n e v o ic e n o r the o th e r
er
e c u li a rly ; an d t hat it d e n o t e s m e re ly co m l e ti o n o r
p
p
p
fec tio n i n co n tradi s ti n cti o n t o the o th e r p artici pl e which
e xpr e s s e s i m p e rfe cti o n o r co n ti n u ati o n
I f it be tr u e i n
d ee d th a t t he p a rticipl e i n i ng d oe s n o t bel o n g to the
activ e v o ic e o nly b u t e x pr e s s e s me re ly the co n t i n u ati o n
o f an
act
pa
i
tat
o f bein g
n al o gy w o u ld i n
s
s
o
n
o
r
s
e
a
y
cli n e u s to i n fe r that the p articipl e in ed which d e n o t e s
t he c o mpl e ti o n o f a n act o r s tat e o f be i n g ca n n o t b e l o n g
e x cl u s iv e ly t o the p a s s iv e v o ic e ; a n d I c o n c e i v e
that o n
he
i n qu iry w e s h all n d th i s to be the ca s e If I s a y

the p a rticipl e
had co n c e al e d a p o n iard u n d e r hi s c o at
he ha d a
h e re w o u ld b e c o n s id e r e d a s ac tive If I s ay

po n i ard c o n c e a l e d u n d e r hi s cl o th e s the participl e w o u ld

b e r e gard e d a s p a s s iv e
D o es n o t t hi s pr o v e that thi s
a r ti c i l e i s a m big u o u s th a t it pr o pe rly b e l o n g s to n e i t h e r
p
p
v o ic e a n d that the co n t e x t o n ly o r the arran gem en t c a n
d e t e r m i n e wh e th e r it d e n o t e the p e rfe cti o n o f a n a cti o n
o r t he c o m l e ti o n o f a pa s s i o n o r s tat e o f b e i n g ?
Wh
n
e
p
I s ay
L u cre tia s tabb e d h e r s elf with a dagge r w hich

she had c o n c e a l e d u n d e r he r cl o th e s
it i s i m po s s ibl e to
a s c e rt ai n wh e th e r the p a r ticipl e b e a ctiv e o r p as s iv e
th a t
i s wh e th e r t he v e rb ha d b e h e r e m e r e ly a n a u x ili a ry v e rb
o r b e s y n o n y m o u s with the v e rb to
oss
e
If
f
r
s
s
t
h
e
o
r
m
e
p
b e i n t e n d e d the s y n t a cti ca l co ll o c ati o n i s
s he had co n
ce a l e d which ( da ge r
if
h
u n d e r he r cl o th e s
t
e latt e r
)
g
t he gr a m matical o rd e r i s
s he ha d w hich dag e r c o n
g
a n d it r e q u ir e s b u t littl e di s c e r n m e n t t o pe rc e iv e
c e a l ed

t hat she had c o n ce al e d a d a gge r a n d ha d a dagge r

co n ce al ed a re e xpre s s i o n s by n o m e an s pre ci sely e q u iv a
len t
I n ee d n o t h e re r e mi n d the cla s sical s ch o la r that the
as

E T YMOLOGY

1 12

'

L a t i n s had tw o d i s ti n ct fo r ms o f e x pre s s i o n to m ark thi s

div e r s ity ; the o n e qu em a bd i d er a t a n d the o th e r qu em
a bd i tu m ha be ba t
T he latt e r i s the phra s e o l o gy o f L ivy
d e s cribi n g the s u icid e o f L u cr e tia H i s w o rd s if t ran s
late d
which she had c o n c e al e d b e c o m e a mbig u o u s ;
fo r thi s i s e q u ally a tra n sla t i o n o f q u em a bd i d era t
It i s
t hat the phra se qu em a bd i d er a t w o u ld n o t
o b s e rvabl e al s o
i m ply t ha t the dagg e r w a s i n t he p o s s e s s i o n o f L u cr e tia
at the ti m e
T he participl e i n ed th e re fo r e I c o n s id e r to b e p e r
f e c tl y an al o g o u s t o the participl e i n i ng a n d u s e d lik e it
i n e i t h e r a n ac t iv e o r a p a s s iv e s e n s e ; b e l o n gi n g th e r e fo r e
bu t de
n e i th e r t o the o n e v o ic e n o r t he o th e r e x cl u s iv e ly
n o ti n g t he c o m pl e ti o n o f a n acti o n o r s tat e o f b e i n g whil e
t he p articipl e i n i ng d en o t e s i t s c o n ti n u ati o n
I n e xhibiti n g a paradig m o f the c o nj u gati o n o f o u r
m an y gr a m m aria n s hav e i m plici t ly a n d s e r v il e ly
v e rb s
c o pi e d the L ati n gra mm ar tran s fe rri n g i n t o o u r lan g u age
t he n am e s b o th o f t en s e s a n d m o o d s which ha v e fo r m ally

I m ay b u rn i s d e n o m i n at e d
n o e x i s t en c e i n E n gli s h
by the a u th o r o f the Briti s h G ra m m ar the p re s en t s u b
j u n ctiv e ;
I m ight b u r n the i m pe rfe ct s u bj u n ctiv e ;
I m a y hav e b u r n e d the pr e t e r pe rfe ct ; a n d s o o n Thi s
i s dir e ctly r e p u gn an t t o the s i mp licity o f o u r la ng u age
w e tw o
a n d i s i n tr u th a s ab s u rd a s it w o u ld b e t o call
l o v e the d u al n u mb e r o f the pre s en t t en s e o r he shall
a p a u l o p o s t fu t u re
We r e thi s pri n
s o o n b e b u ri e d
w
e s h o u ld hav e all the t e n se s
c i l e carri e d i ts fu ll l en gth
p
m o o d s a n d n u mb e r s w hich a r e t o b e fo u n d i n G r ee k o r
L ati n It appe ar s to m e that n o thi n g b u t prej u dic e o r
a ff e ctati o n c o u ld hav e pr o m pt e d o u r E n gli s h gr a m m aria n s
t o d e s e rt the s i m pl e s tr u ct u r e o f th e ir o w n l a n g u ag e a n d
wan to n ly to p e rpl e x it wi t h t e ch n ic al t e rm s f o r thi n g s
n o t e x i s t i n g i n the lan g u ag e it se lf
I p u rpo se th er e fo re in e x hi biti ng the c o nj u gati o n o f
the E n gli s h v e rb to giv e t he s i m pl e t e n s e s a s the o n ly
o n e s b e l o n gi n g to o u r l a n u a g e ; a n d th e n s h o w ho w
by
g
,

E T YMOLOGY

114

Thi s t e n se d e n o te s a pr e se n t a cti o n pro c ee di n g I n re

gard to ti me it ha s b ee n t e rm e d d e n it e a n d i n re s pe c t
t o acti o n it di ff e r s fr o m the o th e r pr e se n t i n thi s that
t he fo r m e r ha s n o r e fe r en c e e ith e r t o t he pe rfe c t i o n o r i m
p e rfe ctio n o f the a cti o n ; w h e r ea s thi s d en o t e s that the
a cti o n i s co n ti nu e d a n d i m pe rfe ct
.

P r es e n t
S

E mp ha t i c

write Th o u d o s t w rite H e d o th o r d o e s w rite

We d o writ e Y e o r y o u d o writ e Th ey d o writ e
I

do

Thi s fo r m o f the v e rb i s e m ph a tic a n d gen e ral ly im

pli es d o u bt o r c o n tradicti o n o n the part o f the pe rso n
addr e s s e d to re mo v e w hich the a s s e rti o n i s e n fo rce d by
t he a u x ili ary v e rb
I n r e s p ec t t o ti m e a n d a cti o n it i s
preci s e ly the sa me with I wr i te

Y o u c an n o t dr e a d a n h o n o u r abl e d e a th

I d o dr e ad it
E x c ell e n t wr e tch
p erdi t i o n s e i z e my s o u l b u t I d o

l o v e th e e
C an c el the a u xili a ry v e rb a n d the e x pr e s si o n b eco m e s
fe e bl e a n d s p iritle s s Thi s i s o n e o f th o se phra seo l o gi e s
which it w o u ld b e i m p o s s ibl e to r e n d e r in a tran s po sitiv e
lan gu age D i me p er da n t q u i n te a mem i s a n e x pre s s io n
c o m p a r a ti v ely e xa n i m a t e a n d i n s ipid
,

P r eter i te In de n i te a n d E mp ha ti c
S I did w ri te
Th o u did s t write
H e d i d writ e
P We did writ e Y o u did w rit e
Th ey did write
.

Thi s to m e i n drea dfu l se cre cy i m p art th ey did

T he e m pha s i s h e re h o w e v e r m a y partly ari se fro m the
i n v e rt e d c o ll o c a t i o n T he fo ll o wi n g e x am ple i s th e re
fo r e mo re app o sit e
I h a v e bee n t o l d that y o u hav e
I fe ar e d to fac e my e n e my Y o u
s light e d m e
an d s aid

I d id sa y so
s u r ely did n o t wr o n g m e th u s
as ,

E T YMOLOGY

115

Thi s t en s e i s i n d e n ite i n r es pe ct bo th
the co m pl e ti o n o f the acti o n
,

t i me

to t he

and

P r eter I mp are c o n ti n ue d
S I w as w riti n g
T h o u w a s t w riti n g H e w a s writi n g
P We w e re writi n g Y e w e re w riti n g Th e y w e re writi n g
.

Thi s t en se d en o t e s that an a cti o n w a s pr o c ee di n g

go i n g o n at a ti m e p as t e i t h e r s pec ie d o r i mpli e d

I w a s writi n g wh e n y o u ca ll ed
,

or

a s,

P r eterp erf ect

Th o u h as t
H e ha s
Y o u have
Th e y hav e
.

I h av e
We h av e

wri t t en

Thi s t en se e x pres ses ti me a s p ast an d the a cti o n a s

pe rfect It i s co m po u n de d o f the pre sen t t e n s e o f the
v e rb d en o ti n g po s s e s si o n a n d the pe r fec t p a rticipl e I t
s ign i e s a pe rf e ct a cti o n e ith e r n e wly n i s h e d
or in a
ti me o f which th e re i s so m e pa rt to elap se o r a n acti o n
wh o s e co n se q u en ce s e x t e n d to the pre se n t I n s h o rt it
cl e a rly re fe r s to pre se n t ti me Thi s i n d ee d the c o m
po s iti o n o f the t e n se m an ife s t ly e vin c e s Th us
I hav e

writt en a l e tt e r m e an s
I p o s se s s at pre s e n t the ni s h

Thi s phra seo l o gy I a c

ed ac ti o n o f w riti n g a l e tt e r
k no w l e dg e see ms u n c o u th a n d i ne l e ga n t ; b u t ho w a wk
w ar d so e v e r it may ap pe a r the t en s e i s u n qu e s ti o na bly
,

,
.

It

pre s se s a n a cti o n n e wly n i s h e d a s

I nu

th a t
d er s tan d th a t a m e sse n g e r ha s a rri v e d fr o m Pa ri s

n e wly
is
j u s t n o w ar ri v ed
or
2 d l y An acti o n d o n e i n a S pa ce o f ti me p a rt o f which

I t has rai n e d al l thi s w ee k

i s y e t to e lap se ; as
We
h a v e see n s tra n ge thi ng s thi s c en t u ry
3 dl y A n ac t i o n pe rfe ct e d so me ti m e a g o b u t wh o s e
c o n s eq u en c e s e x t en d t o the pr e se n t t i me ; a s
I h ave
w a s t ed my ti m e a nd n o w s u ffe r fo r my fo lly
l s t,

ex

E T YMOLOGY

1 16

Thi s t e n s e ha s b ee n t e r me d by so me gra m m arian s the

p e rfe ct i n d e n it e a n d
I wr o t e the pe rfe c t d e n it e
T he arg u m en t which th e y o ffe r f o r thi s d e n o m i n ati o n i s
t hat the la t t e r ad mi ts a d e n itiv e to s p e cify the pr e ci e
t i me a n d the fo r m e r r ej e ct s it Th o s e w ho re a s o n in
t hi s m an n e r s e e m to m e n o t o n ly ch a rge abl e wi t h a p e r
v e r s i o n o f t e rm s b u t al s o to di s pro v e t h e ir o w n th eo ry
F o r wha t i s m e a n t by a d e n it e t e r m ? N o t s u r e ly that
which ad mit s o r r e q u ire s a d e n i t iv e t o gi v e i t p re ci s i o n
b u t t ha t which o f it s e lf i s alr e ady d e n it e
If t h e re fo r e
I wro te n o t o n ly a d m it s b u t e v en r e q u ire s the s u b
j u n cti o n o f a d e ni n g t e rm o r cl a u s e to r e n d e r the ti me
d e n it e a n d pr e ci s e it cann o t s u r e ly b e it s e lf a d e n it e
t e n s e B e sid e s t h e y ap p e a r t o m e t o r e a s o n i n thi s ca s e
i n c o n s i s t e n tly wi t h t h e ir o w n pri n cipl e s F o r th e y call
I a m w r i ti ng a d e n it e t e n s e ; a n d why ? b u t b e ca u se it
d e n e s the ac t i o n to b e i m p e rfe ct o r t he t i me to b e rela t iv e

B u t if th e y r e a s o n h e r e a s th e y d o i n r e s p e ct
1y p r e s e n t
t o the p r e t e rit e t e n se s th e y o u ght t o c al l thi s a n i n d e
n it e t e n s e b e ca u s e i t ad m i t s n o t a d e n i t iv e cla u s e
Th ey m u s t th e re fo re e ith e r ack n o wl edge that I ha v e
i s a d e n it e t e n s e a n d I w r o te i n d e n it e ; o r
w r i t te n
t h e y mu s t c o n trary to th e ir o w n pri n cipl e s call I a m
w r i t i ng i n d e n it e
D r A rth u r Br o w n e i n a n E s s ay o n t he G r ee k T e n se s p l
c o n t e n d s t hat I w ro te i s the pe rfe ct d e n it e a n d I ha v e

is
I w r o te s ay s he
w r i tt en the p e rfe ct i n d e n it e
n o t i n t e lligibl e wi t h o u t r e fe rri n g t o s o m e pr e ci s e p o i n t o f
ti m e e g wh e n I w a s in Fran c e Why t h en d o e s D r
B e at t i e s a y I w r o te i s i n d e n it e b e ca u s e it r e fe r s to n o
partic u lar pa s t ti me ? N o : it i s i n d e n it e b e ca u se the
v e rb i n that t e n s e d o e s n o t d e ne wh e th e r the a cti o n b e
c o m pl e t e o r n o t c o mpl e t e A n d why d o e s he s a y I ha v e
w r i tten i s d e n it e i n r e s p e ct o f t i m e ? f o r it r e fe r s t o n o
,

'

9"

the

r I w ld b
t th i t h t h
He

ru

s,

d rt dt r
f th
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ea c

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e s oo
es e

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iii

es

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E T YMOLOG Y

118

de n it e ? Thi s to s ay the l e a s t i s so me wh a t e xtra

o rdi n a ry
T he o b s e r v a t i o n s o f Lo rd M o n b o d d o o n thi s s u bj e ct
ar e n o t i n a pplic a bl e t o the po i n t i n q u e s ti o n
I s h all th er e
fo re tran s cribe th em

Th e re a re acti o n s sa y s he
w hich e n d i n e n er gy
a n d pr o d u c e n o w o rk which r e m ai n s aft e r th e m
Wh a t
s hall w e sa
o f s u ch a c t i o n s ? ca n n o t w e sa
n ce d
I
h
v
da
a
e
y
y
a d an ce t a k en a walk 8 m a n d ho w ca n s u ch acti o n s be
M y a n s w e r i s th a t t he
sa id i n a n y s en se t o b e pr e s en t
c o n se q u en c e s o f s u ch acti o n s re s p e cti n g the s pe ak e r o r
a r e pr e s e n t
a n d wh a t t h e se
so m e o th e r pe r s o n o r thi n g
c o n s e q u e n c e s a r e app ea r s fr o m t he t e n o r o f the d i s co u r se
I h a v e tak en a w alk a n d am m u ch b e tte r fo r it
I

h a v e da n c e d a d a n ce an d a m i n cli n e d to dan ce n o m o re
T he o r d e r o f n at u r e b e i n g m a i n t a i n e d a s M r H arri s
by a s u cc e s s i o n o f c o n trari e ti e s the t e r m i n a ti o n
o b s e rv e s
o f o n e s t at e o f thi n g s n at u r al ly i m pli e s the c o m m en c e m e n t
H e n c e thi s t e n se has b ee n e m p l o y e d to
o f i t s c o n trary
d e n o t e an a ttrib u t e the c o n trary to that which i s e x p r es s
Th u s the L a ti n s u se d v ixi t
he hath
e d by the v e rb

liv ed to d e n o te he i s d ea d f u i t Il iu m
Tro y ha s

be e n to s ign ify Tr oy i s n o mo r e A s i mila r phr as eo l o gy

th u s
I ha v e b ee n y o u n g i s e q u i v a
o btai ns i n E n gli s h

le n t to n o w I a m o l d
is

P r eter Imp erf ect

Th ha t b
H h be
Y
hav b
Th y hav b
.

S i ng

Pl

ur .

I h av b e
We hav b
e

en

ee n

ou

e en

e en

ou

as

en

ee n

tmg
.

Thi s te n se i n re sp e ct to ti me i s the sa m e a s the la s t

b u t i m pli e s the i m pe rfe cti o n o f the a cti o n a nd d en o t e s i ts
pro gr es s i o n

P r eter P l up erf ect

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.

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ha d

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ou

'

w n tte n

E T YMOLOGY
Thi s te n se d en o te s t h a t
a n o th e r a c t i o n w a s d o n e

cti o n

an

1 19

pe rfe cte d be fo re

was

Sing

Pl

P l us qu a m P r eter i te
Ihdb
Th hads t b
W hdb
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ur

ee n

wr
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t
i ng
}

e en

Th y h d b
e

ee n

He had

ee n

ou

e en

I mp erf ect
a

e en

Thi s te n se i n r e s p ect to tim e i s m o r e th a n pa s t a n d i n

r e s pe ct to acti o n i s i m p e rfe ct I t d e n o t e s that a n acti o n
w a s g o i n g o n o r i n a s tat e o f p r o gr e s s i o n be fo r e an o t h e r
ac ti o n t o o k pl a c e o r b e fo r e it w a s p e rfe c t e d ; a s
I had
be e n writi n g be fo re y o u a r ri v e d
,

In d e n i te
h alt
H h ll
h
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l
l
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s

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ur .

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ou s

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s

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ur.

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i ll

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ou

or

i lt

wil l
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ou

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w it
r

Th e s e c o mpo u n d te n ses d en o t e the fu t u ri t y o f a n a cti o n

i n d e n it ely with o u t a n y re fe r en c e t o i ts co m pl e ti o n T he
m e a n i n g o f the se v e r a l p e r so n s has b ee n a lr ea dy e x
plai n ed
Fu tu r e I mp P r og r ess iv e
I hal l wi ll b
W hall wi ll b
Th h lt wi lt b
Y
hall wi ll b
wri ti g
wi ll b
T h y h al l wi ll b
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,

or

ou s

e s

or

or

e s

or

e s

or

or

Thi s t e n se a gr ee s with the fo rm e r i n r e s pec t to ti me

b u t di ff r s fro m it i n thi s th a t t he fo r m e r ha s n o r e fe re n c e
to t he c o m pl e ti o n o f the a cti o n whil e t he l a tt e r e x pr e s se s
i t s i m p e rfe cti o n a n d pro gr e s s i o n
,

Fu t u r e

I h l l hav
T h halt hav
H hal l hav
s

ou s

e s

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W hall h av
hall h v
Y
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.

e s

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e

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en

Thi s t en s e d e n o t e s that a fu t u re acti o n will

b e pe r

E T YMOLOGY

12 0

b e fo re t he c o m m e n c e m e n t o r c o mpl e ti o n o f a no th e r
ac t i o n o r b e fo re a c e rtai n fu t u re t i me ; a s B e fo r e y o u

c a n hav e a n an s w e r
I shall hav e writt e n a s e co n d l e tt e r
By the t i m e he s hall hav e arriv e d y o u will h a v e c o n

q u e r e d e v e ry di f c u l t y
I n sh o rt it d e n o t e s that a t
s o m e fu t u r e ti me a n acti o n will b e p e rfe ct e d
A s it ha s b e e n a s u bj e ct o f gr e at c on tro v e r s y am o n g
gra m m arian s what t e n s e s s h o u ld b e call e d d e n it e a n d
what i nd e n it e I s hall n o w o ffe r a f e w o b s e rvati o n s w hich
m a y s e rv e to ill u s tra t e the p o i n t i n q u e s t i o n
D u ra t i o n lik e s pac e i s c o n ti n u o u s a n d u n i n t e rr u pt e d
It i s divi sibl e i n id e a o n ly It i s pa s t o r fu t u r e m e r ely
i n r e s p e ct t o s o m e i n t e r m e diat e p o i n t w hich t he m i n d
xe s a s the li m i t b e tw e en the o n e a n d the o t h e r P re sen t
ti me i n tr u th d o e s n o t e xi s t an y m o r e t han a m a the ma
t ical li n e c a n hav e br e adth o r a ma t h em a t ical p o i n t he
c o m p o se d o f part s Thi s p o s i ti o n ha s i n d e e d be en c o n
t r o v e r te d by D r B e at t i e ; b u t i n m y j u dg m e n t w i t h o u t

H arri s R e id
t he s had o w o f phil o so phic al arg u m e n t
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i l ik ma
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thi g b t wh t i pr t I t i t ; b t i t h l d b r m m b r d
h
th t t t i m b t bj ct whi ch i t i t im
c
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c r ct i d f thi m tt i f h w i ll
k hi m l f wh t h m
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th r
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ou ,

E T YMOLOGY

12 2

di ffe r whil e

fact t h e y w e re agr e e d a n d o n the co n

t r a ry
ha v e s e e m e d to a cc o rd whil e th e ir o pi n i o n s w e re
i n tr u th m u t u ally r ep u gn a n t
D r Bro w n e c o n ne s the t e r m t o a c t i o n o n ly a n d pl ea d s
the a u th o ri t y o f M r H arri s i n hi s fav o u r
I t i s tru e
i n d e ed th a t M r H a rri s cal l s th o se t e n se s d e nit e whi ch
d e n o te the be gi nn i n g the middle o r t he p erfecti o n o f a n
fro m t he m o s t s u pe rcial e x
a cti o n ; b u t i t i s o bvi o u s
a m i n a ti o n o f hi s th eo ry t h a t he d en o m i n ate s the t e n s e s
d e n it e o r i n d e nit e n o t i n r e s p ect to a cti o n b u t to ti me
Wh e n i n the pa s sa ge fro m M ilto n
f p i ri t l cr at r w l k th art h
M i ll i

U
b th wh w wak d wh e w e l p
,

in

ons o

n see n,

ua

en

u es

e e

e an

s ee

i n d e n it e i s it i n rega rd to

No
I t i s s ay s he
be ca u s e th e y w e re
a cti o n ?
w alki n g n o t at th a t i n s tan t o n ly b u t i n d e n it e ly a t a n y

i n s tan t what e v e r
A n d wh e n he t e r m s Tho u s ha l t n o t
ki l l a n i n d e n i t e t e n s e i s it b e ca u s e it ha s n o r e fe r en c e to
No ;
the c o m pl e ti o n o r t he i m p e rfe cti o n o f t he acti o n ?

it i s b e cau s e s ay s he
thi s me an s n o p artic u l a r fu t u re
t i me b u t i s e x t en d e d i n d e n it ely to e v e ry part o f t i me
B e s id e s if M r H arri s s a n d D r Bro w n e s id e a s c o i n cide
ho w c o me s it th a t the o n e c al l s t hat a d e n it e t e n s e which
Thi s d o e s n o t lo o k lik e a c
the o th e r t e r m s i n d e n i t e ?
o r in
t he a pplic a t i o n o f t e r m s
s e n ti m en t
c o rd a n c e i n
Y e t t he t e n s e s i n s u ch e x a mpl e s a s th e s e
he

c o n s id er s

w a l ls

as

T he

wick e d

ee

wh en

Go d

A d p oen i ten d u m p r o p e r a t,
T w o an d
G o d i s go o d

p u r s u e th
cit o q u i j u d i ca t
t w o a re fo u r

which Ha rri s a n d B ea tti e pro pe rly c a ll i n d e n ite B ro w n e

t e rm s d e n it e N a y he d en o mi n a te s th em th u s f o r t he
v e ry r e a s o n fo r which the o th e r s c all th em i n d e n ite
n a m e ly
b e cau s e the se n ti m en t s a r e alway s tr u e a n d the
t i m e o f th e ir e x i s te n c e n e v e r p e rfe ctly p as t So far i n
r e s p e c t t o M r H arri s s a u t h o rity i n fav o u r o f B ro w n e
,

E T YMOLOG Y

12 3

wh e n he co n ne s the t e r ms d e n it e a n d i n d e n ite to a c t i o n
*
o n ly
B u t I fo rb e ar to pr o s e c u t e thi s co n tr o v e r s y fu rth e r o r
to p o i n t o u t the i n acc u raci e s wi t h which I appr e h en d
I th e r e fo r e
m a n y wri te r s o n thi s s u bj e ct a r e charg ea ble
r
o c ee d to r e vi e w a n d ill u s t rat e t he d o ctri n e o f t he t en se s
p
whi ch I hav e alr e ady o ffe re d
T he pre s e n t ti m e be i n g a s I h av e al r e a dy o b se rv e d a n
as s u m e d s pac e a n d o f n o d e n i t e e x t e n t a s i t m ay b e
e ith e r t he pr e s e n t m i n u t e
the pr e s e n t h o u r the pr e se n t
m o n t h t he pr e s e n t y e ar al l o f which c o n s i s t o f p a rt s it
fo ll o w s t h a t a s the p re s e n t ti m e i s i t s e lf i n de n i t e havi n g
n o r e a l e x i s t e n c e b u t b ei n g a n arbi t rary co nce ti o n o f t he
p
mi n d the t en s e s ign ica n t o f t hat t i m e m u s t b e a l s o i n
d e n ite Thi s I co n c e iv e m u s t b e s u i c ie n tl y e vid en t
H e n c e the pr e s en t t e n s e n o t o n ly a d m i t s b u t fr e q u e n t ly
re q u ire s the d e nitiv e n o w t o lim it the i n t e rv al be tw ee n
pa s t a n d fu t u r e o r to n o t e the p re ci s e po i n t o f ti m e
Ti me p a s t a n d ti m e fu t u re a r e co n ce ive d a s i n n it e ly
T he t e n se s th e r e fo r e
m o r e e x t e n d e d than t he pr e se n t
a r e a l so
s i n ica n t o f t h e s e t w o gra n d di vi s i o n s o f ti me
g
n e c e s s arily i n d e n it e
A gai n a n a cti o n ma y b e e x pre s se d e i t h e r a s n i s h e d
o r a s pr o c ee di n g ; o r it m a y b e t he s u bj e ct o f a fr m a t i o n
wi t h o u t a n y r e fe ren ce to e i t h e r o f t h ese s ta t e s I n E n g
li s h to d e n o t e the c o n ti nu ati o n o f the ac ti o n w e e m pl o y
a n d t o d e n o t e i ts
t he pr e s e n t o r i mp e rfect p a rticipl e
c o mpl e t i o n w e u se the pre t e rit e o r pe rfe ct pa rticiple Wh e n
the te n se s s ign i ca n t o f t he t hr ee divi
n e ith e r i s i m pli e d
r
e gard t o the ac t i o n a s co m l e t e
s i o n s o f ti m e wi t h o u t a n
p
y
a r e u n ifo rm ly e m pl o y e d
o r i m p e rfe ct
W h w y G d i g d I w l d k D Br w wh th r th
v b b d i t i d i t wh th r i t d t p rf t i
i mp f
f r c t
ti
h av
i th r I t p p ar t m that i th r f
i hi
ap p l i cab l ; f th t th v b d t imp l
th t rm i
if app l i ab l
f rmat i
wi t h t i m ;
that th t
i c trary t hi
h
f
t
i
i
i
d

i
t
i
d
c
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i
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.

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e or

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ea o

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on o r

ne

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as

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on

sa

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on, o r

e,

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s,

on

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on or

ec

on

e n

en

12 4

t en s e s th e r e fo re i n de n it e

T he
a re

T YMOLOGY

th e s e :

The
The

P r es e n t
P r eter i te

ti me

to

as

an d

I writ e
I wro t e
I s hall writ e

The F u tu re

ac t i o n

c o m p o u n d t e n s e s a re e q u ally i n d e
fi n it e i n p o i n t o f ti m e ; b u t t h e y d e n o t e e ith e r the c o m
l
e t i o n o r the
o gr e s s o f t he acti o n
r
a n d i n t hi s r e s p e ct
p
p
a r e d e n it e
T he

s ix

fo l l o w m g

I ts p r og r ess

I a m writi n g
I w a s wri t i n g
I s hall b e wri t i n g
I ts p erf ecti o n ,

as

I hav e w ritt e n
I had wri t t e n
I s hall hav e wri t t e n

I a m w r i t i ng
I ha v e w r i t ten
I w r i te
If I s a y
T he r s t i s i nd e n it e a s t t i me a n d acti o n
I wri t e i t i s i m p s s ibl e t as c e rtai n by t he m e re e x
te
r
wh
I
wri
t
e now
I
wri
e s sio n
e t h e r he s ig n i e d
p
I t i s t he c o n
daily o r
I a m a wri t e r i n g e n ral
c o m i t an t circ u m s ta n c e s o n ly e i t h e r e x p r e s s e d o r u n d e r
which c an d e t e r m i n e wha t par t o f t he pre s e n t
s to o d
t i m e i s i mpli ed Wh e n P p e i n tr o d u c e s a l e t t e r to L ady
I wri t e thi s aft e r a
M W M o n t g u e wi t h th e w rd s
i s i t the t e n s e whic h m ark t he ti m o r i s
s e v r e ill n e s s
it n o t t he date o f t he l e t t e r wi t h which the wri t i n g i s u n
d e r s to o d t o b c o n t e m p o rary ? If y u a n d I s h o u ld s e
a p e r so n wri t i n g a n d e i t h e r o f u s sh u ld s ay he writ e s
t he pr o p o s i t i o n w o u ld b e par t ic u lar a n d ti me pr e s e n t
wi t h the s p e ak e r s o b s er v a ti o n w o ld b e u n d e r s t o d b u t
i i t n t e vid e n t tha t i t i s n o t the t e n s e w hich d e ne s t he
e rso n s
r es en t n o w b u t th o bvi o u s circ u m s ta n c e o f t he
p
p
.

es

e,

12 6

E T YMOLOGY
with e q u al pro pri e ty

c ei v e ,

G o d i s p u r s u ing

The

w i cke d

a re

ee n

w he n

I ha v e w r i t ten

pre s e n t c o n ti n u a ti o n o f a n
so
I ha v e w r i tten e x pre s s e s a n a cti o n c o mp l e t e d
a cti o n
i n a ti me s u pp o s e d t o b e c o n t i n u e d t o the pre s en t o r a n
ti o n wh o s e c o n s e q u e n c e s e x t en d to the pr e s e n t ti me A s
a t e n se it d e riv e s i t s charac t e r fr o m t he t e n s e I ha v e
si
g
n i c an t o f pr e s e n t ti m e ; whil e t he pe rfe c t i o n o f the ac t i o n
i s d e n o t e d by t he p e rfe ct p a rticipl e
B u t a s I hav e s h o w n
th a t e v e ry t en se s ign ican t o f pre s en t ti me m u s t be i n
r e gard to ti m e
i n d e n i t e s o thi s t en se co m po u n d e d o f
t he pr e se n t t e n se I ha v e m u s t in thi s r e s p ect b e th e r e fo r e
i n d e n ite
Lo wth Pri e s tle y B e atti e H a rri s a n d se v e ra l o th e r s
h a v e a s sign e d it t he n a me o f the pr e t e rite d e n it e a n d I
Bro w n e
w r o te th e y hav e t e rm e d the pr e t e rit e i n d e n it e
hav e r e v e r s e d t hi s d e n o m i n a ti o n
a n d o n e o r t w o o th e r s
N o w th a t I w r o te d o e s n o t o f i t s e lf d e n e what p a rt o f
p a s t ti me i s s pec i e d appe ar s t o m e v e ry e vid e n t Thi s
i s i n d ee d ad m itt e d by t h o s e w ho c o n t en d f o r t he d e n it e
Why th en d o t h e y c al l it a d e
n a t u r e o f thi s t e n s e
n ite t e n s e ? b e ca u s e th e y sa y it ad m it s a d e nitiv e
t e r m by the aid o f which it e x pr e s se s the pr e ci se

a
ti me a s
I w ro t e y e s t e rday
w ee k a g o
la s t
wh e re as w e can n o t s ay
I hav e writt e n y e s t e r
m o n th

N o w a s I r e m ark e d b e fo re t hi s a pp ea r s t o m e a
d ay
p e r v e r s i o n o f l an g u age ; fo r w e d o n o t d e n o mi n ate that
t e rm d e n ite which re q u ire s a d e n itiv e to r e n d e r it p re
Why hav e the t e r m s the this tha t b e en call e d
c is e
d e n i ti v es ? I s it b ec a u s e th e y a d m it a d e ni n g t e r m ?
o r i s it n o t be ca u se th e y li m it o r d e n e t he i m p o rt o f
gen e ra l t e r m s ? I co n c u r th e re fo re w ith the a u th o r o f

i n t he
N o u v e ll e E n cycl o p di e
A o ri s t
the articl e
w h e n he ridic u l e s a M r D e m a n d r e f o r givi n g the cha
r a c t e r o f d e n it e t o a t e n s e which m a r ks pa s t ti me i n d e
n ite ly Thi s c e rt ai n ly i s a p e r v e r s io n o f t erms
As I

am

w r i ting

d e n nt e s the

E T YMOLOG Y

12 7

Wh e n w e m ak e u s e o f the a u x iliary v e rb sa y s D r
Pri es tl e y w e ha v e n o id ea o f a n y ce rt ai n p o rti o n o f ti m e
i n t e rv e n i n g b e tw ee n the ti me o f a cti o n a n d the ti me o f
s pea ki n g o f it ; the ti me o f acti o n b e i n g so m e p e ri o d th a t
I hav e thi s y ea r t hi s m o r n i n g
e x t e n d s to the pr e se n t a s
writt en s po k en i n the sa m e y e a r the sa me m o r ni n g ;
wh e re a s s pe aki n g o f a n a c t i o n d o n e i n a pe ri o d pa s t w e
I wr o te i n ti ma ti n g th a t
u se the pr e t e rit e t e n se a n d sa y
a c e rta i n p o rti o n o f ti me i s pa s t b e tw ee n t he ti me o f a cti o n

T o the s a me p u rpo se
a n d the ti me o f s p e a ki n g o f it
G ram
n ea rly a re t he w o rd s o f the a u th o r o f t he a rticl e

I ha v e w r i tten
ma r i n the E n cycl o p edi a B ri t an n ica
i s a lway s j o i n e d wi t h a p o r t i o n o f tim e w hi ch
s a y s he
i n cl u d e s the pr es e n t n o w o r i ns ta n t f o r o t h e rwi se it c o ul d
no t s ign i fy a s it al w ay s d o es the pr e s e n t po s se s si o n o f the
ni s hi n g o f a n a cti o n B u t the a o ri s t which s ign i e s n o
s u ch po s s e s s i o n i s a s c o n s t an t ly j o i n e d wi th a po rti o n o f
pas t ti me which e x cl u de s the pre se n t n o w o r i ns ta n t Th u s
w e sa y
I ha v e w r i tten a l e tt e r thi s d ay
thi s w e e k &c
b u t I w r o te a l e tt e r y e s t e rday ; an d t o i n t e rch a ng e th e se
e x r etss i o n s w o u ld b e i m pr o p e r
p
T he e x plan ati o n which th e s e gr am m ar i a n s h a v e gi v e n o f
the t e n s e I ha v e w r i tten app e a r s t o m e pe rfe ctly c o rr e ct
th a t th o u gh the i n t e rval be tw ee n the
a n d I w o u ld add
ti me o f acti o n a n d the ti m e o f s pe aki ng o f it m ay b e co n
s id e ra b l e ; y e t if the m i n d i n c o nse q u e n c e o f the e ff e ct s
be i n g e x t en d ed to the pr e se n t ti me s h o u ld c o n c ei v e n o
ti me to hav e i n te rv en e d thi s t en s e i s u ni fo rmly em pl o y e d
Th a t the a o ri s t e x cl u d e s the pre se n t i n s ta nt i s e q u ally
o f be i n g j o i n e d
a s t he lat
a po rti o n o f t i m e
ot
e t e l a p se d
s an a s s e rti o n by n o
i
y

m e an s c o rr e ct fo r I c an s a y
I wro te to day o r t hi s

day a s w e ll a s I ha v e w r i tten
I di n e d t o day

s ay s
Swi ft
with M r S ecr e tary St J o h n
I to o k

t he p a rk to day
I w al k e d p u re ly
5 mo r n i n g w ith M r
,

E T YMOLOGY :

12 8

S ec re tary ab o u t s o m e b u s i n e s s
N u m be rl e s s o th e r e x a m
l
e s m ight b e pr o d u c e d i n w hich thi s t e n se i s j o i n e d wit h
p
a p o r t i o n o f ti m e n o t wh o lly e lap se d
What t h e n it m ay b e a sk e d i s t he di ff e re n c e
thi s a n d the t e n s e which i s t e r m e d t he pr e t e rit e d e n i t e ?
I s hall e n d e a v o u r t o e x plai n i t t h o u gh i n d o i n g t hi s I
m a y be cha rg e abl e wi t h r e p e titi o n
W h en a n acti o n i s d o n e i n a ti me c o n ti n u o u s t o
pr e s en t i n s ta n t w e e mp l o y t he a u x iliary v e rb Th u s
n i s hi n g a l e t t e r I s a y I hav e writ te n m y l e tt e r

os ses s ( n o w ) t he n i she d a ct i o n of w r i t i n g a l e t t e r
p
A g a i n : Wh e n a n acti o n i s d o n e i n a s pa ce o f t i m e
which t he m i n d a s s u m e s a s pr e se n t o r wh en w e e x pre s s
o u r i mm e diat e p o s s e s s i o n o f thi n g s d o n e i n that s pac e w e
I ha v e thi s wee k wri t t e n s e v e ral
u s e t he a u x iliary v e rb

l e tt e r s
I ha v e n ow the p erf ectio n of w r i ti ng s ev era l
l e tte r s n i sh e d thi s w e e k
A g a i n : Wh e n an a cti o n ha s b e en d o n e l o n g a g o b u t
the m i n d i s s t ill i n p o s s e s s i o n o f i t s c o n s e q u en c e s th e s e
havi n g b e en e x t e n d e d to the pr e sen t t i m e u n c o n s ci o u s o r
r e gardl e s s o f the i n t e r v al b e tw e en the ti me o f acti n g a n d
Th u s
t he ti m e o f s p e a ki n g w e u s e t he a u x ili a ry v e rb
I lik e o th e r s h av e i n my y o u th tr i ed with my h e al t h

n all t h e s e
a n d o l d a e n o w p r e m a t u rel y a s s ail s m e
I
g
ca s e s th e re i s a cl e ar r e fe r e n c e t o p r e s e n t ti me I ha v e
m u s t i mply pr e s e n t p o s s e s s i o n a n d that the ac t i o n e ith e r
Thi s
a s n i s h e d o r pr o c e e di n g i s pr e s e n t to the s p e ak e r
m u s t b e ad m itt e d u n l e s s w e s u pp o s e that the t e r m ha v e
ha s n o a p pr o priat e o r d e t e r mi n a t e m e a n i n g
O n the o th e r ha n d the a o ri s t e x cl u d e s all id e a o f the
pr e se n t i n s tan t I t s u pp o se s an i n t erval to hav e e lap s e d
b e tw een the ti me o f the a cti o n an d the ti me o f s p e aki n g o f
it ; the acti o n i s r e pr e s en t e d a s l e avi n g n o thi n g b ehi n d it

th a t h o r l a t q
T h ph ra l gi
t d j tly b rv
d app ar
har h t th
c d i gly awkwa d b t l i ttl att t i
w i ll
f c t
h w that th y c rr ctly hi b i t th i d i mpl i d b y th
t
whi h w h av t p r t d r c i d rati
s eo o

es e

e e a r, a n

su

en s e

o s

e s , as

ex ee

e a

es en

ex

un

uo e

o ns

on.

us

e as

se
e

es,

a re

en

on

E T YMOLO GY

1 30

c e d en o t e the pe rfe cti o n o f a n acti o n a n d th u s

t o b e d e n it e
t h o u gh i n i t s r e al i mpo rt it b e sig
n e ith e r o f c o m pl e ti o n n o r i m p e rfe cti o n
an d
re ga rd to a cti o n i s i n d e n it e Thi s see ms to b e the
r a c te r o f t he t e n s es
I w r i te I w r o te I s ha l l w i te

tr u ly call s I w ro te a n d
M r H arri s s ay s Bro w n e
I w r i te in d e n i te s al t h o u gh the m a n w ho w r ote ha s w r i t
t en that i s
a n d t he man w ho
t he a cti o n i s p e rfe ct e d
w r i t es i s w r i ti ng th a t i s the acti o n i s i mpe rfe ct
b u t the
pe rfe c t i o n a n d i m pe rfe cti o n t h o u gh it b e i m pli e d n o t
b e i n g e x pr e s s ed n o t be i n g bro u ght i n t o vi e w ( to d o which
the a u x ili a ry v e rb i s n e c e s sa ry )
n o r i n t e n d e d t o b e so

s u ch t e n se s a r e pr o pe rly c all e d i n d e n i t e s
Th o u gh I am p er s u a d e d th a t H arri s an d B ro w n e
th o u gh th e y c o n c u r i n d e s ig n i n g c e rt a i n t e n se s i n d e n i t e
a re i n pri n cipl e by n o me a n s a gr ee d
e t t he o b s e r v ati o n s o f
y
the latt e r wh en he c o n ne s t he t e r m s to a cti o n a pp e ar to
m e i n co n tr o v e rtibl e
I w o u ld o n ly re m a rk th a t it i s n o t
the pr e s en c e o f the a u x ili a ry a s Br o w n e c o n c e iv e s which
i s n e c e s sa ry t o d e n o t e the co m pl e ti o n o f the acti o n b u t
the i n tr o d u cti o n o f the pe rfe ct p a rticipl e
N ay I a m
p e r su ad e d th a t a s it i s the partici p l e i n i ng a n d thi s
o n ly
w hich d e n o t es t he pr o gr e s s i o n o r c o n ti n u ati o n o f
the acti o n
t hi s circ u m s t a n c e i n e v e ry o th e r phra seo l o gy
b ei n g i n fe rre d n o t e x pre s s e d s o I a m e q u ally c o n v i n ce d
t h a t it i s t he p e rfe ct p a rticipl e o n ly which d en o t e s the
c o m pl e ti o n o f the acti o n ; an d that if a n y t en se n o t co m
p o u n d e d o f thi s p a rticipl e e x pre ss the s am e id ea it i s by
i n fe r en c e an d n o t di r e ctly A cc o rdi ng to thi s vi e w o f
t he m a tt e r a cl e a r a n d s i m pl e a n al o gy s u b s i s t s a mo ng the
t e n se s ; th u s
en

Fi r s t c l a s s

I w rit e
I wro t e
I sh all w rite

S eco n d

I a m writi n g
I w a s writi n g
I sh all b e w riti ng

Thi r d

I h a v e writt e n
I ha d writte n
I s h all h a v e w ritt e n

E T YMOLOGY

1 31

if the p ro gr e s s i o n o r the pe rfe cti o n o f a n acti o n

pas t o r fu t u r e b e al l the p o s s ibl e vari a ti o n s
a s pr e se n t
a n d if th e se b e e x pr e s se d by the se c o n d an d th i rd cla s se s
it fo llo w s that if th e r e b e a n y pre ci s e di s ti n c t i o n be tw e en
th e se an d the r s t cl a s s o r u n l e s s the l a tt ei b e wh o lly s u
di
ff
t
i
e r s i n t hi s fr o m the s e co n d a n d third
e rn u me r a r
y
p
that whil e they e x pr e s s e ith e r th a t the a cti o n i s p r o
re ss i v e
o r th a t it i s c o m pl e t e
t
e r s t ha s n o r e fe r e n c e
h
g
to i t s pe rfe cti o n o r i mpe rfe cti o n
N o w,

,
,

'

I was

g
Thi s t en se lik e I w r o te i s in po i n t o f ti me i n d e n ite
b u t i n r e s pe ct t o a cti o n it i s d e n it e
I t d e n o te s that a n
a cti o n w as pr o c e edi n g i n a ti me p as t w hich ti m e m u s t b e
d e n e d by so me circ u ms tan ce e xpres se d o r u n d e rs to o d
,

w r it in

I ha d w r itten
Thi s a s a t en se d e ri v e s i ts ch a rac te r fr o m the pre te rit e
H a d be i n g
o f the v e rb t o ha v e i m plyi n g pa s t po sse s s i o n
thi s t en se i n re ga rd to ti me m u s t t h e re fo re be
a n a o ri s t
i n d e n it e I n r e s pec t to acti o n it i s d e n it e i m plyi n g
that the a cti o n w a s n i s h e d A s the a o ri s t e x pre ss e s
ti m e p a s t a n d by i n fe r en c e the p e rfe c t i o n o f t he a cti o n
whil e the l a tt e r circ u ms t an c e i s a dditi o n ally d e n o te d by
the p a rticipl e thi s co m po u n d t e n se i s e m pl o y e d to d e n o t e
th a t a n a cti o n w a s p e rfe cte d b e fo r e a n o th e r ac ti o n o r
e v en t
n o w a l s o pa s t t o o k pl a ce
T he charact e r o f t he r e m ai n i n g t e n se s see m s to r e q u ir e
n o farth e r e x pl a n a ti o n
I pr o c ee d t h e re fo re to co n s id e r
n e ce s s ity
c o mma n d s
ho w w e e xpr e s s i n t e rr o gati o n s
po w e r libe rty will a n d so me o th e r a cce s s ary circ u m
s tan ce s
A n i n t e rr o g ati o n i s e x pr e s se d by pl a ci n g the n o mi n a
tiv e a ft e r t he c o n c o rd an t pe r so n o f the t e n se ; th u s Th o u

c o m e s t i s a n a frma ti o n ; C o m e s t th o u ? i s a n i n te r
r o ga ti o n If the t en se be co mpo u n d the n o mi n a ti v e i s
.

E T YMOLOGY

1 32

e r the a u x ili a ry a s
o u c o me ?
lac
d
ft
t
th
a
e
a
D
o
s
H
s
t
p
th o u h e ard
A c o mm a n d e xh o rtati o n o r e n tr ea ty i s e x pr e s s e d by
pl a ci n g the pro no u n o f t he s e c o n d p er so n a ft e r the s i mple
fo r m o f the v e rb a s
,

Write th o u

Writ e

or

or

th o u write

Do

ti me s by

writ e :

Do ye

pe r s o n bein g u n
*
r
w
r
un
be l e t
d e r s to o d ; a s
i te
By the h e lp o f the
w o rd l e t which i s e q u iv a l e n t to p e r m it th o u o r p e r

m it y e
w e e x pr e s s t he p e r s o n s o f t he L ati n an d G r e e k
i m p e r a tiv e s th u s l et me l et u s l et him l et them w r i te
P r es en t n ecess i ty i s d en o te d by the v e rb mu s t th u s
so m e

a nd

v e rb s i mply

the
,

the

mu s t

We

Th o u

must

H e mu s t

must

Th ey

Y e mu st

writ e I

mu s t

Thi s v e rb h a vi ng o n ly o n e t en s e n a mely the pre s en t p a s t

n e c e s s ity i s e x pr e s se d by the pr e t e ri t e d e n it e o f the v e rb
s ign i can t o f t he thi n g n e c e s s a ry a s
,

I c i d r th a t
la g ag grammat ical ly ami d has m r
m d th a
f rm d b y i e i
ca t
B t if
y p
f rm
f
t
h
i
b
y
m
b i c l i d t c l l th
f i mp ra
p
O ly l t hi m b c
t iv m d I hav
bj ct i
i s t t d cal l
lv ?
i nt r gat iv m d ad p t i g al th pr cativ
D t th
h
i
h
t
&
i
i
t
t
a
t
i
v
h
t
a
t
i
v
t g th r wi th th vari
t
th
q
p
d t
i v rb s which
ca i
f rm d b y pr p i ti
ly appr h e d t hat la g g w l d fai l
d a i l iary v b ; I h l d
him t a s ig t h m am
If i t h l d b a k d A g ab ly t y r d tri e f th v rb i m
w h t part f p
f
m
ly
i
g
a
r
a
t
i
h
w
l
d
a
k
v
b
m
t
h
i th
y
p
f ll wi g t c D p t i t t ly imp
t im f g i
i
y
ai d that th v rb i th phr
a rt i ?
i ? W i ll i t b
I h l d a w r that l l m d m taph y i c lly c id r d
i my
ap p h i
q ally i d i cativ Every p ib l f rm f p ch
d
9

oo

e no

os

ou

u s

s es

n o un s , a n

ux

er s

v e,

ou

re

en s o n , e

oo

er

ro

ou

e ec

an

o ns

en

so

an

e,

er

e o

o us

n ua

oc

ou

os

o ns

ou

m the S axo n

ons

v rb I
e

e,

mos

e e

, e

v e u s ou

s se

ons

a re ,

ee

as

er

or

as e s a re

oss

o ur

es e

ou

r ov e

s,

T hi v rb i d iv d f
s

ns a n

e ar

are

r ee

c.

u ,

ns

e,

on

s e n e n es ,

s ns
s

es

oo

o e

e na

or

ou

on ,

re s s o n

ne

x on.

ex

e,

e n s es

ou

on

er o

an

ex

e o

e re

an

e,

a re

ese

ne

so n

s,

oo

e nse s , o r

s es ,

no

on s

can

de beo

E T YMOLOGY

1 34

Or ,

I c o u ld hav e
We c o u ld hav e

Th o u c o u ld s t ha v e
Y e c o u ld hav e &c
,

&0

ritt e n

C o u l d the p re t e rit e o f the v e rb ca n e xpr e s s i n g pa s t

o w e r o r a bility
i
of
t
h
e v e rb
lik
t
s
h
e
h
t
t
e
en
e
m
i
s
p
g
m ay
fre q u e n tly e m p lo y e d to d e n o t e pre s e n t ti m e O f
t h e ir d e n o tin g pa s t ti m e the fo llo wi n g m a y s e rv e a s
e x am l e s
p
C a n y o u c o n s tr u e Lyc o p hr o n n o w ? N o ; b u t o n c e

I c o u ld
May y o u s p e a k y o u r s e n ti me n t s fr ee ly ? N o ; b u t

o n c e I m ight
That th e y lik e wi s e d e n o t e pre s en t ti me I hav e a lre ady
a dd u c e d s u f ci e n t e vid e n c e
M ig ht an d co u l d b e i n g f r e
q u en tly u se d i n c o nj u n cti o n with o th e r v e rb s to e x pr e s s
r
e s e n t ti me
pa
t
lib
e r t y a n d abili t y a r e g e n e rally d e
s
p
I m ight hav e
n o t e d by t he latt e r phr a s e o l o gy ; th u s

writt e n
I c o u ld hav e writt e n
S o m e farth e r o b se r
v a ti o n s r e s p e cti n g t he n at u r e o f th e s e t e n s e s I p u rp o s e to
m ak e wh e n I c o m e to c o n s id e r what ha s b e e n t e r m e d the
s u bj u n ctiv e o r c o nj u n cti v e m o o d
,

I o u ht
We o u ght

P r es en t D u ty o r O bl ig a ti o n
Th o u o u ghte s t
H e o u ght
Y e o u ght
Th e y o u g ht

I o u ght
We o u ght

P a s t D u ty
H e o u ght
Th o u o u ghte s t
Y e o u ght
Th e y o u ght

t0

ri te

hav e
wri t t e n

to

pr e s se d by the v e rb s hou l d Oug ht be i ng

n o w al way s c o n s id e r e d a s a pr e s e n t t e n se
pa s t d u ty i s
e x pr e s s e d by t aki n g the
r
e t e rit e d e n it e o f t he fo ll o wi n g
p
v e rb
H avi n g s h o w n ho w m o s t o f the c o m m o n a cc e s s ary cir
c u m s ta n c e s a r e s ig n i e d i n o u r la n g u age
I pro cee d to
s a me

T he

is

ex

E T YMOLOGY

1 35

plai n ho w w e e xpr e s s t he circ u ms t an c e o f s u ffe ri n g o r

bei n g acte d u po n
T he m an n e r o f d e no ti n g t hi s i n E n gli s h i s s i mpl e a n d
A ll that i s n e c e s sa ry i s to j o i n t he v e rb t o be wi t h
e a sy
the pr e s e n t p a rticipl e if t he s tat e o f s u ff e ri n g b e i m p e rfe ct
o r pro c ee di n g ; a n d wi t h t he p e rfe ct p a rticipl e
if it be
c o mpl e t e ; th u s
I am
Th o u a rt
H e is
Wri n e n
Th ey a re
We a re Y e a re
P r eter i te
I wa s
Th o u wa s t
He w a s
Wm
en
M
We w e re Y e w e r e
Th ey w e re
ex

'

I h a v e be en I had bee n I s h all be

I m ay b e
I might b e I co u ld be

wri tt e n

If the s t a t e be i m pe rfe ct the pa rtici pl e in i ng m u s t

s u b s t it u t e d ; th u s
T he h o u se i s b u ildi n g
T he h o u se w a s b u ildi n g
Pro g re s s iv e
T he h o u se s hall be b u ildi n g
T he h o u s e i s b u ilt
T he h o u s e w a s b u ilt
Pe rfect
T he h o u s e s hall b e b u ilt
,

be

N e u te r

rb s e xpr e s s i n g n e i t h e r ac t i o n n o r p a s s i o n
ad m it with o u t alt e ri n g th eir s ign i ca ti o n e ith e r phras e
o l o gy ; th u s
I ha v e a r i sen o r I a m a r is en I w a s co me
ve

or

I ha d

co

me

I c o n cl u d e thi s p a rt o f the s u bj ec t with a f e w o b se r v a

tio n s c o n c e r n i n g the s u bj u n ctiv e o r p o te n tial moo d
Va ri o u s di s p u t e s h a v e ari s e n r e s pe cti n g the e x i s t en c e
o t h er
a n d t he u s e o f thi s m o o d ; n o r i s t h e r e pe rhap s a n
y
po i n t i n gram m a r o n which re s p ectabl e a u th o riti e s a r e so
m u ch divid e d
Th a t th e re i s n o t i n E ngli s h a s i n L a t i n a p o t e n t i al
m o o d pro p e rly s o c a ll e d app e ar s to me u nq u e s ti o n abl e
.

1 36

E T YMOLOGY

i n v o lvi n g the v e rb s
e r e fo r e b e t e r m e d a p o t e n t ial
th
o s s u m a n d l i ce t a n d m a
p
y
m o o d ; b u t i n E n gli s h t h e s e acc e s s ary circ u m s ta n c e s a r e
d e n o t e d by the pr e t e rit e s o f t he v e rb s may a n d ca n ; a s
A ma r em

ig n i e s ability

or

l ib e r ty

I mig ht

o r co u

ld l ov e

That th e r e i s n o s u bj un ctiv e mo o d w e ha ve I c o n c e iv e
e q u al a u th o rity t o a s s e rt
If I s ay in Lati n cu m cep i s s et
wh e n he had tak e n the v e rb i s s tric t ly i n the s u bj u n c
tiv e m o d e ; fo r w e r e n o t the v e rb s u bj o i n e d to cu m it
m u s t hav e t ak e n the i n dica t iv e fo r m ; b u t I h e s itat e n o t t o
a s s e r t t h a t n o e x a mpl e c a n b e pro d u c e d i n E n gli sh wh e re
t he i n dicativ e fo r m i s alt e r e d mer ely b e ca u se the v e rb
i s pr e c e d e d by s o me c o nj u n ctiv e p a rticl e
If w e s ay

th o u gh he w e r e rich he w o u ld n o t d e s pi s e the po o r
w a s i s n o t h e r e t u r n e d i n t o w ere b e c a u s e s u bj o i n e d t o
t ho ug h fo r t ho ug h i s j o i n ed to the i n dicativ e m o o d wh e n
the s en ti me n t r e q u ir e s it ; the v e rb t h e r e fo r e i s n o t i n t he
s u bj u n ctiv e m o o d
I n r e s p e ct to wh a t ha s b ee n d e n o m i n at e d the c o n diti o n al
fo r m o f t he v e rb I o b se rv e that the e x i s t e n c e o f thi s
f r m app ea r s to m e highly q u e s ti o n abl e M y r e as o n s a re
th e se
l s t S e v e ral o f o u r g r a m m a rl a n s hav e n o t m en ti o n e d it
a mo n g th e s e a r e the ce l e bra t e d D r Walli s a n d the a u th o r
o f the Briti s h G ra m m ar
2 dl y Th o s e w ho ad m it it a r e n o t a gr ee d c o n c e rn i n g i t s
L o wth a nd J o h n s o n c o n n e it to the pre s en t ten se
e x te n t
whil e Pri e s tl ey e x t e n d s i t to t he pre t e rit e
3 d ly T he e x am p l e which P ri e s tl e y add u c e s o f t he c o n
tho u d r ew with a f e w o th e r s which
d i tio n al pr e t e rit e
m igh t b e m e n ti o n e d a r e ack n o wl e dge d by hi m s e lf to b e s o
s ti ff a n d s o har s h th a t I a m i n cl i n e d t o r egard th e m rath e r
,

'I t b el o n g s

vi c t i q i h w m m cam t ig i fy
ld l
wh t h r i t b t i ctly i th p t tial th b
I mig ht
j ctiv m d I h tak i t f g t d t h t m m d wi th t
h ld l
ll i p i ig i fy I mig ht
ld w ld
i mp ly i g l i t
'

m
m
t
m
l
d
b
S
h
C
J
p
no t

s s, s

oss u

oo
n

vo o ,
,

my p ro

ove, o r

o r cou

un

to

e co .

ee

or

co u

u re ,

e s r

e re

n e

n so n s

ra n e

ou
o

o r s ou

en

o en

a re

a rc

o v e,

o s

e su

or

ou

o es,

an

ce

E TY MOLOGY

1 38

pre s se d th u s
if th o u shal t o r wilt pro s p e r
if t h o u d o i t I s hal l be di
A gai n wh e n w e s a y
it i s e q u ally e vid en t th a t the

if th o u s halt d o it
N o w if t h
c o n s id e re d an d if the i mpo rt o f the
I thi n k it will a pp ea r that
e x pl a i ne d he r e m e m b e r e d
if t
e xpr e s s i o n i s e lliptic a l a n d tr u ly p r o c e e d s th u s

T
h
e s a m e o b s e r v ati o n s
m
w
a
hal
pr
p
r
o
s
e
d
s
t
o
(
y
y
)
app licable t o Shak s p e ar e s phr a s eo lo gy w h en he s a y s

th o u d o pard o n wh o s o e v e r pra y

if damn e d c u s t o m h av e n o t br a z e d it s o it i s o b
s ay s
s u n d e r s t oo d ; f o r if the
i
v i o n s that t he a u xiliary v e rb ma
y
e xp r e s s i o n be cl e a r e d o f the n e g a ti v e t he i n s e rti o n o f t he
if da mn e d c u s to m
a u x iliary cr e at e s n o u n c o u th n e s s ; t h u s

m a y hav e bra ze d it s o
I a m th e r e fo re i n cli ne d to thi n k th a t the c o n diti o n al

fo rm u n l e s s i n t he v e rb to be ha s n o e xi s t en c e in o u r
lan g u age
Th o u gh thi s be n o t s trictly the p ro p e r pl a c e I wo u ld
b e g the r e a d e r s a tt e n ti o n t o a f e w a dditi o n al o b s e rvati o n s
M a n y w rit e r s o f cla s s ic e mi n e n c e e x pr e s s fu t u re a n d
co n t i n g e n t e v en t s by t he pr e se n t t e n s e i n dica t i v e
I n co l
l o q u i al la n g u age o r w h e r e the o th e r fo r m w o u ld ren d e r
the e x pr e s s i o n s ti ff a n d awk w a rd thi s pra ctic e c a n n o t
j u s t ly be r e pre h en d e d B u t w h e r e thi s i s n o t the c a s e the
pr o p e r fo r m in which the n o t e o f c o n ti n g e n cy o r fu t u rity
i s e ith e r e x pr es se d o r u n d e r s t o o d i s c e rt a i n ly pr efe rabl e
Th u s
If th o u n egl ec te s t o r d o e s t u n w illi n gly what I co m

m
ee
l
d
with o cra p s
S ha ksp ea r e
m a n d th ee I will r a ck th
B e tte r I thi n k if th o u shalt n e gl e ct o r d o
If a n y m e mb e r ab s en t s hi m self he s h all fo rfe it a p en n y

Sp ecta to r B ett e r
if a ny
fo r the u se o f the cl u b

m e mb e r a b s en t o r s h all ab s e n t
If the s tage b e co me s a n u r se ry o f fo lly a n d i mp e r ti
S ec
n en c e I s hall n o t be a frai d t o a n i m ad v e rt u po n i t
p
* W h y t hi v b f rm
c pt i i t w l d b
y t expl i

er

s an e x e

o n,

ou

e e as

a n

E T YMOLOGY
ta to r

Pr e fe r ably th u s

1 39

if the s ta ge bec o m e

or

hall

be c o me
I o b s e rv e al so th a t t h e r e i s so me thi n g pe c u li a r a n d
de se rvi n g att e n ti o n in the u se o f t he pr e t e rit e
To
ill u s trat e the r e m a rk I shall tak e the fo ll o wi n g c as e A
s e rva n t c a ll s o n m e fo r a bo o k ; if I a m u n c e rtai n wh e th e r
I hav e it o r n o t I a n s w e r if the bo o k be i n my library
o r if I ha v e t he bo o k y o u r m a s t e r s h a ll b e w e lc o m e to it
if the
b u t if I a m ce rt ai n that I h a v e n o t the bo o k I sa y
bo o k w er e i n m y library o r if I had the bo o k it sh o ul d

H e r e it i s o bvi o u s t hat
be at y o u r m a s t e r s s e rv ic e
wh e n w e u se t he pre se n t t e n se it i mpl i e s u n c e rta i n ty o f
the fa ct ; a n d wh en w e u se the pr e t e rit e it i m pli es a n e
u s al so
a pe r so n at n ight
Th
a ti o n o f i t s e x i s t e n c e
g

w o u ld s ay to hi s fri e nd if it r a in y o u s h all n o t g o
be i n g u n c e rtai n at the ti me wh e th e r i t di d o r did n o t r a i n ;
b u t if o n l o o ki ng o u t he pe rc e i v e d it did n o t r ai n he
w o u ld th en sa y if it r a i n ed y o u s h o u ld n o t g o i n ti
m ati n g that it did n o t r a i n
N ay a n d the villai n s m arch wid e be tw ee n the l eg s a s

u
S ha ksp ea r e
s
o
if t hey had gyv e
Where a s
they

th ey had n o t
ha d i m pli es that
I w ill g o if I ca n my
I n the s a me m an n e r if I sa y
ability i s e x p r e s s e d a s u n c e rt ai n an d i ts d e pe n d en t e v e n t
l eft u n d e t e r mi n e d B u t if I s ay I w o u ld g o if I c o u ld
my i n ability i s e x pr e s sly i mpli e d a n d the d e pe n d en t e v en t
Th u s al so wh e n it i s s aid
if I m ay I will
e x cl u d e d
acc o mpa n y y o u to the th e atre the lib e rty i s e x pre s se d a s
do u btfu l ; b u t wh e n it i s sa id
if I m ight I w o u ld a c

co m pan y y o u t he libe rty i s r e pre se n te d a s n o t e xi s ti n g

I n th u s e x pr es s i n g t he n e gati o n o f t he attrib u t e t he
c o nj u n cti o n i s o ft en o m itt ed a n d the o rd er i n v e rt e d ; th u s

if I had the bo o k o r had I t he b oo k

Were I

A l e x an d e r
I w o u ld acc e p t t hi s o ff e r
s aid P a r m en i o
or
if I w e r e A l e x an d e r I w o u ld a cc e p t
Wer e i s f re
qu en tly u sed fo r w o u l d be a n d ha d f o r w o u l d ha v e ; a s
W b t r D i s rtat i
S
p 2 63
.

ee

s e

s e

o ns ,

E T YMOLOGY

1 40

it w er e i nj u s tic e to d e ny the e x e c u ti o n o f the l a w to an y

i n divid u al
that i s
it w o u ld b e i nj u s tic e
M an y
which ha d b e en blam e abl e i n a p e ac e abl e go v e r n
a ct s
w here ha d
m e n t w e r e e m p l o y e d t o d e t e ct c o n s piraci e s
*
i s p u t f o r w o u l d ha v e H u me s H i s to ry of E ng l a nd
A m big u i ty i s fr e q u e n tly cre a t e d by c o n fo u n di n g fact
wi t h hyp o t h e s i s o r m aki n g n o d i s ti n cti o n b e tw e en d u bi
Th u s if w e e mpl o y
t a ti v e a n d a s se r t iv e phra s e o l o gi e s
if t h o u k n e w e s t
th o u gh
s u ch e x pr e s s i o n s a s th e se

he w a s l e a rn e d
n o t o n ly t o e x pr e s s the c e rtai n ty o f a
fact b u t lik e wi se to d e n o t e a mer e hyp o th e s i s a s o pp o s e d
t o fa ct w e n e c e s s a rily r e n d e r the e x pr e s s i o n a mbig u o u s
It i s by th u s c o n fo u n di n g thi n g s t o tally di s ti n ct t hat
writ e r s hav e been b e tray e d n o t i n t o ambig u ity o n ly b u t
I n e vid en c e o f thi s I gi v e
e v en i n t o palp a bl e e rr o r s
Th o u gh he w e r e divi n ely i n
t he fo ll o wi n g e x a m pl e :
s pir e d a n d s p o k e th e r e fo r e a s t he o r a cl e s o f G o d wi t h s u
pre me a u th o rity ; th o u gh he w e re e n d o w e d wi t h s u p e r
a n d c o u ld
th e r e fo r e h a v e c o n r me d the
n at u ral p o w e r s
tru th o f what he a s s e rt e d by miracl e s ; y e t i n c o mplian c e
w i t h the w a y i n which h u m an n at u r e a n d r e a s o n abl e c re a

t u r e s a r e u s u ally wro u ght u po n he r ea so n e d A tter

bu ry

Ser mo ns

H ere the writ e r e x pre s se s t he i n sp irati o n a n d the s u pe r

o w e r s o f J e s u s n o t a s pr o p e rti e s o r vir t u e s which
n at u ral
p
he r e ally did p o s se s s b u t which th o u gh n o t p o s s e s s i n g
th e m he m igh t b e s u ppo s e d to po s s e s s N o w a s hi s i n
t e n ti o n w a s to a s crib e th e s e virt u e s to J e s u s a s tr u ly be
l o n gi n g t o him he s h o u ld hav e e m pl o y e d t he i n dica t iv e
fo r m w a s a n d n o t w ere a s i n the fo llo wi n g s e n te n c e :
th o u gh he w a s rich y e t fo r o u r s ak e s he b ecam e p o o r

Th o u gh he w er e rich w o u ld i m ply the n o n e x i s t en c e

i n o th e r w o rd s
that he w a s n o t rich
o f t he attrib u t e
A v e ry li t t l e att e n ti o n w o u ld s e rv e to p r e v e n t th e s e
a mbig u iti e s a n d e rro r s If the a ttrib u t e be c o n ce ive d a s
f
h
l
g
y
i
t
h
f
h
l
f
t
i
d
i
c
t
i
v
h
t
t
A im i l
p
p p
bj t iv b t i i L t i
m t
t f r A g li
f d
l t b
I mp l
Vi g i l
,

sa

ar

e n se s u

ra s e o o

unc

u e ra

e, o

er o

a ns

r o

e u se o
n

ca s

e r ec

n, a s,

oe

a re

a e

ras

or

E T YMOLOGY

1 42

gra s s h o pp e r w ho had tri e d a w ay the s u mme r i n

s i n gi n g
if y o u s u n g i n s u mm e r dan c e i n wi n t e r a s
the r s t cla u s e t a k e n by it s e lf l e av e s the m e a n i n g so m e

what ambigu o u s
o u s u ng
w
as
o u ld b e t he be tt er
y
e x pr e s s i o n
t o t he

I R RE G U L A R V E RB S

gen e ral r u l e fo r the fo r mati o n o f the pr e t e rit e

t en s e a n d the p e rfe ct p a rticipl e i s t o add to the pre s en t
t he s yllabl e ed if the v e rb e n d w i t h a c o n so n a n t o r d if
it e n d with a v o w e l a s
T u rn T u rn e d T u r n e d ; L o v e L o v e d L o v e d
V e rb s w hich d e p a rt fro m thi s r u l e a re call e d irre g u lar
o f which I b e li e v e t he s u b s e q u e n t e n u me r a ti o n to be n e a r

l y c o m pl e t e
T HE
,

P r esen t

P r eter i te
A bo de

A bid e
1

Am

Wa s

A r i se

A r o se

P erf ect Pa r ti cip le

A bo d e

B ee n

A ri se n

A wo ke R
A wak e
Bake d
1 B ak e
B e a r t o bri n g fo rth B o re o r B a r e
B o r e o r B ar e
Be a r t o c a rry
! Bea t
B e at
B eg a n
Bec am e
Bec o me
B e h e ld
4 B en d
Ben t R

A w ak e d

Bak e n R
B o rn 1
B o rn e
Be a ten
Beg u n
Be c o me
B e h e ld o r be h o ld en };
B en t R

Wh ere R

add d the verb f l l w als th g eral r l

th pret ri t
f thi v rb
cl d d b
S m h av
W hav
ad mi tt i g i t ; th
t a t h ri ty h wev r f
By m rry i g h w h b re me
D yd
B h ld
i
b l esce t i thi s s e

ci e n

is

e ex

e o

en

s o

so

or e as

e o

er

or

e ,

en

u e

us ,

nse

en

e s uf

P resen t
Be r e a v e
B e see ch

T YMOLOGY

1 43

P r e t e r i te
P erf ec t P a r ticip l e
B e re ft R
B e r e ft R
B e s o u ght
B e s o u ght
Bidd e n
B ad e o r Bi d
Bo u n d
Bo u n d
B itt en Bit
Bit
Bl ed
Ble d
Ble w
Bl o w n
Bro k e o r B rak e
B ro k e n 1
B red
Bre d
Bro u ght
B ro u ght
B u ilt R
B u ilt R
B u rs t
B u rs t
B o u ght
B o u gh t
C o u ld
Ca s t
Cast
C a u ght R
C a u ght R
C hid
C hidd e n
C h o se
C h o se n
Cl av e R
C le a v e d
.

Bit e

re ak
re e d
ri n g

'

u il d

Cho o se
A C l e a v e to s t ick
adh e re
x C l ea v e to s plit
4

or

C l o v e o r cl a v e
cl e ft
Clu n g
C lo mb R
C l a d R {T
,

C li n g
Cli mb
C lo th e

Cl o v e n

or

, or

C l e ft

Cl u n g
C li mbe d
C l ad R

d iam d d the r g w b i t P p
l at ly y g g tl ma b i t t th b
T tt
w b
m
l c t
1 B k
t ad mi tt d th
h
g lar f rm f th pa ti c i
i T h gh J h
i
f
i
f
t
hi
v
r
b
I
t
hi
k
t
h
c
i
t
a
t
h
r
i
ty
c
c
i
g
w
i
t
h
l
p
L wth i c iv i g b i ld d th part ici pl
w ll b i lt th gh i t b
ch g ral
t i
Ch d which cc twic th Bib l i w b l t
d h w
L wth h gi v l mb th pr t ri t f cl i mb I
v r a th ri ty lat r tha Spe ser d m i cl i ed t thi k i t i w
b lt
t Th i rregular pr te i te l d i b l ce t
t

So k ep the
There wa s

on
a

an

ue

en

ou n

as

o e

o ne

er

e s ee

ra

ou

n su

e e

as

no

so e e

e re u

en

s su

as

use

as

e in

en C o

as

o n urr n

or

as

e e

s no

e,

an

c a

s o

s o es

ou

so e e .

c an

u rs

e re

as n o

en e

o e,

s o es e n

n so n

n re e

no

s no

s no

E T YMOLOGY

1 44

P r es en t

P r et e r i t e

Cut

Cut

D urst R

D ar e d

C ut
D a r e , to
1

P erf ect P a r ti cip le

Co me
Co st
C ro w e d
C re p t

C a me
C o st
C re w R
C r e pt

Co me
Co st
C ro w
C ree p
!

D a r e , to

t r
chall e n ge
v en u e

r eg u lar
D e alt R
is

D e al

D e al t R

D ug R

D ug R

Do

D id

D on e

D ra w

D re w

D raw n

! D riv e

D ro v e

D riv e n

ri n k
D w e ll

D ra n k

D ru n k

D w e lt R

D w el t R

Eat

A te

E a ten

Fa ll
Feed
F e el
Fight
Fi n d
Fl ee
Fli e
Fli n g
F o rge t
if
Fo rgo
Fo r s ak e
Fre e ze
Freight

F e ll

Fall e n

F ed

F ed

F e lt
F o u ght
Fo u n d
Fl ed
Fl e w
Fl u n g

Fe lt
Fo u ght
Fo u n d
Fl e d
Fl o w n
Fl u n g
Fo rgo tte n
Fo rg o n e
Fo r s ak e n
Fr o zen
Fre ight e d o r
Fra u ght 1
Go tte n o r Go t

*D i

! D

F o r so o k
Fro z e
Fr e ight e d

'

Gat ,

Ge t

be

no

orwe n

vi lati

b fr

on o

e o e

sa ke ,

Go t

ampl i which the pr t ri t which a al gi c lly w l d

t i t b f
d I t m y b h r r mark d that thi v rb i
i
f
i
t
a
t
f a l gy i g e rally p ll d f
m
t
g
g
Thi i q ally i mpr p r as i t w l d b t wri t f bid f

Ik w

or

no e x
s

na o

o r esw ea r ,

s e

e
,

ou n

ne

rly

e
p

fo r f o r bid , f o r sake,

F r a ug ht i s mo re p

e,

e e

an

e e

o r swe ar

e n

adj ct iv th a parti ci pl
e

or e o , as

ou

ore

ou

o re

E T YMO L O G Y

1 46

P resen t
K n it
Kno w
L ad e

P r eteri te
P erf ect Pa r ti cip l e
K n i t o r K n itt e d
K n it o r k n itt e d
K n o wn
K new
9
L ad e d
L ad e n
L a id l
L aid
.

L ay

L ea d
L e av e
L en d

L ed

L ed

L e ft
L en t

L eft
L en t

L et

L et

L et

L ay
L ift e d o r L ift
L ight ed o r Li t !
L o aded
Lo s t
M ad e
M ight
M e an t R

L i en o r L ai n 1
L ift ed o r L ift
Light e d o r L i t
L o a d e n o r L o ad e d
Lo s t
M ad e

do w n

L i e , t o lie

L
if
t
1
4 L ight
L o ad
Lo se
M ake
c

M ay
M ea n
M ee t
Mo w
M ust

Met
M o we d

M e an t R
M et
M o wn R

Pay

P aid

Pa id

P ut

Put

P ut

Q u it
R ea d
R en d

Q u it
R e ad
R en t

Q u itte d {I Q u it
Rea d
Re n t

or

l ik f g ht m y b d eemed adj ct iv
f
1 Pri tl y I appr h d h err d i gi i g l i as th part i ci p l
t hi v rb
i
t
i
i
t
h
h
g
ra
ll
y
d
l
t de ti t t
f
e
x
L
I
g
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t
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b
a
t
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r
i
ty
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h
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t
h
r
f
r
w
i
t
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h
L
w
t
h
gi
v
J
e
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e
p
i t as th p rt ici pl M rray h mi tted i t
hav r j ect d lit I t
l
a
d
h
w
v
r
c
ll
S m grammari
p
l
i
t
d
g
f
av
r
v th r a th ri ty
I l i t my p i p wi th
i
i
q
A dd i
the pap r
W i th Pri tl y d L wth I hav giv thi v rb a r g lar part i
i pl
f whi ch I b el i ev t h e i
f c i t a th ri ty wi t h t add c i g
th exam p l
f Sh k p
e
M os t t h r g amma ia hav rej ct d i t
ral ly d th pret ri t tha q i t
1T Q i tt d i f mo g
L ad en ,

es

no

as

en

an

u sa

u se

as

v n

son

a n

e o

an

e,

ar

no

une

u e o

n so n an

e en o

ca n

e e

o u , an

e o

as o

a n,

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e,

or

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es

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ear

re

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re

s su
o

u se

en

en

e u

ou

as

ns

E TYMOLOGY
Pr esen t

1 47

P r eter i te
R o d e o r Ri d

P erf ect P a r ti cip l e

3
Rid
o r Ridd e n
.

Ri d

R id

R an g,

R u ng

or

R un g

R o se

R i se n

R iv e d

R iv en

Ro a ste d

Ro asted,

R o tt e d

R o tt e n R

R an

Run

Saw ed
Said

Sa w n R
Said
S ee n
So u ght
S o dd en
S o ld
Sent

Saw

So u gh t
S ee th ed
S o ld
Sen t

Sha v e
Sh e d
Shi n e

Sod

or

Set

Set

Sh o o k
Sh o u ld
Shap e d
Shav e d
Sh o re
Sh e d
Sh o n e R

Shak e n :2

R oa s t l

or

Shape n R
Shav en R
Sh o r n
Sh ed
Sh o ne R

Pri tl y h s j ct d id d M rray idde s th parti ci pl

m k
f id
whi l J h
id th p r t ri t
t d
A id is th pr
f a t h r v rb i t w l d p rh ap b be t t r t d i m i
it
p t ri t
d c j g t w i th Pri tl y
e t i r ly fr m th verb t
ide
id
d
e

nso n

es

re e

no

es

an

ou

e o

e e

re e

s,

e,

o n u a e,

an

s r

n,

es e n

es

ss

e,

an

ro e :

t
t
h
t
ra
l
a
t
r
i
b
l
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d
h
B
e
f
t
1
p f t p arti c i p l
I t hi
i t i al m t b l t R t b ef r tai i t gr d
wa ra tab ly a t d that th
I S t ry i hi G rammar h m t
i
f
ar
t
i
c
i
l
t
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v
r
b
h
l
d
d
T
hi
w
r
d
c rt i ly b l t
b
h
k
p
p
d I appr h d w
v r i g ral
I hav b ab l t d ly
dc
A ly
ta t k av
amp l
f hk d
th part i c i p l
t
th pr t ri t
t b
hak d Sh k p
Th y h k d
A d tw
th ir h ad
I h ked my h ead St l Sp t t
P s l xi 2 5
N iv

O ur

s s ens e
o

o ne e x

as

s a

u se

r oa s

o as

un

os

e s a

use

as

ns

er e c

o un

s s er e

on s

an

e e

e,

s o e e,

ee e ,

on

e, n o

ec a or ;

a n

een

e,

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ea r e .
.

as

ou

as n e e

so e e
,

en

e o

e s

e o

an

os

o s o

ns

E T YMOLOGY

1 48

P r es en t
Sh e w
Sh o w
Sh o e
Sh o o t
4 Shri n k
Shr e d
Sh u t
Si n g
Si
nk
!
Sit
Slay
Slee p
Slide
4 Sli n g
Slin k
Slit
e
S
m
it
f

P r eter i te
P erf ect P a rticip l e
Sh e w e d
Sh e w n
Sh o w e d
Sh o w n
Sh o d
Sh o d
Sh o t
Sh o t
*
Shran k o r Shr u n k Shr u n k
Shre d
Shr e d
Sh u t
Sh u t
San g 1 o r S u n g S u n g
San k o r S u n k
S unk
Sat
Sitt en i o r Sat
Sl e w
Slai n
Sl e pt
Sl e pt
Slid
Slidd en
Slan g o r Sl u n g Sl u n g
Slan k o r Sl u n k Sl un k
Slit R
Slit o r Slitt e d
S mo t e
S mitt e n
So wed
So wn R
Sp o k e o r Spak e Sp o k e n
S pe d
S pe d
Sp e n t
Sp en t

'

So w

S p e ak
Spe e d
Sp e n d

h
i
w m r g
t
t
r
i
t
l
tt
r
r
lly
d
O
p
d th f rm r
f th B i b l
h
t
d
t
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t
L
ra
y
M
h
A M rray h r j ct d
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p
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T h am
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tl
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p
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S
'

B l h m Hi t
th y ar &
w i tt
f d i patch h av cal l d t g th r
A d h w l d g l ad ly f th ak

d r hi fath r H m l vi
m p arl iam t whi ch h d itt
th

th
tra lat r
Of

sa n

en ,

1
99
p
.

on o

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en

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cti g th p t ri t whi ch h
ly t
k i t w l d b b tt r w r th f rm r
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E T YMOLOGY

1 50

P r ete r i te
Thr ew
Thr u s t
Tr o d
Wa x e d
W a sh e d

P erf ect Pa r ti cip l e

Thr o w n
Thr u s t
Tr o dd e n

D E F E C TI V E

V E RB S

T HE S E a s L o wth o b s e r v e s ar e ge n e ra lly n o t o n ly d e fec

tiv e b u t al so irr eg u lar a n d a r e chi e y a u xiliary ve rb s
,

P r es en t
M u st

P r eter i te

M ay

M ight

Q u o th

Q u o th
C o u ld
Sh o u ld

C an

Sh all
Was hen

P erf

P a rticip l e

e ct

b l c e t i f t b l t Th c m p d w h
cc r i
tra l ati f th Bib l
d
tr lat r f th Bib l h av
d w i d d th p
1 P p
Th
t it
th f rm h w v r i i f m g r l
w
t
i
t
t
h
d
ar
t
i
c
i
l
g
ra
lly
d
i
d
l
i
k
w
i
W
i
1
p
p
f
T h l tt r w
d
r
t
r
i
t
b
y
P
w
i
t
t
h
r
wr
i
t
f
d
S
p
p
th
am p ri d
o

n our

u s

e o

ro e
,

e s

as

an s

e,

as

no

o s o

as u se

our

er

so es
on o

ns

e , an

er

s ee m s o

e e

so e e

un

en

as

ar

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en e a

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an

an

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en e

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se

e rs o

E T YMOLOGY
P r esen t
*
Wit o r Wo t
W ill 1
Wi s
O u ght

P r eter i te

1 51

P e rf

P a r ticip l e

ect

Wo t

Wo u ld
Wi s t

Wi t i s n o w co n n e d

t
b
h
ra
l
I
t
w
i
i
b
t
m
y
p
gl Sax v rb p c t k w
a i l iary i i i bl ; th w y he w i ll g
to the

se

, o r na

s an a

re

fr m th A
1 Thi v rb
d h w i ll t g

i
w
thi k
i magi
t
t
I T hi v rb w hich ig i
b lt
Thi v rb i w d
ig i ca t f pr t d ty I t w rigi
d th p rf ct p t i c i p l e f th v rb t
lly th pr t ri t
w ;
d i
c rr p t d ly d i S tla d ti ll t pr
a
t
d
b
t
r
h
d
A
p
pp
ca i I wi ll d d a c ti a c t that happ y m ti
i g th
d
f th l v
m tri b t
d d ty I l g h av
b i d giv y
gh t

m
l
S
p
y
Th i b l d w hi h m b y tr a
gh t

That f l l wed i which t m yself I gh t D y d

I t i w d i th pr t t
ly ; d w h p t d ty
bl i
m
m
t
h
t
i
f
m
i
t
ig
i

d
w
t
I
r
r
ly
t
i
d
t
t
i
b
s
g
p

f th
b y th pr t ri te t
b q t v rb th
I gh t t r ad
I gh t t hav r d Th cl i c l ch lar k w that th r v r
d b i l g
tak p lac i Lat i
lg
C ic r h w v r
D b
f th i i t i v aft r th
th pr t ri t
th gh very ra ly i d d
f
r
t
r
i
t
t
t
hi
v
b
e
p
th t m t d ght h av b th pr t d pa t
M rray h t l d
ig i cati
d i pr f f thi h add c
th f ll wi g
am pl

H m t have b e m i tak
I m t w n that I m t b lam
Sp aki g thi g whi ch th y
gh t t
Th
gh t y t h av
d I v ri ly b l i v
d
T hi i t ly tra g
i g lar p i i
ma i f t th at v ry r ad r f d i c r m t m t i
I t i acc racy i
Th pi i
it lf i d d i t m
rpri i g
t i ti l y p rc iv i t
tha th gr d
which i t i mai tai d b y th a th r I t r ly
q ir b t m d rat p rt i f gac i ty t p rc i that th p t t i m
i th
c d d f rth mpl i t d t d b y m t d g ht

b t b y th
d
I
i
h
av
b
h
av
d
L
a
t
i
I
e
n
p
hav j t b rv d
d d ty
r
d
i
t
h
r
r
t
i ty
p
p
f
t
h v rb d
t
t
ti g th havi g th th r c rr p d t
p
d th bj ct f th
t
c i ty d ty i pr e d c t m
;
E
h
h
t
l
a
t
i
v
ly
r
t
g
l
i
h
t
c
t
rar
y
t
w
v
r
b
I
e
p
y
p
v iati o n

an

as an

o.

o-

on

ux

an ,

ex

no

us

sa

o,

"

es

or

n e,

no

s o e e.

na

use

es

so

s no

oo

ou

e s

one

es

e se o n

as

us

r
o
,

e n ses
o rar

s so

e o

or o

ou

e o

e o,

e er e .

e se

e e

es n

ee

ex

esse

on

s n

as

ee

s ex

ess
,

e,

an

re

as

su e

on

n on

su

us

us

one

or

o re

en

en

e v e,

e se

s no

eno e

are

s e n

es

e, a s n

an

no

ex

es e o u

ne

e n e es s

an

sa

es ,

en o

an

e n

se

es e n

us

no

n on

es

e xa

e, a n

ou

ou

on o

ne cess

o ne

no

e e

ou

u u re ,

o r re

es

re s s o n s

se

an

e o

as

u s,

e a

on

an

e ex

a s

er e,

s,

ru

en

an

us

en

en

oo

u s es

ee

o un

u en

as s

e eo

er

se

e ou

on

u s,

ve

o n , an

an

e ns e o n

su

o n , an

as

us

en

ou

e n o e , as

ea

ns e o

an

e an

o o

e s en

re

ou

e so n s o u

r
s
,
,

e e

en

en s e o

es

as

es s a

nu

on

o ex

u e o

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ar

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on

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es

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es

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on

en

on e

E T YMOLOGY

1 52

O F I M P E RS O N A L VE RBS

di sti n ctiv e charact e r o f i mp e r so n al v e rb s ha s b e en

o me
a s u bj e ct o f e n dl e s s di s u t e a m o n g gra m m arian s
S
p
d en y th e ir e x i s t e n c e i n t he l ear n e d lan g u age s a n d o t h e r s
o s i t iv e ly a s s e rt it
S
as
o m e d e n e th e m to b e v e rb s d e
p
v o id o f the tw o r s t p e r s o n s ; b u t thi s d e n iti o n i s e v i
d e n tl y i n c o rr e ct : f o r a s P eri z o n i u s a n d F r i s c hl in u s o h
be
s e rv e thi s m a
a r e a s o n f o r calli n g t hem d e fe ctiv e b u t
y
n o t f o r n am i n g
them i mpe r s o n al v e rb s O t h e r s hav e
d e n e d th e m to be v e rb s t o w hich n o c e rtai n p e r s o n a s
t he s u bj e c t c an b e pr e x e d
B u t with the di s c u s s i o n o f
t hi s q u e s t i o n a s it re s p e ct s the l e arn e d la n g u age s the
I pro c e ed th e r e
E n gli s h gra m m aria n ha s n o c o n c e r n
fo re to o b s e rv e t hat i m p e r s o n al v e rb s a s the n a m e i m
p o rt s a r e t h o s e which d o n o t ad mit a p e r s o n a s t h e ir
Th e ir r e al charact e r s e e m s t o b e that th ey
n o m i n ativ e
a s s e rt the e x i s t en c e o f s o m e acti o n o r s tat e b u t r e fe r it to
I n E n gli s h w e hav e v e ry fe w i m
n o par t ic u lar s u bj e ct
p e r so n al v e rb s T o thi s d en o mi n a ti o n h o w e v e r m a y ce r
t a i n l y b e r e fe rr e d i t behav e th i t i r keth e qu ival e n t to i t
i s the d u ty i t i s p a i n
u l ly w e a r i s o me
That
t
h
e fo r m e r o f
f
t h e se v e rb s w a s o n c e u se d p e r s o n ally w e hav e su fcie n t
a n d it i s n o t i m pr o b a bl e tha t t he l a tt e r al s o w a s
e vid e n c e
s o e m p l o y e d th o u gh I h a v e n o t bee n abl e to n d a n e x
Th ey a r e n o w i n v a
a m pl e o f i t s j u n cti o n with a p e r s o n
T HE

havi g ly th pr t t
t th
w
e b l ig d t
m
t
h
t
t
i
m
b
y
l
y
i
g
r
t
r
i
t
t
b
q
t
v
r
b
T
h
f
t
h
p
p
p

t
M i
t
t
m
i
i
t
I
gh
t
I
t
I
M
t
g
p
g
p
A w ll m y i t b af rm d
gh t t h av g
I m t hav g
d
that th p t t i m i d t d b y i
that i t i ig i fi d
t p t it

by m t d t by h v g
f W ll i th t rm m t
I th t i m
r
t
r
i
t
t
a
l
m
t
w
p
h r ma k
A liq
d
b lt
d
i
i p t it di i t
A d wh
h
i t w mpl y d
r
t
i
t
i
t
ll
w
d
b
y
r
t
w
f
t
p
p
t
Thi v rb i G ma h I d t d p t ri te t
mus t

an d o u

as

h
t
g

us

so e e .

as e

er

one

us

as a

se

u en

O or u

u s,

re o or u

s s

as

o no e

no

e ar

e su

us

o ne

r e an

s,

e n s e,

e n se o

o,

en o e

ua n o ,

e e

us

e sen

e o

en

no

an

e n se

as

ou

o n e,

or e ,

ou

re

on

as ,

s,

e er

un

as a

se

e e

r a r us

e,

e rs an

as

a
,

as

en s e ,

r ce er

re e

os

e n se

ur .

e se n

E T YMOLOG Y

1 54

C HAP T E R

ERBS

O F AD V

VII

dv e rb i s th a t part o f s p e e ch which i s j o m ed to a
v e rb adj e c t iv e o r o th e r a d v e rb t o e x pr e s s so m e circ u m
s t an c e q u ali t y d e gr e e o r m a n n e r o f i t s s ig n ic a ti o n ; a n d
h e n c e adv e rb s hav e bee n t e r me d a ttrib u tiv e s o f the se c o n d
o rd e r

A s the attrib u tiv e s hi t h e rt o m en ti o n e d

s ay s
Mr
H arri s v i z adj e ctiv e an d v e rb d en o t e t he attrib u t e s o f
s u b s t an c e s s o t h e r e I S a n i n fe ri o r cla s s o f th e m which d e
n o t e t he a ttrib u t e s o n ly o f attrib u t e s
If I s a y C ic e r o w a s
e l o q u en t
I a s crib e to him t he attrib u t e o f e l o qu e n c e si m ply

an d ab so l u t e ly
if I s a y he w a s e x c e e di n gly e l o qu e n t I
a fr m a n e m i nen t d e gr ee o f e l o q u en c e t he a dv e rb exceed
If I s ay he di e d ghti n g
i ng ly d e n o ti n g that d e gre e
br a v ely f o r hi s c o u n try the w o rd br a v ely here add e d t o

the verb d e n o t e s the m an n e r o f t he acti o n

A n adv e rb
i s th e r e fo r e a w o rd j o i n e d t o a v e rb o r a n y at t rib u tiv e
t o d en o t e s o m e m o dicati o n d e gr ee o r circ u m s ta n c e o f
the e x p r e s s e d attrib u t e
A dv e rb s hav e bee n divid e d i n t o a v a ri e ty o f cl a s s e s
acc o rdi n g t o t h e ir s ign icati o n S o m e o f th o s e which
d en o t e
Q u a l i ty s i m ply ar e W e ll ill brav e ly pr u d en t ly s o ft ly
with i n n u me rabl e o th e r s fo r me d fro m
adj e ctiv e s a n d participl e s
C er ta i n ty o r
Ve rily tr u ly u n d o u bt e dly y ea y e s
c e rtai n ly
A i r ma ti o n
C o n ti ng en ce
P e rhap s p e radv e n t u r e p e rch a n c e
N a y n o n o t n o wi s e
N eg a ti o n
N a m e ly
E xp l a i n i ng
A p art s e p arat e ly a s u n d e r
S ep a r a ti o n
AN

E T YMOLOGY

T o ge th e r gen e rally

Conj u ncti o n
In dica ti o n
In ter r og a ti o n
Excess

Lo

emi n ence

E qu a l i ty

Un li ken ess

or

A ba temen t

or

or

T0

in

To w a r d s
Fr o m

onl

th e rwi se

r ly h a rdly

sca c e

l
a ce
p

l
a ce
p

to - d a y

ow,

Y e s t e rday b e fo re h e re t o fo r e
,

a st

a re a

hith e rt o lat e ly
h e r ea ft e r pre sen tly
T o m o rr o w
m e diat ely aft e rward s
-

u tu r e

O ft e n

se

dy

im

Rep eti ti o n of
ti mes i n de
f

th e re wh e r e
H ith e r thith e r whith e r
H ith e rward thith e rward whi t h e rward
H e n ce th e n c e wh en c e

Ti me p r esen t
p

q u ally

a s, e

H e re ,

a ce
l
p

a ce ,
l
p

P i e ce m e a l ,

G r a d a ti o n
T0

th u s

So ,

E l se ,

In eq u a l i ty

Why wh e r e fo re wh en ho w
Ve ry e x c ee d in gly to o m o r e be tt e r
w o r s e be s t w o r s t
A l mo s t n e arly l e s s l eas t
R ath e r chi e y e s pec i a lly
,

Pr ef er en ce
Li ken es s o r

i r ally

u n ve s

P re

or

1 55

ldo m fre q u e n t ly
,

O n c e twic e thric e a ga i n
*
Fir s t s e co n dly t hirdly &0
M u ch littl e e n o u gh s u fci e n t ly

D e n i tel y

O r der

Q ua n ti ty

i n q u iri n g i n t o the m e an i n g a n d e ty m o l o gy o f ad
v e rb s i t wi ll ap p e ar t ha t m o s t o f th e m ar e abbr e via t i o n s
Th u s br a v ely
o r c o n trac t i o n s f o r t w o o r m o r e wo rd s

i s pr o bably d e riv e d by a b b r e
i n a brav e m a n n e r
or
fro m br a ve l i ke w is ely fro m w is e li ke hap p ily
v i a tio n
fro m hap py l i kes f M r T o o k e i n d e e d ha s pro v ed a s I
d b y m w ri t r
F i t ly i
l
l
t
m
i
t
i
i
t
va
l i t p p li viri l i l i c l gi
m
i
i
D
1
&
ti m I l i m ri
Ha c t mi ti
m h di
p p l i m l i bri
i l ik
l ly
l g d ly
I I i k i i Th
m t im
t i g d l ik
T h c rr t
f thi
ha b
c trov rt d b y M G l
p l a at i
On

u s,

u av

rs

s u se

en o

na

ae

us

so

e ve

e c n e ss o

e s

n an u r

er

nu s,

s ex

ce, u

c ve

s,

e ve

on

ee n

er

na

on

es

s , re

one

es

r.

1 56

E T YMOLOG Y

c o n c e i v e i n c o n tro v e rtibly that m o s t o f th em are e ith e r

c o rr u pti o n s o f o t her w o rd s o r abbre v i a ti o n s o f phr a s e s o r
o f s e n t en c e s
O n e t hi n g i s c e rt a i n that the a dv e rb i s n o t
a n i n di s p en s abl e part o f s p e e ch
a s it s e rv e s m e r e ly t o e x
pr e s s i n on e w o rd what p e rhap s w o u ld o th e rwi se r e qu ire
t w o o r m o r e w o rd s
Th u s
,

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E T YMO LOGY

1 58

w o rd s w o u ld p e rp e tu ally b e wan ti n g to e x pr e s s n e w id e a s
I t i s n o t th e re fo re pro babl e t hat whil e t h e y w e r e u n de r
the n e c e s s ity o f fram i n g n e w w o rd s
to a n s w e r t he e x i
en ce s o f m e n tal e n larg e m e n t
whil
t
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n
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o n th e ir i n v e n ti o n w e re i n c e s s an tly r e c u rri n g
th ey w o u ld
i n additi o n t o thi s e n c u m b e r th e m s el v e s with t he idl e
an d u n n e c e s s ary t a s k o f fo r m i n g n e w w o rd s t o e x pr e s s
n o thi n g
Bu t i n tr u t h H arri s hi m s e lf yi e ld s t he p o i n t wh e n he
s ay s
t hat pre p o siti o n s w h en c o mp o u n d e d tran s fu s e s o m e
thi n g o f t h e ir m e an i n g i n t o the c o m po u n d f o r t h e y c an
n o t tran s fu s e what th e y d o n o t c o n t ai n
n o r i m part wha t
th e y d o n o t p o s se s s T hey m u s t th e re fo r e be th em se lv e s
s ign ican t w o rd s
B u t i t i s n o t so m u ch th e ir m e a n i n g with which t he
gr amm arian i s co n c e rn e d a s t h e ir s y n tactical charact e r
t h e ir capacity o f affe cti n g o th e r w o rd s o r b ei n g affe ct e d
by th e m I n b o th th e s e light s h o w e v e r I p u r po s e to
c o n s ide r th e m
T he n ame o f pr e p o s iti o n ha s b ee n a s sign e d to th em
be ca u s e they g en e ra lly pr e c e de th eir r egi men o r the w o rd
n
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u te d
so m e gra m m arian s d e t e r m i n i n g a gr e a t e r a n d s o m e
p
a l e s s n u m b e r Thi s i n d ee d o f it se lf affo rd s a c o n cl u s iv e
pr o o f that the chara ct e r o f th e s e w o rd s ha s n o t bee n
cl e arly u n d er s t o o d ; fo r i n t he o th e r part s o f s p e e ch
n o un
a dj e cti v e a n d v e rb t he di s cri m i n ati v e circ u m s t a n c e s
tha t n o d o u bt can ari s e c o n c e rn i n g th eir
a r e s o e vid e n t
cla s sic a ti o n
That m o s t o f o u r E n gli s h pre po s iti o n s h a v e sign i ca
ti o n p er s e an d fo r m n o di s ti n ct s p e ci e s o f w o rd s M r
T o o k e ha s pro d u c e d i n c o n tro v e rtibl e e vid e n c e ; n o r i s it
t o b e d o u bt e d
that a pe rfe ct acq u a i n t an c e w i th the
N o rth e r n la n g u age s w o u ld c o n v i n c e u s th a t all o f th e m
a re abbr e viati o n s
c o rr u pti o n s o r c o mbi n ati o n s o f o th e r
w o rd s A f e w o f M r T o o k e s e xam pl e s I shall n o w p r e
se n t t o the r e a d e r
.

E T YMOLOGY

1 59

fr o m the A gl Sa xo n uf a high ; h en c e buf a n

o n bu a n bo v e abo v e
f
Wi th fro m w i tha n to j o i n o f which w i th i s the i m p e

w a ll
a
a ho u s e w i th a p a r ty
r a ti v e ; th u s
h o u s e j o in a p a r ty w all o r it i s s o m e ti me s the i m
en c e b
to be
h
a n d w i th
e ra ti v e o f wy r t ha n
y
p
t he fo r me r be i n g d e riv e d
a re o ft en s y n o n y m o u s
'

fr o m bean to be
Wi tho u t fro m the Sax o n pr e po siti o n w i thu ta n extr a
which i s pro pe rly t he i mp e ra ti v e o f t he v e rb
s i ne
W
u ta n
h
o ut
i
t
w r tha n
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t
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T he Sa x o n p r e
wi t h o u t
b ut
be o ut o r
p o s i t i o n o cc u r s fr e q u e n t ly i n the writi n g s o f C ha u
"
c e r a n d i s s till u s e d i n Sc o tti s h
o e tr
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Pr o md i s s i m ply t he A n gl o Sa xo n a n d G o thic n o u n

r um
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o rigi n
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s
f
Fig s came f r o m T u rk ey that i s Fig s ca me ;

the so u rc e
or
b e gi n n i n g T u rk e y ; to which
i s o ppo s e d t he w o rd
To the sa me o rigi n ally a s d o s ig n ifyi n g n i s hi n g o r
A bo v e,

o-

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h Barl yc r
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That what w i d rai
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i
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Thi p repo i ti i pp d b y M G i l ch ri t t b d ri v d fr mf th
rath er t b d i ff r t f rm f that w rd S hi Phil p hi c Ety

m l gy
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E TY MOLOGY

1 60

c o m pl e ti o n ; th u s
Fig s c am e f r o m T u rk e y

t he b e gi n n i n g o r s o u rc e T
E n gl a n d

end
or
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k ey
the n i shi n g
B enea th i s the i mp e rativ e be c o m p o u n d e d w
n o u n n ea th o f t he s a m e i m p o rt w i t h n ed en i n
n ed i n D a n i s h
n i ed e r e i n G e r m a n
an d n
n e d er i n Sw e di s h s ign ifyi n g the l o w e r pl a c e ; h e n c e
the a s tro n o m ical te rm Na d i r o pp o se d to Zeni th
H e n c e al so n ether a n d n ether mos t

B e t w ee n
be t w ai n
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,

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de r
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t he v e rb g a n t o g o a s

be pa s se d the pl a c e
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th e r e x a mpl e s m ight be pro d u c e d fro m T o o k e s

i n gen i o u s ill u s t rati o n o f hi s th e o ry ; b u t th o se which I
hav e n o w o ffe r e d s u ffic e t o p r o v e that o u r pr e po s iti o n s
s o far fr o m b e i n g w o rd s i n s ig n ica n t b e l o n g t o the cl a s s
o f n o u n s o r v e rb s e ith e r s i n gl e o r c o m p o u n d e d
B e sid e s if pr e p o s iti o n s d en o t e r e lati o n s a s H arri s a d
m it s it i s s u r e ly ab su rd t o s u p p o s e that t hey hav e n o
m e an i n g ; f o r the r e lati o n wh e t h e r o f pr o pi n q u ity c
t i g u i ty a p pr o a ch o r r e gr e s s &c m a y be
appr e h en d e d by the m i n d th o u gh the o bj e ct s
which t he r elati o n s u b s i s t s b e n o t s p e ci e d If I
W o rd w i th I n a t u rally c o n c eiv e t he id e a o f co nj u
I f it
t he r e v e r s e tak e s pla ce wh e n I h e ar w i tho u t

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1 62

E T YMOLOGY

t
.

T o ward
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T o ward s 3
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U po n

Si n c e
Thro u gh
Thro u gh o u t
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UP

With
Wi t hi n
W itho u t

To

U n to

S o m e o f t he se th o u gh t hey a re c o mmo n ly j o i n e d to
o bj e c ti v e ca s e a n d m ay th e r e fo r e b e d ee m e d pr e p o s iti o n s
a r e n o twith s ta n di n g o f a n e q u iv o cal ch a ract e r r e s e m bli n g
t he L a ti n ad v e rb s p r o ca l a n d p r op e w hich go v e r n a ca s e
by the ell ip si s o f a p re po siti o n Th u s w e s ay n e ar the

n igh t he park
h o u s e a n d n e ar to the h o u s e
an d
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t abl e
S e v e r a l a r e u se d a s ad v e rb s a n d al so a s pr e po si t i o n s n o
ti ll u n ti l af ter be
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o re
f
T here a r e c e rt ai n particl e s which ar e n e v e r fo u n d s in gl e
o r u n c o m po u n d e d a n d h a v e th e r e fo r e bee n t e r m e d i n s e a
p
r abl e pre po sitio n s Th o se p u re ly E n gli s h ar e a be f o r e
T he i m p o r t o f t h e s e a n d o f a fe w s e pa rabl e
mis a n
pr e po s iti o n s wh e n pre xe d to o th e r w o rd s I pro c e ed to
e x plai n

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t h a t i t w a s o rigi n ally

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t he s am e
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al so f o r o r bef o r e a s besp ea k th a t i s sp ea k
a bo u t
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f
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i e bid bi d n o t s eek n o t seek
F o re s ign i e s bef o r e a s see f o res ee th a t i s s ee bef o re
.

ha n d

E T YMOLOG Y
lV
I is ,

d en o t e s d e fe ct
w r o ng ly ; d eed

or

a s,

Ov er d en o te s e m i n e n c e
co me
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or

su

is,

mi s t a ke,
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ha s ty ,

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t hat

mi s d eed ,

ha s ty

rro r

1 63

w ron

t a ke

or

ev i l

c ome

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or

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ign i e s e x c e s s o r s u pe ri o rity a s d o o u td o r u n
ou t ru n that i s
to s u rpa s s i n r u n n i n g
Un b e fo r e a n a dj e c t i v e d e n o t e s n e ga ti o n o r pri v ati o n

or
w o r th
n o t w o rthy
B
e fo r e
as
u n w o r th
y
y
v e rb s it d en o t e s the u n d o i n g o r t he d e s tro yi n g o f
t he e n e rgy o r act e x p r e s s e d b y t he v e rb a s s ay

i
f
m
m
u ns a
that
s
a
r
r
e tract t he
a
ff
i
r
ati
on
y
Up d en o te s m o ti o n u pward s a s s ta r t up s ta r t ; r e s t i n a
high e r plac e a s ho l d up ho ld ; so m e ti me s s u b v er
s i o n a s s et up s e t
Wi th sig n i e s a g a i ns t a s s ta nd w i ths ta nd th a t i s

s t a n d agai n s t o r r e s i s t
T he L a ti n pr e po s iti o n s u se d i n t he co m p o s iti o n o f E n g
li sh w o rd s a r e th e s e a b o r a bs a d a n te co n ci r c u m co n t r a
Ou t ,

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o
r
p ,

dc, d i, d i s ,

i n , i n ter , i n tr o ,

e o r ex, extr a ,

r ceter , r e, r et r o, s e, s u

b,

b, p er , p os t, p r ce ,

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tr a ns

ign ify f r o m o r a w ay a s to a bs tr a c t that i s

t o draw away
to s tick
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as
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a b, a bs , s

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to

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as,

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m
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ro u n d
.

a bo u t ,

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call

w o rk to ge th e r co l l ea g u e

tog ethe r ,

as , co n v o ke, o r

t o ge th e r cc op er a te o r

j o i n e d t o ge th e r

C on tra a g a i n s t a s c o n tr a d ict o r s pe a k again s t

thro w d o w n
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dra w a s u n d e r
D i di s a su n d er a s d i s t ra ct o r

1 64

E T YMOLOGY

or
ct
g
o in g o u t
e
f
ej
g

thro w o u t excl u d e o r s h u t o u t
b ey o n d the o rdi
E xtr a bey o n d a s ex t r a o r d i n a ry o r

n ary o r u s u al c o u r s e
I n b e fo r e an adj e c tiv e lik e a n d e n o t e s priv a ti o n a s
n o t a ctiv e
or
b e fo r e a v e rb it
a ct i v e i n a c ti v e
ha s i t s s i m pl e m e an i n g

In ter betw een a s i n ter v en e o r c o m e b e t we e n i n ter

u t b e tw e e n
se o r
o
p
p
I n tr o t o w i thi n a s i n tr o d u ce o r
l e ad i n
O b d e n o t e s o pp o s i t i o n a s o bs ta cl e tha t i s
s o me thi n g

s t andi n g i n o p o s iti o n
a n i m e di m en t
p
p
P er thr o ug h o r tho r oug hly a s p erf ect o r t h o r o u ghly
d o n e t o p erf o r a te o r to b o re t hro u gh

P os t af ter a s p os ts cr ip t o r w ritte n aft e r that i s

afte r the le t t e r

P r az bef o r e a s p r g ix o r x be fo re
P r o f o r th o r f o rw a r ds a s p r o mo te o r
mo v e f o r
w a rd s
P r a ter p a s t o r bey o nd a s p r eter na tu r a l o r b ey o n d
the co u r s e o f n at u r e

ta ke ba ck
R e a g a in o r ba ck a s r eta ke o r
go i n g back
Retr o ba ckw a r d s a s r etr o g r a d e o r

w ard s

t o p u t a s id e
S e ap a r t o r w i tho u t a s t o s ecr ete

s ecu r e
t o hid e
with o u t care o r a p pr ehen
or

sio n
o wi n g u n d e r
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writ e ab o v e

o r o ver
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carry o v e r
t ha t i s
T he G r ee k pr e p o s iti o n s a n d particl e s c o m p o u n d e d with
E n gli s h w o rd s a r e a a mp hi a n ti hy p er hy p o meta

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or

i tho u t a

1 66

E T YMOLOGY

C H A P T E R IX
OF

C O N JU N C T I O N S

NJ UN C T I O N ha s b ee n d e n e d t o b e th at par t o f

s p ee ch which c o n n e ct s w o rd s a n d se n t e n c e s to g e th e r
M r R u d d i ma n a n d se v e r a l o th e r gra mm arian s hav e
a s se rt e d that c o nj u n cti o n s n e v e r c o n n e ct w o rd s b u t s e n
ten ce s
Thi s i s e vid e n tly a m i s tak e ; fo r if I sa y
a
m an o f wi s d o m a n d vir t u e i s a p e rfec t ch a ract e r
i t im
es n o t
li
that
a
m
a n o f wi s d o m i s a p e rfe ct charact e r
p
an d a man o f
irt u e a p e rfe ct charact e r b u t a ma n w ho
c o m bi n e s wi s d o m a n d virt u e
T he farth e r d i s c u s s i o n o f
t hi s qu e s ti o n h o w e v e r I s h all at prese n t p o s tp o n e a s it
will fo r m a s u bj e ct o f fu t u re i n q u iry
C o nj u n c t i o n s hav e bee n di s trib u t e d ac co rdi n g to th eir
s i n i ca t i o n s
i
t
n
o di ffe r en t cla s s e s
g
A

CO

C op u l a tiv e
D isj

u n c t v e,

C o n ces s iv e

Ex c l usi v e ,

I l l a ti v e ,

Ca u s a l ,

E xcep tiv e,

A d v e r s a ti v e ,

C o n d i ti o n a l

al so b u t (b o t)
Ei t her o r
Th o u gh al t h o u gh albe it y e t
B ut ho we v e r
N ei th er n o r
F o r that b e ca u s e s i n c e
Th e r e fo re wh e re fo r e th e n
If
U nle s s
An d,

Thi s di s trib u ti o n o f the c o nj u n cti o n s I hav e gi v e n i n

c o n fo r m ity to ge ne ral u s age t hat the r e ad e r m ay be a o
u a i n t e d w ith t he c o mm o n t e r m s b y which c o nj u n cti o n s
q
hav e b ee n d e n o mi n at e d if t h e s e t e r m s s h o uld o cc u r to
hi m i n the c o u r se o f r e adi n g
I n r e s p e ct to t he r e al i m
,

E T YMOLOGY

1 67

po rt a n d ge n u i n e charact e r o f t h e s e w o rd s I d e cidedly
T oo k e which c o n s ide r s c o nj u n c
a d o p t the t h eo ry o f M r
ti o n s a s n o di s t i n c t s pe ci e s o f w o rd s bu t a s be l o n gi n g t o
the cla s s o f a t trib u t iv e s o r a s abbre v iati o n s f o r t w o o r m o r e
s ig n ica n t w o rd s
A gree ably t o hi s th eo ry a n d i s a n abbr e v iati o n f o r

a na d
t he impera t iv e o f a na n a d
t o a cc u
or
to add
m u l a te
tw o
as
t w o a n d t w o m ak e fo u r
t hat i s
add t w o m a k e fo u r
E i ther i s e vid e n tly a n a dj e cti v e
e x pr e s s iv e o f
o n e o f tw o
th u s
i t i s e i t h e r day o r

n igh t
o n e o f t he
th a t i s
day o r n ight
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two
i s d e riv e d fro m the Sa xo n e ther e q u iv a l e n t to u t er qu e
g
,

e a ch

ilr
r

t rac t i o n fo r o ther a Sa x o n a n d E n gli s h a d

e c ti v e e q u iv al e n t t o a l i u s o r a l t e r
d
e n o t e s div e r s i t y
n
d
a
j
ei t h e r o f n a me o r o f s u bj ec t H e n c e o r i s so m e ti m e s a
pe rfe ct di sj u n ctiv e a s wh e n it expre s s e s c o n tr a ri e ty o r o p
p o s i t i o n o f t hi n g s ; an d so me t i me s a s u bdi sj u n ctiv e wh e n
i t d en o t e s s i mply a div e r s i t y i n n a me Th u s w he n w e
i
s e i t he r e v e n o r o d d
sa
It
o r i s a p e rfe ct di sj u n ctiv e
y
the t w o attrib u tiv e s b e i n g dire ctly c o n t rary an d ad m i t t i n g
n o m e di u m
b
e
I f I sa y
t
hese
P ari s o r A l e x an d e r
(
i ng n am e s o f the s am e i n divid u al ) ; o r if I sa y
G ravity o r

w e ight
L o gic o r the ar t o f r e a so n i n g o r i n t h e s e e x
am pl e s i s a s u bdi sj u n ctiv e o r an e x plica t iv e a s it s e rv e s to
d e n e the me an i n g o f the p r ece di n g t e r m o r a s i t e x
pr e s s e s the e qu iv al e n ce o f t w o t e r ms T he L a t i n s e x pr e s s
the fo r me r by a u t v el an d the latte r b y s eu o r s i v e
In
the fo ll o wi n g s e n t e n c e bo th c o n j un cti o n s ar e e x e m p li e d :
G iv e me ei ther the black o r the whit e i e
G i v e me

o th e r t he whit e
t he bl a ck
o n e o f the t w o
That th Sa w rd g th ig i d h i f i tly vi d t
d th adj c t i v it h h c ti
fr m vari ty f x mpl
ed t
b
d i that
b y r p tabl w i t r L wth w h I ap pr h d d i d
f it
ig i c t i c d m th
q i
t adv rt t i t p ri m i ti v
val t t
twi th ta d i g it rigi al i mp rt I agre wi th him
h
d
i thi ki g th at i t i m ch b tt r t c
it m a i g t
o
f tw
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a w i ll be a ig d h er aft r
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E T Y MOLO GY

1 68

th e s e a re o ppo s e d nei ther n o r a s G i v e m e n ei ther

p o v e rty n o r rich e s i e
G iv e m e n o t o n e o f the t w o

p o v e rty n o r i e n o t the o th e r rich e s

i s the
A cc o rdi n g to M r T o o k e the c o nj u n cti o n
i m pe rativ e o f t he A n gl o Sax o n a n d Go thic ver b g ifa n
A m o n g o th e r s he q u o t e s t he fo ll o wi n g e x
t o giv e
a mp l e
H o w will t he w e ath e r di s p o se o f y o u t o m o r
If fair it will s en d me abr o ad ; if fo u l it will
ro w ?

k e e p m e a t h o m e i e
giv e o r
gran t it to be

fair
giv e o r gra n t i t to b e fo ul
Tho ug h i s the s am e a s thaf a n i m pe ra t iv e fro m thaf a n
to all o w a n d i s i n s o m e par t s o f t he c o u n try pr o n o u n c e d
as
Th
o u gh he s h o u ld s p e ak tr u th
I
w
t ho
o u ld n o t
;
f
be lie v e him
all o w o r gran t w ha t ? he s h o u ld
i e

or
all
o w hi s s p e aki n g tr u th
I
w
s e ak tr u th
o u ld n o t
p

be li e v e hi m
B u t fr o m be u ta n t he i m pe rativ e o f beo n u ta n to be
out
i s t he s am e a s w i tho u t o r u n l ess t h e r e b e i n g n o dif
fe r en c e b e t w ee n th e s e i n r e s pe ct t o m e an i n g G ram m a
rian s h o w e v e r i n c o n fo r m ity to the di s ti n cti o n b e t w ee n
h a v e call e d bu t a c o nj u n c t i o n a n d w i tho u t
n is i a n d s i n e
a pre p o s iti o n B u t th e r e fo r e b e i n g a w o rd sign ifyi n g
e n o t t e r me d it a n
ad ver
I
hav
e x c e ti o n o r e x cl u s i o n
p
sa t i v e
e x c e pti v e
a s m o s t gra m m arian s hav e
bu t an
I n thi s s e n s e i t i s s y n o n y mo u s wi t h p r azt er p r eter q u a m o r
or
th u s
I s a w n o bo dy b u t J o h n i e
unles s
n is i

e x c ep t Jo h n
B u t fro m bo t t he i m p e ra t iv e o f bo ta n to bo o t o r s u
Thi
s w o rd w a s o r i
er a d d ha s a ver y di ff e r e n t m e a n i n g
p
*
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writt
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g
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s io n
T he m e an i n g o f t hi s w o rd i s
add o r mo r e

Thi s i n t e rpre ta t i o n i s c o n r me d b y the p ro babl e

o ver
d e ri va t i o n a n d m e an i n g o f s y n o n y m o u s w o rd s i n o th e r
lan g u age s Th u s the Fr en ch ma is (bu t ) i s fr o m maj us

o r ma i s
h
m
o re
or
i
n additi o n
h
e Italia n m a
t
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t
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that Vi gi l t d i b t c mp
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To

s er

s an

are

ou

a ss

E T Y MOLOGY

1 70

y n o n y m o u s a cc o u n t s fo r th e ir eq u i v a l en c e by s up
p o si n g t hem t o b e d e riv e d fro m v e rb s o f the sam e i m po rt
H i s mo d e o f d e ri v ati o n h o w e v e r app ea r s at r s t heari n g
t o b e i n c o rre ct the m e a n i n g o f t he c o nj u n cti o n s h a vi n g
li t tl e o r n o af n ity to that o f the v e rb s M r T o o k e hi m
s e lf d o e s n o t s ee m p e rfe ctly s a ti s e d with i ts tr u th
B o th

th e s e c o nj u n c t i o n s a r e s y n o n y m o u s with n o twith s tan di n g

t erm s the o bvi o u s m e an i n g o f which d o e s
n e v e rth e l e s s

t o g e t o r to s u ppo s e
n o t acc o rd with v e rb s d e n o ti n g
I a m i n cli n ed h o w e v e r to thi n k that T o o k e s c o nj e ct u r e is

fo u n de d i n tr u th If I s ay he w a s l e a rn e d y e t m o d e s t
i t m a y be e x p r e s s e d
he w a s l e ar n e d n o twith s t an di n g
thi s o r thi s be i n g g ran t e d even t h u s o r be i t s o ( l icet i ta
es s et) he w a s m o des t
wh e re the gen e ra l i n c o m patibility
be t w ee n l e arn i n g a n d mo de s ty i s co n c e iv e d n o t e x pre s s e d
the e x pr e s s i o n d e n o ti n g m e r e ly t he c o m bi n a t i o n o f t he
q u ali t i e s i n the i n divid u al m en ti o n e d N o tw i ths ta n d i ng
i n dir e ctly m ark s the r e p u gn an c e by s ig n ifyi n g that t he
o n e q u ality did n o t pr e v e n t t he co e x i s t e n c e o f the o th e r ;
et o r s t i l l s u pp o s e s the i n c o m patibility t o be s u f ci e n tly
y
k n o w n Thi s d e riv a ti o n i s r en d e re d the m ore pro babl e a s
the w o rd tho ug h ( t ho
g
m
a
e s u b s tit u t e d t o e x
r a n t)
b
y
f
pre s s the s am e id e a a s tho ug h (gran t) he w a s l e ar n e d he
w a s m o de s t
which i s e q u ival e n t to he w a s l e ar n e d y e t

H en c e m a n y r e p e at the
( t hi s gran t e d) he w a s m o d e s t
c o n c e s s iv e t e r m a n d s a y tho ug h he w a s l earn e d y et he

w a s m o de s t
Un l es s
M r H o rn e T o o k e i s o f o pi n i o n t hat thi s e x
c e ti v e c o nj u n cti o n i s pr o p e rly o n l es t he i m p e r a tiv e o f t he
p
o u c a n n o t b e s a v e d u n l es s
v e rb o n l esa n t o di s m i s s ; t h u s
y
di
o u b e l i e ve
i
e
s mi s s y o u r b e li e vi n g an d
o u ca nno t
y
y

be s av e d o r y o u can n o t b e sa v e d y o u r b eli e vi n g bei n g

di s mi s s e d
L es t i s c o n tra ct e d f o r l es ed t he participl e o f the sam e
verb o n l esa n o r l es a n s ig n ifyi n g di sm i s s e d a s Yo u n g
m en s h o u ld tak e car e to a v o id b a d c o m pa n y l es t th e ir
m o ral s be c o rr u pt e d a n d th e ir r e p u tati o n r u i n e d
th a t i s
a re

T YMOLOGY

1 71

Y o u n g me n s h o u ld t ak e ca r e t o av o id bad c o m pa n y
l es t ( t hi s be i n g di s m i s se d o r o m i t t e d ) t h e i r m o ral s b e
,

c o rr u p t ed

&c

vid en t ly i n all ca s e s a n adj e c t iv e o r a s so me

c o n s id e r i t a d e m o n s trativ e p ro n o u n a s Th ey sa y tha t
Th e y s a y that ( t hi n g) t he ki n g is
the ki n g i s ar riv e d
arriv e d
Whether is an a dj ectiv e d en o ti n g which o f t w o t h u s
Wh e t her he l i e o r di e that i s Which o f the t w o
t hi n g s b e liv e o r d i e
A s i s t he s a me wi t h es a G e r m a n articl e m e a ni n g i t
tha t o r w hi c h
S o i s s a o r s o a G o t hic ar t icl e o f the s a me i m po r t
Tha n which M r T o o k e d o e s n o t see m t o hav e n o tic e d
i s s u ppo se d to b e a c o m po u n d o f t he d e n itiv e t ha a n d
the addi t iv e t e r m i n ati o n e n
th u s tha en t he n ne then

a n d n o w s p e ll e d t ha n
Th e se fe w e x am pl e s will s e rv e to e x plai n M r T o o ke s
Tha t i s

ty
f m t f th
ct
d
v ral th r f T k
m l gi
h
b
d i p t d i l ar d d i g i arti cl i th
'
Q rt rly R vi w ( N
I
m y f th cri t i c a i madv r i
i t i i mp ibl t t c c r ; b t w d
wi th him wh h
t ag
j ct th d rivati f if f m th A gl S x v b g if
t gi
d w c
i d r that J m i
g m t t whi ch h f r i ch
t j
ti fy th cri t ic c cl i
Th d i t i ct i
b tw b t d b t
h c d tly p r
c t b
th t
m r chi m
d mai tai

b ti i
v ry i ta c b t
wi th t c rr p d i g t th
b
t
Lat i w rd d
t m i
I t m t b ack wl d g d that T k
d rivat i i rr
th r b i g
ch A gl Sa v rb
b t
f whi ch b t c l d b th i mp rat i
B t w agr
w i th D J m i
i thi ki g wh t v r m y b th
ty m l g y that b t d b t
rigi
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pp
ally
t w i th
c i tic i i th rc r ct
q i t c i t t wi th i t lf W d
hi m c
i d r b t f b t t b d i cri m i t iv
all w th t i f
w
b tb
i
q i al t t d
i mply i g parati i t
l b q i
val t t t m m r v t whi h b t c r p d i m ply i g dj
ti
N
w
ti
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ad m i t th t th y y m w rd
m i ( Fr ch ) m
c
th
( D tch ) m ( I tal ia ) i mply pr f
cri t ic af m b t m thi g t b add d i
ct i wi th wh t h
b p vi ly i d b y th wri t r

The

o o

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ua

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.

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E T YMOLOGY

1 72

th eo ry o n thi s s ubj e ct ; a n d I a m p e r s u ad e d t hat the f u r

th e r we i n v e s tigat e the e ty m o l o gy a n d r e al i m po r t o f co n
j u n cti o n s t he m o re pr ob a b l e it will app e ar that th ey ar e
a ll n o u n s o r at t rib u tiv e s s o m e b e l o n gi n g t o ki n dr e d l a n
gu age s a n d o th e r s c o m po u n d s o r abbre viati o n s i n o u r o w n
I a m p e r s u a d e d al s o that fro m a gen e ral r e vi e w o f t hi s
s u bj e ct it m u s t b e e vid en t that adv e rb s pr e p o s iti o n s an d
c o nj u n cti o n s fo r m no di s ti n c t s p e ci e s o f w o rd s an d that
t h e y a r e all r e d u cibl e t o the cla s s e ith e r o f n o u n s o r a ttr i
b u t i v e s if th e ir o rigi n al charact e r a n d real i m p o rt b e c o n
B u t a s m an y o f the m a r e d e riv e d fr o m o b s o l e t e
s id e r e d
w o rd s i n o u r o w n lan g u age o r fr o m w o rd s i n ki n dr e d l a n
g u age s t he radic a l m e an i ng s o f which a re th e r e fo re e it he r

n
n
a n d a s the s y n ta ctical u s e
o b s c u r e o r g en e rally u k o w n
o f se v e r al o f t hem ha s u n d e rg o n e a cha n g e i t c a n be no
i mpr o pri e t y n a y it i s e v e n c o n v e n i e n t t o r e gard th e m n o t
i n t h e ir o rigi n al charact e r b u t i n th eir pr e s e n t u se W h e n
t he radic a l w o rd s till r e m ai n s the ca se i s di ffe r en t Th u s
ex ce t i s by s o m e c o n s id e r e d a s a
r
e o s iti o n ; b u t a s t he
p
p p
v e rb t o excep t i s s t ill i n u se excep t m a y a n d i n d ee d s h o u ld
*
b e c o n s id e r e d a s the i m p e rativ e o f t he v e rb
B ut i n
par s i ng t o say tha t t he w o rd u n l ess i s the i m p e ra t iv e o f
,

cri ti c t wh m w hav all d d i th pr c d i g t c t d

t h t p t ca t b
i mp at iv b ca i t h
bj t ; d th t
v rb c l d t b m p l y d i
l
a
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wi th t gr vi lat i f i d i m H c i d r th
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abbr vi t d p tici pl Th c r ct
i
i
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f t hi
p
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d t q ti
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r
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th part i i p l p f c t b f r th
th cl a
b i g ab l t i irr

la g ag
il b l wi t h th i d i m f
Al l w r i v l v d i thi

affair c p t
that i ay W b t r w h m d ivi d d b tw th

i m p r t iv d th parti ci pl
c pt d N w
c pt d

x
d
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H
mp l y d
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E T YMOLOGY

1 74

C HAPT ER X
OF

I NT ERJ EC T I O N S

i n t e rj e cti o n ha s b ee n d e n e d to b e that pa rt o f
s p ee ch which d e n o t e s s o m e a ffe cti o n o r e m o ti o n o f t he

It i s cl e arly n o t a n e c e s s ary part o f s pe e ch f o r

min d
i n te rj e cti o n s ar e n o t to be fo u n d i n
a s T o o k e o b se r v e s
b o o k s o f hi s t o ry p hilo so phy o r r eligi o n : th e y o cc u r i n
S o m e o f t h e s e a re
n o v e l s o n ly o r dr a m a tic c o m p o s iti o n s
e n tir e ly i n s ti n ctiv e a n d m e chan ic a l a s ha ! ha ! ha ! s o u n d s
c o m m o n to al l m e n wh e n agitat e d w i t h la u ght e r Th e se
hy
s ical e m i s s i o n s o f s o u n d h a ve no m o re c l aim t o b e call e d
p
part s o f s p e e ch than the n e ighi n g o f a h o r se o r the l o wi n g
T here a r e o th e r s which s e e m a rbitrary a n d a r e
o f a co w
e x pr e s s iv e o f s o m e e m o ti o n n o t simp l y b y the arti c u lati o n
G ri e f f o r e x
b u t b y t he acc o m p an yi n g v o ic e o r ge s t u r e
am pl e i s e x pre s s e d i n E n gli s h by the w o rd a h o r o h i n
t
!
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H ere the
o r p u r e ly m e cha n ic al
as in
a re n o t i n s ti n ctiv e
so u nds
lau ghi n g ; b u t the acc o mpan yi n g t o n e o f v o ic e which is
the sa me i n a ll m e n u n d e r the i n u e nce o f the s a me e m o
ti o n i n dicat e s cl e arly the fe e li n g o r pa s si o n o f the s p e ak e r
O th e r s whic h hav e bee n d ee me d i n t e rj e cti o n s a r e i n tru th
v e rb s o r n o u n s e m pl o y
to
e x pr e s s i o n a n d u n d e r the i n u en c e o f s tr o n g e mo ti o n
d en o t e what w o u ld o th e r wi s e r e q u ir e m o re w o rd s to e x
pr e s s : a s s tra ng e ! f o r i t i s s tr a ng e ; a di eu f o r I r eco m

AN

o r, a , o n

men d y o u to G o d
a r e w e l co me

sha me

! fo r i t i s s ha me ; w el co me

fo r y o u

T he

w o rd s which hav e b e e n c o n s id e re d by

o ur

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E T YMOLOGY
mm a ri a n s

i n t e rj e cti o n s

as

a re

1 75

the

fo ll o wi n g

ex

pre s s

of

J oy ,

x
i

o
r

a s,

H ey , I o

G r i ef Ah al a s a lack
Wo n der Vah hah aha !
A v er s i o n T u s h pi s h p s h a w f o h e p u gh
L a ug hter H a ha ha
D es i r e of a t ten ti o n H a rk l o hall o o hem hip
L a ng u o r H e igh ho
D es i r e of s i l en ce H u s h hi s t m u m
,

9 D el i ber a t i o n , H u m
1 0 E xu l ta ti o n , H u z z a
11

Pa in

0 1 ho !

Ta ki ng le a v e, A di e u
13

G r eeti ng W elc o me
,

P A RT I I

S Y N T A X

S Y N TAX i s the a rran ge men t o f w o rd s i n se n t en c e s

phra se s a gre e ably to e s tabli sh e d u sa ge o r t o t he r ec eiv e
r u l e s o f c o n c o rd a n d go v e rn m e n t
S e n t e n c e s a r e e ith e r s i mpl e o r c o m ple x
A s i m pl e s e n t e n c e c o n s i s ts o f o nl y on e memb e r
t ai n i n g th e re fo r e b u t on e s u bj e ct a n d on e n it e v e rb

A l e x an d e r t he G r e at i s s aid t o hav e w e pt
A c o mpl e x s e n t e n c e c o n s i s t s o f t w o o r m o r e mem
A le x a n d e r wh e n he had c o n q u e r e d the w o rld i s
as
to have w e pt b e c a u s e th e r e w e r e n o t o th e r w o rld s t o
,

d ue

C o mple x s e n t e n ce s a re divid e d i n t o m emb er s ; a nd

th e s e if c o mp l e x are s u bdi v id e d i n t o cla u se s a s
T he
o x k n o w e th hi s o w n e r
bu
t
a n d t he a s s hi s m a s t e r s crib
I
I s ra e l d o th n o t k n o w I my pe o pl e d o th n o t co n side r
Thi s c o m p l e x s en t e n c e ha s t w o m emb e r s each o f w hi ch
co n tai n s t w o cl a u s e s
Wh e n a memb e r o f a c o mpl e x s en ten ce is si mpl e it is
c al le d i n di ffe r e n tly a m emb e r o r a clau se ; a s
I ha
T he t wo p a rt s i n t o
c all e d b u t y e have re fu s e d
thi s s en t e n c e di v ide s it se lf a re t e r me d e a ch e ith er a m e m
b e r o r a cl a u s e
Whe n a co m pl e x sen t e n ce i s so fra m e d that the mean
i n g is s u s pe n d e d till the w h o l e b e n i s h e d it i s ca ll e d a
T
he
e ri o d ; o th e r w i se t he s en t e n ce i s s aid t o be l o o s e
p
fo llo w i n g sen t e n ce i s an e x am p l e o f a p e ri o d
If H ann i

1 78

Y N TAX

C HAP T ER

C ON CORD

OF

R U LE
n u mb e r a n d
.

v er

g re e s

w i th i t s

no

mi n a ti ve i n

e rs o n , a s ,

We tea ch
H e l ea r ns
w h e r e w e a n d tea ch a r e

he

e
rs o n
p

an d

t hi r d p e r s o n

l ea r ns

e a ch

a re

l
u
ral a n d
p
e a c h s i n g ul a r
,

of

t he r s t

an d o f

the

Thi r u l

i l t d in s u ch e x am pl e s as th e se

I lik e s
th o u l o v e s
h e n ee d
o u wa s
n re
I
y
fe re n c e to the la s t e x am pl e the r e ad e r s h o u ld o b se rv e that
o u i s pl u r a l wh e th e r i t re lat e to o n ly o n e i n divid u a l o r
y
t o m o r e a n d o u ght th e r e fo r e to b e j o i n e d wi t h a pl u r a l
v e rb
It i s n o a rg u m en t t o sa y that wh e n w e addr e s s a
w e s h o u ld u se a v e rb s i n g ul a r ; f o r w e r e
s i n gl e p e r so n

thi s pl e a ad mi s s ibl e w e o u gh t to sa y y o u w as t fo r

o u w as
w a s t i s the s e c o n d p e r so n s i n g u lar a n d n o t
y
f o r w a s i s t he r s t o r t hird
Be s id e s n o o n e s ay s y o u

o u art
b
ut
o u are
is
or
y
y
No te 2
T he n o m i n ativ e t o a v e rb i s k n o w n by p u tti n g
t he q u e s ti o n Who ? o r W hat ? t o the v e rb a s I r ea d ;
?
Who re ad s A n s I
No te 3 T he i n n itiv e o ft e n s u ppli e s the pl a c e o f a
th u s T o e x c e l i n e v e ry lau dabl e
n o m i n a ti v e t o a v e rb
p u r s u it s h o u ld b e the a im o f e v e ry o n e
Wha t s h o u ld

b e t he a im ? A n s
T o e x c el
N o te 4 A s c o n s id e re d n o w a s a c o nj u ncti o n b u t
N o te 1

is

v o a e

'

b ei ng

Y N TA X

1 79

pri m i t iv e s ig nica t i o n e q u ival e n t t o i t tha t

o r w hich lik e wi s e s u ppli e s t he plac e o f a n o m i n at iv e t h u s
A s far a s r e ga rd s hi s i n t e r e s t he will b e s u f ci en tly car e
S o m e gra m marian s s u ppo se i t t o be
f ul n o t t o o ff e n d
u n de r s t o o d
No te 5 A v e rb i s fre q u e n tly co n s tr u e d with a wh o l e
cla u se a s i ts n o mi n ativ e th u s
H i s be i n g at e n m i t y with
C aes ar w a s the ca u se o f pe rpe t u al di sco rd wh e r e hi s
bei n g a t en mi ty the s u bj e ct o f t he a f r m ati o n fo r ms the
n o m i n ativ e t o the v e rb

N o te 6
T he n o m i n ati v e wh e n the v e rb e xpr e s se s c o m
s ea
f
or
ma n d o r e n tr e a ty i s o fte n s u p pr e s sed a s
p

h o n o u r the ki n g fo r h o n o u r y e t he
s p ea k th o u
ki n g
I t i s al so fre q u e n t ly s u ppr e s se d i n po e try a s

t
M il on
L i v e s th e r e who lo v es hi s p ai n
z e
L iv e s
r e l i ed be i n g
th e re a ma n
T o wh o m the mo na rch
p
u n d e r s to o d
'
No te 7 A no u n s i n g u l a r u se d fo r a pl u ral i s j o i n e d
T e n s a i l o f the li n e w er e d e s cri e d a t
to a pl u r a l v e rb a s

It has be e n a lre a dy o b s e rv e d th a t t he pl u r a l
a di s ta n c e

te n t h o u sa n d
te r mi n a tio n i s so me t i me s s u ppre s se d as

three brac e
fo u r p a i r
No te 8 Pri e s tl e y ha s sa id t hat wh e n the p a rti cl e ther e
i s pr e xe d to a v e rb s i n g u la r a p l u ral n o u n may fo l l o w

B u t if th e r e b e
w ith o u t a v e ry se n s ibl e i m pro pri e ty
a n i mpr o pri e ty at al l
why sh o u ld the phras eo lo gy b e
ado pt e d ? H i s e x a mp l e i s thi s Th e re n e ce s s a rily f o l
l o w s fro m th en c e t h e se plai n a n d u nq u e s ti o n abl e c o n s e
c a n j u s t ify thi s v i o
u e n c es
e
en d
t
hi
g
w
ap
r
h
e
n
N
o
q
p
l a ti o n o f an al o gy It sh o u ld b e
fo llo w
W o ul d D r

P ri e s tl e y hav e s a id
Th e r e i s m e n w ho n e v e r rea so n ?
No te 9 T he n o mi n ativ e g en e rally pre c ed e s the v e rb
an d i s i n s o m e e x am pl e s k n o w n by n o thi n g b u t i t s
lac
e
p
Thi s a rra n ge me n t h o w e v e r i s s o me ti mes alt e re d a n d the
v erb p lac e d b efo r e the n o m i n ati v e
l s t W h e r e the s en t en c e i s i n t e rr o gativ e as
D o es

w ea lt h m a ke me n happy ? H e r e the n o mi n a tiv e w ea l th

N 2
i n i ts

1 80

fo llo w s
m ati o n

Y N T AX

a u xiliary : w e alth d o e s w o u ld d e n o t e a f r

?
Stan d s Sc o tlan d wh e r e it did
H e re al so
fo ll o w s the v e rb to d en o t e i n t e rro ga
n o mi na tiv e

the

the

2 dl y , I n

th o u

ex

pr es s i n g c o mman d s

req u e st s

or

a s,

r e ad y e
3 d l y W h e n a s u ppo s iti o n i s e lliptically e x pr e s s ed the
c o n di t i o n al p articl e
b ei n g u n d e r s t o o d a s
W e re I
I w o u ld acc e pt the o ffe r
s aid P ar m e n i o
A l e x an d e r
wh e r e w e re I i s e q u ival e n t to if I w e r e
Th e r e
4thl y A ft e r t he i n tr o d u cto ry w o rd t her e a s

Th e re
w a s a m a n s e n t b y G o d wh o se n a m e w a s J o h n
a r e m a n y w ho hav e t he wi s d o m t o pr e fe r virt u e t o e v e ry

Thi s arran ge m en t i s pr e fe rabl e to

o th e r acqu ir e m e n t

m an y a r e
and
8w
a s a g e n e ral
a m an w a s s e n t
r u l e I o b s e rv e th a t t hi s c o ll o cati o n i s n o t o n ly pr o pe r
b u t r e q u i s it e wh e n a se n ti me n t o f i mp o rt a n c e i s t o b e i n
t r o d u ce d t o t he h e ar e r s pa r t ic u lar a t t en ti o n
5 thl y W h e n the s p e ak e r i s u n d e r the i n u e n c e o f v e he
m en t e m o ti o n o r wh e n v i vacity a n d fo rc e ar e t o b e i m
t he n o mi n ativ e e n e rge tically f o l
art
e d t o the e x p r e s s i o n
p
l o w s the v e rb a s
G re a t i s D ian a o f t he E ph e sian s
D ian a o f t he E p h e s ia n s
A l t e r the a rra n ge me n t s ayi n g

a n d y o u e if a c e t he s ig n at u r e o f i mp e t u o s ity
i s gr ea t
and
re n d e r the e x pr e s s i o n frigid a n d u n affe cti n g
Bl e s s e d

i s he th a t c o m e th i n the n am e o f t he L o rd
He is

bl e s se d w o u ld c o n v e rt a s C a mpb ell j u dici o u s ly o b s e rv e s

a
fe rvid e x clam ati o n i n to a c o ld aph o ri s m
Fall en

fall en i s B abyl o n tha t grea t ci t y

T he e n e rgy o f t he
.

'

Thi p hr l gy h b
r d b y B cha a d th a th r f
th Bri t i h G rammar ; b t
I ap pr h d wi th t th had w f th
ri ty T k q t i wi th a pri ci pal v b
b m h th l tt r
afrm t b
ba ba i m T d i pr v th a rt i I hall ly i
add i ti t th
q ted fr m M acb th pr d c th
x mp l
B i bl
f J a l v t th
Si m
m
Di d h
t i b d?
Sh k p
O i
th j av l i
wift r t i t mark I h A d
l iv th r m w h l igh t i mm rt l fam P p
s

as

on

o n,

so n o

s ea r e

e e

as

as eo o

en

u es

o ne

o n s,
r

o s

e en c en s u e

as

on

r s

es

en

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es

as,

n an

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e s

sse

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es

S Y N TA X

1 82

N 1 Thi s r u l e i s vi o l a t e d i n su ch e x a mpl e s a s thi s

I d o n o t t hi n k tha t l ei s u re o f life an d tran qu illity o f
m i n d which fo rt u n e a n d y o u r o wn wi s d o m ha s gi v e n y o u

S w if t
c o u ld b e be tt e r e mp l o ye d
No te 2
I t w a s c u s t o m a ry w ith t he wri t e r s o f a n ti
u it
h
w
en
h
e s u b s t an tiv e s w e r e n e a rly s y n o n y mo u s
t
t
o
q
y
e mp l o y a v erb s i n gu l ar
as
men s r a ti o e t co n s i li u m i n s e
n i ba s es t
u n d e r s t a n di n g
r e a so n a n d p r u d e n c e i s i n o l d

m en
I n i mitati o n o f t h e s e so m e E n g li s h a u t ho r s h a v e
I co n cu r
i n s i m il ar i n s ta n c e s e m pl o y e d a v e rb s i n g u lar
h o w ev e r wi t h L M u rray i n di sa ppr o vi n g thi s phra se
F o r e ith er the t e r m s a r e s y n o n y m o u s o r th e y
o l o gy
If th e ir e q u i v al en c e b e ad m i t t ed al l b u t o n e a r e
a re n o t
re d u n dan t a n d th er e i s o nly o n e s u bj e ct o f di s c o u r se ;
a n d a v e rb
o n l y o n e t e rm s h o u ld th e r e fo r e b e r e tai n e d
If th ey b e n o t e q u i v al e n t
s i n g u l a r be j o i n e d w ith it
th e r e a r e a s m a n y di s ti n ct ide a s a s th e re a re t e rm s a n d
a pl u rality o f s u bj e ct s r e qu ire a pl u ra l v e rb
Thi s o b s e rv atio n h o w e v e r r e q u ire s s o me li m ita t i o n
It o cc a s i o n ally happ e n s th a t o n e s u bj e ct i s r e pre s e n t ed by
t w o n a m e s n e i t h e r o f w hich s i n gly w o u ld e x pr e s s it wi t h
s u f ci e n t s tr e n gth
I n s u ch c a s e s the t w o n o u n s may
tak e a v e rb s i n g u l a r an d if the n o u n s i ngu l a r s h o u ld b e
i n j u x t a po s iti o n with the v e rb the s i n g u l a r n u m b e r s ho u l d
W hy i s d u s t a n d a sh es pro u d Ecc les i
be u s e d ; a s
a s t i c u s ch a p x

No te 3 I n s u ch e x pre s s i o n s a s the fo ll o w i n g i t ha s
be en d o u bte d wh e th e r the v e rb S h o u ld b e i n the s i n gu l ar
o r i n the pl u ral n u m be r
E v e ry o fc e r a n d so ldi e r clai m
a s u p e ri o rity i n r ega rd to o th e r i n di v id u al s D e L o lme
o n the B r i ti sh C o n s ti tu ti o n
H e r e I c o n c e iv e t he phra s e
o l o gy i s c o rr e ct
S u ch a n e x pre s s i o n a s e v e ry o fc e r
a n d so ldi e r clai m s
m ight s ign ify o n e i n divid u al u n d e r t w o
di ffe ren t d e s ign ati o n s Wh e th e r w e s h o u ld sa y
E v e ry
i s a p o i n t m o r e parti e n
o fc e r
an d e v e ry so ldi e r cl a i m
l ar l y q u e s ti o n e d
We o ft en h e ar c o rre ct s p eak e rs s a y i n
c o mm o n c o n v e r s a t i o n E v e ry cl e rgy m an a n d e v e ry phy
o te

S Y N TA X

1 83

by e d u ca ti o n a ge n tl e m an an d th e re s e e m s to
b e m o r e e a se a s w e ll a s m o r e pr e ci s i o n i n thi s t han i n
the o th e r m o d e o f e x pre s s i o n
It i s u n q u e s ti o n ably ho w
e v e r m o r e agr e e abl e t o a n a l o gy t o sa
a r e g e n tl e me n
y
N o te l I t i s n o t n ec e s s ary tha t the s u bj e ct s o f d i s
c o u r s e b e c o n n ect e d o r ass o cia te d by co nj u n c t i o n s : it i s
s u f ci e n t
if the t e rm s fo r m a pl u r al i t y o f s u bj e ct s to a
co mm o n pr e dica t e wh et h e r wi t h o r with o u t a ny co n n e x iv e
wo rd a s
Ho n o u r j u s tic e r eligio n it se lf w e r e d e rid e d
an d bl as ph e me d by th e s e
r o i a te
n thi s
I
p
g
e x a m l e the c o p u l a tiv e i s o m itt e d
T
h
t
h
e
with
e ki n g
p
l o rd s a n d c o m m o n s c o n s tit u t e a n e x cell e n t fo rm o f g o

v e ra m en t
H e r e t he co n ne x iv e w o rd i s n o t a co nj u n c J
t i o n b u t a pre po s i t i o n ; a n d t h o u gh the l o r d s a n d co mmo ns
b e p r o pe rly i n the o bj e ctiv e c ase an d the k i ng t h e re fo r e
t he o n ly n o m i n a tiv e to t he v e rb y e t a s t he thre e s u bj ect s
c o ll ecti v ely c o n s tit u t e the go v e rn men t the v e rb witho u t
i mpro pri e t y i s p u t i n the pl u ral n u mbe r Thi s phrase
th o u gh n o t s trictly c o n so n an t wi t h the ru l e s o f co n
o l o gy
c o rd freq u e n tly o btai n s bo th i n an ci e n t a n d m o d e r n la n
g u age s : i n s o me ca se s in d ee d it se e ms p re fe ra bl e to the
s y n tactic a l fo r m o f e x p re s s i o n
No te 5
I t i s t o be o b s e rv e d t ha t wh en a pr o n o m i n a l
co mpo u n d e d with s elf i s j o i n e d to a v e rb the
a dj e ctiv e
s i m pl e pro no u n
which i s the r eal n o m i n a t iv e i s so m e
t i m e s u n d e r s t oo d
If i n iq u ity be i n m e s lay me thy

s e l f z ( B i bl e
D o th o u thy s el f s l a y m e
i e
t g
d
T k w b t thi t hat th

Pp
A d th t m y l f m b l i d

that i s th a t I my se lf a m bli n d
No te 6 Wh e r e c o m pa r i so n i s e x pr e s s ed o r i mpli e d
the v e rb S h o u ld b e s i n g u lar ; th u s
a n d n o t c o mbi n a ti o n
is

s i ci a n ,

no

se

o u ar

s,

oo

The

ll i p i

s s of

a ci t y d t
th y r f rr d t
t
i d ir ct c m pr h
t th y ll p i d i
t
n

ax

n e on

e n s as
e

e e
o

e s

s s

lativ i ch ampl w t rm d b y th
fr m th tab l i h d l f y
d t hi d vi at i
grammat ical g r t rm d y ll p si i d i t

i f v r l i g lar d r
l
ra
l
d
p
pp
that e pr ed b y c p lat iv

the

e,

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an

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,

se

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s n

es s

as

es,

e es

on

o a

ex

n su

s un

o ne

ru es o
n

r ec a ,

or

o se

S Y N TA X

1 84

C ae s a r
q

u e n ce

w e ll

as

as

C ic e ro

was

r e markabl e

el o

fo r

la gh d
w ll i d

A s s he
As

No te

Wh

as s

t he

en

r s t

ti l h b k
l ik t crack H

o u t, un

es ,

no

w as

er

ac

m i n ativ e s

ud i br as

di ffe ren t p er
s ec o n d
a n d the

of

are

i
e fe rr e d t o t he
r
r
s
p
p
s ec o n d t o t he t hird
I n o t h e r w o rd s I a n d y o u I a n d
he a r e syll e p tically the s a m e a s w e y o u a n d he the s am e
as
e
Thi
s
b
rvati
n
h
o
w
v
e
r
carc
ly
c
ary
o
e
o
i
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e
s
e
s
e
e
s
s
y
a s t he v e rb pl u r a l ad m it s n o p e r s o n al i n e xi o n
i t c an b e
u s e fu l o n ly i n d e t e r mi n i n g wh a t pr o n o u n s h o u ld b e t he
r e pr e s e n ta tiv e o f the t e r m s c o ll e ctiv e ly a s
he a n d I

s har e d i t b e tw e e n u s
No te 8 I n t he l e a r n e d l a n g ua ge s the pro n o u n o f t he
r s t p e r s o n i s d ee me d m o re w o rthy th an that o f the
seco n d
a n d the s ec o n d t han t hat o f the third ; a n d h en c e
ari se s the s y ll e p s i s o f p e r s o n s which o btai n s i n G r e e k a n d
L ati n B u t t h o u gh w e ad m i t the g u r e in E n gli sh w e
d o n o t pr e ci s e ly ad o pt the a rran g e m e n t o f the L a ti n s ; f o r
t h o u gh lik e th e m w e plac e the pro n o u n o f the se c o n d
pe r s o n b e fo r e th a t o f the t hird w e mo d e s tly plac e the
pr o n o u n o f t he r s t p e r so n a ft e r th o s e o f the s ec o n d a n d
t hird Th u s wh e r e a R o m an w o u ld s ay s i tu et Tu l ti a
ou
w e s h o u ld s ay
If
v a l e ti s
e o e t C i c er o v a l emu s
y
g

a n d T u llia a re w ell
C ic e ro an d I ar e w ell
the

so n s ,

e so n

R U LE I I I
Whe n o f t w o o r m o r e s u b s t a n ti ve s
S i n g u l a r o n e e xcl u s i v e ly i s t he s u bj e c t o f di s c o u r s e
J
or
o hn
a me s
J
as
a v e r b s i n g u l a r i s re u i r e d
q
tha t i s o n e
A n d r e w i n t e n d s t o a c c o mp a n y y o u
.

of

the thr e e , b u t

Na ta Wh e n

no t

m o re tha n

o ne .

pr edic a t e i s to b e appli e d to the dif

f e r e n t s u bj e c t s th o u g h th e y b e di sj o i n e d by t he c o n
N ei
j u n c t i o n th ey m ay b e fo ll o w e d by a p l u ral v e rb
th e r y o u n o r 1 a re i n fa u l t
Thi s i s the u s u al fo r m o f
t he

1 86

S YN T A X

Thi s

r u l e i s v i o l at e d in s u ch e x pre s si o n s as

T
s
n
n
o
u
h
e
e
th
which
t
o
o
fr
e
q
u
e
tly
cc
r
ki
d o f p eo pl e
e
s
e
t

Tho s e so rt o f go o d s
No te 2 T he s u b s tan ti ve w ith which the adj ecti v e i s
c o n n e ct e d i s a s c e rtai n e d by p u t t i n g the q u e s t i o n w ho o r

wh a t ? to the adj e ctiv e a s

a rip e appl e
What i s

T he a pp l e
ripe
An s
No te 3
T he i n e x ibility o f the E n gli s h a dj e ctiv e
r en d e ri n g it d o u btfu l to
s o m e ti m e s o cc a s i o n s a m big u ity
which o f t w o o r mo r e s u b s ta n tiv e s the a dj e cti v e r e fe r s
T he d e fe ct i s s o m e ti m e s s u ppli e d by t he n o t e t e rm e d
hy p hen
If fo r e x am pl e w e h e a r a pe r s o n d e sig n ate d

a n o l d b o o k s e ll e r
w e m a y b e a t a l o ss t o k n o w wh e th e r
t he p e r s o n i n t e n d e d b e a n o l d m an w ho s e ll s b o o k s t hat

is
an o l d b o o k s e ll e r
tha t
o r o n e w ho s ell s o l d b o o k s

is
a n o l d
bo o k s e ll e r Wh e n w e r e ad the n o tic e L i m e

s lat e
a n d c o al w harf
w e a re i n d e bt e d t o t he e x e rci se o f
c o m m o n s e n s e a n d n o t to the p e r s pic u ity o f the dicti o n
fo r u n d e r s ta n di n g what i s m e an t by attachi n g the t e r m
wharf to all the pr e c e di n g n o u n s while i n s trict gra mm a
tic al c o n s tr u cti o n t he n o tic e might be a r a di ff e re n t sigu i
No te

ca tio n

E v e ry a dj ctiv

N o te

e s se d
r
p

or

j u st

the

so n s

un

d e rs to o d

a s,

fe w

m an

b s tan tive e ith e r e x

the j u s t s hall liv e by faith

w e r e pr ese n t i e fe w p er
ha s

su

No te 5 T he adj e ctiv e
.

b e fo re the

w o m an

su

b s ta n t iv e

is

a s,

gen e rally place d i mme diat ely

a l e arn e d m a n
a chas t e
,

Wh en the adj ective i s cl o s ely c o n n ec t e d with

by which i t s m e an i ng i s mo di e d o r
so m e o th e r w o rd

e x plai n e d a s
a m a n l o yal to hi s pri n c e wh e r e the a t
tr ib u ti v e l oy a l i s cl o s e ly c o nn e ct e d wi t h the fo ll o wi n g
w o rd s
E t c 2 Wh e n the v e rb to be e x pr e s s e s s i m pl e a fr ma
ti o n a s t h o u art go o d o r wh en a n y o th e r v e rb s e rv e s
Er e 1
.

S YN TA X
a

1 87

c o p u la to u n it e the pre dicat e with i ts s u bj e ct

as
he see m s c o u rage o u s
i t l o o k s s tra n g e
E r e 3 F o r t he s ak e o f h a r mo n y a s
H ail ! bard

divi ne
Er e 4 Wh e n th e r e a re m o r e adj e cti v e s t h an o n e co n
n ec te d wi t h the s u b s t a n ti v e
a m a n wi se v a lian t
as
a n d go o d
E r e 5 A dj e c t i v e s d en o ti n g e x t e n t wh e th e r o f s pa ce
o r o f ti me a r e
u t aft e r t he cla u s e e x pr e s s i n g t he m e a s u r e
p

as
a wall te n fe e t high
a chil d thr ee y e ar s o l d
a

s p ee ch an h o u r l o n g

N o te 6
I t ha s b e e n d o u bt e d wh e th e r t he car di n al
s h o u ld pr e c e d e o r fo ll o w t he o rdi n al n u m e ral
A tt e rb u ry
N o t b u t tha t the
i n o n e o f hi s l e tt e r s to P o p e
s ay s

fo u r r s t li n e s a r e goo d
W e c o n c e iv e the e x pr e s s i o n to
the
b e q u it e c o rr e c t th o u gh the o th e r fo r m n a m e ly

r s t fo u r be o ft e n e mpl o y e d to d e n o t e the s am e co n c e p
t io n Th e re i s n o c o n tr a s t i n t e n d e d be tw ee n th e s e fo u r
o th e r w i s e he s ho u ld ha v e sa id
a n d an
o t h e r fo u r
T
h
e
y

r s t fo u r
If w e s a y
it i mp l i es
the r s t s e v en y e ar s
a di vi s i o n i n t o se v e n s a s tak es pl ac e fo r e x am ple i n the

t e rm s o f a l e a s e ; the s e v e n r s t y e ars i mplie s n o s u ch

divi s i o n T he L ati n s a s far a s I hav e o b se rv e d had o n ly
I t a q u e q u i n q u e pri m i s d i e
o ne m o d e o f arra n ge m e n t

C i 5
Trib u s pri m i s d ieb u s
Ih i 18
b us
That the ad o pti o n o f o n e a n d the sa m e c o ll o ca ti o n i n all
cas e s w o u ld so me ti me s mi s le ad t he re a d e r i s e vide n t I f
w e ta k e f o r e x a m pl e s e v e n o bj e ct s A B C D E F G

w
and s a
t
h
e r s t a n d t he t hr e e la s t
e cl e arly r e fe r t o
y
the r s t a n d the la s t
A a n d E F G ; b u t if w e sa y
t hr ee w e ma y i n dicat e A B C the r s t t hree a n d E
F G the la s t t hre e
No te 7 E a c h i s e m p l o y e d to d e n o t e t w o thi n g s tak e n
3

se parat e ly
E i t he r is
a n d i s th e r e fo r e u se d a s s i n g u l a r
al so s i n g u lar a n d i mpli e s o n ly o n e o f t w o ; a s ta ke ei ther
as

m e re

It i

s s o me

ti m

e s u se

df

o r ev er , a n
y

d pp l

i dt
e

mo

r th a
e

n tw o

1 88

S Y N TA X

the o n e o r the o th e r b u t n o t b o t h
that i s
B o th i s a
pl u ral adj e ctiv e a n d d e n o t e s the t w o c o lle cti v e ly
No te 8 E v ery i s a n adj e ctiv e s i n g u lar appli e d t o m o r e
than t w o s u bj e ct s t ak e n i n divid u ally a n d c o m p re h e n d s
th e m all I t i s s o m e ti me s j o i n e d to a pl u ral n o u n wh e n
the t hi n g s a r e c o n c e iv e d a s fo r mi n g o n e aggr e gat e a s
ev e r
t
w
el v e
ea r s i e
e v e ry p e ri o d o f tw e lv e y e ar s
y
y

No te 9 A l l i s a n adj e cti v e e ith e r s i n g u lar o r p l u ral

d en o ti n g the wh o l e wh e t h e r q u an tity o r n u mb e r a s A l l

m e n a re m o rt al
S i x day s s h a lt t h o u l a b o u r a n d d o a ll

thy w o rk

1
M u ch i s a n a dj e cti v e o f qu a n tity a n d o f the
o
e
0
t
N

s i n g u lar n u m b e r
as
m u ch fr u it
M a ny a n adj e ctiv e

o f n u mb e r a n d th e r e fo r e pl u ral a s
Thi s
m any m e n
w o rd h o w e v e r i s s o me ti me s c o ns tr u ed w ith a n o u n s i ngu
,

w l d hav lai t i ll Sh k p
No te 1 1 M o re a s the co mp a r a tiv e o f mu ch i s S i n g u
lar d en o ti n g a gre at e r q uan tity ; a s t he c o mpara ti v e o f
ma ny it i s pl u r a l a n d s ig n i e s a gr e at e r n u m b e r a s
a gr e a t er qu an tity mo r e men o r a
mo r e f r u i t o r
gre at e r n u mbe r
No te 1 2 E n o ug h i s a n adj e ctiv e s i n g ular an d d e n o t e s
q u an tity a s bre ad en o u gh
en o w d en o t e s n u mb e r
as
b o o k s e no w

No te 1 3 T he c o rr elati v e w o rd to the a dj e ctiv e s u ch

Th e re i s a n i m pro pri e ty i n s ayi ng
i s a s a n d n o t w ho
with M r A ddi s o n
S u ch w ho a re l o v e r s o f m a nki nd

i n s t ea d o f S u ch a s o r Th o s e w ho

1
T he s u p e rla t i v e d e gre e i s fo ll o w e d by of
4
t
No e
w h e n s e l e cti o n i s i mp li e d a s
a n d a l s o the c o m p arativ e

H e cto r w a s the bra v e s t o f t he Troj an s

A frica n u s

Wh e n o p p o s iti o n
w a s t he gr e a t e r o f the ( t w o ) Scipi o s
i s s ig n i e d t he c o m para tiv e i s fo llo we d by tha n a s
Wi s d o m i s b e tte r t ha n w e alth
M an y

a p r ma

n s s on

oo

ou

n s

s ea r e

"

S YN TA X

1 90

tren gth
s tra n ge

i t w a s pa s s i n g
Th o u gh exceeding ly s t r o ng exceed ing ly g o o d
no w
c o n s id e r e d to be the pre fe rabl e phra s eo l o gi e s
are
th e re ca n b e n o d o u bt a s We b s t e r ha s o b se rv e d that a d
e c ti v e s a r e s o me ti me s u se d t o m o dify the s e n s e o f o th e r
j

r ed ho t
adj e cti v e s ; th u s w e sa y
a cl o s e r grai n e d

wo o d
a s harpe r e dge d s wo rd
I n c o n n e x i o n wi t h the pre c e di ng n o t e w e w o u ld h e r e
o b se rv e
t h a t a dj e ctiv e s a re u s e d t o m o dify t he m e an i n g o f
t he v e rb s t o which th ey r e fe r ; th u s w e s ay
O pe n thy

Bi bl e
han d s wide
C ry s hrill wi t h thy v o ic e I h

H e fo u ght hard fo r hi s life

T he u s e o f the ki n dr ed
a dv e rb s
a s will b e a ft e rw a rd s s h o w n
w o u ld i n ma n y i a
s t a n c e s m at e rially a lt e r t he m e a ni n g
s

S ha ksp ea re

So

ay s

R U LE V I T he ar ti c l e a o r a n i s j o i n e d t o n o u n s
o f the s i n g u l a r n u m b e r o n ly o r n o u n s d e n o t i n g a
r a li t y o f thi n g s i n o n e a gg re g a t e a s
l
u
p
.

An

A ma n

ar m

A thous a nd

A f ew

di s ti n g u i s h b e tw ee n the u s e o f a a n d a n I t
i s u s u ally giv en a s a g en e r al r u l e that a b e plac e d b e fo r e
co n so n an t s a n d h a s pirate d a n d a n be fo r e v o w e l s a n d h
No te

To

v l g r tra lat i f th Bib l thi m d f p

q tly c r th
I m th y c d i g g t w a d
m ak th
cee d i g fr i tf l
W l li ad m i i
f t hi p h r
l gy pr v i t t hav b
E g l i h wh
h w t
that i hi p i i
t it w
t l
i
i
m
m
t
i
bl
H
t
ra
l
a
t
i
f
i
m
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pi

wi
T hi d i m i l r m d f pr i app ear t hav
mm
hi t i m v y
th
xc
d i g w alth y P
A lth gh h w

H w
m
v r tra rd i ary c t
1bid
Th A th i
w r t m appr h i ve f hi gr w i g p
5"

I n the

u en

oc u s ,

s s

en

ec

ona

ss o n

s , an

er

ou

as

rea

as e o o
n

e o

e x re s s w n

re

fr e

I wi ll

v r su

n on

e sa

ex

es o

es

en s ,

e as

s,

as

oo

u n ob

c di g
b i

an e x e e

es s o n ,

g d

e en

een

u s,

ee

ex

ee r s .

o u r eo u s

e e e x re

e n ans

ns

on o

as e

o re o

e,

or

o n,

e x ee

ro e ,

co

on o

se .

ns

u s,

ee e x

en s

wr
e

v r i f th Bib l w d f w ch xp i
th
f ll wi g
Th h
I m t b il d hall b w d f l gr at
th p hra
A dd i
l ik w i ft
c d i g gr at ; d Swi ft
l e pard b ly wri t
tr m wi ll i g
trem g d
And in

our

so n

ss

e s on o

ona

o u se ,

se o

en u s es

es

ex

e un

su

se

ex

oo

an

o n er u

e x ee

res s o n s a s

S Y N TA X

1 91

pir a ted a s a ta bl e a ha t a n o a k a n he i r I n r e
s pe c t to a be fo r e ha s pirat e d it m u s t be o b se rv e d t hat u sa g e
It w o u ld appe a r tha t wh e n the Bibl e w as
i s divid e d
t ran slate d a n d the Litu rgy co mpo se d a n w a s al m o s t u ni
v e r sa ll
u s e d be fo r e h wh e t h e r t he a s pi rat e be l o n g e d t o a n
y
e mphatic o r an u n e m phatic s yllabl e
A ch an ge ha s s i n c e
tak e n pl a c e ; a n d so me giv e i t as a ru l e to p u t a be fo re h
wh e n the s yllabl e i s e m phatic a n d a n wh en t he s yllabl e
ha s n o t the e m ph as i s
Thi s r u l e h o w e v e r i s n o t u n iv e r
sa l ly o b se rv e d
a hi s t o ry o t h e r s an hi s
so m e wri t i n g

a hypo t h es i s o t h er s an hypo th es i s
t o ry ; so m e writi n g
A s far a s e as y pr o n u n cia t i o n i s c o n c e rn e d o r t he prac t ice
o f G r ee k a n d Ro m a n write rs m a
u rn i s h a pre ce d e n t
f
y
th e r e see m s to b e n o so lid o bj e c ti o n to e ith e r o f t h e s e m o d es
T he fo rm e r i s m o re c o m mo n i n S co tch an d Iri s h wri te r s
th an it i s in E n gli s h a u th o r s wi t h wh o m the as piratio n i s
l ess fo rcibl e a n d l e s s co mmo n
A n i s u se d be fo r e a v o w e l ; b u t fr o m thi s r u l e t w o d e vi
Be fo re the si m pl e so u n d o f u fo llo w
a ti o n s ar e a d m itt e d
e d by an o th e r v o w e l so u n d wh e th e r s ign i e d o r n o t a an d
s u ch a o n e
T h u s w e sa y
n o t a n i s u se d
s u ch a

w o m an
If the so u n d o f o n e b e a n al y s e d w e s h all
n d it r eso lvabl e i n t o a o u n o r w o n a s so me o r t h oe pi s t s hav e
ai n be fo r e
g
A
e x r es se d it ; a n d w o ma n i n to o o u mma n
p
the diphth o n ga l so u n d o f en i n what so e v e r m a n n e r th a t
b
e n o t ed
a ma
b
e
a n d fr e q u e n tly i s u sed
so u n d m a
y
y

Th u s w e sa y a y o u th
a y eo man
a e u n u ch
a
u n ic o r n
Sh eridan i nd ee d co n t e n d s that all w o rd s b e
n n i n g with u wh e n i t ha s t he diph t h o n g a l so u n d o f e n
i
g
s h o u ld b e pr e c e d e d by a
an d n o t a n
A n d h e re I m u s t
rem ark th a t it i s with n o co mm o n s ur pri se I n d We b s t e r
i n hi s i n tr o d u cti o n t o hi s D icti o n ary d en yi n g that t he
v o we l u i s an ywh e re e q u ival e n t to e a o r e o o W ho th o se
pu blic s pe ak e r s ar e wh o m h e sa y s he h e ard i n E n gl a n d
an d to wh o se a u t h o rity he app e al s w e are u tt e rly at a l o s s
t o c o nj e ct u r e
B u t thi s w e co n d e n tly a frm tha t t h e r e
i s n o o rth o e pi s t n o p u blic o rat o r n a y n o t a n i n divid u al
n o t as

,
.

S Y N TA X

1 92

w ho d oe s n o t di s t i n g u i s h b e tw ee n
ra
n k o f so ci e ty
y
the s o u n d o f u i n bru te r u d e i n tr u de a n d i n cu be f ume
H i s r e fe r e n c e to J o h n so n w ho s ay s that u i s l o n g
cu r e
i n co nf u s i o n a n d s h o rt i n d i s cu ss i o n i s irr el e va n t a n d n u
that
t
h
r W e b s t e r s u r e ly ha s n o t t o l e ar n
e
D
a to r
y
g
v o w e l m ay b e l o n g wh e t h e r the s o u n d b e mo n o phth o ngal
It i s s tran ge t o o that i n the v e ry e x am
o r diphth o n gal
t he u ha s t he
l
e which he q u o t e s fro m J o h n s o n
p
tho n g al s o u n d which he n o twith s ta n di n g d en i e s a s a ny
wh e re e x i s ti n g
No te 2 A i s empl o y e d to e x pre s s o n e in di y id u al o f a
s p e ci e s wi t h o u t d e t e r m i n i n g w ho o r w hich ; the d e n o t e s

a bo o k
s o m e par t ic u lar i n divid u al o r i n divid u al s ; t h u s
t he b o o k
s o m e partic u l a r b o o k
m e an s a n y b o o k
and
wh e n b o th articl e s a re o m itt e d the wh o l e cla s s i s s ig ni fi e d

al l m e n
H o bbe s
as
M a n i s b o r n u n t o tro u bl e i e
G o d Al m ighty ha s
e rr s agai n s t thi s r u l e wh e n he s ay s
gi v e n r e a so n t o a ma n to be a light u n t o him
T he ar
P o p e c o m m it s a s i m il a r e rr o r
t i cl e s h o u ld b e s u ppr e s s e d
wh en he writ e s

Wh b ak b tt r y p
wh l
I t i s n o t a n y wh ee l th a t he m ean t to e x pre s s b u t a k n o w

i n s tr u me n t o f t o rt u re o r the wh e e l
T he articl e a s e rv e s t o di s ti n g u i s h b e tw e e n t w o s
c o m par e d wi t h e ach o th e r a n d t w o
a third
H e i s the a u th o r o f t

characte r
If the write r m e an t to say that he
a u th o r o f t w o w o rk s o f a di ffe r en t charact e r fr o m
r
e vi o u s ly m e n ti o ne d t he e x p r e s s i o n w o u ld b e
o ne
p
B u t he i n t en d e d t o s ig n ify a di s s i m ilarity b e t w e en t he tw o
H e s h o u ld th e r e fo r e h a v e o mitt e d the
pro d u c t i o n s
articl e a n d sa id o f di ffe ren t char a ct e r o r o f di ffe re nt
ch a ract e r s

No te 3 T he i n d e n it e ar ticl e th o u gh ge n e ra lly plac e d

b e fo re the adj e c t ive a s a go o d m a n i s p u t aft e r the a d
a n d wh e r e th e s e w o rd s o f c o m pari s o n o ccu r
e c t i v e s u ch
j
i ts plac e i s b e tw ee n the adj e c t i v e a n d s u b
a s so t o o ho w

in

an

'

s a

re

on a

ee

1 94

Y N TAX

Th er e a re c e rtai n ca se s i n d ee d i n w hich the a n t ece de n t

cl a u se a d mit s the d e n ite a rticl e th o u gh the r elative cla u se
b e n o t r e s tricti v e th u s
th p r
wh h art
cl a
Bl t

Fr m the d l i g p w r f i
H e r e the r elativ e cla u s e i s m e re ly e x pl a n a t o ry y e t the
Th u s al s o i n the fo ll o wi n g
a n t e c e d en t ad mi t s t he a rticl e
M y go o d n e s s e x t e n d e t h no t t o t h e e b u t t o the
s e n t en c e

s ai n t s a n d the e x c e ll e n t o n e s i n wh o m i s all m
d
elight
y
T he r elati v e cla u s e i s n o t i n t en d e d to l i mit the m ea n i n g o f
the a n t e c e d e n t t e rm s an d y e t th e y a d mit the d e n it e ar
t i cl e
I n al l e xa mpl e s th e r e fo r e lik e th e s e wh e r e the e x
l
an a to r
m
e an i n g ad mit s t he articl e it i s n e c es s ary f o r the
p
y
s ak e o f p e r s pic u i t y t o m a rk t he d e t e r m i n ativ e s e n s e by the
e m phatic w o rd s t ha t o r t hose
Th u s had the clau s e be e n
d e t e rmi n ativ e i n the l a tt er o f th e se e x am ple s it w o ul d hav e
b ee n n e c e s s ary to sa y th o se s ai n t s a n d th o s e e x c e ll e n t

e light
d
o n es i n wh o m i s m
y
No te 6 T he d e n it e ar ticl e i s lik e wi s e u s e d to di s ti n
g u i s h be tw e en thi n g s w hich a re i n divid u ally di ffe r en t b u t
hav e o ne gen e ric n a me a n d thi n g s w hich a re i n tr u th o n e
a n d t he s ame b u t a r e cha r a c te r l z e d by s e ve ral q u al iti e s
t he re d a n d bl u e v e s t me n t s
F o r e x am pl e if I s h o u ld sa y

w e r e mo s t a d m ir e d it m a y b e d o u btfu l wh e th e r I m e an
that the u n i o n o f re d a n d bl ue i n the s a me v e s tm en t s w a s
m o s t a d m ir e d o r that the r e d a n d t he bl u e v e s t m e n t s w e r e
b o th m o re ad m ire d than the r e s t I n s trict n e s s o f s pe e ch
the fo r m e r i s t he o n ly pr o p e r m e a n i n g o f the w o rd s th o u gh
If the lat t e r
the latt e r s en ti m en t b e o ft e n th u s e x pre s s e d
the r e d v e s t m e n t s an d t he
b e i n t en d e d w e sh o u ld s ay

bl u e o r the re d a n d the bl u e v e s t m en t s wh e re the a rticl e

If I sa y the r ed a n d bl u e v e s t me n t s it i s
i s r e pe at e d
o bvi o u s th a t o n ly o n e s u bj e ct i s e x pr e s s e d n a me ly
vest

ch ar a ct e ri z e d by t w o qu aliti e s
r e d n es s a n d
m e nt s

bl u e n e ss a s c o mbi ne d i n the s u bj e ct H e re the s u bj e ct

i s o n e ; i ts q ualiti es a r e pl u r al
If I sa y the red v e s t
,

es

are

u e,

o se

s n

s are

e n

'

S Y N TA X
me n t s

bl u e o r t he r e d a nd the bl u e v e s t men t s
u r a l e x pr e s s e d h o w e v e r by o n e g en e ric
l
s u bj e ct s a re
p

the
n

1 95

an d

t he

a me

v es tments

cl es i a stical an d
se c u l a r po w e r s co n c u rr e d i n thi s m ea s u r e
t he e x pr e s s i o n
i s a mbig u o u s a s far a s l an g u a g e c an r e n d e r it s u ch
T he
re ade r s k no wl ed ge a s Dr C am pbe ll o bs e rv e s m ay pr e v en t
hi s m i s t a ki n g it ; b u t if s u ch m o d e s o f e x pr e s s i o n b e a d
mi tte d wh e r e the se n se i s cl e a r th e y m a y i n a d v e rt en tly
b e i mitat e d i n ca se s wh e r e the m e a n i n g w o u ld b e o b s c u r e
if n o t e n tire ly m i s u n d e r s to o d T he er ro r m igh t h a v e b ee n
av o id e d e ith e r by r e p e ati n g the s u b s tan tiv e o r by s u b
j o i n i n g the s u b s tan tiv e to the r s t a dj e ctiv e a n d pr e xi n g
t he articl es t o bo th a dj e c t iv e s ; o r by placin g the s u b sta n
t iv es a f te r bo th a dj e ctiv e s the a rticl e b e i n g pr e x e d i n the
the e ccl e s ia s tic a l po w e r s a n d t he
sa m e m an n e r ; th u s
h
e e ccl e s i as t ical po w e r s an d
o r be t t e r
t
se c u lar
o w e rs
p

t he sec u l a r
or
the e ccl e s ia s tic al a n d t he se c u la r po w e r s
T he r e pet i t i o n o f the a rticl e s h o w s th a t the s e c o n d a dj e c
ti v e i s n o t an a ddi t i o n a l epith e t to the sa me s u bj ect b u t
be lo n gs to a s u bj e ct to t ally di ffe re n t th o u gh e x pres se d by
the sa m e g e n e ric n a me
T he l o rd s s pirit u al a n d t e m po

r al
i s a phra seo l o gy o bj e cti o n abl e o n the s am e pri n cipl e
th o u gh n o w s o lo n g sa n c t i o n e d by u sa ge that w e d a re
hardly q u e s ti o n i t s pro pri e ty T he s ubj e ct s a r e di ff e ren t
tho u gh th e y h a v e b u t o n e ge n e ri c n a m e It s h o u ld th e r e
fo re b e the s pirit ua l a n d the t e mp o ra l l o rd s
O n t he c o n tr a ry wh e n t w o o r m o r e adj ec ti ve s be l o n g a s
e pith e t s to o n e a n d t he s a m e t hi n g t he o t h e r arr a n g e me n t

Th u s the high a n d m igh t y s tat e s

i s to b e pr e fe rr ed
H e re bo th e pith e t s b el o n g to o n e s u bj e ct
T he s t a t e s

hi gh a n d mighty w o u ld co n v ey the sa me id ea
Wh e re the a rticl e i s n o t u se d the plac e o f the s u b s ta n
ti v e o u ght to S h o w wh e th e r bo th adj ec t iv e s b el o n g to the
sa m e thi n g
o r to di ff e r en t thi n g s havi n g the s a m e g e ne ri c
n a me
Lik e an h o u seh o ld e r w ho bri nge th o u t o f hi s
I n the

m a n n e r , if

sa m e

t he

w e sa y ,

ec

1 96

S Y N TA X

trea s u re thi n g s n e w a n d o l d Thi s a r ran ge me n t i s fa u lty ;

b o th e pith e t s can n o t b el o n g to the s am e s u bj e ct It Sh o u ld

be
n e w thi n g s a n d o l d
If b o th a dj e cti v e s be l o n g to o n e a n d the s ame s u bj e ct
t he s u b s t a n t iv e o u ght e ith e r t o pr e c e d e b o th adj e cti v e s o r
t o fo ll o w b o th the a r t icl e b e i n g u n ifo r m ly o m itt e d b e fo r e
t he s e co n d adj e ctiv e wh eth e r pr e x e d to the s u b s tan tiv e
be fo re the r s t o r s u p p r e s s e d If o n the c o n trary th e y
b e lo n g t o di ffe ren t s u bj e ct s with the s ame n am e the s u b
s ta n ti v e o u ght t o fo ll o w the r s t adj e c t iv e
b
e
a nd m a
y
e ith e r r e p ea t e d aft e r the s e c o n d o r u n d e r s t o o d ; o r i t s h o u ld
fo ll o w bo th a dj ec ti v e s the articl e b ei n g pre x e d t o e ac h
o f th e m
No te 7 T he o m i s s i o n o r the i n s e rti o n o f t he i n d e
n it e a rticl e
i n so me i n s ta n c e s n e arly r e v e r se s the m e a n
i ng ; th u s
.

Ah, l

i ttl e thi k th

H e r e l i tt l e i s

gay ,

l ic t i
en

ou s

r
d
p
ou

Tho mso n

q u iv al en t to n o t m u ch o r rath e r by a
c o m mo n tro pe it d e n o t e s n o t a t a l l L o ck e sa y s I l e av e
him t o r e c o n cil e th e s e c o n t radicti o n s w hich m a y b e p l en
t i f u l l y fo u n d i n him by a n y o n e w ho r e ad s with b u t a

littl e att en ti o n
H e re o n t he c o n tra ry wh e re the i n d e

n it e a rticl e i s i n se rt e d
a li ttl e mea n s n o t n o n e o r
e

so me

lik e m an n e r wh e n it i s s aid Stra it i s the ga t e a n d

n arr o w i s t he w a
a n d f e w th e r e b e that n d i t ;
ew i s
y
f
o pp o se d t o
ma ny
Th u s al so
M a ny a re c all e d b u t

u t wh e n it i s s a id
B
T
ew a re c h o se n
a rry a f e w
f
day s till thy bro th e r s fu ry t u rn a f ew i s h e r e e q u i v a
l en t to s o me n o t a s o ppo s e d to ma ny b u t a s o pp o s e d to

If w e s ay f ew a cc o m pa n i e d the pri n ce w e
n ot none
a n d r e pre s e n t it a s i n co n
s e e m to di mi n i s h t he n u m b e r

no t many
fe w e r than e x
or
s i d e r a bl e a s if w e sa id

w
e
if
w
e sa
a
w
ec t a tio n z
e
w
e
ee m t o a mpl ify
s
f
p
y
r e p r e se n t the n u m be r a s n o t u n w o rthy o f a tt en ti o n o r a s
e q u al
a t l ea s t
if n o t s u p eri o r to e x pe ct a ti o n I n sh o rt
In

1 98

te r s

Y N TA X

he

y s Y o u th o u ght me n o t a w o r se

Thi s s trictly m ean s a w o r s e man

man th a n a p o e t
th an a p o e t i s w h e rea s he i n t e n de d to s a y that hi s mo ral
e
u aliti e s w e r e n o t i n fe ri o r t o hi s p o e tical g e n i u s
H
q

s h o u ld h a v e s aid
a w o r s e m a n th a n p o e t
Th es e t w o phra seo l o gi e s a re fre qu en t ly c o n fo u n d ed
B ak e r e rr o
w hich s e ld o m fa il s t o cr e a t e a m big u ity
n eo u sl
c
o n s id e r s th e m a s e q u i v al e n t
a n d pr e fe r s that
y
i n which the a rticl e i s o m i t t e d b e fo r e the s e c o n d s u b s tan
tiv e W h en th e r e a re t w o s u bj e ct s with o n e pre dicat e
t he articl e s h o u ld b e i n se rt e d
b u t wh en th e r e i s o n e s u b
ec t wi t h t w o pr e dic a t e s it s h o u ld b e o m itt e d
j

o
1
N te 0 Pe r s pic u ity i n lik e man n e r r eq u ir e s that
w h e n a n a dditi o n al e pith e t o r d e s crip t i o n o f the s a me s u b
j c e t i s i n t en de d the d e n it e articl e s h o u ld n o t b e e mplo y
I t i s by a n a tt e n t i o n t o thi s r u l e th a t w e cl e arly d i s
ed
t i n g u i s h b e t w e en su bj ec t a n d pr e dicat e
F o r thi s r e a so n
T he a p o s
the fo ll o wi n g s en t e n c e app e ar s to m e fa u lty :
tl e Ja me s t he s o n o f Z e b e d e e an d the b r o th e r o f St J o h n

H en ry s
w o u ld be d e cl ar e d the a p o s tl e o f the Brit o n s
H i s to ry of B r i ta i n
I t sh o u ld b e ra th e r
a n d br o th e r

o f St
John
Wh e n a di v e r s ity o f p e r so n s o r a change
o f s u bj e ct i s i n t e n d e d t o b e e x pr es se d
the d e n ite a rticl e
i s n e c e s s ar ily e m pl o y e d a s
C i n ci n n a t u s the dictato r

a n d t he m a s t e r o f h o r s e
m a rc h e d agai n s t the ZE q u i
T he d e n it e articl e be fo r e the l a tt e r appe llativ e m ark s the
div e rs ity o f s u bj e ct a n d cl e arly s h o w s that t w o p e r so n s
a r e d es ig n e d
We re the articl e o mi t t e d the e x p re s si o n
w o u ld i m ply th a t the dictat o r a n d the m a s t e r o f h o r s e
w e re o n e an d the sa me i n divid u al
to

A tt e rb u ry ,

sa

R U L E V I I S u b st a n t i v e s sign i fyi n g the s ame

I G e o rg e the T hi rd
thi n g a g re e i n c a s e t hu s

k i n g o f G r e a t Bri t ai n d e fe n d er o f t he fai th
T he
w o r d s I G eo rg e hing def en der a r e a ll c o n s id e r e d
a s t he n o mi n a t i v e c a s e
T he c hi e f o f the p r i n ce s
.

SY N TA X

1 99

d e e d the b r av e s t o f t he e n e my w a s a s s a s
s i n a t e d b y a d as t a r dly v ill a i n
w he r e t he p r o n o u n
he a g re e s i n c as e w i th t he p re c e di n g t e r m chief
T hi s r u l e ho w e v er m a y b e d e e m e d u n n e c es s ar y a s
al l s u ch e x r e s s i o n s a r e e lli t i c a l ; t hu s
t
h
i
c
h
e
e
f
p
p

o f t he
r i n ce s w a s a s s a s s i n a t e d
s a ss as
h
e
a
w
p

si n ate d
H e w as the s o n o f the Re v D r We s t

e rha s hi m w ho
u
b
li
s he d Pi n d a r a t O xf o r d
p
p
p
Johns on s L if e of W
T ha t i s
es t
the s o n o f hi m
We r e the p ro n o u n i n the n o m i n at iv e c as e i t w o u ld
r e fe r t o the s o n
a n d n o t the fa the r
a n d thu s c o n
a v e r y di ffe r e n t m e a n i n g
ve
y
he w ho

pro pe r n a me s a r e by the t ro p e a n t o n o
ma s ia fr e q u e n tly u s e d f o r ap p e lla ti v es as wh e n w e s a y

t he S ocr at e s o f t he pr e se n t a g e
wh ere S ocr a tes i s e q u i
val e n t to the wi s e s t m an so a lso a ppe llati v e s h av e f r e
q u en tly t he me a n i n g a n d fo rce o f attrib u tiv es Th u s if

w e s ay
he i s a s o ldi e r
i t me an s e i th e r that he i s by
o r that he p o s se s s e s a l l t he q u ali t i e s
r
o fe s s i o n a so ldi e r
p
o f a m ilita ry m a n wh e th e r pr o fe s s i o n a lly a s o ldi e r o r n o t
A cc o rdi n g to the fo rm e r a cc e p ta ti o n o f t he t e r m it i s a
m e r e a pp ellati v e ; a greea bly to the la tte r it ha s the fo rc e
o f a n attrib u tiv e
N o te 2
T wo o r mo r e s u b s t a n t i v e s i n co n c o rd a n c e a n d
fo r mi n g o n e c o mpl e x n ame o r a n ame a n d t itl e hav e the
the t w o
pl u ral te r mi n ati o n a n n e xed to the la s t o nly as
A n al o gy
M i ss L o u i s a H o w a r ds t he tw o M i ss Tho ms o n s
D r Pri e s tle y o b se rv e s w o u ld pl e a d i n fav o u r o f a n o th e r
c o n s tru cti o n a n d l e ad u s to sa y the tw o M is s es Tho ms on
f o r if the e llips i s w e r e
the tw o M is s es Lo u is a H ow a r d
s u ppli ed
w e s h o u ld s a y the t w o y o u n g l a di es o f the n a me
he ha s s o m e
o f Th o m so n
a n d thi s c o n s tr u cti o n he add s

wh e re m e t with
T he latt e r fo r m o f e x pr e s s i o n i t i s t r u e o c c a s i o n ally
o cc u r s ; b u t g en er a l u sa g e
a nd
I a m r a th e r i n cli n e d to
No te

S Y N TA X

2 00

thi n k an al o gy lik e wi s e d e cid e i n fav o u r o f the fo rme r ;

f o r wi t h a f e w e x c e pti o n s a n d th e se n o t paral l e l to the

v en f
i
n c o m pl e x
i
w
e al m o s t u n ifo r mly
e x a m pl e s n o w
g
n am e s co n n e the i n e x i o n t o the l a s t s u b s ta n tiv e
So me
r
f
s o f thi s w e s hall aft e rw ar d s b a v e an o ppo rt u n ity o f
oo
p
I w o u ld al so o b s e rv e i n pa s s i n g t hat e llip s i s
o ff e ri n g
r
i n cipl e s
a n d a n al o gy a r e di ff e r en t
a n d s h o u ld b e care
p
fu lly di s ti n gu i sh e d
,

R U L E V I I I O n e s u b s t an ti v e g o v e r n s
s ig n i fyi n g a di ff er e n t thi n g i n the g e n i t i v e

a n o the r ,

T he t y r an t
N o te 1

s ra

ge

T he

ost e s

as,

fe e t

Thi s r u l e tak e s plac e wh e n

o s se s
o pe rty
r
p
p
by which o n e thi n g a ppe r
,

gene r al r e lati o n
t a i n s t o a n o th e r i s i m pli e d
N o te 2 I t m a y b e co n s id e r e d a s V i o l at e d i n s u ch e x

a m pl e s a s t h e s e
L o n gi n u s hi s Tre ati se o n the S u bli me

C hri s t hi s s ak e C o mmon P r ay er
A d d is o n
S u b s ta n tiv e s go v e rn n o t o n ly n o u n s b u t lik e
N o te 3

hi s r e war d
wi s e p r o n o u n s a s i t s s t r en gt h
N o te Thi s ca se i s g e n e rally r e so lvab l e i n to the o h

t
ec ti v e with t he pr e p o s iti o n o
as
e ki n g s s c e ptr e
h
j
f

t he h e ad
or
hi s h e ad o r
the s c e ptr e o f the ki n g

o f hi m
I ha v e s aid g en er a l ly fo r it i s n o t a l w ay s t h u s
r e s o lvabl e F o r e xam pl e the C hri s ti an s abbath i s s o me
ti me s n a me d the L o rd s day b u t the day o f the

L o rd c o n v ey s a di ff e re n t id e a a n d d e no te s t he day o f

j u dgm e n t
N o te 5 T he latt e r o r go v e r n i ng s u b s t an tiv e i s f r e
q u en tly u n de r s t o o d a s the ki n g w i l l c o me to St Jam es s

t o m o rr o w
that i s S t Ja me s s palac e
I fo u n d hi m

or
at the s t a ti o n e r s t ha t i s
the s ta t i o n e r s s h o p

the s tati o n e r s h o u s e
N o te 6
Wh e n a s i n gl e s u bj e ct i s e xpre s se d a s the
W y i d d M r Th m
ld m
vr y
b tw
th tw M
r Th m
Th m
th tw M
b t
s o n,

or

the

e sa

ee

e ss s

ess s

s o n,

"

so n

r.

e se
o

o r ne e

so ns

sa ,

SY N TAX

2 02

by w ithh o ldi n g the i n e xi o n fro m the t wo r s t s u b s tan

ti v e s
Wh e re n e atn e s s a n d p e r s pic u ity can n o t po s s ibly be
co m bi n e d
it will n o t b e q u e s ti o n e d which w e o u ght to
pre fe r I o b s e rv e al s o th a t th o u gh s u ch phr a seo l o gi e s a s

thi s
J o h n s Willi a m s a n d R ichard s h o u s e s b e p er
f e c tl y c o n so n an t with s y n tactic al pro pri e ty a n d s trictly
hi s R ichard s
a n al o go u s t o t he e s t abli s h e d phr a se o l o gy
.

the
fo r me r ex pre s s i o n it w o u ld b e be tt e r to s a y
h o u se s be lo n gi n g i n co m m o n o r s ev e rally (a s the m e an i n g

may b e ) t o J o h n Willia m a n d R ichard

No te 7 Wh en a n am e i s co mpl e x th a t i s c o n s i s t i n g o f
m o r e t e rm s th an o ne the la s t o n ly ad m it s the s ign o f the

gen itiv e a s
J u li u s C aes ar s C o mm en t a ri e s
J o h n the

Bapti s t s h ea d
fo r H e r o dia s s ak e hi s bro th e r Phili p s

w ife

No te 8 Wh en a s h o r t ex plan ato ry t e r m i s s u bj o i n ed
to a n am e i t m a tt e r s littl e t o w hich t he i n e xio n b e a n
I l e ft the p arc e l at M r J o h n so n the bo o k
n ex e d
as

B u t if
J o h n s o n s the b o o k s ell e r
or
at M r
s e ll e r s
the e x pl a n a to ry t e rm b e c o m pl e x o r if th e r e a r e m o r e e x
t
l
e rm s th an o n e the S ig n o f t he g en iti v e m u s t b e
a n at o r
p
y
o r r s t s u b s t a n tiv e th u s
I l e ft the
a i x e d to the n a m e
bo o k a t J o h n so n s a re s p e cta ble bo o k s elle r a w o rthy m an

I n the s ame m an n e r w e s h o u ld sa y
a n d a n o l d fri e n d
thi s p s alm i s D a vid s the ki n g p ri e s t a n d p ro ph e t o f
and n ot
t hi s p s al m i s David the ki n g
t he p eo p l e

ri
e s t a n d p r o ph e t o f the p eo pl e s
p

No te 9 I n s o m e c a se s w e e mpl o y b o th t he ge n itive

as
thi s i s a fri e n d o f the ki ng s
a n d a pr e po s iti o n

thi s i s a fri en d o f the ki n g s fri e n d s

e lliptical ly f o r

Th e s e fo r ms
W e s ay al so thi s i s a fri e n d o f the ki n g
th o u gh i n m an y ca se s e qu iv al e n t
o f e x pr e s s i o n h o w e v e r
Th u s if I say
thi s i s
s o me ti mes i m p ly di ffe r e n t id eas

it m ea n s thi s i s a n i ma ge like
a pict u r e o f my f ri e n d

If I say
thi s i s
nes s
o r r e pr e s e n t a ti o n o f my fri en d

a p ic t u re o f my fri e n d s it mean s
thi s pict u re be lo n g s

t o m y fri e n d

i n the

S Y N TA X

2 03

d o u ble ge nitiv e i n v o lv e s a n e lli p s i s a n d i mp li e s

u rali t y o f s u bj e ct s
ar
t
l
I
t
hi
k
o f a wh o l e o r o n e o f a
n
p
p
t he u s e o f it s h o u ld b e av o id e d u n l e s s i n ca se s wh e r e thi s
pl u rality m ay b e i m pli e d Th u s w e may say a ki n s m an

i t b e i n g i m p li e d
o f the trait o r s wait e d o n him y e s t e rday
that the trait o r had s e v e ral o r m an y ki n sm en T he e x
pre s s i o n i s e qu i v al en t to a ki n s m an o f the traito r s ki n s
me n
B u t if t he s u bj e ct po s s e s s e d w e re s i n g u lar o r
the o n ly o n e o f the ki n d I s h o u ld r e co mme n d the u se
o f t he s i m l e g en itiv e ; th u s
if
h
e ha d o n ly o n e h o u se
I
p

th
i
or
thi
s I S the h o u s e o f t he t rait o r
s
s h o u ld s a
y
thi s i s a h o u s e o f the
bu t no t
i s the trait o r s h o u se

t rait o r s

No te l O T he r e c u rr e n c e o f the an alytic al e x pr e s s i o n
s h o u ld b e c a r e fu lly
a n d lik e wi s e o f the s i m pl e g e n itiv e
av o id e d Th u s th e r e i s s o me thi n g i n e l egan t a n d o ff e n
t he se v e rity o f the d i s
s iv e i n the fo ll o wi n g s e n t e n c e
tre s s o f the so n o f the ki n g t o u ch e d the n ati o n
M u ch
be tt e r
the s e v e r e di s tr e s s o f t he ki n g s so n t o u ch e d t he

n ati o n
No te 1 1 Th e r e i s s o m e ti me s a n a br u pt v u lgarity o r
Th u s i n
u n c o u t h n e s s i n t he u s e o f the s i m pl e g e n itiv e

the c o m mo n s v o t e
the l o rd s
the a rm y s n a m e

h o u s e e x pr e s s i o n s o f M r H u m e t h e re i s a m a n ife s t
wan t o f dig n ity a n d o f e l e gan c e M u ch b e tt e r
t he

the v o t e o f the co mm o n s
n a m e o f the a r my
the

h o u s e o f l o rd s
A s t he

RU LE I X

d en ts
d e r,

C ato

or

m as c u li n e,

ro n o

the

u mb e r

an d

no

uns

g re e

w i th t he i r

w hi ch t he y

uns

an d

e rs o n ,

a s,

re

re s e n t,

p
T he y

a n te c e

i n g en

res

e c te

hi s p ar t y, w he r e C a to i s s i n g u l a r
a n d his a g re e s w i th i t i n g e n d e r

an d

an d

u mb e r
H e a dd r e s s e d y o u a n d m e an d d e s i r e d

w he r e a s s yll e p t i c a lly r e p r e s e n t s
us t o fo ll o w hi m

the t w o e rs o n s
e r e the
T
o u who wri t e s t
H
h
p

S Y N TA X

2 04

b e i n g a p e r s o n the r e l a ti v e w ho
n o t w hic h i s e m
T
h
e a n t e c e d e n t a l s o b e i ng
o ed
pl y
o f the s e co n d
e r s o n a n d s i n g u l a r n u m b er
t
h
e
r
e
p
l a t i v e i s c o n s id e re d a s o f the s a m e char a c t e r a n d
i s the r e fo r e fo ll o w e d b y the v e r b i n the s e c o n d
ce
h
ch n o
V
i
i
w
e r s o n a n d s i n g ul a r n umb e r
p
m a n p r a c t i s e s w i th i mp u n i t y p r o v e d hi s d e s t ru c

ti o n
H e r e the a n te c e d e n t v ice n o t b e i n g a p e r
s o n t he
r o n o u n w hi ch o f t he n e u t e r g e n d e r
i
s
p
t he re fo r e e m p l o y e d
T he r i v e r s w hi c h o w i n t o

the s e a
H e r e a l s o the a n t e c e d e n t n o t b e i n g a
e r s o n t he r e l a t i v e i s w hi ch
I
t
i
l
s
s o c o n s id e r e d
a
p
a s i n the
l
u
a s a l l s u b s ta n ti ve s
r a l n u mb e r ; a n d
p
a r e j o i ne d t o t he t hi r d
t
h
e r e re
e rs o n
h
i
h
w
c
p
p
s e n t a t i v e o f r i vers
i s j o in e d t o the thi r d p e r s o n
ra l o f t he v e r b
l
u
p

N o te l
Thi s r u l e i s tran s gre s s e d i n t he fo ll o wi n g
e x a m pl e s
B e war e o f fal s e pr o ph e t s w hi ch c o m e to y o u

i n s h ee p s cl o thi n g
T he fr u it tr ee b e ari n g fr u it aft e r
hi s ki n d
Th e re w a s i n d e e d i n o u r d e s ti n i e s s u ch a
c o n fo r m ity a s s e ld o m i s fo u n d i n tha t o f t w o p e r so n s i n

the s a m e a g e
H e r e tha t r e fe rri n g t o d es ti n i es i
f o r t ho s e
T he cr o wn had it i n the i r p o w e r t o giv e

e
o
e
r ward s a s th e y th o u ght pr p r
Pa r l ia men ta ry
a n te c e

den t

tho u

ba tes

T he r el a tiv e s h o u ld b e pl a c e d a s n
p o s sibl e to the a n t e c e d e n t o th e r wi s e a mbigu ity i s 5
t i m e s o cca si o n e d
N o te 3
I n the e arli e r e di t i o n s o f M u rray s G ra mm ar
w e n d t he fo ll o wi n g r u l e :
Wh en the r e lativ e i s p re
c e d e d by t w o n o mi n ati v e s o f di ffe re n t pe r s o n s it m ay agre e
i n p e r s o n wi t h e i t h e r a s
I am the m a n w ho co m m an d s
T
h
ou
e r u le
I
ou
or
a m t he m a n w ho c o m m a n d
y
y
h e re giv e n i s e rro n eo u s T he c o n s tr u cti o n i s by n o me a ns
arbitrary If w e s ay
I a m the ma n w ho c o mma n d s
N o te 2

S Y N TA X

2 06

it n o t c e rt ai n tha t the a dj e ctiv e m u s t a gre e w ith i ts

pro pe r s u b s tan tiv e n a me ly that wh o s e me an i ng it i s in
t en d e d to m o dify a n d n o o th e r ? T he r e la tive i n lik e
m a n n e r mu s t a gr e e w ith that an t e c ed e n t an d that o nl y
wh o s e re p re s en tati v e i t i s i n the r el a ti v e cl a u s e Th e r e i s
n o thi n g a rbitr a ry i n e ith e r the o n e c a s e o r the o th e r
Pe rhap s it m ay b e an sw e re d that t h o u gh
part o f the alt e r e d r u le l ea v e s the c o n c o rd a s it
di s cr e ti o n ary the l a tt e r c o n n e s the agr ee me n
la t i v e to i ts p r o p e r an t e c ed en t B u t
Why i s that r e pr e se n te d
c o n tr a ri e ty
?
e
s
n
t
h
e
n
e
Thi s h
s
i s d e t e r mi e d by
o n ly o bj e c ti o n ; f o r it m a y b e a fr me d
th a t the r ul e th u s c o n s id e re d i s c o m pl e t ely
F o r the l e ar n e r ha s b ee n a lre a dy t o ld th a t
agr e e s with the an t ece d en t in gen d e r n u m b e r
A n d c a n t he an t e c e d e n t b e a ny o th e r
A n d wh a t d o e s thi s r u l e t ea ch
se n s e i n dic a t e s ?
h
e r u le
T
e r e fo r e i s c i
th
h
e s a m e t hi n g
t
c i s el
y
c u l a te d t o m i s l e a d by r e pr e se n ti n g a s a rbitr a ry
xe d an d de t e rmi n a t e o r it i s p u rely a r u l e o f
s it s t o o d o rigi n ally it ga v e s o m e n e w
A
a ti o n
g
t i o n ; b u t that i n fo rm ati o n w as e rro neo u s : a s it
it i s e ith e r i n d e n i te o r it i s u se l e s s
now
T he s ch o lar m a y r e q u ir e a n a d mo n iti o n w h en th e r e
t w o a n t e c e d en t s o f di ffe ren t p e r s o n s to b e c a r e fu l i n
fe rri n g the r e la ti v e t o i ts pr o p e r an t e c e d en t ; b u t to
him th a t it ma y a gr ee w ith the o n e o r the o th e r
i n g to the s e n se i s to t el l hi m n o thi n g o r t e ll h
I n the e x a mpl e s j u s t
w hi c h he a lr e a dy k n o w s
d u ce d the t e r mi n ati o n o f the v e rb by i n dicati n g the
cl e a rly Sh o w s the a n t e c ed e n t ;
so n o f t he r e lati v e
w h e re the s u b s t an tiv e s a r e o f the s a me p e r so n an d
v e rb c an n o t th e r e fo r e by i t s t e r m i na ti o n i n dic a t e the
c e d en t a mbigu ity s h o u ld b e pre cl u d e d by the
a rran g e me n t
Th u s
H e i s the h e r o w ho did

H e w ho did it i s t he h e ro
I n the fo r m e r
is

S Y N TA X

2 07

bj ec t an d the her o w ho d id i t t he predica te ; a n d i n the

l a tte r he w ho did i t i s the s u bj e ct a n d the her o the p r e
su

4
T he r el a ti v e

i n s t ea d o f r e fe rri n g to a n y
pa rtic u lar w o rd a s i t s an t ec e d e n t so me t im e s re fe r s to a
wh o l e cl a u se th u s
t he b i ll w a s r ej e ct e d by the l o rd s
which e x cit e d n o s mal l d egr ee o f j e al o u sy an d di s co n

ten t th a t i s
which thi n g n ame ly the r ej e cti o n o f
the bill
No te 5 T he a n t e ce d en t pro n o u n o f the third p e r so n
i s o ft e n s u ppr e s se d w h e n n o p artic u lar e m p ha si s i s i m
li
ed ; a s
u r s e s t e al s tras h
i
e
h
e
h
o s te al s m
W
p
y p

Who m he w o u ld he s l e w wh o m
the m an w ho
or

B i bl e ; i e
Th o se wh o m he w o u ld
he w o u ld h e k e pt

In
Wh o so e v e r co m m i t t e th s in i s the se rvan t o f s i n
thi s e x a m pl e the an te c e d e n t he a n d n o mi n ativ e t o the
pri n cipal v e rb i s u n d e rs to o d
P ri e s tl e y has r e m ark e d that t he pr o n o u n s w ho ev er a n d
w hosoev er h a v e s o m e t i me s a d o u bl e c o n s t r u cti o n
He
E li z abe th p u blicly
gi v e s the t w o fo llo wi n g e x a m pl e s
thre at e n e d that s he w o u ld hav e the h ea d o f wh o e v e r ha d

a dvi se d i t H u me
H e o ff e r e d a gr ea t r e c o m pe n se to
wh o mso e ve r w o u ld h el p hi m t o a sight o f hi m H u me
Th o u gh the l e arn e d a u th o r se e m s to ad mi t bo th t h e se
m o d e s o f c o ns tr u cti o n w e appr e h e n d that o n ly o n e o f
th e m i s gra mmat ical I t has be e n j u s t n o w o b se rv e d t hat
the an te c ed e n t i s o ft en u n d e rs t o o d to the r e l a tiv e w ho an d
to the co m po u n ds w ho ever an d w ho s oev er
If the an t e
ced e n t b e s u p li e d
it
w
l
il
b
e fo un d that the c o n s tru cti o n
p
is n o t a rbi t rary a s P ri e s t l e y s u p po se s b u t d e n it e a n d
fixe d
T he r s t se n t en c e i s c o rre c t
S he w o u ld hav e
the r e la
the h e a d o f him o r th e m wh o e v e r had a dvi se d
tiv e be i n g the n o min a tiv e to the v e rb
H e o ff e r e d a
gre a t rec o m pe nse to him o r th em wh o so e ve r Sh o u ld h elp

hi m
Who ms oev er i s a so l ec i s m th o u gh clo se to the p re
po s iti o n to it i s n o t u n d e r i ts go v ern men t ( S ee the f o l
l o w ing r u les )
No te

S Y N TA X

2 08

R U L E X I f n o n o mi n a t i v e i n t e r v e n e b e t w
t he r e l a t i v e a n d the v e r b t he r e l a t i v e s ha ll b e
n o m i n a t i v e t o t he v e r b a s
S o l o m o n w ho w a s

s o n o f D a v id b u il t t he t e m l e o f Je r u s a l e m
p
w ho i s t he n o m i n a t i v e t o t he v e r b wa s
.

RU L E X I

if

n om n at v e

i n t e rv e n e
t w e e n the r e l a t i v e a n d t he v e r b t he r e l a t i v e
b e u n d e r the g o v e rn m e n t o f t he p r e p o s i t i o n
b e fo r e o r the n o u n o r v e r b fo ll o w i n g a s
w ho m w e w o r shi p i s t he L o r d b y w ho s e gi ft

li v e a n d b y who m al l thi n g s w e r e m a d e
In
r s t r e l a t i v e c l a u s e w he r e we i s the i n t e rv e n i n g
m i n a t i v e the re l a t i v e i s i n the o bj e c t i v e c a s e
g o v e rn e d b y the v e r b fo ll o w i n g : i n t he s e c
w he r e t he i n t e r v e n i n g n o m i n a t i v e i s
cl a u se
w i s e w e the r e l a t i v e i s i n t he g e n i t i v e c a s e
g o v e rn e d b y the n o u n fo ll o w i n g thu s
by w

gi ft o r b y the gi ft o f w ho m a n d i n
c l a u s e w he r e thing s i s t he i n t e r v e n i n g n o mi
t he r e l a t i v e IS i n the o bj e c t i v e ca se a n d g o
b y the p re p o s i ti o n
u t,

T h c

l ti v e may a l w ay s b e as
t a i ne d by r e p e at i n g the a n t e c e d e n t a n d a rra n gi n g
cla u s e i n the n a t u ra l o rd e r th u s
the city

calle d R o m e w a s fo u n d e d by R o m u l u s i e
T he a n t e c e d e n t
which city 1 s c alle d R o m e
the n o m i n a ti v e t o t he v e rb i s w hi ch th e r e fo r e
it in ca s e
G o d w ho s e e s al l thi n g s w ill p u n i s h

G o d which G o d s e e s all thi n g s

w ick e d
i e
the
l a ti v e th e re fo r e i s the n o mi n a tiv e to the v e rb s ees that
it i s i n the s a me cas e i n which the an tec e d e n t w o u ld
if agai n ex pr e s se d
S o l o mo n w h o m D av id l o v
the w i s e s t o f pri n ce s
H e re if we a rra nge the
No te 1

ase o f

the

re a

S Y N TA X

2 10

a pre po s iti o n S ho u ld pre c e d e t he r ela tiv e o n e o f the o th e r

t wo pro n o u n s m u s t b e e m pl o y e d
t he p r o n o u n tha t n o t
he i s t he s am e
a d m itti n g a pr e p o s i t i o n pr e x e d t o it a s

m a n with wh o m y o u w e r e ac q u ai n t e d
I t i s r e m arkabl e
h o w e v e r that wh en the arra nge me n t i s s o m e what chan ge d
t he w o rd tha t ad mit s the pr e p o s iti o n a s
he i s the sa me
ma n that y o u w e r e acq u ai n t e d with
3 d l y Tha t i s u s e d aft e r w ho t ak e n i n t e rr o gati v e ly a s
Who that ha s the s pirit o f a m a n w o ul d s u ffe r hi mself
t o b e th u s d e grad e d ?
l thl y Wh en p e r so n s an d thi n g s a r e r e fe rr e d to a s
the me n a n d thi ng s tha t he hath s t u di e d h a v e n o t c o n
trib u t e d to the i mpro v e m en t o f hi s mo ral s
,

R U L E X I I A n a c ti v e
t he a c c u s at i v e o r o bj e c t i v e

t ra n s i t i ve

He

b g o v e rn s

c a se , a s ,

t e a c he s

We

ver

me

ho n o u r hi m

am pl e s o f t ran sgre s s i o n agai n s t thi s r ul e

w e m a y add u c e t he f o l l o w m
W
h
o d o I l o v e s o m u ch ?
g
S ha ksp ea r e
Who Sh o u ld I m e e t the o th e r day b u t
Sp ecta to r
m y o l d fri e n d
Th o s e w ho he th o u ght

tr u e t o hi s p a rty
C l a r en d o n
No te 2 A s s u b s tan tiv e s hav e n o o bj e ctiv e ca s e the
s u bj e ct o r o bj e ct o f the en e rgy o r a ffe cti o n i s di s ti n g u i s h e d
A chill e s Sl e w
by i ts plac e w hich i s afte r the v e rb a s

H e cto r wh e re A chi l l es the agen t pr e c e d e s a n d Hecto r

t he s u bj e ct o f the acti o n fo ll o w s t he v e rb
R e v e r s e t hi s
o rd e r
H e ct o r s l e w
an d the m e a n i n g i s r e v e r s e d
as

A chill e s
W h e r e t he pro p e r a rran g e me n t i s n o t o b se rv ed
Th u s
a m big u ity o r m i s c o n s tr u cti o n i s fr e q u e n t ly pr o d u c e d
wh e n Po pe s a y s O d y s s x i x
'
th f rv
t ir d d s d
A d th
th
it m ay b e a s k e d did the s o n addre s s the sir e o r the s ire
a ddr e s s t he s o n ?
A lit t l e a tt e n ti o n w o u ld ha v e pr e v e n t e d
N o te 1

s ex

us

e so n

en

e a

res

S Y N TA X

2 11

ambig u ity If the s ire addr e s s e d t he

S h o u ld r u n t h u s
hi
t i dd
A d th
th f rv

t he

li n e

the

so n ,

us

If t he

s s on

en

s re a

ress

ddr e s s e d the s ire

dd
d
A d th
hi f rv t i
th
No te 3 A n ac t iv e i n tr an s itiv e v e rb s o m e ti me s go v e r n s
the o bj e cti v e c a s e o f a n o u n o f the s a m e o r a ki n dr e d s i g
as
n i ca ti o n
L e t u s r u n the rac e which i s s e t b e fo r e

If a n y m a n s e e hi s bro th e r s i n a s i n which i s n o t
us

Bi bl e
u n t o d e ath
T he la t t e r v e rb h o w e v e r th o u g h
th u s u se d m u s t n o t b e e m pl o y e d i n a tran si t iv e s en se It
What hav e I s i n n e d
i s a n e rro r th e r e fo r e t o s a y

B i bl e
I t sh o u ld b e H o w o r I n what ? S o me i n
tran siti v e v e rb s al s o wh en u se d i n a r e e x s e n s e a re j o i n e d
to a n o bj e ctiv e c a s e a s
Th en h a vi n g Sh o w n hi s w o u n d s

he d S it hi m d o w n H o me s D o ug l a s
Thi s i s a po e t ic
lic en c e w hich in a pr o s e wri t e r w o u ld n o t b e t o l e rate d
u n l e s s i n c o ll o q u ial a n d v e ry fa m iliar la n g u ag e

No te 4 T he o bj ec tiv e c a s e s h o u ld n o t if po s s ibl e b e
Thi s r u l e i s vi o lat e d i n the f o l
s e par a t e d fr o m i t s v e rb
lo wi n g s e n te n c e
B e ck e t c o u ld n o t b e tt e r di s c o v e r tha n
by a t ta cki n g s o p o w e rfu l a n i n t e re s t hi s r e so l u t i o n to m ai n

H u me
a
n
c
t i
T he r e gi m en i s h e r e u n n e c e s s arily
&
a n d v e ry i n e l e ga n tly s e p a rat e d fr o m i t s v e rb
so n a

us

e s on

en

s re a

re s s

'

RU LE X I I I
V e rb s sig n i fyi n g t o a sk t e a ch o f
fe r p r o mi s e p a y t e ll a ll o w d e n y a n d s o me o the rs
o f li k e s ig n i c a t i o n
e s e c i a lly i n
a re s o m e t i m e s
p
c o ll o u i a l l a n g u a g e
f
o ll o w e d i n t he p a s s i v e v o i c e
q
b y a n o bj e c ti v e c a s e
,

Thi s r u l e se em s to hav e e s cap e d the atte n t io n

w ho o b
o f al l o u r E n gli s h gra m m a rian s e x c e t P ri e s tl e y
p
t hat i n s o me fa m iliar phr a se s the s u bj e ct a n d
se r v e s

Thi s
o bj e ct o f o u r a ffir m ati o n s e e m t o b e t ra n s p o s e d
idi o m e x c e pt in a v ery fe w i n s t a n ce s i s n o t to be fo u n d i n
P2
No te 1

S Y N TA X

2 12

L a t i n th o u gh i t o cc u r s pr e t t y o ft e n in G ree k it th e re fo re
par t ic u lar ly m e ri t s the a tt en ti o n o f the j u n i o r L ati n s ch o
lar l e s t i n hi s A n gl o L a t i n t ran sla t i o n s i t s h o u ld b e t ray
hi m i n t o a n e gr e gi o u s s o l e ci s m
H e all o w e d m e gr e a t
lib e rty t u rn e d p a s s iv e ly i n c o n c u rr e n c e wi t h t he L a t i n
idi o m
gr e a t lib e r ty w a s all o w e d m e
B u t w e s a y al s o
I w a s all o w e d gre a t lib e rty
i n E n gli s h
H e pr o m i s e d
i

v e day s
n
s
s
e
w
s
r
o
a
hi
a
iv
ly
a
S
hi
m
s
t
o
e
a
( )
p
p
p
p

I w a s p ro mi s e d her i n v e day s
m i se d m e a n d
S he
w o u ld n o t acc e pt the j e we l s t h o u gh th e y w e re o ffe re d t o
or
he r by her m o th e r
th o u gh s he w a s o ffe re d them by
he r m o th e r

No te 2
A ft e r v e rb s o f g i v i ng tell i ng s en d i ng p r o mi s
i ng of e r i ng a n d o th e r s o f lik e s ign icati o n t he thi n g i s
v e ry gen e ra lly p lac e d be fo r e t he p e r s o n I n the ti me o f
Swift a n d A ddi so n thi s r u l e w a s n o t u n ifo rm ly o b se rv e d
W e n d a u th o r s o f tha t p e ri o d s ayi n g i n di s cri m i n at e ly

G iv e it u s a n d
G iv e u s i t
T e ll him it a n d
T e ll it hi m
H e p r o m i s e d m e i t a n d H e pr o m i s e d
I n Sc o tlan d th e s e t w o m o d e s o f e x p r e s s i o n s t ill
i t me
I n E n gla n d th ey a r e n o w r e d u c e d u n d e r o ne
o btai n
G iv e it m e
ge n e ral r u l e We s ay
T e ll it him

H e se n t it u s
,

99

V
R U L E XI J T he

a ft e r

it

as

to be ha s t he

i t ha s

u bj e c t s a r e
r e di c a t e o f
p
s

v er

s ame

case

b e fo r e i t thu s d e n o ti n g t ha t
id e n t i c a l o r t ha t t he o n e t e r m i s
,

t he

I t i s he ,

o the r, a s ,

l i e v e d i t t o b e hi m

I n t he fo r m e r

t he
t he

You be

e xa m

l
e
p

it is

i t o t he v e rb the n o m i n a t i v e c a s e he
I n t he l a t t e r i t i s t he
t he re fo r e fo ll o w s t he v e r b
r e gi m e n o f the v e r b bel i eved t he v e rb to be i s t he re
fo r e fo ll o w e d b y t he o bj e c ti v e c a s e
t he

n o m n at v e

N o te 1
i s me,

m en

sa

Thi s r u l e i s vi o lat ed i n s u ch e x am pl e s a s it

w ho m d
i t w a s him
I b eli e v e d it to b e he

that I a m ? I n the l a s t e x a m pl e the n at u ral

S Y N TA X

2 14

T he

i n n iti ve t h u s fre q u e n tly s rrppl ie s the

ac
e o f a n o bj e ctiv e ca s e aft e r the v e rb a s it o ft e n s tan d s
l
p

or
he lo v e s t o s t u dy
f o r a n o m i n a t iv e b efo r e i t a s

he l o v e s s t u dy
I r e ad to l e arn wh e re
N o te 2 I n s u ch e x a m pl e s a s
t he latt e r phr a s e t h o u gh i n t he s a m e fo r m a s to s t u dy i n
t he pr e c e di n g e x a m pl e ha s n o t wi t h s ta n di n g a di ff e r e n t
I re a d l e arn
m e an i n g a n d c a n n o t b e r e s o lv e d lik e it i n t o
i ng
i n s u ch e x a mpl e s a s T o o k e j u s tly o b s e r v e s the p r e
o r d e n o ti n g the o bj e ct a n d e q u i v al e n t t o p o u r
o s i t io n
f
p

I r e ad fo r to l e arn
Our
i n Fr e n ch i s u n d e r s t o o d a s
i n d ee d i n t h e s e e x am pl e s n e v e r
s o u t h e rn n e ighb o u r s
a n d Tr u s l e r ha s n o t i m pr o p e rly o h
o m it the ca s u al t e r m
that wh en the v e rb d o e s n o t e x p re s s the c e r t ai n
s e rv e d
b u t s o m e thi n g r e m o t e a n d c o n ti n
a n d i m m e di a t e e ffe c t
ge n t the w o rd s i n o r d er to which ar e n early e q u i v a l e n t
to f o r m a y b e p e rti n e n tly i n t r o d u c e d a s
i n o rd e r to

acq u ire fa me m e n e n c o u n t e r the gre a t e s t dan ge r s

N o te 3 T he v e rb s t o bi d d a r e n e ed ma ke s ee hea r
r e n o t fo ll o w e d by the S ig n o f the i n n itiv e a s
e
l
l
e
e
t
a
f

I s a w him d o it
It i s to b e o b
H e bad e m e g o
s e rv e d h o w e ve r that i n the lan g u a g e o f Script u r e t he v e rb
t o m ak e
i s o ft e n fo l l o w e d by to a s
H e m ak e th hi s

T he v e rb
fo r
s u n t o ri s e
to d a r e
t o ch a ll e n g e
or
t o d e fy
i s al s o c o n s tr u e d wi t h to
I dare th e e b u t to

bre a t h e u p o n m y l o v e S ha ksp ea r e
N o te 4 N o u n s adj e c t iv e s a n d participl e s a re o ft e n
fo llo w e d by a n i n n itiv e a s
y o u r d es i r e to i mp r o v e will

u lti m at e ly c o n trib u t e t o
y o u r happi n e s s
Go o d m en

a r e d es i r o u s t o d o g o o d

N o te 5
A s t he pr o p e r t e n se o f the s u b s e q ue n t o r s e
c o n d ar
v e rb ha s i n c e r t ai n ca s e s b e e n a s u bj e c t o f d i s
y
p u t e i t m ay b e n e ce s s ary to o b s e rve t hat wh e n the s i m pl e
at t rib u t e o r m e r e ly t he pri m ary ide a e xp re s s e d by the
s u b s e q u e n t v e rb i s i n t e n d e d t o b e s ig n i e d i t s h o u ld t h e n
b e p u t i n the pr e s en t t e n s e b u t wh e n the id e a o f p e rf ec
t i o n o r c o mp l e t i o n i s c o mbi n e d wi t h the p ri mary id ea the
No te

S Y N TA X

2 15

b se q u e n t v e rb sh o u ld hav e t h a t fo r m which i s t e r me d
t he p e rfe ct o f t he i n n i t iv e
O r p e rha p s t hi s r u l e may
m o r e i n t e lligibly t o t he s ch o l a r th o u gh l es s c o rr e c t ly b e
t h u s e x pre s se d t hat wh en the ac ti o n o r s t a t e d e n o t e d by
t he s u b s e q u en t v e rb
i s co n te mpo rary wi th that o f the
pri m ar y v e rb th en the s e c o n d ar y v e rb m u s t be p u t i n t he
pre s en t t e n s e b u t wh en a cti o n o r s tat e i s pri o r to t hat e x
presse d by the se c o n dary v e rb the la t te r m u s t b e p u t i n
t he pr e t e rit e t e n s e
U s ag e i n d ee d a n d t he o pi n i o n s o f
gramm a rian s ar e divid e d o n t hi s s u bj e ct B u t wh en n o
thin g b u t u s age c an b e pl e a d ed i n favo u r o f o ne phr a s e
o l o gy an d wh e n r e a so n c o n c u r s with u s ag e t o r e c o m m e n d
a n o th e r it will n o t b e q u e s ti o n e d t hat t he latt e r d e se rv e s
the p r e fe r e n c e
Th u s w e s h o u ld sa y
I e x pe cte d t o s e e
an d n o t
ou
I
e x e c t e d t o hav e s e e n
ou
b
e
ca
u
se
y
p
y
e ith e r t he e x p e ctati o n a n d t he s e e i n g m u s t b e r e gard ed a s
c o n t e m po rary o r the fo rm e r m u s t b e c o n s id e r e d as pri o r
to the latt e r
B u t why i t m ay b e a s k e d m u s t t he s e e
i n g b e co n s id e r e d as c o n t e mp o rary w i t h the e xp e ctati o n ?
M ight n o t the fo r m e r hav e b een a n t e ri o r t o the lat t e r ?
Thi s i s c e rt ai nly p o s s ible I m ay s ee a fri e n d b e fo re 1 e x
e c t him
B
u t th o u gh the s igh t ab s trac t e dly c o n s id e re d
p
m a y pr e ce d e t he e x p e cta t i o n i t c an n o t po s s ibly a s a n o h
j c e t o f e x p e ctati o n b e pri o r to it T he id e a i n v o lv e s ah
e q u al a n d a n a l o g o u s t o
t he a s se rti o n tha t the
s u rdity
pape r o n which I write e xi s t e d a s a n o bj e ct o f my pe r
pr
p
A
gr
e e ably to t he
c e ti o n
e vi o u s ly t o m
e rc e i v i n g it
p
y
s e c o n d fo r m o f the r u l e h e r e giv en w e n d that the L ati n s
v e ry g e n e r ally u se d the pr e s e n t o f t he i n n itiv e to e x r e s s
p
a n acti o n o r s tat e c o n t e m o rary w i t h t he at t rib u t e o f the
p
h
e s aid tha t I
ri
ary
v
Th
m
u s d i x i t me s cr i ber e
e rb
p

wro t e o r w a s w riti n g that i s at the ti me o f hi s sa yi n g

he sa id t hat I had wri t t en

so : d i xi t me s cr ip si ss e
I hav e o b s e rv e d that wh e n t he s i mpl e attrib u t e d en o t e d
by the s u b s e qu en t v e rb i s i mpli e d w e Sh o u ld u s e the
s phra s e o l o gy s h o u ld n o t o n ly
r
Thi
e s e n t o f the i n n i t iv e
p
b e u s e d i n all ca s e s wh e r e c o n t e m p o rary acti o n s o r s t a t e s
su

S Y N TA X

2 16

ig ni e d b u t may al s o b e s o me ti me s e mpl o y e d
wh e r e the s e c o n dary v e rb d e n o te s s o m e thi n g p o s t e ri o r to
what i s i m pli e d by the r s t F o r th o u gh in n o i n s ta n ce
wh e re the s i m p l e a cti o n o r s t a t e i s to b e e x pre s se d s h o u ld
w e u s e t he S ig n o f pa s t o r fu t u r e t i me y e t f o r o bvi o u s r e a
s o n s w e ma
a n d o ft e n d o e m pl o y the pr es en t i n n itiv e
y
wh
o r S i m l e n a m e t o d e n o t e what i s fu t u r e
e n t he pri mary
p
v e rb n e c e s s arily i m pli e s the fu t u rity o f i t s o bj e ct Th u s
i n s t e ad o f s ayi ng he pro m i s e d that he w o u ld pay wh e r e
t he c o n s t r u c t iv e S ig n o f fu t u ri t y i s u se d
to d e n o t e t he
p o s te ri o ri t y o f the pay m en t w e o ften s a y he pr o mi s e d

e mpl o yi n g the pr e s e n t t e n s e s y n o n y m o u s wi t h t he
t o pay
as
he pr o m i s e d p ay me n t
s i mpl e n a m e
T he L ati n s
al s o th o u gh th e y al m o s t u n i v e r s ally u n l e s s in c o ll o q u ial
la n gu age pr e fe rr e d t he fo r m e r m o d e o f e x p r e s s i o n s o me
t i m e s ad o pt e d the latt e r a s den eg a v it s e d a re P l a n t
Id
H e r e fu s e d t o
J u sj u r a n d u m p o ll i ci t u s es t d a r e

the
giv e
he pr o m i s e d t o giv e o r he pr o m i s e d gi v m g
a n d t he ti m e
s e c o n dary v e rb e x pr e s s i n g the ac t s i m ply
b e i n g n e c e s s arily i mp li e d

No te 6 T he i n n iti v e mo o d i s s o me t i me s u s e d i n a n
t o s p e ak the tr u th w e
a b so l u t e o r i n d e p en d en t s e n s e a s
a r e al l liabl e t o e r r o r
N o t t o t re s pa s s o n y o u r ti me I

will bri e y e x p lai n the wh o l e aff air t hat i s that I ma y

t hat I m a y n o t tre s pa s s
s pe ak

a re

be

to

R U L E XVL

g e n era l r u l e

T h

i m p e ra ti v e a g r e e ab ly
w i th i t s n o m i n a t i v e a s

gr e es

L o v e t ho u

li s t e n

T h i m p ra t iv e i

e,

or

t o the

ou

d with o u t i t s
that i s t he n o m i n ati v e be i n g s u pp re s s e d b u t t he
s u bj e c t
p e r s o n o r p e r s o n s b e i n g p e rfe ctly u n de r s t o o d
And
Sa m u e l s aid to t he p e o pl e Fe ar n o t i e Fe ar y e n o t

I t i s e m p l o y e d i n t he s a me way i n a n ab so l u t e
t
2
No e
wi t h o u t i ts s u bj e c t
O u r id e a s a r e m o v e me n t s o f
s en se
f the o p t ic n e rv e i n r e c o ll e cti n g
the n e r v e s o f s e n s e a s
No te

f r e q u e htl y

u se

S Y N TA X

2 18

a u th o rity s u re ly i s o f gre at w e ight b u t al s o o th e r writ e r s

o f the high e s t e m i n e n c e e mpl o y the
hr
e o l o gy which he
a
s
p
c o n d e mn s
D o e s t he di s ti n cti o n which he wi s h e s t o e s t a
A gai n
bli sh fav o u r p e r s pic u ity T he v e ry r e v e r s e appe ar s to m e
to b e the ca s e ; f o r he ad m it s an id e n t ity o f s e ns e i n t w o
di s ti n c t phra s e o l o gi e s which a r e i n c o n t e s tably i n m an y
i n s tan c e s s u s c e p tible o f di ff e r en t m e an i n g s A n d t h o u gh
thi s am big u ity m ay n o t b e i n v o lv e d i n e v e ry ex am pl e w e
hav e s u r e ly go o d r e a so n f o r r ep u diati n g a phra s eo l o gy
w hich m ay i n a n y i n s ta n c e b e liabl e t o m i s c o n s tr u cti o n
We a r e t o pr e s c ribe n o t what may b e p e r s pic u o u s i n so me
i n s ta n c e s b u t what m u s t b e i n t elligibl e i n al l
L o wth s ay s that We m ay e x pre s s the s e n ti men t e ith e r
by i n s e rti n g the articl e b e fo r e t he p ar t icipl e a n d the p r e
p o s iti o n aft e r it o r by the o mi s s i o n o f b o th i n o th e r w o rd s
th a t th e s e p hra s e o l o gi e s ar e e q u ival e n t Th u s acc o rdi n g
by s en d in g hi s S o n i n t o the
to hi m w e m a y s a y e ith e r
w o rld o r by the s en di n g of hi s S o n
H e re p e rhap s
which s o e v e r o f t h e s e
the me a n i n g i s s u fci en tly cl e a r
fo r m s o f e x pre s si o n b e ad o pt e d B u t l e t u s tak e an o th e r
he e x pr e s s e d the pl e a s u r e he ha d i n h e ari n g
e x a m pl e a s
the phil o s o ph e r
N o w acco rdi n g t o L o wth w e m ay al s o
he e x p r e s s e d t he p l e a s u re he had i n t he h e ari n g o f
s ay

I s t h e r e n o di ff e re n c e o f s e n t i me n t h e r e ?
the phil o s o p h e r
A r e t h e s e e x pr e s s i o n s e q u iv a l en t ? T he c o n trary m u s t b e
o bvi o u s t o the m o s t i n att e n tiv e r e ad e r
A cc o rdi n g t o the

fo r me r phra s e o l o gy the p hilo s o ph e r w a s h e ard he i s re

e s e n t e d a s pa ss iv e ; agr e e ably to the l a tt e r he w a s activ e
r
p

he h e ard
W h en the L o rd s a w it he abh o rre d th e m
A gai n
b e ca u s e o f the pro v o ki ng o f hi s s o n s a n d da u ghte r s
O u r tran slat o r s hav e c o rr e ctly e x hibi t e d the se n ti me n t
T he s o n s a n d da u gh t e r s had giv e n o ffen c e ; th e y had p ro
v o k e d the D e ity
B u t if L o w th s o pi n i o n b e c o rr e ct the
e x r e s s i o n m ight b e
b
e ca u s e o f pro v o ki n g hi s so n s a n d
p

da u gh t e r s ; a p hra se which e vid e n t ly c o n v ey s a v e ry

di ff e r e n t id ea
,

S Y N TA X
A gai n

2 19

Wh en i t i s s aid at the h e ari n g o f the e a r

th ey will b eli e v e i s t hi s e x p r e s s i o n c o n v e rtibl e wi t h o u t
vi o lati n g the se n se i n to at h e ari n g the e a r th e y will
beli e v e ? M an y mo re e x a m pl e s m igh t b e pro d u c e d to
pro v e that th e se phra seo lo gi e s which L o wth c o n side r s o f
I t ap pe ar s
the s a me i m p o rt a r e by n o m e a n s e q u ival en t
th en th a t p e r s pic u ity i s n o t c o n s u lte d by a do p ti n g thi s
r ul e
H e c o n s id e r s the p a rticipl e w i t h a pr e po s iti o n
A gain
be fo r e i t a s c o rre s p o n d en t to the L ati n ge r u n d an d th e re
fo re go v e rn i n g a n o bj e ctiv e ca s e ; b u t t he participl e p r e
ced e d by a n articl e he c o n s id e r s a s a s u b s tan tiv e a n d
t h e re fo re i n capabl e o f a n y r e gi men N o w a s the a u t h o r
rea so n s fro m o n e lan g u age to a no th e r w e m ay p e r t i n e n t ly
a sk i s n o t the L ati n g e r u n d a n o u n a v e rbal s u b s ta n tiv e
n o t o n ly havi n g t he fo r m a n d t he i n e x i o n s o f a n o u n b u t
go v e r n e d lik e it by n o u n s adj e ctiv e s v e rb s a n d pre po
Thi s
si tio n s it s e lf lik e wi se g o v e r n i n g the ca se o f i t s v e rb
po siti o n w e re thi s the pl a c e fo r i t w e c o u ld e as ily pro v e
n o twi t h s ta n di n g the o bj e cti o n s
which S c io p p i u s Vo s s i u s
wi t h s o m e o th e r gra mm arian s h a v e al l e ge d agai n s t it
N a y what e v e r t h e o ry b e ad o pt e d r e s p ec t i n g the n a t u r e o f
the ge r u n d th e r e ca n n o t e x i s t a d o u bt tha t i n the e arly
age s o f R o m an lit e r a t u r e t he v e rb a l n o u n s i n i 0 go v e rn e d
lik e the v e rb s wh e n c e th e y w er e d e riv e d
a n acc u sa ti v e
Q u id ti bi cu r a ti o es t ha n c r em i s o n e e x a m pl e fr o m Pla u

That the
t u s o u t o f m a n y which m ight b e pr o d u c e d
s upi n es al s o w e r e i n tr u t h s u b s t a n tiv e s a d m it t i n g a r e i
g
men i s e qu ally cl e a r D ii ci l e d ict a w a s o rigi n al ly d ii ci le

i n d i ct u

mis i t

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m
e
,
p

mi s i t

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o ra tu m

em

p
be

r ct u re o f t he fu t u re i n n itiv e pa s s iv e
so
n o t w ith s t a n di n g a f e w
re p u g na n t
s ati s fact o rily r e s o lv e d
e xa m l e s a s o n thi s s u pp o s i t i o n : D i x i t l i br o s l ect u m i r i
p
is r e s o lv e d i n t o dixi t ( i d ) i r i a d l ect u m l i br o s wh e r e l i br o s
i s the r e gi m e n o f the v e rb al n o u n l ect u m
No r

ca n

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ag
r

C mm p 3 5 2 d S y r th Lati V b
t th r ff d ma y th mi gh t b add d

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umen s

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,

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1 74

S YN TA X

2 2 0

Th u s it i s e vid e n t that the L ati n ge r u n d s S ti p i n e s

v e rbal n o u n s in i 0 th o u gh i n fo r m a n d i n e xi o n s u b s
It m att e r s n o t
t i v e s go v e r n e d a n acc u s ativ e ca se
t o the p oi n t i n q u e s ti o n what w a s the prac t ic e o f
t
h
e r e fo r e hav
c i e n t s i n thi s r e s e ct ; no r s h o u ld I
p
did I n o t c o n c e iv e that the
s o l o n g o n t hi s s u bj e ct
a u th o rity to which D r L o wth s e e m s to app e al m ili
agai n s t him ; an d that the v e ry lan g u age to which i n
a s i n m o s t o th e r ca s e s he s triv e s t o a s s i m ilat e o u r s
go v e r n i n g ca se s lik e the v e rb s fro m whic h t
n o un s
came
Fro m the pr e c e di n g o b s e rvati o n s I thi n k it mu s t a p
pe a r that the r u l e giv en by D r L o wth i s n e i t h e r s an c
no r
fri e n dly t o p e r s pic u i t y
t i o n e d by g e n e ral u s age
w hil e t he vi o lati o n o f it i s p e rfe ctly r e c o n ci l e a b l e wi t h t he
practic e o f the R o m an wri t e r s if t h eir a u th o rity c a n i n
t hi s q u e s t i o n b e d e e m e d o f a n y val u e
H avi n g att e m p t e d t o pr o v e the i n validity o f
arg u m e n t a n d the i mpr o pri e ty
a n id e n tity o f m e an i n g wh e r e a di ffe r e n c e m u s t e x i
w o u ld s u b m it to the ca ndid a n d j u dici o u s critic the fo l
i ng r e m ark s
T he participl e i n i ng ha s e ith e r a n a ctiv e o r pa s s iv e
t h e r e fo r e b e
n i c a ti o n ; i t s i m p o r t m u s t
the j u dg m en t o f the r e ad e r o r by e x p la n at o ry a dj e c ti o n s
What e v e r th en i s calc u lat e d to r emo v e all m i s co n s tru e
ti o n a n d to r en d e r i t s i m p o rt cl e ar a n d u n e q u iv o cal m e rit s
att e n ti o n C o n s i s t e n tly th e n w i t h s o m e o f t he
alr e ady add u c e d I a m i n cli n e d to s u gge s t that wh en t he
c o n n e cte d w i t h the participl e i s activ e o r d o i n g
n oun
s o m e thi n g the pr e p o s iti o n sh o u ld b e i n s e rt e d a s
i n the

h e ari n g o f the phil o s o ph e r t hat i s the p hi l o s op her hea r

wh e n the n o u n r e pr e s e nt s the s u bj e ct o f a n
a n d that
i ng
ac t i o n o r what i s s u ff e ri n g the pr e po si t i o n sh o u ld b e o m it

o r t he
h
i
i n h e ari n g t he phil o s o ph e r
l
o s o her
ted a s
p
p
bei ng hea r d
A n att e n ti o n to thi s r u le will I c o n c e iv e i n
m o s t c a s e s p r e v e n t a mbig u i t y
,

S Y N TA X

222

pre v e n ti v e

circu m lo c u ti o n T he o bj e cto r i n d ee d d o e s
n o t s ee m t o h a v e b e e n aw a re
t hat hi s o pi n i o n i s at v a ri
an c e wi t h i t s elf ; a n d t hat the re a s o n which he a s sign s fo r
r ej e cti n g t hi s phra s e o l o gy w o u ld wi t h e q u al fo rc e c o n
c l u d e ag ai n s t a n o th e r m o d e o f e x pr e s s i o n
which he hi m
s e lf appr o v e s
F o r he w o u ld h a v e n o o bj e cti o n t o s a y
M u c h d e p en d s o n hi s o b s e rvi n g the r ul e an d e rr o r

N o w let u s
b e the c o n s e q u en c e o f hi s n e gl e cti n g it
wh e th e r t hi s s e n t en c e b e n o t liable to the s ame o bj e c
a s the o t h e r
I n the fo r me r he s ay s y o u
s u pply the pl a c e o f the p o s s es s iv e ca se by
o b e fo r e t he n o u n o r pr o n o u
f
n o t b e E n gli s h t o s a
u ch d e p e n d s o n the b e i n g
M
y
o b se rv e d o f the r u l e ; a n d e rr o r will b e t he c o n s e q u e n c e

B u t will hi s o w n appr o v e d
o f the b e i n g n egl e ct e d o f it
e t u s see ;
hra
s e o l o gy ad m it thi s ?
L
M
u ch d e p en d s o n
p
t he o b se rvi n g o f him o f the r u l e a n d e rr o r will b e the c o n

W e re the e x
s e q u e n c e o f the n e gl e cti n g o f hi m o f it
the arg u m e n t w o u ld b e e q u al
a m pl e s i m pl e r
as
M u ch d e p en d s o n y o u r p u pil s co m po s i n g

o n hi s r e adi n g fr e q u en tly
Thi s s e n te n c e the
l u d e d t o w o u ld hav e a ppr o v e d
L e t u s try if it c a n
r e s o lv e d by of : M u c h d e p en d s o n the c o m p o si n g o f y

u pil b u t m o r e o n the r e adi n g o f hi m fr e q u e n tly

p
T he a u th o r s arg u m e n t th e n if it pro v e a ny t hi n
pro v e s to o m u c h i t c a nn o t t h e re fo re hav e a n y w e ight
I n a dditi o n t o th e se o b se rvati o n s I
the w rit e r s a rg u m e n t i n v o lv e s an o t h e r
a d mit s that the participl e i n i ng m a y
f o r he a ppr o v e s t he phra se s
Why
hi s n e gl e cti n g i t
a nd

be i n g a n d i t s b e i n g ? fo r the pa s t o r pe rfe ct p arti cipl e s

o bs e rv ed a n d n e l e ct ed hav e n o s har e i n t he g o v e r n m e n t
g
r u l e s a n d i t s b e i n g u n d e r t he r e gi men o f t he participl e i n
I n fact th e n t he phra s e s ee ms n o m o r e o bj e cti o n abl e
i ng
t h an hi s be i n g a gre at m a n d i d n o t m ak e hi m a happy
man
w hich o u r a u t h o r w o u ld ad mit t o b e wh o lly
o

ce

i
o n abl e
t
p

S Y N TA X

2 2 3

S o m e lat e writ e rs r ea so n i n g d o u b t l e s s o n a pri n cipl e

s i mil a r t o that the ab s u rdity o f which w e hav e b e e n a t
t em p t i ng t o e x po se hav e di s card e d a phra s eo l o gy which
ap pe ar s u n o bj e c t i o n abl e a n d s u b s t i t u t e d o n e which s ee m s
l es s c o rre ct M an y writ e r s i n s t e ad o f sa yi n g hi s be i n g
s mitt e n with the l o v e o f O r e s t illa w a s the cau s e o f hi s m u r

he b e i n g s m itt e n with t he
d eri n g hi s so n wo u ld s ay

lo v e o f O r e s t illa w a s the cau se Thi s see m s to m e a n idl e

aff e ctati o n o f the L ati n idi o m l e s s pr e ci s e th an the c o m
m o n m o d e o f e xp r e s s i o n a n d l e s s co n s o n a n t wi t h the g e n i u s
o f o ur l an g uage
F o r a s k what w a s the ca u s e ; a n d a c
co rdi n g to thi s phr a se o l o gy the a n s w e r m u s t b e he
wh e r e a s the m e a ni n g i s th a t n o t he b u t hi s being s mi tten
w a s the ca u s e o f hi s m u rd e r
Thi s j e al o u s y a cc o u n t s fo r H all chargi n g the D u k e o f
G l o u c e s t e r with the m u rd e r o f P ri n c e E dward
Thi s
Bak e r
v e ry j u s tly i s i n my o pi n i o n a v e ry
s ay s M r
th o u gh m u ch u s e d by ign o ran t
u n c o u th way o f s p ea ki n g

p eo pl e a n d o ft en affe ct e d by t h o s e w ho a r e n o t ign o ran t

fo r H all s chargi n g
His
T he writ e r s h o u ld h a v e s aid
w o rd s b ei n g applicabl e t o t he c o m mo n m i s tak e o f o u r a ge
i n d u c e m e to tran s crib e th e m
H e re I agre e with the
s a me writ e r i n thi n ki n g that it w o u ld b e b e t t e r to co n s id e r
w o r d s a s i n the g e n itiv e c a s e pl u ral go v e r n e d by the par
t ici pl e a s H a ll s i n the pr e c e di n g e x a m pl e a n d j o i n hi s
w o r ds bei ng ap p l i ca bl e e qu ival e n t to t he ap p l i c a bi l i ty of
hi s w o rd s b e i n g
hi s w o r d s wi t h the v e rb s i n g u lar th u s
applicabl e to the c o mmo n m i s tak e o f o u r ag e i n d u c e s m e

A ridic u l o u s p artiali t y i n fav o u r o f

to tra n s crib e th e m
the L ati n idi o m which i n thi s ca se i s n o t so c o rr e ct a s
n o t e xhibiti n g t he s e n ti m en t wi t h e q u al p re
our o w n
c i s i o n ha s giv e n b irth to t hi s phr a s eo l o gy which i n m a n y
cas e s c o n v e y s n o t the i n t en d e d id e a F o r a s P ri e s t l ey
remark s if it i s s ai d
What t hi n k y o u o f my h o r s e s
r u nn i ng to day it i s i m pli e d that the h o r s e did act u al ly
If i t i s s aid What thi n k y o u o f my h o r se r u n ni n g
ru n
it i s i n t e n d e d t o a s k wh e th e r it b e pro p e r f o r my
to day
,

2 2 4

ho r s e to

Y N T AX

day Thi s di s ti n cti o n th o u gh fr e q u e ntly

n e gl e ct e d
d e se rv e s att e n ti o n ; f o r i t i s o bvi o u s t ha t am bi
g u i t y m ay a ri s e fro m u s i n g the la t t e r o n ly o f th e se phra s e
o l o gi e s t o e x pr e s s b o th m e an i n g s
N o te l Thi s partici p l e i s s o m e ti m e s u s e d ab s o l u t e ly
i n the s a m e m a n n e r a s the i n n itiv e m o o d a s
Thi s co n
d u ct v i ew i ng i t i n the m o s t f a v o u ra bl e l ig ht r e e ct s d i s

cr e dit o u hi s charac t e r
H er e the p ar t ici p l e i s m ad e
ab s o l u t e a n d i s e q u ival en t to the i n n itiv e i n t hat s t a t e
t o vi e w i t i n the m o s t fav o u r a bl e ligh t
as
B o th th e s e
m o d e s o f e x pr e s s i o n a re r e s o lvabl e e ith e r by the hy p o t he
tical o r t he p e rfe ctiv e c o nj u n cti o n s ; t h u s if w e vi e w it

i n t he m o s t fav o u rabl e light

T o c o n fe s s t he tr u th I
h a v e n o m e ri t i n the ca s e i e
th a t I m ay c o n fe s s
r un

to -

aw

RU LE XV I I I
A n o u n o r p ro n o u n j o m e d t o a
t
e
n
n
r
i
n
e
n
e
o
n
o
o
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n
i
i
l
b
e
i
g
d
d
d
e
a
s
c
i
t
s
e
c
t
ar
p
p
p
n
t
m
a
e
n
t
h
e
o
v
i
n
t
u
i
i
i
s
e
c
n
e
t
n
the s e
p
-

Thi s r u l e will b e p e rfe ctly u n d e r s to o d by t he

cla s s i cal s ch o lar wh e n w e s ay that the ab so l u t e ca s e i n
W
u
e
e
n
s
x
e
e
ee
gli
h
i
ativ
Th
b
i
g
c
d
n
m
o
n
e
h
t
i
s
s
En

n
e
e
e
t
h
e
s hip
t
d
t
day
th
y
light
d
e
x
n
h
e
t
s
e
o
s
in gl y
o
n
n
h
s
o
e
t
o
t
e
e
pr
r
t
r
j
i
d
articipl
e
s
h
e
t
o
f
n
o
u
n
o
T he
p
p
t
an
e
o
e rb n o r i s it c o n
n
g
i
t
h
r
m
i
ativ
v
o
n
h
e
t
e
e
i
n
s
bei n
y
n
a
c
b e the r e g i me n
o
f
wi
t
h
w
rd
which
it
o
n
a
n ec te d
y
I t i s th e re fo r e p u t i n t he n o mi n ativ e ca s e
No te 2
Thi s r u l e i s vi o lat e d i n s u ch e x am pl e s a s the
fo ll o wi ng
S o l o mo n m ad e a s wi s e pro v e rb s a s a ny b o dy
ha s d o n e hi m o n ly e x c e pt e d w ho w a s a m u ch wi s e r m an

Ti l l o ts o n
t han S o l o mo n
ly i d tr y i g I d a
F
th gh t ; d him d t y d
T my r l tl
tt r l
t w h at m y w k hi
O w
wh m l l thi w m d l l thi w i ll
F
M i lt
F ll w
Thi s s e e m s to b e the o nly e x a m pl e i n which the p o e t
N o te 1

or on

e en

es s

ou

as

on

or

on

or

es

an

se

s u

e, a

e s ro

o ss,

so on

S Y N TA X

2 2 6

w o n d e re d a t
T he l a tt e r fo r m o f e x pr e s
s i o n s e e m s to hav e b e e n ad o pt e d
i n o rd e r t o av o id the
abr u pt an d i ne l egan t c o n cl u s i o n o f t he cla u s e e sp e cially
wh en fo ll o w e d by t he w o rd tha t
No te 5 T he pre po s iti o n s i n o n f o r a n d f r o m a r e
o ft e n u n d e r s t o o d b e fo r e n o u n s o f ti me a n d plac e ; th u s

t hi s day
la s t y e ar a r e o ft e n u s e d
n e x t m o n th

i
n n e x t m o n th
i
n
o n thi s d a
e lliptically f o r
y
la s t y e ar
H e w a s ba n i s h e d E n gla n d
We s a y a l s o
r o m E n gla n d
i e
f
C ar e h o w e v e r s h o u ld b e tak e n that t he o mi s s i o n cre at e
n o a m big u ity
If w e s a y
H e w a s d e a f s o m e y e ar s b e

fo re he di e d r e fe rri n g to a t e m p o r a ry d e afne s s a n d a
p o i n t o f t i me at which i t o cc u rr e d the e x pr e s s i o n i s n o t
i mpr o p e r t h o u gh t he m e an i n g m ight b e m o r e cl e arly e x
pr e s se d bu t if w e i n t en d to s ign ify a c o n ti n u e d d eafn e s s

or
d u ri n g s o m e y e ar s
w e o u g ht t o s a y
fo r

No te 6 T he pr e p o s iti o n i s i m pro p e rly o m itt e d i n the

fo ll o wi n g li n e o f P o pe s
fo r

no t

to

be

An d

virgi

ns s

il d
e

at

what th y b l
e

u sh d

bfr

e o e

I t s h o u ld be acc o rdi n g to t he r u l e s o f s y n ta x
s m il e d at

b o th v e rb s r e q u iri n g a t
w hat th e y bl u s h e d a t b e fo r e
aft e r th e m th u s
th e y s m il ed a t t h a t at w hich th ey
bl u sh e d b e fo re

e
o
t
N 7 P r e po s iti o n s s h o u ld b e p lac e d a s n ea r a s p o s
wh o s e r e la t i o n th ey e x pre s s
s ibl e to e ach o f t he w o rd s
T he fo ll o wi n g s en t en c e fr o m H u m e i s i n thi s r e s p e ct
fa u l t y : T he ig no ra n c e o f the a g e i n me chan ic al art s

r en d e r e d the pr o gre s s v e ry sl o w o f thi s n e w i nv e n ti o n

t he p r o gr e s s o f thi s n e w i nv en ti o n
I t s h o u ld b e
T he
fo llo wi n g s en t en c e fr o m J o h n so n i s fo r the s a me re aso n
charge abl e wi t h fa u lty arran ge me n t : T he c o u n try r s t
daw n ed t hat ill u m i n at e d the w o rld a n d b ey o n d which
the art s can n o t b e trac e d o f civil s o ci e ty o r d o m e s tic life
R a s s el a s
I t s h o u ld b e
the a rt s o f civil s o ci e ty o r

d o m e s t ic life can no t b e tra c e d

Pri e s tle y ha s c e n s u re d
,

S Y N TA X

cla u se fro m H arri s

b e i n g i n n o s en s e c a
pahl e o f e ith e r i n t e n si o n o r re mi s si o n
If it b e co n
s i d e r ed
h o w e v e r th a t t he w o rd ei ther pro p e rly m ea n s
the o n e o r the o th e r
a n d i n tr u th d e n o t e s t he s u bj e c t
be i n g th e r efo re i n s t ric t pr o pri e ty the r e gi m en o f the
pre po s iti o n t he arr a n ge me n t o f H arri s th o u gh n o w n o t
wil l n o t a pp ea r e x ce pti o n abl e
so c o mm o n as t he o th e r
N ay what e v e r ma y b e the fu t u r e d e ci s i o n o f u sa g e that
gre at arbitr e s s o f a ll lan g u age ( fo r at pre se n t She i s di
i d e d ) H arri s s a rra n ge m en t see m s m o r e c o n fo r m abl e to
the s t rict m e a n i n g o f the w o rd s a s w e ll a s t o Pri e s tl e y s
o wn r u l e
than that which t he lat t e r r e c o m m e n d s ; t h u s
ca pabl e o f e i t h e r (i e o f the o n e o r o f the o t h e r) i nte n
si o n o r r e m i s s i o n
the

f o ll o wi n g

2 2 7

R U L E XX

A d v e rb s ha v e

no

g o v e rn me n t

No te 1 Th e y a re s o m e t i me s i m pro p e rly u se d fo r a d
o f which t h e y h o e d fo r
f
t
as
A
e r t h o se w a r s
ec ti v e s
p
j

s
o
s
e
o
u
s
s
ue
n
pr
p
r
i
S i d ney
o
o
n
a
d
a s
A so o n i s s u e
i s n o t E n gli s h ; a n a dv e rb can n o t agr ee with a s u b s t a n

tiv e ; it S h o u ld b e
a s p ee dy an d pro s pe ro u s i s s ue
S u ch e x pr e s s i o n s lik e wi s e a s the fo ll o wi ng th o u gh n o t
de s tit u te o f a u th o rity a re e x cee din gly i n e l e gan t a n d irre

t he th e n m i n i s try
fo r
co n c i l ea bl e with a n al o gy
the

fo r
m i n i s try o f that ti m e
t he
the a b o v e d i a to u r se

pre c edi ng di s c o u r se
No te 2 Th e y a re s o me ti m e s u s ed li k e s u b s tan tiv e s a s

f o r a li t t l e
i n a li ttl e t i me
or
a littl e while
fo r

h
ti me
Wo r t h whil e
s o me ho w
an
ow
an
y
y

wh e r e a r e e x am pl e s o f the same ki n d
No te 3 T he adv e rb s w hence thence hen ce a re e q u i

valen t to fr o m w hich pl a c e
fr o m that plac e
fro m
thi s plac e f r o m w hen ce f r o m then ce f r o m hen ce a r e
th e re fo re charge abl e wi t h re d u n d an cy
No te 4 Nev er i s s o m e ti m e s e rro n eo u s ly u se d fo r ev er

as
th e y m ight b e e x tirpat ed w e r e th ey n e v e r so m a n y

ho w ma n y s o e v e r
It Sh o uld b e
i e
e v e r s o m an y
.

Q 2

S YN TA X

2 2 8

W ho will n o t h e a rk en to the v i ce o f

char me r ch a r m

i n g n ev er s o s w ee tly
ev e r s o s w ee tly
I t s h o u ld b e

i e
h o w e v e r s w e e tly o r ho w s w e e tly s o e v e r
No te 5 Ev er i s lik e wi s e s o me ti m e s i mpro pe rly u sed
f o r n ev er a s
I s e ld o m o r e v e r s e e hi m n o w
It s h o uld

be
s el d o m
or
n ev e r
the s p e ak e r i n t e n di n g t o s a y
t ha t rar e ly o r rath e r at n o t i m e d o e s he s e e hi m n o w
not
rar e ly o r at a n y ti me

N o te 6
P ri e s tl e y r e m ark s tha t t he Fr e n c h al w ay s
pl ac e th e ir adv e rb s i mm ediat e ly a ft e r th e ir v e rb s w hich
o rd e r
he o b s e rv e s by n o m e an s s u it s the E n gli s h idi o m
H i s go v e rn m en t gav e c o u rage t o the E n gli s h bar o n s to

c a rry farth e r t h e ir o ppo siti o n H u me It w o u ld b e

t o carry th e ir o pp o s iti o n farth e r

be tte r
E d w a rd
o bt a i n e d a di s p e n s a ti o n fro m hi s o ath
which the baro n s
had c o m p el l e d G av e s to n to tak e t hat he w o u ld abj u re fo r

e v e r t he r e al m
be tt e r the r e a l m f o r e v e r
No te 7 T he adv e rb i s gen e rally plac e d b e t w ee n the
a u xiliary v e rb a n d t he participl e a s
thi s i s p e rfe ctly

u n de r s to o d
Wh en th e r e a r e mo r e a u x iliari e s than o n e
the s a m e a u th o r o b se rv e s th a t the adv e rb s h o u ld b e pl a c e d
aft e r the r s t Thi s r u l e h o w e ve r i s by n o mean s u n i
v e r s al l
o ll o w e d
f
o r m a n y o f o u r b e s t writ e r s e mpl o y a
f
y
di ffe re n t arra nge m en t a n d I thi n k wi t h grea t pr o pri e ty ;

as
thi s will b e p e rfe ctly u n d e r s to o d wh e re the a d v e rb
fo llo w s bo th a u x iliari e s T he plac e o f the adv erb m ay
i n g en e ral b e a s c e rtai n e d by c o n sid e ri n g w hat W o rd it i s
i n t en d e d to q u alify : a n d i n the las t e x am pl e it Sh o u ld
b e cl o se ly co nn e ct e d with u n d er s to o d
B u t m o re o n thi s
s u bj ec t i n t he fo ll o wi n g n o t e
N o te 8 T he a d v e rb a s i t s n a me i mp o rt s i
pl ac e d clo s e t o the w o rd which it m o di e s o r
fo rc e th e re fo r e v e ry m u ch d e p e n d s u p o n i t s po
a tt e n ti o n t o t he pr o p e r c o ll o c a ti o n o f a dv e rb s i s
t he ca u s e o f m u ch o b s c u rity a n d mi s c o n c e p t
i n att e n ti o n w e m ay a s crib e t he a m big u ity in
t he

S Y N TA X

2 30

rro u n de d b u t al s o w ith a n o bl e gra tit u d e a n d divi n e

3
plea s u re
Wh en A ddi so n say s ( Sp ec N o
By gr e at n e s s I
d o n o t o n ly m e a n the b u lk o f a n y s i n gl e o bj e ct b u t the

l a rge n e s s o f a wh o l e vi e w the q u e s ti o n n at u ral ly o cc u r s

w h a t d o e s he m o r e tha n m e a n ?
It i s e vid en t that agr ee
ably to thi s arra n ge m e n t the a d v e rb r e fe r s to mea n e x cl u
s i v el
o f all o th e r attrib u t e s o r ac t i o n s a n d b e i n g pr e fa c e d
y
by a n egativ e i mpli e s th a t he do e s s o me thi n g mo r e than

mean
I n thi s cri t ici s m I c o n c u r w ith Blair w ho ha s
e x pr e s s e d hi s di s a ppr o bati o n o f thi s arra n ge men t
H a d he a s t he s am e a u th o r o b se r v e s plac e d the adv e rb
a ft e r bu l k it w o u ld h a v e s till b ee n wr o n g
F o r if h e ha d

s aid
I d o n o t me an the b u lk o nly th e n the a dv e rb fo llo w
i n g a n o u n s u b s tan tiv e m u s t r e fe r to it e x cl u s i v e ly o f e v e ry
o th e r a n d t he cl au s e b ei n g n e gativ e t he q u e s ti o n w o u ld
b e w hat d o e s he m e an m o r e than t he b u lk ? I s it t he
c o l o u r t he b e au ty o r what e l s e ?
N o w a s M r A ddi s o n i n t e n d e d to s a y t h a t he did n o t
m ea n o n e thi n g t he w o rd o n l s h o u ld have fo ll o w e d the
y
n a me o f that t hi n g wh e th e r i t s d e s ig n ati o n w a s s i m l e o r
p
c o m pl ex H e s h o u ld th e re fo r e h a v e s aid t he b u lk o f

an
s i n gl e o bj e ct o n ly b u t the larg e n e s s o f a wh o l e v i e w
y
A cc o rdi n g t o thi s arra n g e m en t the w o rd o n ly r e fe r s a s it

o u ght
to
the b u lk o f an y s i n gl e o bj e ct a s o n e id ea ;
a n d the q u e s ti o n o cc u r s what d o e s he m ea n m o r e than the
b u lk o f a n y s in gl e o bj e ct ? to which the an s w e r fo ll o w s

the l a rg e n e s s o f a wh o l e v i e w
It m ay h o w e v e r at the
s a m e ti m e b e o b s e rv e d that c o n s i s t e n t ly with the practic e
o f s o me o f o u r b e s t writ e r s w ho plac e t he adv e rb b e fo r e
su

I t i t b b v d that d i ff r t c l l cat i i m t i m ad mi
i b l wi th t y i k f amb ig i ty p c i lly wh th cla i gat i v
T h w m y y Hi th gh t w r t rtai d wi th t ly i

w i th t
wi t h which h w
rr d d ;
thi g
i
th j y
dd ) a
ly wi t h th j y ; b t ( b t
b l grat i t d e d
t

d i vi p l a r
U ag i c mm
c v r at i
d i fami l iar l a g ag i cl i es t
thi s a a g me t d ma y f
b t w i ters fr q tly ad pt i t
3

ou

us

o r,

no

ne

e o

an

no

sa

one

rr n

v z

es

e e

e su e

ou

on

r s

e en

s er e

en e

on

en

u se

or a

no

s ne

on

no

es

ne

s so

as

su

oun

an

on

n , an

on e s
n

o n , an

es

ou r

uen

e,

S Y N TA X

2 31

bj e ct t h e r e se em s n o i m pro pri et y h e r e i n s ayi n g I

o n e t h i ng
i e
the b ul k o f a s i n gl e
d o n o t m e an o n ly

o bj e ct b u t t he larg en e s s o f a wh o l e vi e w
T he p e r d i o u s v o ic e o f a t t e ry r e m i n d e d hi m
sa y s
Gibbo n tha t by e x pl o it s o f the s am e n at u re by the d e
fe a t o f the N e me an li o n a n d the s la u gh te r o f the w ild bo ar
o f E ry m a n t h u s t he G r e cian H e rc u l e s had acq u ire d a plac e

am o n g the go d s a n d an i mmo rt al m e mo ry a m o n g m e n
They o n ly fo rgo t t o o b s e r v e th a t i n the r s t ag e s o f so
c ie t
a
s u cc e s s fu l w a r agai n s t s av a g e an i ma l s i s o n e o f the
y

m o s t b e n e cial lab o u r s o f h e r o i s m
I n t he b e gi n ni n g o f
t he la t t e r s e n t e n c e t he adv e rb o n ly i s m i s plac e d
A s it
s ta n d s the m e a ni n g i s tha t t h e y w e r e the o n ly p e r s o n s w ho
fo rgo t : i t s h o u ld b e o n ly t h e y fo rgo t to o b se rv e i e

o n e thi n g t h e y fo r o t
n a m e ly
t
o o b se rv e
T
o t hi s
g
e rr o n eo u s co ll o cati o n i n G ibbo n
I s hall o p p o se a s i m ilar
e x a m pl e fr o m P o p e i n w hich the adv e rb i s c o rr e c tl y
l
ac
d
e
p
I n a l e tt e r t o H u gh e s s pe a ki n g o f t he c o mpli m e n t s which
t hi s ge n tl e m an had paid to hi m o n hi s tran s la t i o n o f H o
m e r he acq u ai n t s hi m that he s h o u ld b e a s ha m ed to a t
t e m pt r e t u rn i n g t h e s e c o mp li me n t s ; o n e t hi n g h o w e v e r
he w o u ld o b s e rv e n a m ely tha t he e s t ee me d M r H u gh e s
to o m u ch n o t to b e pl e a s e d wi t h t he c o m p l i m e n t s which
H i s w o rd s t h e r e fo re a r e
I
he had r e c e iv e d fr o m hi m
o f th o s e civil
s h o u ld b e a s ha m e d t o o ffe r at s ayi n g a n
y
thi n gs in r e t u rn t o y o u r o bligi n g c o m pli m en t s i n re gard
to m y tra n s lati o n o f H o m e r : o n ly I ha v e t o o gr e at a val u e
wh e re t he w rd o n ly
f o r y o u n o t t o b e p l e a s e d with th e m
i ntro d u c es t he cla u se a n d i s e q u ival e n t t o o n e t hi n g is
tr u e o r t h u s m u ch ( ta n tu m) I sa y I hav e to o gre a t a
H e r e i t i s o bvi o u s t ha t the adv e rb a s i t p re
v al u e
&c
c e d e s the pro n o u n d o e s n o t r e fe r to i t a n d t ha t M r
P o p e s c o ll o cati o n o f it i s p e rfe ctly c o rre ct t o e x pre s s t he

which he i n te n d e d H a d he s aid
I o n ly
s e n ti m e n t
the adv e rb w o u ld h a v e r e fe rr e d t o t he pro no u n a n d i m
h
e
li
H
ad
e d that he w a s the o n ly p e r s o n w ho val u e d
p
i n t e n d e d to sa y th a t he me r ely e n te r ta i n e d a n e s teem for
i ts

su

2 32

Y N TA X

it th en the pre se n c e o f the

a u x iliary w o u ld hav e b e en n e c e s s ary a n d he w o u ld hav e
e x pr e s se d hi m se lf th u s
I d o o n ly e n t e rtai n to o gre at an
e s t ee m f o r
that
I
i
s
d
o o n ly ( o n e thi n g) e n t e rtai n
ou
y

t o o gr e at a n e s t e e m
H ad he s aid
I hav e o n ly to o

gr ea t a val u e f o r y o u i t w o u ld b e pr o pe rly o ppo s e d to

a n d n o t t o o li t tl e
H ad he s aid
I hav e t o o gr e at a
v al u e o n ly
t h e n v a l u e w o u ld b e c o n t ra s t e d wi t h so m e o th e r
s e n ti m en t a s wh e n o n e s ay s he
ha s w e al t h o n ly b u t n o t

virt u e f o r e x a m pl e o r an y o th e r acq u ire m en t A s a

vi o lati o n o f thi s r u l e I add u c e al s o the fo ll o wi n g e x pr es
s i o n o f a r e vi e w e r
We o n ly di s charge o u r d u ty to the

p ublic ; a d e cl a ra ti o n which s t rictly i n t e rpre t e d m e a n s

w e ar e the o n ly p e r s o n s w ho di s charg e
It s h o u ld b e
fo r the
w e d o o n ly (o n e thi n g) d i s charge o u r d u ty
w rit e r i n t e n d e d to s a
hat
h
e did n o thi n g b u t di s charg e
t
y
hi s d u ty t o t he p u b l i c x I n j u s t icati o n o f s u ch i n a c c u
r a c i e s it i s i m e rti n e n t t o pl e ad that a littl e att e n t i o n w ill
p
pre v e n t m i s c o n ce pti o n I t i s the b u s i n e s s o f e v e ry a u th o r
t o g u ard hi s r e ad e r a s far a s t he lan g u age i n which he
w rit e s will pe r m it fr o m t he p o s sibility o f mi s c o n s tr u c t i o n
a n d t o r e n d e r t hat att en ti o n to t he la n g u ag e u n n e c e s s ary
Q u i n t ilian s m a x i m ca n n o t b e to o o ft en r e p e ate d to t h o s e
w ho
by s u ch ap o l o gi e s att e m pt t o d e fe n d an y av o idabl e
a mbig u ity 1
T he fo l l o wi n g sen t e n c e i s j u s tly c e n s u r e d by B lair a n d

a l so
by Bak e r i n hi s R em ark s
Th e i s m sa y s
ca n
o n ly
Sh a ft e s b u ry
b e o pp o s e d t o p o lyth e i s m o r

a th e i s m
H e o u ght t o hav e s aid o b se rv e s Bak e r
T he

i s m c a n b e o ppo s e d o n ly t o p o lyth ei s m o r ath e i s m

Dr
Bl a ir c o n c u r s in o pi n i o n w ith the r em ark e r I a m i n cli ne d
hi m , b u t

co u l d

m a n ife s t

not

><

i i
a i l iary i
h mp l t d m c h t p
t
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l
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t
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th adv rb wh
h
d
p
m y q al i fy i th r th f rm r
t h attri b t iv
th latt r p r p i c i ty
q ir th i rti f th a i l i ry
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en

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o ss it n o n
p

i n tel lige re,

2 34

Y N TA X

po lyth e i sm o r a th e i s m
Th ei s m ca n o n ly (o ne thi n g
b
e o pp o s e d t o p o ly th e i s m o r ath e i s m
n a m e ly
h
r
it
e
e
w
)
i s e vid e n t that o n ly r e fe r s to be op p o s ed a gr e e ably to t he
r u l e n o w gi v en
I n the sa m e m an n e r if I s ay
he w a s
o n ly gr e a t
i t i s i mpli e d that he w a s n o t hi n g b u t gr e at
the adv e rb b e i n g p lac e d b e fo r e t he a t trib u tiv e t o which it
r e fe r s H e n c e the q u e s ti o n n at u rally i s wha t w a s he n o t

b e s id e s
T he an s w e r m a y b e
n o t go o d
n o t w is e
W e r e the ad v e rb pl a c e d a ft e r the p ro
n o t l e ar n ed
i t w o u ld i m ply that he w a s the o n ly p e r s o n w ho
no u n
w a s gr e at
I a m p e rfe ctly aw a re that t he r u l e h e re giv en will n o t
i n al l c a s e s pr e cl u d e a mbig u ity
b u t wh e n e v e r it b e c o m e s
d o u b tful w h e t h e r the adv e rb i s i n t en d e d to a ffe ct the p r e
c e di n g s u b s ta n tiv e o r the fo llo wi n g a t trib u tiv e a di ffe ren t
fo rm o f e x pr e s s i o n m ay b e ad o pt ed a nd t he u s e o f the
a u xiliary al o n g wi t h t he p ri n cipal v e rb will i n m a n y
i n s tan c e s e n s u re pe r s pic u i ty Thi s e xpe di e n t h o w e v e r
cann o t al w ay s b e e m pl o y e d If w e s a y
T he m a n u fa c

i mi lar ampl th w rd ly h b g rally

c
adj ct iv q ival t t l
T h if w y i ll

h w
h w
l m t di i t m a
ly ri ch
thi g b t

t di
h
h al
ich If w y i ll l
it m a
ly

i h I th latt r amp l th w d ly h b t m d
w
d
th w
l
I
t
r
q
i
va
l
c
d
ch
t
i
i
f
m
t
h
f
i
d l
y
j
amp l
v al wri t h v m pl y d th m i f i
th l att r t h t
y ym
Th y
by m
h w v r f th m
ll c

i tr
i mp t Th i f w y
it
l
b il i ty i t m a
virt i gly b y i t l f i t
b i l i ty ; i f w y vi t
ly i s
t
b i l i ty i t i mpl i th t thi g b t i rt i tr
b il i ty Th
B
m
i
t
h
r
f
q
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va
l
t
t
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N b i l it
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ap pl icab l t th c ll cat i
f th
m ral
T h am
i
m
m
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t rm t
q ival t i th r t p im
a
l
d
t
t
p
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t
i
f
a
y
t
h
r
w
r
d
w
hi
c
h
d
a
d
j
c
t
i
v
ly
d
d
b
i
m
p
ally Th cl ic l ch lar d t t b i f rm d that A ib l p im
d A
ib l p im mA lp s t
t expr
i s m t ally
i t
v rt i b l
thi
id d
In

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or

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or

no

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en

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no

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n su

as

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en s

e n s,

r ue

e sa

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a o ne ,

er

or

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s on

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ea n s ,

as n o

as

ru e n o

no

on

a re ,

en

s,

us.

ue un

es

o n s a re

or

sa

on

on e e

re

as s o

se

as

e e o re , a re n o

rs ,

os

se

es ,

e s

ns ,

ene

e on

ers

er

or

se

sa

e en

us,

or

en e

re s s o n s ,

as o n

e,

as

on

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en

ves ,

ex

ous

non

s n

ru e n o

us,

ue

ex

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ex

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e ns,

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ex

v es ,

ec

an

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us

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u u

co n

Y N TA X

2 35

t u re r o n ly w a s pro s p e r o u s it ma y b e u n certa i n wh e t h e r

the adv e rb i s t o r e s trict t he pr e dic a te

pro sp e ro u s t o the
man u fac t u re r i m plyi n g t ha t he w a s the o n ly r o s pe r o u s
p
m an o r to the v e rb e x pr e s s i n g pas t ti m e s ig n ifyi n g t h a t
he w as th e n b u t i s n o t n o w pro s pe r o u s
If the fo r m e r b e
the m e a n i n g i n te n d ed
w e m ay sa y
he w a s the o n ly
o s p e ro u s m a n
r
if the latt e r w e m ay s ay t he m an u
p
fact u re r w as o n c e o r w a s th en the o n ly pro s p e r o u s
,

ma n

It

w o u ld h a v e c o n t rib u t e d m u ch to p e r s pic u ity if a u

t h o r s had ad o pt e d o n e u n i fo r m practic e pl a ci n g t he a d
v e rb c o n s t a n tly
e i t h e r b e fo r e o r a fte r i t s s u bj e ct wh e th e r

s
u
s
n
a
v
e
r
o
a
n
a t tri b u ti v e
a b t ti
B u t wh e r e u sa g e i s so
,

dd i P p Sw i ft St l
d J h
v ry g rally p lac th
adv rb b f r th attri b t iv t whi ch i t f r
al
d v ry
ft
b f r th b ta tiv
W h at h ai d w
ly t c mm d my p

A dd i
H d id
t pr t
d c
d t ti rpat Fr ch m ic
b t
ly t c ltivat d c ivi l i i t A dd i
Iw
ly ri b
N t
b l i g J l
ly th th gh t b t th la g ag i ma

i
t
A
d
d
i
K
w
ly
t
h
j
y
t
w
h
J lm
j
L y th b l am
ly th m lv
W i tty ly b y th
J lm
h l p f p ch St l
O
t lat r f th B ib l hav l m t i f mly b rv d th am
c ll cat i i r p c t t th pr d i c t ; b t h av w i th f w
d vi
ti
f
rr d d i ff r t a ra g m t i g d t th bj ct p lac i g
p
th ad v rb aft r
d
I t i i c f rmi ty t th ir pr c t ic
t b f r it
that w hav c mm d d th r l h r gi v
Fr m th f ll w i g
mpl
t whi ch m a y m r m igh t b
dd d i t wi ll app ar that wh
th
dv b r f d t
t c th y m d i t th i t d ct ry w rd ;
wh i t aff ct d attri b t iv th y p lac d th d v rb b f r i t ; d
wh i t r f r ed t
b t t iv
am f
bj ct th y p t th
th

O ly h
adv rb aft r i t
h ll t g
O ly t k h d t th y l f

i
t th vail
halt t m b r th tri be f L vi
O ly t h
ly vi l
T h h lt b ly
f hi h art
Th th gh t

h
h
m
f
h
m
t
i
r
d
T
h
y
igh
t
ly
t
c
h
g
ar
t
m
pp
H
N f ll w d D avi d b t J d ah l y
ly f J b m hal l

ly h av I i d
T k thi g
m t th grave
A gai t t h

D avi d d i d t h at
y r j r y b t t ff ly
ly whi ch w
f

igh t
T h y ly hal l b d l iv r d
Thi
l y hav I f d
I f i thi l i f
ly w e have h p
A

so n,

e o e

e o e

e su

on

es

c.

on s,

re e

n
, a

en

n un o

or

so

ru

en

as

us

en o

se

on

s on

on

ou

on

e on

s a

e e

an

no

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e no

on

on

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en

s n ne

ou s

e on

en

ex

on

su

e,

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nu

ee o n

on

n ro

e a

ar e o n

ns

no

e o

se

e su
o

e n

ou

o r no

e s

se

on o

ar

en

or

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e e

or

e,

ee

s o

e,

e,

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a

ou ne

en

en

s on .

n re

e,

ou

un

e a

ou

en

u e

os

o e

es s e

e o e

an

o a s en e n

no

o a su

a e

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en

e e r

co

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o s e,

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er

one

en

e re o

es ,

es

ee e .

es

ou

se

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s on .

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2 36

YN TA X

di v id e d a n d w h e re the a d o pti o n o f a n e w a n d g en e r al r u l e
w o u ld b e n o w liabl e to i n s u pe rable o bj e c t i o n s all t ha t c an
b e s u cc e s s fu lly att e mp te d i s i n acc o m m o dati o n to e x i s ti n g
circ u m s tan c e s to r e d u c e the e vil withi n n arro w li m i t s if
w e ca n n o t by a n y p r e c i s e r u l e e n tir e ly r e mo v e i t
Wi t h
t hi s vi e w w e w o u ld r e c o mm en d t ha t wh e n the adv e rb
r e fe r s n o t t o a w o rd b u t t o a s e n t en c e o r cla u se i t b e
pl a c e d at the b egi n n i n g o f t hat s en t e n c e o r clau s e wh e re
i t r e fe r s to a pr e dica t e i t pr e c e d e the pr e dicati n g t e r m ;
it fo l lo w i t s n ame
a n d wh e n i t ha s a r e fe r e n c e to a s u bj e c t
A n o b s e rvati o n h o w e v e r alr e ady m ad e
o r d e s crip t i o n
may b e h e r e r e p e at e d n a me ly t hat i n t he la s t ca se a
di ffe r en t c o ll o ca t i o n ma y o ften b e ad o pt e d wi t h o u t the
ri s k o f a mbig u ity an d e v en with adva n t a ge to the s tr u e
t u re o f the s e n t e n c e
No te 1 0 A dv e rb s a s L o wth o b s e r v e s a re ge n e ra lly
lac
which
t
h
ey r e fe r
Thi
e d b e fo r e the adj e c t iv e t o
s
p
r u l e h o we v e r admit s a f e w e x c e pti o n s T he adv e rb
the r e ward
e n o ug h i s alway s p lac e d aft e r i t s adj e ctiv e a s
T he pr o p e r p o s iti o n o f thi s adv e rb
w a s s m all e n o u g
i n d e e d s ee m s t o b e i mm e dia t e ly aft e r the adj e ctiv e ; it i s
fre q u en t ly h o w e v e r plac e d a t s o m e di s ta n c e fro m i t a s

U s ag e i s i n d e e d s o m e what
a large h o u s e en o u gh
divid e d o n thi s p o i n t M r B ak e r an d a fe w o t h e r s
l
a
larg
e adi n g f o r t he fo l lo wi n g arra n g e men t
e e n o u gh
p

h o u se
T he fo r me r c o ll o ca t i o n h o w e v e r se e m s far t he
m o r e ge n e ral a n d i s r e co m m e n d e d by that r u l e b y which
the s u b s ta n tiv e a n d adj e c t i v e s h o u ld b e plac e d i n j u x ta
p o s iti o n o r a s n e ar a s p o ss ibl e t o e ach o th e r T he latt e r
i s d e fe n d e d by t he pri n cipl e t hat t he q u alifyi n g adv e rb
wh o se s ign icati o n
s h o u ld b e plac e d cl o s e t o the a dj e ctiv e
it mo di e s Thi s c o ll o ca t i o n i s ge n e rally h o w e v e r p ro
n o u n c e d a Sc o ttici s m ; b u t it i s n o t p e c u liar t o Sc o tch
write r s
,

R U LE
In e n t

X XI

C o nj u n c ti o n s

ha ve

no

g o ve r n

2 38

Y N TAX

fo ll o wi n g e x a mpl e
A m a n o f wi s d o m a n d v irt ue i s

H e r e it i s n o t i m pli e d that a m a n
a p e rfe ct ch a r a ct e r
o f wi s d o m i s a p e rfe ct char a ct e r ; b u t a m an o f wi s d o m

o r a m an o f wi s d o m a n d virt u e
co mbi n e d w ith v irt u e
That c o nj u n cti o n s i n d ee d d o n o t c o u pl e a t all i n that
s e n s e at l e a s t i n which gram m aria n s h a v e u n d e r s t o o d t he
M r T o o k e s ee m s to hav e i n c o n t e s t ably pr o v e d
term
That th e y s o m e ti m e s c o u pl e se n ten c e s o r that i n s tan c e s
m a y b e p r o d u c e d i n w hich H arri s s d e n i t i o n will app ear
c o rre ct the fo ll o wi n g e x am pl e will s e rv e a s an e viden ce

o u ro d e
e
Y o u a n d I a n d J o h n r o d e to t o w n
y

B u t t o a s s e rt that t hi s
an d J o h n ro d e
a n d I ro d e
i s th e ir di s ti n ctiv e pr o p e rty i s t o a f rm what m a y b e d i s
t w o an d
r
If
w e s ay
o v e d by n u m b e rl e s s e x a m pl e s
p

A B
A r e t w o fo u r a n d t w o fo u r ?
t w o a r e fo u r

I s A B a trian gl e ? o r
B C an d C A fo r m a tri an gl e

J o h n a n d M ary a r e a h an d s o me c o u pl e
or C A ?
B C
I s Jo h n a c o u pl e ? a n d M ary a c o u pl e ? T he c o m mo n
th eo ry th e r e fo r e i s fal s e n o r i s i t t o b e do u b ted that c o n
j u n cti o n s ar e i n r e s p e ct to s ign ic a ti o n an d w er e o r igi
o r w o r d s co m
n ally i n r e gard t o th e ir r e gi m en v e rb s
p o u n de d o f n o u n s a n d attrib u tiv e s I n e x plai n i n g th e m
h o w e v e r I divid e d th em a s the r e ad e r m ay r e mem be r
i n t o the s e v e ra l cla s se s o f adv e r s ativ e c o n c e s s i v e c o n d i
Thi s I did n o t o n ly i n c o n fo rm i t y to ge n e ral
t i o n al &c
u sa g e a n d that he m ight n o t b e a s tra n g e r t o t he n a m e s
a ss ig n e d to th e m
b u t lik e wi s e f o r thi s re a s o n th a t th o u gh
th e y o rigi n all y fo r me d n o di s t i n ct s p e ci e s o f w o rd s b u t
w e r e e ith e r v e rb s o r c o m p o u n d s o f n o u n s a n d v e rb s th e y
h a v e n o w a s s u me d a no th e r chara ct e r a n d a re c o n s tru e d in
a
di ffe ren t m a n n e r I t i s n e c e s s a ry h o w e v e r t hat he
s h o u ld b e a cq u a i n t e d n o t o nly w ith th e ir pr e s en t u s e b u t
al s o with th e ir pri m itiv e i m po rt a nd cla s s icati o n
H o w th e s e w o rd s w e r e d egrad e d fro m the i r o r ig in a l
r an k a n d d e eme d i n s ig n ican t while s o me p e rhaps l o st
th eir sy n t a ctic al po w e r i s a matt e r I c o n c e iv e o f n o dif
c u l t i n q u iry
F o r wh e n the v e rb s to which a n y o f th e s e
t he

Y N TA X

2 39

d s be lo n g e d be c a m e o b so l e t e the w o rd s t h e m se l v e s
t h u s s e parat e d fro m t h e ir paren t s t o ck a n d s tri p pe d o f
t hat c o n se q u e nc e a n d a u t h o rity which t h e y t h e n c e d e
riv ed t h e ir e x tracti o n b ec o mi n g d ai ly m o r e d u bi o u s a n d
t h e ir o rigi n al val u e m o r e o b s c u r e s u n k by d e gr ee s i n t o
i n fe ri o r n o te a n d a t las t dwi n dl e d i n to co mp a r a tiv e i n
s i n i ca n ce
ny
m
B
a
t
h
d
o u b t le s s
w
r
e s id e s
m
of
e
e
e
g
t ran s plan t ed i n t o o u r la n g u a ge wi t h o u t t he r a d i ces th e ir
e t y m o l o gy
th e r e fo r e be i n g li t tl e k n o w n th e ir pri mitiv e
charac t e r a n d r e al i m po rt w o u ld s o o n be i n v o lv e d i n
i n cr e a s i ng dark n e s s
It i s to b e c o n s id e re d al s o t hat th o se w ho hav e di s
en s e d the law s o f gra m m ar i n o u r la n g u ag e o r a s s u me d
p
t he o ffi ce o f cri t ic s hav e b ee n ge n e rally s u ch a s th o u gh
p e rhap s s u fci en t ly c o n v e r s an t i n G re e k a n d L ati n w e re
en t ir e ly u n acq u ai n t e d wi t h t he N o r t h e r n la n g u ag e s
Ac
c u s t o med t h e re fo r e to re n d e r the c o nj u n c t i o n s a n d p r e
n
s y n o n y m o u s E n gli s h
G
r
L
a
t
i
by
o s iti o n s i n
ee k
or
p
w o rd s a n d u n acq u ai n t e d wi t h t he t r u e chara ct e r o f t h e se
v e r n ac u lar t e r m s th e ir e t mo ns be i n g o b s o l e t e o r havi n g
y
n e v e r b e e n u s e d i n o u r l an g u age
i t i s e a s y t o c o n c e iv e
ho w t h ey w o u ld n a t u r a lly a s sign t o the E n gli s h w o rd s the
sa m e charact e r a n d t he sa m e n a m e which w e re a ffi x e d t o
t he s y n o n y m o u s L a ti n t e r m s
N a y thi s ha s b ee n s o m u ch
the ca s e t hat w e hav e a s crib e d a n a mbig u o u s charac t e r to
sev e r a l E n gli s h w o rd s
r e fe rri n g th e m n o w t o o n e cla s s
th e n to a n o th e r m e re ly b e ca u s e th e y a gree i n s ig n ica
ti o n wi t h ce rta i n G r e e k a n d L ati n t e r ms which hav e be e n
s ev e r al ly r e fe rr e d by
cla s s ical gr am m aria n s to di ffe r e n t
Tha t t he w o rd w hether ha s u n ifo rmly i n o u r l a n
o rd e r s
gu a ge the sa me i m po rt an d t he sa me charac t e r d e n o ti n g

whic h o f the t w o t h e re c a n b e n o d o u bt ; y e t be c a u se thi s

w o rd a n s w e r s so m e ti m e s t o a n a n n e n u m a n d so m e ti m e s
to u ter gra mm ar i a n s a n d l e x ic o graph e r s h a v e a c c o u n t e d it
bo t h a co nj u n cti o n a n d a pro n o u n Utr u m i n L a ti n has
s h a r ed the sa m e fat e
S o f ar i n d ee d ha s thi s s pirit b ee n
ca rri ed th a t w e w ill n o t a d mit exc ep t a cco r d i ng co n cer n
wor

'

2 40

Y N TA X

g wi t h ma n y s i milar t er m s to b e v e rb s o r
par t ici pl e s b e cau se p r ceter s ecun d u m d e a r e pre po s iti o n s
It i s fr o m thi s pro pe n s ity to a s s i milat e o u r s wi t h the L ati n
lan g u age tha t all t h e se e rro r s hav e ari s e n
That the w o rd s n o w t e rm e d pr e p o siti o n s a n d co nj u n c
t i o n s w e r e o rigi n ally v e rb s o r n o u n s o r c o m p o u n d s o f
th e s e T o o k e ha s i n m y j u dg men t i n c o n t ro v e r t ibly pro v e d
Thi s b e i ng ad m it t e d i t app e ar s t o m e highly p ro babl e
t hat th e y w e r e pri m i t iv e ly c o n s tr u e d a s s u ch j o i n e d e i t h e r
w i t h t he n o m i n ativ e o r t he o bj e ctiv e ca s e a s the v e rb s had
e i t h e r a tr a n s i t iv e o r i n tra n s itiv e m e a n i n g ; an d t hat th e y
w e r e fo ll o w e d by e ith e r s i n gl e w o rd s o r clau s e s Thi s
h o w e v e r i s m e r ely c o nj e ct u re fo u n d e d i n dee d i n the n a
t u re o f t he w o rd s b u t n o t s u p po r te d by a n y e vid e n c e I n
p ro c e s s o f t im e i n c o n s e q u e n c e o f that a s s i mila t i o n whic h
n at u rally tak e s plac e b e t w e e n a livi n g la n g u a g e a n d a d e ad
a n d m u ch ad m ire d
th e s e
o n e m u ch r e ad m u ch writ t e n
w o rd s wh e n t h e ir o rigi n be ca m e o b s c u r e w o u ld a s I hav e
r e m ark ed b e div e s t e d o f th e ir p ri mi t i v e characte r a n d b e
c o n s id e r ed a s b el o n gi n g to th o se cla s se s to which the
H e n ce t h e ir r e
s y n o n y m o u s L ati n w o rd s w e r e r e fe rr e d
gi m en w o u ld lik e wi s e u n d e rgo a cha n ge It w o u ld appe ar
awkward an d vici o u s to s ay n o w I sa w n o bo dy b u t he
it i s n o t i m pro babl e h o w e v e r that the m o d e o f e x pre s s i o n

he be
I sa w n o b o dy b e o u t he
e
w a s o rigi n ally
B u t I a m n o w i n d u lgi n g i n co nj e ct u r e the v e ry
o ut
e rr o r which chi e y ha s m i s l e d u s i n o u r gra m m atic a l r e
O n e thi n g h o w e v e r i s c e rtai n that se v e ral
se arch e s
w o rd s which w e r e o rigi n ally e m pl o y e d a s pr e p o s i t i o n s o r
c o nj u n cti o n s i n di ff e r e n tly have n o w acq u ire d a m o re x e d
a n d a re u se d b u t s e ld o m i n a d o u bl e cap a city
c har a c t er
O f thi s the w o rd w i tho u t i s a n e x a m pl e Th u s it w a s n o t

with o u t y o u g o I will n o t wh e r e the

u n u s u al t o s a y
t e r m o f e x cl u s i o n th o u gh i n t r u th a pre p o s i t i o n pr e x e d
t o a cla u s e w a s c o n s id e re d a s a c o nj u n cti o n s y n o n y m o u s
Thi s u s age u n l e s s i n c o n v e r sa ti o n i s n o w
w i t h n is i
a n d t he t e r m w i tho u t i s n o w
a l m o s t e n tir e ly r eli n q u i s h e d
i ng ,

e
c
t
i
n
p

r es

SYN T A X

2 42

H er e

I c an n o t c o n c u r w ith the l ea rn e d a u th o r T he s a me
r
o v e th a t ma o r
u a m me w o u ld b e m o r e
a r g u men t w o u ld
p
j q
gramm atica l than maj o r qu a m eg o a c o n cl u s i o n w hich i s
T
h
e tr u t h i s t ha n m u s t
o po se d by u n i v e r sal a u th o rity
p
If a
b e e ith e r a c o nj u n cti o n o r a pr e p o s i t i o n o r b o th
c o nj u n cti o n it ca n hav e n o go v e r n men t a n y m o r e t ha n
t he L a t i n q u a m u n l e s s w e c o n fo u n d the di s ti n cti o n which
ha s be en j u s t n o w e x plai ne d a n d i s u n iv e r s ally ad mit t e d
n a m e ly that c o nj u n cti o n s ar e di s ti n g u i s h e d fro m pr e p s i
t i o n s by th e ir h a vi n g n o go v e r n m en t
If it b e a pr e po
e
n o arg u me n t i s n e c e s s a ry t o pro v e that it m a
b
s iti o u
y
j o i n e d with a n o bj e ctiv e ca se ; fo r s u ch i s the di s ti n g u i s h
i n g char a ct e r o f pre p o s i t i o n s
If it b e e ith e r a pr ep o s i t i o n
i t fo ll w s that i t m ay b e c o n s tr u e d e i t h e r
o r a co nj u n cti o n
with o r with o u t a r egi men Lo w t h with gre at e r p r o pri e t y
c o n s id e r s it a s a c o nj u n cti o n a n d C a mpbe ll i n hi s R he

t o ric r e c o m me n d s thi s u s age a s t he o n ly m e a n s o f p r e

v e n ti n g that a m big u ity w hich n e c e s s arily ari s e s fr o m t he
r
e p o s iti o n o n ly
if
e m l o y m en t o f thi s w o rd a s a
r
F
o
p
p
I lo v e y o u
w e u s e i t a s a pr e p o s iti o n w e s h o u ld sa y

b e t t e r than hi m wh e th e r it be me a n t I lo v e y o u be tt e r

th an I l o v e hi m o r I lo v e y o u b e tt er than he d o e s
By u s i n g it a s a c o nj u n cti o n t he a mbig u ity i s pre v e n t e d
F o r if t he fo r me r s en ti m e n t b e i m pli e d w e s ay
I lo v e

o u b e t t e r th a n him
tha
I
l
if
n
o v e hi m
t
e
6
h
y

latte r w e sa y
I l o v e y o u b e tte r th a n he
e
than

he l o v e s y o u
W hat e v e r m ay hav e be e n the o rigi n al
c haracte r o r s y n ta x o f thi s w o rd
s i n c e u s ag e i s n o w di
v id e d
s o m e w rit e r s e m pl o yi n g it a s a c o nj u n c t i o n
an d
o th e r s a s a pr e p o s iti o n
t he gr a m ma rian m ay c o n s i s t en t ly
with hi s d u ty pl e a d fo r th a t u sa ge o n ly w hich pre v e n t s
a m big u ity
T he r u l e h e r e r e c o mm e n d e d i s g en e rally v i o la t e d wh e n
t ha n i s j o i ne d with the r e lati v e pr o n o u n
as
A l fr e d

th an wh o m a gr e a t e r ki n g n e v e r r e ign e d
B e e l z eb u b

than wh o m S a ta n e x ce pt ed n o n e high e r s a t
S al mo n
ha s a tte m p te d t o acc o u n t f o r thi s a l mo s t u niv e r s al phra se
.

SYN TA X

2 43

l gy by sa yi n g that t he e x pr e s si o n i s e lliptic al be i n g
the s a m e a s
than c o m pa re d with wh o m
Thi s e x p l a
n a ti o n i s fo rc e d a n d u n n a t u ral
I t i s lik e wi se u n n ec e s
sa ry
T he s i mpl e fact i s that the w o rd t ha n w a s f o r
m e rly u s ed a s a p r e p o s iti o n an d I be li e v e m o r e fr e
qu en tly t h an it i s n o w H e nce d o u btle s s aro se thi s
phras e o lo gy
o o

R U L E XxI l D e r i v a t i v e s a re g e n er a lly c o n
s tru e d li k e t he i r
ri mi t i v e s ; a s
y
w
a s a ha
t
i
p
pp
t hi n g f or thi s c o u n t r y tha t the P re t e n d e r w a s d e
fe a t e d
or
ha p p ily f o r t hi s c o u n t ry the P r e te n d e r

w a s d e fe a t e d
T h us a ls o
t o c o mp are w ith a n d

in c o mp a r i s o n w ith r i che s
t o d e p e n d on

d hi s d e p e n d e n c e on the c o u r t
.

R U L E XX I I I O n e

g a ti v e d e s t r o y s a n o the r ;
n e g a t i v e s a r e e u i v a l e n t t o a n a ffi rm a t i v e ;
q
ha v e I n o mo n e y w hi ch I c a n s p a r e

I ha v e m o n e y w hi ch I c an s p ar e
w a s t he k i n g u n a c qu a i n t e d w i th his d e

he w a s a c q u a i n t e d
tha t i s
ne

tw o

l s,

No r
g

ns

No te

H
an d

lan g u age a c co rd s wi t h t he La ti n
Fr en ch t w o n e ga ti v es r en d e r the n e ga ti o n
e re

o ur

Thi r l

vi o late d i n s u ch e x a mpl es a s thi s

dan ge r e v e r appr e h en d e d i n s u ch a go v e rn m en t
c o m m o n ly ap pre h en d dan ge r fro m t h u n
I t s h o u ld b e a ny mo r e
es
u e

is

,
,

9?

R U LE XX I V
I n te rj e c t i o n s a re j o i n e d w i th the
o bj e c t i ve c a s e o f t he
r o n o u n o f the r s t
e rs o n
p
p
a n d w i th t he n o mi n a t i v e o f the
ro no un
o f t he
p

se co n d
oh me
as
ah m e
ah t ho u w r e t c h
O tho u w ho d w e ll e s t
.

R 2

SYN TAX

2 44

Sy n ta x b e i ng
n o t o n ly f o r the

that p a rt o f gr a m mar which te ach e s r u le s

c o n c o rd a n d g o v e rn m e n t b u t al s o fo r the
o rd e r o f w o rd s i n cla u s e s a n d s en t e n c e s
I s hall s u bj o i n
the f e w fo ll o w i n g bri e f dir e cti o n s f o r t he g u idan c e o f the
s ch o l a r r e s p e cti n g a rran g e me n t
l s t T he c o ll o cati o n s h o u ld n e v e r i n v e rt t he n at u ral
o r vi o lat e t he pri n cipl e s o f r e a so n
and
o rd e r o f e v e n t s
It i s o bvi o u s fo r e x am pl e t hat
m e tap hy s ic a l pr o pri e ty
h
T
e abili t
t
o do
no
e r s o n c a n wri t e w ho ca n n o t r e ad
y
p
the fo r m e r n e c e s s arily i m pli e s a capaci t y t o d o the lat t e r
I t i s pre po s t e ro u s t h e r e fo r e to sa y w ith A ddi so n Th e re
will be fe w i n the n e x t gen e rati o n w ho will n o t at l e a s t

H e s h o u ld h a v e s aid
to
b e abl e t o w rit e a n d r e a d

H e w a s the s o n o f a m o t h e r w ho had
r e ad a n d writ e
a n d had b o r n hi m
n u r s e d hi m with m at e r n al t en d e r n e s s

T he n at u ral o r d e r
i n a n h o u r o f the d ee p e s t afflicti o n
o f e v e n t s s h o u ld hav e di ctat e d the r e v e r s e arran g e me n t
Th e r e w o u ld b e a m an ife s t i m pr o pri e ty i n s ayi n g O u r
fa th e r i s w ell a n d aliv e the fo r me r s tat e n e c e s s arily i m
n g the latt e r
n the fo ll o wi n g p a s sag e
lyi
I
h
it
o we ver
p
i s p e rha p s e x c u s abl e the a n s w e r s partic u larly co rre s po n d
i n g to t he q u e s ti o n s
J o se ph s ay s to hi s bro th e r s
Is
y o u r fath e r w e ll ? T he o l d ma n o f wh o m y e s pa k e i s he

?
e t aliv e
ey a n s w e r
Th
Thy
se rva n t
r fath e r
i
s
o
u
y

i n go o d h e alth ; he i s y e t aliv e
Thi s e rro r w a s t e rm ed
by the an ci en t gram m ari an s hy s tero n p ro ter o n a n d t
n o t s o p a lpably
it
a s i n the pr e c ed i n g e x a m pl e s
m u ch m o re fr e q u en tly than an i n a tt en ti v e r e ad e r
to i m agi n e
2 d T he E ngli s h l a n gu age ad m it s b u t fe w
a n d th e r e fo r e littl e o r n o r o o m f o r v a ri e ty o f a r r
T he c o n n e x i o n o f o n e w o rd with an o th e r i s n o t to
c ei v ed
a s i n G r ee k a n d L a ti n
by c o rr e sp o n d e n c e o f
m i n ati o n b u t by r e lati v e p o s iti o n
T hi s r e n d e rs i t
di s pe n s ably n e c es sa ry th a t th o s e w o rd s which a r e
t i ma te l y r e lat e d by s e n s e o ne t o a n o th e r s h o u ld b e c l o
co nn ect e d by c o ll o ca tio n
T he cu n n i ng o f H a r m
,

S Y N TAX

2 46

W h e n e ach o f tw o a rran ge men t s i s e q u ally fa

a n d e u ally c o n s i s t e n t w ith m e
v o u r a b l e t o p e r s p ic u ity
q
t a p hy s i c a l pro pri e ty that s h o u ld b e pr e fe rr e d whic h i s
the m o r e agr e e abl e to the ear
6 t h H a r s h an d abr u pt c a d e n c e s s h o u ld be av o id e d ;
a n d i n e l e vat e d s t yl e t he cla u s e s s h o u ld s w ll t o w ard s t he
Thi s latt e r r u l e h o w e v e r which
cl o s e o f t he se n t e n c e
r e qu ire s so me li m ita t i o n s b e lo n gs to the p ro vi n c e o f the
rh e to rician ra th e r tha n to th a t o f the gra m ma ri an
5 th,

P A RT

III

C HAPT E R I
CA

H AVI N G

N ON S

CR IT I C I S M

OF

pl ai n ed a n d ill u s tra t e d the e ty mo l o gy a n d

s yn ta x o f t he E n gli s h la n g u ag e
a s fu lly as the li m it s
whi c h I ha v e p re s cribe d to m y se lf will pe rmi t I w o u ld
n o w r e q u e s t t he r e a d e r s at t e n t i o n t o so m e additi o n a l o h
ex

se r v a ti o n s

gra mmar o f e v e ry lan g u age i s m e re ly a co mpila t i o n

o f th o se g e n e ral pri n cipl e s
o r r ul e s
agree ably to which
that l a n g u age i s s p o k e n W h en I s ay a c o m pilati o n o f
r u l e s I w o u ld n o t b e u n d e r s t o o d to m e a n that the r u l e s
a r e r s t e s tabli s h e d a n d the la n g u ag e aft e rw a rd s m o d e ll e d
i n c o n fo r m i t y t o t h e se
T he v e ry r e v e r s e i s the fact ;
lan g u age i s an t ec ed e n t to gram m ar W o rd s a re fra me d
e x pr e s s
s e n ti me n t
be fo re the gram
an d c o m bi n e d to
H i s so l e b u s i n e s s i s
m ari a n c a n e n t e r o n hi s pro vi n ce
o r to
pre s crib e l a w to o u r
n o t t o dic t at e fo r m s o f s p e e ch
mo d e s o f e x pr e s s i o n ; b u t by o b s e rvi n g t he m o d e s p re
e s tabli s h e d
by
r
e m arki n g t h e ir s i m il a ri ti e s a n d
v io u sl
y
di s s i milari ti e s hi s pr o vi n c e i s to d e d u ce a n d e x plai n the
ge ne r al pri n cipl es a n d the partic u lar fo rm s agr eeably to
which t he s p e ak e r s o f tha t lan g ua ge e x pre s s th e m s e lv e s
T he phil o s o ph e r d o e s n o t d e t e r m i n e by wha t law s t he
phy s ica l a n d m o ral w o rld s h o u ld b e go v e r n e d ; b u t by
t he c a r e fu l o b se r v ati o n a n d a cc u rat e c o m pari s o n o f the
T he

CA N O N S

2 48

C R IT I C I SM

or

vari o u s ph e no m en a p re s e n t e d to hi s v i e w he d e d u c e s a n d
a s c e rtai n s the ge n e ral pri n ci p l e s by which the sy s t e m i s
r e g u lat e d
T he pr o vi n c e o f the gra m m aria n s ee m s p re
ex
e i s a m e r e dig e s t e r a n d c o m pil e r
c i se l
s i m ilar
H
y
lai
n i n g what a r e the m o d e s o f s p e e ch n o t dictati n g what
p
H e c a n n e ith e r a s s ign t o a n y w o rd a
t h e y s ho u ld be
m e an i n g di ffe r e n t fr o m t ha t which c u s t o m ha s an n e x e d t o
it ; n o r c a n he a l t e r a phra se o l o gy to which u n iv e r s al
U s ag e i s i n thi s ca s e
s u ffrag e ha s giv e n i t s s a n c t i o n
l a w ; u s age q u em p en es a r bi tr i u m es t et j u s cl n o r ma l o

o ve s
If
it
w
e r e n o w t he practic e t o s a
I
l
u en d i
y
g

i n s t e ad o f I l o v e the fo rm e r phra s eo lo gy w o u ld re s t o n
t he s am e r m gr o u n d o n which the latt e r n o w s tan d s ;
I l v e w o u ld b e a s m u ch a vi o la t i o n o f t he r u l e s
a nd
which i s the s a me thi n g o f e s tabli s h e d
o f gra mm ar
or
I l o v e s i s at p r e s e n t ? Reg u l a es t qu ce r em
u s ag e
as
r ev i t er en a r r a t ; n o n u t ex r eg u l a
u s s u ma t a r
u a: es t h
j
q

r
a
e
a
u
a
a ul L e
1
d
R
l
P
e
r
e
u
es
t
e
t
d
s ed ex u

g
g
g
j
q
,

Jur

H avi n g s aid t h u s m u ch to pre v e n t m i s co n c e pti o n a n d

I pro
t o d e n e the p r o p e r pro vi n c e o f t he gra m m arian
oec d t o o b s e rv e that thi s u s ag e which giv e s l a w t o l a n
g u age i n o rd e r to e s tabli s h i ts a u th o rity o r to e n ti t l e
i t s s u ffrage t o o u r a s s en t m u s t b e i n the rs t plac e r e
,

u ta

bl e

v u lgar i n thi s a s i n e v e ry o th e r c o u ntry a re fro m

th e ir wan t o f e d u ca t i o n n e c e s s arily illi te ra t e Th e ir
n ativ e lan g u ag e i s k n o w n t o th e m n o farth e r t han i s r e
h
u i s i te
f
or
t
e m o s t c o mm o n
Th
e ir
u rp o s e s o f life
q
p
id e a s a re f e w a n d c o n s e q u en tly th e ir s to ck o f w o rd s po o r
a n d s ca n ty
N ay t h e ir p o v e rty i n thi s r e s p e ct i s n o t
t he ir o n ly e vil
Th e ir n arr o w c o mp e t e n c e t h e y ab u s e
a n d p e rv e r t
S o m e w o rd s t h e y m i s a pply o t h e r s t h e y
c o rr u p t ; whil e m an y a re e m pl o y e d by t h e m which hav e
n o s anc t i o n
b u t pr o vi n cial o r l o cal a u t h o rity
H en c e the
lan gu age o f the v u lgar i n o n e p ro vi n ce i s s o m e ti m e s
hardly i n t elligibl e i n a n o th e r A dd to t hi s that d e b a rre d
T he

t
9h 1

CA N O N S

2 50

or

C RITI C I SM

Thi s u s age m u s t b e i n the s e c o n d pl a c e n a ti o na l I t

mu s t n o t b e c on n e d t o thi s o r that pro vi n c e it m u s t n o t
b e the u sa ge o f thi s o r that dis trict the pe c ul iariti e s o f
whi ch a r e a l w ay s ridic u l o u s an d fre q u en tly u n in te lligible
be y o n d it s o w n li m it s ; b u t it m u s t b e the gen e ral l an
g ua ge o f t he c o u n try i n t elli gible e v er y wh e re a n d i n no
pla ce ridi c u l o u s A n d th o u gh the v a ri e ty o f dial e ct s
m a y co ll e ctiv e ly fo r m a gr e at e r n u m be r o f a u th o riti e s than
n at io n a l u s ag e ca n
bo a s t ta k en s i n gly the y a r e m u c h
fe we r Tho s e to u se C am pbe ll s app o s it e s i m ilit u d e who
d e viate f ro m t he be at e n ro ad m a y b e i n co m pa ra bly m o re
n u m e r o u s than th o se w ho tra v e l i n it ;
e t i n t o w ha t e v e r
y
n u m b er of b
s the fo r m e r m a
path
d
id
d
th
r
e ma
e
v
e
b
i
e
y
y
y
n o t b e fo u n d i n a n
o n e o f th e s e track s s o m an y a s trav e l
y

i n t he ki n g s hi g hway
I n t he third plac e thi s u s age m u s t b e p r esen t
H e re it
m ay be a s k e d wh a t i s me an t by pr e se n t u sa g e ?
I s it t he
u s ag e o f the pr e s e n t y e ar t he
r
r
e s e n t a e o r the
e se n t
p
g
p
c en t u ry ? H o w i s it d e n ed o r by wha t bo u n dary i s it
li m ite d ? I n s h o rt ho w f ar m ay w e r e v e rt i n Se arch o f
d e ci s iv e a u th o rity ? m ay w e go back fo r e x am pl e a s far
?
m
o
h
e
a
e
o
f
s
n
C
ha
r
t
t
at
ddi
u
ce
o
r
u
s
w
e
s
t
A
o
as
p
g
I n d e t e r mi n i n g thi s m a tt e r the s a m e l e ar n e d a n d j u di
c io u s critic o b se rv e s that r e g a rd m u s t be had t o t he s p e ci e s
P o e try i s
an d t he n a t u r e o f t he s u bj e ct
o f c o m p o s iti o n
pro p e rly al l o w e d a gr e at e r la t it u d e than pro se ; a n d th e re
fo r e a w o rd which i n p ro se w e s h o u ld r ej e ct a s a bar
b a ri s m m a y wi t h s tric t p r o p ri e ty b e ad mitt e d i n v e r s e
H e r e a l s o t h e re a re li m it s which m u s t n o t b e pa s s e d ; a n d
p e rhap s an y w o rd which can n o t pl e ad the a u th o rity o f
M ilt o n o r o f a n y c o n t e m p o rary o r lat e r p o e t m a y b e j u s tly
re gard e d a s o b so le t e I n p ro s e n o w o rd u n l e s s the s u b
s h o u ld b e e mpl o y e d which ha s b e e n
e c t b e ar t o r s ci en c e
j
di s u s e d f o r a pe ri o d gre at e r th an the ag e o f m a n Thi s i s
A gai n s t t hi s a n s w e r
the j u dg m e n t o f the s a me critic
i n d e ed it i s p o s s ibl e to r a i s e a th o u s an d cav il s ; an d p e r
ha p s w e S hall be r e mi nd e d o f t he p o e t s s trict u re s o n the
,

CA N ON S

CR I TI C I SM

or

2 51

t e rm a nci en t in hi s day s
O n e thi n g h o w e v e r i s c e rtai n
tha t th o u gh i t b e di fc u lt to x a pr ec ise li mi t wh e r e the
a u th o rity o f pr e c e d e n t t e rm i n at e s
an d l e gi s l a tiv e u sa g e
co mm en ce s o r to d e n e wi t h prec i s i o n the a ge o f m an it
m u s t b e ack n o wl e dg ed t hat t h e r e a r e li m it s i n r e s pe ct to
u s a g e which w e m u s t n o t o v e rl e ap a s th e r e i s a c e r t ai n
t e r m which the li fe o f m an can n o t s u rpa s s
A s th e r e i s a p e ri o d be y o n d which pr e c e d en t i n lan g u ag e
c e a s e s t o hav e au t h o rity ; s o o n the c o n t rary t he u s age o f
the p r e s e n t day i s n o t i m pli citly t o b e a d o p t e d
M an ki n d
a re fo n d o f n o v e l ty ; a n d th e r e i s a fas hi o n i n l a n g u ag e a s
t h e r e i s i n dre s s W hi m v an i t y an d affe c ta t io n d e ligh t
i n cr e ati n g n e w w o rd s
O f th es e the far g re ate r part so o n
s i n k i n t o co n t e m t
Th
e y g u r e f o r a lit t l e lik e e he
p
p
m e ral pr o d u cti o n s i n t al e s n o v e l s a n d fu gi t iv e pape r s ;
a n d a r e s h o r t ly co n si g n e d t o d e gr adati o n an d o blivi o n
N o w to a d o pt e v e ry n e w fa n gl e d u p s t a rt a t i t s birth
wo u ld argu e n o t ta s t e n o r j u dgm e n t b u t childis h fo n d
n e s s fo r s i n g u l a rity a n d n o v e lty
O n t he c o n tr a ry if a n y
o f t h e se s h o u ld m a i n t a i n i ts gro u n d a n d r e c e iv e t he sa n c
t i o n o f r e p u ta bl e u s age t o rej e ct it i n thi s c a se w o u ld b e
to r es i s t th a t a u th o rity to which e v e ry critic a n d gra m
T he t e r m mo b f o r
m a ria n m u s t b o w with s u bm i s s i o n
w as
at i ts i n tro d u cti o n z e a l o u sly o ppo s e d by
e x a m pl e
H i s r e si s tan ce ho w e v e r w as i n e ff e ct u al ; a n d
D ean Swift
a nd
to r ej e c t i t n o w w o u ld be tr a y p r u di s h affe cta ti on
fr u itl e ss pe rv e r s i ty T he w o rd i n i mi ca l pre vi o u s ly to the
A me ri can w a r co u ld I be li e v e pl e ad i n i t s fav o ur o n ly
.

v t t q pr b c t m q i p i t
l a
Q i d q i d p iit m i r
m
t
f
I t rq
t
a
d
cri t ?
p
t
t p t ra
?
t
a
t pr
A q
p
I ll q i d m t i t r p t h t
b r vi l t t t j i r a
Q i l m
t
d
i
i
l
q
i
m
Ut
u
q
p
p
m d m
tiam m
t d m
P l l t im v ll
d t l
D m
ti
ti
c rvi
H
Ep I L i b
ed t d f t
Q
Es t

e us, a

e n se

ve

sso , ca u

er

or

ui r

ca

e u s u s ra
as o s .

ae

nno

un o

o o es

s,

o nes e,

o n e ur

ve

ae

ua

re s

os e

n e

v e e res

au

aes e n s , e

uos e

u no

oe

v e e re s n e

us

s un o s ,

er

en s e v e

u no

no

e er

en u

us,

u o s re e re n

n e

ue

os u

o unu

o n e r ue n

u n ae
o e

s a

u nu

o ra ce,

CA N O N S

2 52

C R ITI C I SM

or

a u th o rity I n so m e dicti o n a ri e s acco rdi n gly it w a s

o m itt e d ; a n d i n o th e r s s tigm a ti z e d a s a barbari s m
It ha s
n o w o btai ne d a p e r m an en t e s t abli sh m e n t
an d
i s j u s tly
a d mitt e d by e v e ry l e x i co graph e r
I w rd
fa hi
t h am r l w i ll h l d
ld
A l ik fa ta t i c if t o w
t th r t b y wh m th
tri d
B
w
N y t th la t t l y th l d a i d
P p E y C i ti i m
I n s h o rt i n thi s a s i n e v e ry o t h e r q u e s t i o n o n thi s
If the s u bj ect
s u bj e ct pe r s pic u ity s h o u ld b e o u r g u id e
b e art o r s ci en c e o r if the c o m p o s i t i o n b e i n t e n d e d fo r
li t e rary m e n t h en a gr e at e r latit u d e m ay b e allo w ed a s
t he r e ad e r i s s u pp o s e d t o b e m a s te r o f the la n g u age i n all
i t s vari e ti e s
B u t if t he s u bj e ct b e acc o mmo date d t o
c o m m o n cap acity a n d the c o m p o s i t i o n d e s ig n e d fo r o rdi
n o t t o e m pl o y a w o rd
n ary r ea d e r s t he r u l e n o w giv e n
which ha s b ee n di s u s e d fo r a pe ri o d gre at e r tha n t he a g e
I c o n c e iv e rati o n al an d n e c e s s a ry
o f m a n wi l l b e d e e m e d
T he u s ag e th en which giv e s l a w t o lan guage a n d
which i s ge n e rally d en o m i n a t e d go o d u sa g e m u s t b e
r e u t a bl e
and
n a ti o n a l
r es en t
I
t
happ
en s
h
o we v e r
p
p

that go o d u sa ge i s n o t a lway s u n ifo r m i n her d e ci s i o n s

a n d t ha t u n q u e s ti o n abl e a u th o ri t i e s a re fo u n d f o r di ff e r e n t
m o d e s o f e x pr e s s i o n
I n s u ch c a se s the fo llo wi n g can o n s
pro po se d by the s ame a u th o r w ill b e o f co n s id e rabl e se r
vic e i n en abli n g the r e ad e r t o d e cid e to which phra se o l o gy
Th e se can o n s I shall giv e n e arly
the p r e fe r e n c e i s d u e
i n the w o rd s o f t he a u th o r ; a n d ill u s trat e th e m a s I p r o
c ee d
by a fe w a pp o s it e e x am pl e s p a r tly hi s an d partly
one

on s,

e no

or

s , as

e s

ne

u e

or o

e ne

e o

a re

o e s

ssa

on

c s

my

wn

CA NON I Wh e n the u s age i s divid e d a s to an y p a r t i

c u l a r w o rd s o r phra s e s a n d wh e n o n e o f t he e x r e s s i o n s i s
p
s u s c e p t ibl e o f a di ffe r en t m e a n i n g whil e t he o th e r adm i t s
o n ly o n e s ign ic a t i o n
the e x pre ss i o n
which i s s t ric t ly
u n iv o cal s h o u ld b e
r
e fe rr e d
p
,

C AN O N S

2 54

C RITI C I SM

or

i l l u s trat e thi s di s ti n cti o n by a fe w e x am ple s T he w o rd s

m
h
a l s ehoo d an d l i e a gree i n e x r e s s i n
t
e sa me
ri
ary
p
p
g
f
id e a na m e ly
c o n trari e t y to fact b u t th e y d i ffe r i n
th e ir s e co n d a ry ide as the fo r me r i m plyin g S i m ply i n c o n
s i s t e n cy wi t h phy s ical tr u t h
the latt e r b e i n g a t e r m o f
r e pro ach e x pre s s i n g a wilfu l br e ach o f v e racity o r o f
''
1 0 ki l l a n d t o mu r d er agr ee al so i n th e ir
m o r al t r u th
pri m ary id e as b o th de n o t i n g the d e priva ti o n o f life
b u t t h e y di ffe r i n th e ir s e c o n da ry the fo r me r i m plyi n g n o
m o ral t u rpit u d e the latt e r d en o ti n g a n i mm o ral act
Fro m t h e s e e x am pl e s it will appea r that p r i ma ry d e n o t e s

what i s pri n cip al o r chi e f a s o pp o s e d to s ec o n dary

or
s u bo rdi n a t e
P r i mi t iv e i s e q u ival e n t t o o r ig i n a l ; th u s w e s a y t he
r i m i t iv e m e an i n g o f
h
t
e w o rd v i l l a i n
w
s
a n ea r e r
a
p
t en an t t o the lo rd o f the m an o r c u s t o m ha s alt e re d i t s

s ig n ica t i o n
a n d it n o w d en o t e s
a w ick e d fell o w Th u s
the p r i ma ry a n d the p r i mi ti v e m e an i n g o f w o rd s m ay b e
v e ry di ffe re n t ; th e s e t e r m s th e re fo r e o u ght to b e d u ly
di s cri m i n at e d
In tens i o n fo r the act o f s tre tchi n g o r s t rai n i n g i s
fo r the s a m e r e a s o n pr e fe rabl e t o i n ten ti o n w hich s igni e s

al s o p u rp o se o r d e sign
I a m m i s tak en i s f r e

q u e n tly u s e d t o d e n o t e I m i s u n d e r s tan d o r I am in
e rr o r
b u t a s thi s e x pr e s s i o n m a y al so s ign ify
I am

it i s b e tt e r to s a y
I m i s tak e
m i s u n de r s t o o d
Thi s can o n I w o u ld e arn e s t ly r e c o mm e n d t o the o b s er v
an c e o f e ve ry writ e r w ho i s s o li cito u s to e x cl u d e all u n
n e c e s s ary a mbig u ity b u t m o r e e m phatically t o m
j
u n io r
y
r e a d e r s w ho a r e p e c u li arly pr o n e to the vi o lati o n o f thi s
r u l e m i s l e d by fal s e n o t i o n s o f e l e gan ce a n d dign ity
Th e r e pr e vail s at pre s en t a fo o li s h a n d ridic u l o u s n o t to
s u rd
s p o s iti o n i n s o m e wri t e r s
sa
ab
di
t
o pr e fe r i n e v e ry
y
i n s t an c e with n o di s cri m i n ati o n l o n g to s h o r t w o rd s
Th ey se e m t o en t e rtai n an i n ve ter ate a n tipathy to mo n o
s yllabic t e r m s ; a n d di s dai n i n g what e v er s a v o dr s o f S a xo n
o rigi n
a r e i n c e s sa n tly s e archi n g
afte r t he s es qu ip ed a l ia
.

'

'

C A N O Ns

CR ITI CI SM

OF

2 55

Gr ee k o r L ati n e x tra cti o n w i t h n o re gar d wha t

e v e r to
pr e ci s i o n a n d pe r sp ic u ity Th u s m an y w o rd s
which c an n o t b e di smi s se d wi t h o u t de tri m en t t o t he l a n
gu age a r e fallin g i n t o di s u se a n d t h e ir pla c e s s u ppli e d
by e q u iv o cal a n d le s s appro priat e t e rm s

v er ba o f

CA NON I I I n do u b t fu l c a s es a n al o gy sh o u ld b e r e
gard e d
F o r thi s r e a so n co n temp o r a ry i s b e tt e r t han c o temp o r a ry
c o n be i n g u se d b e fo r e a co n so n a n t
a n d co b e fo r e a v o w e l ;
a s c on co mi t a n t c o ev a l

F o r the s a m e r e as o n
he n eed s
he d a r es
w he ther

he w i l l o r n o t
a r e b e t t e r tha n
he n eed
he d a r e

w he ther he w i l l o r n o
T he la s t o f the thr ee p hr a s e o l o
gi e s h e re r e c o mm en d ed P ri e s tl e y thi n k s e xc e pti o n abl e
T o m e a s to C a m pb e ll the e llip s i s app e ar s e vid e n t ; t h u s
wh e th e r he will o r w ill n o t h e n c e will n o t see ms
the o n ly an al o gical e x pre s s i o n
.

C ANON II I
Wh e n e x pr e s s i o n s a r e i n
which i s
e q u a l that s h o u ld b e pr e fe rr e d
Thi s r e q u ire s n o i l l u s trati o n
to t he ea r

th e r r e s p e ct s
m o s t a gr eea bl e
o

C A NON I V W h en n o n e o f the pre c ed i n g r ul e s ta k e s

plac e re ga rd S h o u ld b e had to si m pl icity O n t hi s gro u n d
acce pt
appro v e
ad m it a r e pre fe rabl e to a c c e pt

appr o v e o f
a d m it o f
of
I hav e alr ea dy o b s e rv ed that n o e x pre s s i o n o r m o d e o f
which i s n o t sa n cti o n e d by u s age
s p ee ch c a n be j u s ti e d
T he c o n v e r se h o w e v e r d o e s n o t fo ll o w t ha t e v e ry phra se
o l o gy
s a n c ti o n e d by u s ag e s h o u ld b e r e tai n e d ; a n d
in
c u s t o m may pro pe rly be ch e ck e d by cri t ici s m
s u ch c as e s
wh o s e pr o vi n c e it i s n o t o n ly t o r e m o n s t rat e a gai n s t the
i n tr o d u cti o n o f a n y w o rd o r phra s eo lo gy which m ay b e
e ith e r u n n ec e s sa ry o r c o n tr ary t o a n al o gy b u t a l so to e x
tr u d e wh a te v er i s r e pr eh en s ibl e th o ug h i n ge ne ra l u s e
I t i s by thi s e xe rci se o f he r pre ro ga tive th a t l an gu age s
-

2 56

AN O N S

C RITI C I SM

or

grad u ally re n e d a n d i mpr o v e d ; a n d w e re thi s d en i e d

lan g u age wo u ld s o o n b e co m e s t a t i o n ary o r m o re pro bably
w o u ld ha s t en to d e cli n e I n e x e rci s i n g thi s au th o rity s he
can n o t pre t e n d to d e grad e i n s tan t ly a n y phra s eo l o gy
which s he m ay d ee m o bj e cti o n abl e ; b u t s he m ay by r e
e a t e d r e m o n s t ra n c es grad u ally e ffe ct i t s di s m i s s i o n
H
er
p
d e ci s i o n s i n s u ch ca s e s m ay b e pro p e rly r e gu lat e d by the
fo ll o wi n g can o n s a s d e liv e r e d by the s am e a u th o r
are

CA NON

A l l

w o rd s a n d phra s e s p a rtic u larly har s h

s h o u ld b e di s m i s se d ; a s
n o t ab s o l u t e ly n e c e s s ary
and
s ha m e fac e d n e s s
u n s u c c e s s fu l n e s s
wro n gh e ad e d
I

ness

C A NON I I Wh en the e ty m o l o gy pl ai n ly po i n t s to a dif

f e r e n t s ign icati o n fr o m w hat the w o rd b e ar s pr o pri e ty
F o r e x a m pl e t he
a n d s i m plici t y r e q u ir e i t s di s m i s s i o n

w o rd b e h o ld e n t ak e n fo r o blige d o r the v e rb to

fo r
t o l o o se
or
u n ti e
s h o u ld b e r ej e ct e d
u n lo o se
.

C A NON I I I Wh en w o rd s b e c o me O b s o l e t e o r a r e
b u t i n partic u lar phra s e s t h e y s h o u ld b e r e
n ev e r u sed
u d i a t e d ; a s th e y gi v e the s tyl e an air o f v u lgarity an d
p
ca n t wh e n th e ir gen e ral di s u s e r en d e r s th e m o b sc u r e O f

moo t
ro a n d co n
t h e s e li e f
d in t
whit
p

fu r n i s h e x a mpl e s ; a s
I had a s li e f g o
by di n t o f ar

m o o t po i n t
it was
a
n o t a whit b e tt e r
u men t
g

arg u e d p ro a n d c o n
Th e s e phra s e o l o gi e s a r e v u lgar
to b e ad mitt e d i n go o d
s av o u r t oo m u ch o f ca n t
an d
,

C A NON I V A l l w o rd s a n d phra se s which an aly se d

gramm atically i n cl ud e a s o l e ci s m sh o u ld b e di s m i s se d ;
T he e x pr e s s i o n s h o ul d b e
I had rath e r g o
I
as

w o u ld o r I d r a th e r g o a n d fro m the latte r the so l e

I had g o s ee m s by m i s tak e to have ari s e n I d

c i sm
be i n g e rro n eo u sly c o n c e i v e d to b e c o n tract e d fo r I ha d
,

CA NO N S

2 58

C RITI C I SM

OF

i n t en ti o n o f the s p e a k e r s h o u ld b e di s mi s s ed Th u s
t he w o rd s
wh e n a p e r s o n s ay s
he s i n g s a go o d s o n g
h
e
t
s trict l y i m ly
h
w
e re a s
that
h
e s o n g i s go o d
t
p
s p e ak e r m e a n s t o s a
n lik e m a n n e r
h
I
e s i n g s w e ll
y

wh e n it i s s aid
thi s i s the b e s t p art he a ct s the s e n
t e n c e a cc o rdi n g t o the s trict i n t e rpr e tati o n o f the w o rd s
e x pr e s s e s an o i n i o n n o t o f hi s m a n n e r o f acti n g b u t o f the
p
part o r charact e r which he act s It s h o u ld b e he act s

thi s part b e s t o r thi s i s the pa rt which he a ct s b e s t

H e p lay s a go o d ddle
fo r
he play s w e ll o n t he

ddle i s f o r the s am e r e a s o n o bj e cti o n abl e

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w ill s e r v e a s a n e x a m pl e
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2 59

G ram ma tic al p u rity t h e re fo r e , m ay be vi o la te d i n t hree

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tray s a gr e at e r ign o ran c e o f t he pri n cipl e s o f the lan g u age
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C AN O N S

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CR ITI CA L R E M A R K S

2 62
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pl u ra l n up ti a ls i s the pr o p e r w o rd
H e s h o w e d that he had a fu ll c o m pr e h e n s i o n o f the
wh o l e o f the plan a n d o f the j u dici o u s a dap tion o f the
part s to the wh o l e S her id a n s L if e of Sw if t A dap ti o n
i s o b so l e s c en t if n o t o b so l e t e : a d ap ta ti o n i s the pr o p e r
t e rm A d ap ti o n i s fr e q u en tly e m pl o y e d by Swift fro m
wh o m Sh e ridan s ee m s to hav e c o p i e d it
Which e v e n hi s bro th e r m o d e rn i s t s t h e ms e lv es
lik e u n gr a te s whi s p e r s o l o u d t hat it r e ach e s u p to the
v e ry garret I a m n o w wri t i n g i n Sw if t
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nu
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grat e fu l b u t u n g r a te a s a s u b s ta n tiv e i s tr u ly b ar
baro u s A l m o s t e qu ally o bj e c t i o n abl e i s St e el e s u s e o f
Th o u art n o l o n ge r to
s t up i d a s a s u b s ta n tiv e pl u ral
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S p e ct a t o r N o
4 68
A n d al so o f ig n o r a n t
T he ig n o r a n t s o f t he l o w e r
Ibi d
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i mpe r t i n e n t s i n the c a s e o f fu t u rity
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ti n cti o n i s n e c e ss ary

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w o rd s b e i n g ch e r u b a n d se raph the pl u r a l i s e i t h e r

ch e r u b s a n d s e raph s o r C h e ru bi m a n d s e ra phi m
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s ta n c e A ddi s o n i n hi s critici s m s o n that a u th o r ha s o v e r
l o o k e d ; n ay he ha s e v e n with M ilt o n s c o rr e ct u s age
be fo re hi m co m mitt e d the e rr o r
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I LL U S T RA TIO N S

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2 63

giv e n o f hi m Szc H e re s e rap hi m a pl u ral n o u n i s

s h o u ld b e
u s e d a s s i n u l ar
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abo u t a cabi ne t o f m e dal s d e s can ti n g u po n t he val u e t he
rarity a n d a u th e n tical n e s s o f the se v e ral pi e c e s A u then
t h o u gh u s ed by A ddi so n i s o b s o l e s c en t a nd
t i ca l n es s
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I t may b e pro
p e rly di s mi s s e d a s a har s h a n d u n n e c e s s ary t e rm
H e br o k e o ff wi t h La dy G i ffo rd o n e o f hi s o ld e s t a c

u a i n t a n ce s i n life
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J o h n so n h o we v e r did
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n o t di s clai m it
A y o u ng s t u d e n t fr o m t he i n n s o f co u rt
w ho ha s O ft e n attack e d t he c u rat e o f hi s fa t h e r s pari s h

wi t h s u ch a rg u me n t s a s hi s acqu ai n tan c e s c o u ld fu r ni s h
R a mbler W e n d it al s o i n S t ee l e ; th u s she pay s
e v e ry b o dy th e ir o w n
and
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Ta tl er N O 1 09
a n ce s
I a m s u r e t hat the far m e re s s a t B e vi s w o ul d fee l
e m o ti o n s o f v a n i ty
if she k n e w y o u gav e her the

charact e r o f a r e a s o n able w o m an
L o r d P eter bo rr ow to
P op e Thi s I b e li e v e i s t he o n ly pa s sage i n which f a r
mer ess i s to b e fo u n d ; b u t t h o u gh i t m a y th e r e fo r e b e
pro n o un c e d a barbari m the a u th o r c o u ld n o t hav e e x
pre s s e d hi m s elf s o cl e arly a n d s o c o n ci se ly i n a n y o t h e r
way W e e v e ry n o w an d t h en a s J o h n so n O b s e rv e s fe e l
the w a n t o f a fe m i n i n e t e r m i n a t i o n
T he n o u n a s h e r e i n
T he b el l o w s e s w e r e br o k e n
e c t e d i s barbar o u s
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i ng a s i n gl e i n s tru m e n t th o u gh c o n s i s t i n g o f t w o p a rt s
Th e re i s th e r e fo re n o s u ch w o rd a s b el l o w s e s

,
.

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m a y b e d e e m e d so l e ci s ti ca l b e i n g a vi o lati o n o f that r u l e
SO

L EC S

r ad r i r q t d t b rv that d r l ci m I h av
i l d d v ral p hr e l gi w hich th gh t c i t t wi th y t
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C R ITI CA L R EM ARK S

2 64

by which o n e s u b s ta n ti v e go v e rn s an o th e r i n the ge n i t i v e
I t s h o u ld b e
H o rac e s A r t o f Po e t ry
Th e s e ar e

ladi e s r u f e s
thi s i s the ki n g s p ict u re a r e e rro r s o f
t he s a m e ki n d f o r
l adi e s r u f e s
the ki n g s pic t u r e

Th es e t hr e e gre a t g e n i u s s o u ri s h e d at the s a me ti me

H er e ge n i u s s the gen itiv e s i n g u lar i s i mp ro p e rly u s e d

fo r
gen i u s e s the n o m i n ativ e pl u ral
Th e y hav e o f la t e t i s t r u e r e fo r me d in s o m e m ea
t he g o u ty j o i n t s a n d dar n i n g w o rk o f w he r e u n to s
s u re

w her e by s the r e
3 t he r ew i ths a n d the r e s t o f t hi s ki n d
of
S haf tes bury H e re al s o t he ge n i tiv e s i n g u l ar i s i mp ro
p e rly u s e d f o r the o bj e c t iv e c a s e pl u ral I t s h o u ld b e
w he r e u n to s w he r e by s ther e o s t he r e w i ths
f
B o t h t h o s e p e o pl e ac u t e a n d i n q u i s i t iv e t o e x c e s s

c o rr u p te d the s cie n c e s
A d a ms s H i s t o ry of E ng l a n d
T w o rival p eo p l e s t he J e w s a n d the Sa m ari t an s hav e

e s e r v e d s e arat e e x e m plar s o f i t
a ce t o
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T he fo r m e r o f t h e s e p a s s ages

i n v o lv e s a palpabl e e rr o r the w o rd peo pl e h e r e e q u i v a

l e n t to n a ti o n a n d i n the s i n g u lar n u mb e r b e i ng j o i n e d
wi t h bo th o r t he t w o a t e r m o f pl u ral i t y I n the
lat t e r t hi s e rro r i s av o id e d t he n o un b e i n g e mpl o y e d i n
t he pl u ral n u m b e r
Thi s u s ag e h o w e v e r t h o u gh s an c
t i o n e d by t he a u th o rity o f o u r tra n sl a t o r s o f the Bibl e i n
t w o p a s s age s
se em s n o w to b e o b so le te
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n a t i o n s a p e a r t o b e pr e fe rabl e
p

I b o u ght a s ci s s ar s
I w a n t a t o n gs
It i s a ta t
t e re d c o l o u r s
i n v o lve a palpabl e so le ci s m the t e rm s ig n i
c a n t o f u n i t y b e i n g j o i n e d with a pl u ral w o rd
It s h o u ld

be
a p a ir o f sci s s ar s
a pair o f t o n g s
a pair o f
c o lo u r s
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t o ge th e r i n a di s h w a s at r s t i n tro d u c e d i n c o mpli an c e to

a d e prav e d an d d e ba u ch e d app e ti t e S w if t
We s a y c o m ply with th e r efo re by R u l e x v ii i n
c o mp li an c e w ith i s the an al o gical fo r m o f e x pre s s i o n a n d
ha s the sa n cti o n o f cl a s sic a l u sage
.

2 66

CR ITI CA L R EM A R K S

fo re u s c o n fo u n d e d with v o ca ti o n By the latte r i s cl e arly

s ig n i e d
calli n g
trad e
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e m pl o y m e n t
a n d by the fo r m e r i s m e a n t wha t e v e r with
dra w s di s tr a c t s o r di v e rt s u s fro m that b u s i n e s s N o
t w o w o rd s ca n b e mo r e di s t i n ct ; y e t w e o ft e n s e e th e m
c o n fo u n d e d
A s u p p licati o n o f t w en ty day s w a s d e cr e e d t o hi s

H en ry s H i s to ry of B r i ta i n
T he t e r m s upp l i
hono u r
ca t i o n i s i n o u r la n g u ag e c o n n e d t o what J o h n s o n call s
p e ti t i o n ary w o r s hip a n d alway s i m pli e s r e qu e s t eu
tr e aty o r p e titi o n T he L ati n t e rm s upp l i ca tio ha s a
m o r e e x t en s iv e m ea n i n g a n d lik e wi s e s upp l i ci u m e ach d e
n o ti n g n o t o n ly
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by the au th o r
O u r pl e a s u r e s are p u r e r wh e n c o n s e crat e d by n ati o n s
E l a elt
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w el l s My t ho l o
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the m a s c u li n e t e r m
e n t e r a s a m att e r o f c o n s id e rati o n
e v e n wh en t he fe m al e i s s ign i e d
s h o u ld b e e m pl o y e d
Th u s the M o n t hly R e vi e w e r I n g 1 v 1 n g a critiq u e o n t he
p o e m s o f M r s G ran t s ay s i n all u s i o n to that lady s u ch
Thi s i s s tric t ly p ro p e r H e c o n
i s t he p o e t s r e qu e s t
B u t w e re w e t o
s id e r s he r m e r e ly a s a writ e r o f p o e t ry
a s a p o e t s he o u gh t n o t t o ch o o s e fo r her th e me t he
s ay
w e s h o u ld b e charge abl e with e rr o r
s t o ry o f A b e lard
F o r thi s w o u ld i m ply th a t t he s to ry o f A b e lard i s n o t a
t s u bj e ct f o r a p o em a s en ti me n t m an ife s tly fal se
Th er e i s n o i n c o n gr u ity be t w e en t he s u bj e ct a n d p o e t ry
We o u ght
b u t b e t w e en t he s u bj e ct an d fe m al e d e licacy
th e r e fo r e t o s ay
She o u ght n o t t o ch o o s e
a s a po e t e s s

f o r her th e me the s t o ry o f A b elard

I t w a s i m p o s sibl e n o t t o s u s p e ct the v eracity o f thi s
.

I LL U S T RA TIO N S

A ND

2 67

Ve r a ci t y i s ap p li c abl e t o pe r so ns o n ly a n d
t ry
o e rly d e n o t e s t ha t m o ral q u ality o r pr o e r t y
r
which
p p
p
co n s i s t s i n s pe aki n g t r u t h be i n g i n i t s i mp o r t n e arly
s y n o n y m o u s w i t h t he fa s hi o n abl e
b u t gro s s ly p e rv e rt e d
t e r m ho n o ur : it i s t h e re fo r e i m pr o pe rly ap p li e d to

t hin g s It s h o u ld b e the tr u th o f thi s s to ry

T he
fo rm e r d e n o te s m o ral a n d the la t t e r phy s ical tr u th W e

th e re fo re s ay the tr u t h o r v e ri t y o f t he r e la t i o n o r

t hi n g t o ld a n d the v e raci t y o f t he r e la t e r
P o pe ha s e n t i t l e d a s m all di s se rta t i o n pr e x e d to hi s
t ra n sl ati o n O f t he Iliad
A vi e w o f the E p i c P o e m
m i s l e d i t i s pro babl e by B o s s u s ti t l e o f a s i milar w o rk
Trait d u P O Cm e E p i q u e
P o em d en o t e s t he w o rk o r
t hi n g c o m po s ed ; the art o f m aki n g which i s h e r e i n
t e n d e d i s t e r me d p o esy
A n e rr o r s i m ilar t o t hi s o cc u r s i n the fo ll o wi n g p a s
s ag e :
e h en d t hat all t he s o hi s m which ha s be e n
appr
p
I
o r ca n b e e m p l o y e d
will n o t b e s u ffi ci en t to acq u it t hi s

f
n
s y s t e m at t he trib u n al o
B o l i ng br o ke
r ea so
So ph
is m i s pr o pe rly d e n e d by J o h n so n
a falla ci o u s arg u

m e n t ; so phi s try m e an s
falla ci o u s r e a so ni ng o r n u
T he a u t h o r s h o u ld hav e s aid
s o u n d arg u m e n ta t i o n
all the so phi s try o r a l l the so phi s m s
T he G r ee k i s d o u btl e s s a la n g u ag e m u ch s u pe ri o r i n
rich e s ha r mo n y a n d vari e ty t o t he L a t i n C a mp be l l s
R he t
A s the pro pe rt i e s o r q u ali t i e s O f the lan g u a g e s a re
h e r e partic u larly c o mpare d I a p pre h e n d t ha t the ab s trac t
rich n e s s w o u ld b e a m o re a p po s it e te r m
R ich e s
pro pe rly d en o t e s the t hi n g s p o s se s sed o r wha t c o n
rich n e s s d e n o te s
s t i t u t e s the o p u l e n c e o f the o w n e r
t he s t a t e q u ality o r pr o p e rty o f t he i n divid u al a s po s
T he lat t e r t h e r e fo r e appe ar s to m e t he
s e s se d o f the s e
m o r e appr o priat e t e r m
H e fe lt hi m se lf co mp e l l e d t o ack n o wl edge t he j u s t
T he j u s t n es s w o u ld agr ee ably to
i c e o f my r e m ark
C an o n l s t b e the pre fe rabl e w o rd the fo r me r t e rm be i ng
co n n e d t o pe r so n s a n d t he latt e r to t hi n g s
s o

'

2 68

CR ITI CA L R EM ARK S
glige n c e
l e vi t y i n

t hi s l e av e s u s e x po s ed to a n n u
Sp ecta to r
c o mmo n
u s u al c o n v e r s ati o n
our

I t o u gh t to b e T he n e gl e ct
N e glige n c e i m pli e s a

n e gle ct
habit
e x pr e s s e s an act
F o r I a m o f o pi n i o n that it i s b e t t e r a la n g u ag e
Sh o u ld n o t be w h o lly p e rfe c t than i t s h o u ld b e pe r pe t u ally
chan gi n g ; an d w e m u s t giv e o v e r at o n e t i m e o r at l e n gth
i n fal libly chan ge f o r the w o r s e ; a s t he R o m an s did wh e n
t h e y be gan t o q u it th e ir s i m plicity o f s tyl e f o r aff ec te d
re n e me n t s s u c h a s w e mee t with i n Tacit u s a n d o th e r

au th o r s which e n d e d by d egre e s i n m an y bar bariti e s

B a r ba r i ty i n thi s s en s e i s o b so l e s c e n t
T he u n iv o c al
t e r m ba r ba r is m i s m u ch pr e fe rabl e
G ibb o n s p e aki n g o f the p ri e s t s ay s
t o o btai n t he ac
c e ta ti o n o f t hi s g u id e t o s alvati o n
o u m u s t fai t h f u lly pay
p
y
hi m ty t h es
A ccep ta ti o n i n t hi s s en s e i s o b so l e t e o r at
l e as t n e arly o u t o f u se : it s h o u ld b e f a v o u r o r a ccep ta n ce
S he o u ght t o l es se n t he e x t ravagan t p o w e r o f t he d u k e
d u ch es s by t aki n g the di s po s i ti o n o f e m pl o y m en t s
a nd

n
o
h
e
r
o
w
n
n
i t
ha d s
S w if t D isp o s a l fo r re a s o n s al

re ady as s ign e d i s m u ch b e tt e r
T he c o n s ci e n c e o f appr o v i n g o ne s s e lf a be n e fact o r t o

m a n ki n d i s the n o bl e s t r e c o m pe n s e f o r b ei n g so
Co n
s ci e n c e i s the fac u l t y by which w e j u dg e O u r o w n c o n d u ct

I t i s h e re i mpr o p e rly u se d f o r c o n s ci o u s ne s s o r t he
pe rce p ti o n o f what pa s se s wi thi n o u r s e lv e s
If r e a s o n w e r e a s ple n t y a s blackbe rri e s I w o u ld

o
n
o
m
u
s
o
n
S ha ksp ea r e
giv e n o m an a r e a so n
c p li
H e re p l en ty a s u b s ta ntiv e i s i m pro p e rly u se d fo r
T he

ne

It had a pro digi o u s q u a n ti ty o f wi nd o w s S p ence s

It s h o u ld b e n u mber Thi s e rro r fre q u e n tly
Ex cu r s i on s
We h e ar o f a qu a n t i t y
o cc u r s i n c o mm o n c o n v e r s a t i o n
u a n t i ty o f
a
q
of
a q u a n ti t y o f tro o p s
e o pl e
of
p

bo y s an d gi rl s j u s t as if th e y w e re t o b e m e a s u re d by
t he b u sh e l o r w e igh e d i n t he bal a n c e

Ca I p 2 5 3
S

ee

no n

C RI T I CA L R EM ARK S

2 70

ght n o t to b e tax e d with t hi s i n di s cre t i o n o r y o u

hav e n o righ t to s u bj e ct m e
to
i
r
ght
o u hav e n o
y
ou

ta x

me

wh en s p e aki n g o f the M e x ican fo r m o f

go v e rn m e n t ( B o o k v ii th) s ay s b u t the d e s crip t i o n o f
t h e ir p o licy a n d law s i s s o i n acc u rat e a n d c o n t radict o ry
t ha t i t i s di ffic u lt t o d e li n e a te the fo r m o f t h e ir c o n s t it u ti o n

wi th a n y p r e ci s i o n
I s ho u ld h e r e p re fe r the app ro pria t e
o l i t ,which d e n o t e s m e r e ly t he fo r m
a n d u n iv o cal t e r m
p
y
o f g o v e rn m e n t
o lic
m
e a n s rath e r wi s d o m o r pru d e n c e
y
p
o r the ar t o f g o v e r n i n g which m a
e x i s t wh e r e th e r e i s n o
y
s e ttl e d
o lit
p
y
A l e t t e r r e lativ e t o c e r t ai n cal u m n i e s a n d m i s r e p r e
s en t a t i o n s which hav e app e ar e d i n t he E di n b u rgh R e vi e w
with a n e x po siti o n o f t he ign o ran c e o f t he n e w cri t ical
j u n t o H e r e a gr ee ably t o C a n o n I ( s e e p
I s h o u ld
pr e fe r exp o su r e a s b e i n g a w o rd s tric t ly u n iv o cal It
w o u ld c o n d u c e t o p e r s p ic u ity w e re w e to c o n s id e r exp o
a n d c o n n e it e u
s i t i o u a s t he v e rbal n o u n o f exp o u n d
t i re l y t o exp l a n a t i o n a n d exp o s u r e a s t he v e rbal n o u n o f
o r t he s tat e o f
exp o s e s ig n ifyi n g t he act o f s e tti n g o u t
bei ng s e t o u t o r e xp o s e d
R o b e rt s o n ,

S E C TI O N I I
T HE A

D JE C T I VE

BA RBA R I M
S

I N ST EAD o f a n abl e ma n y o u d e sire to hav e hi m a n

i n s ign ican t wran gl e r o pi n i atre i n di s co u r s e a n d p ri di ng

hi m s elf o n c o n tradicti n g o th e r s
L o cke Op in ia tr e i s a
barbari s m ; i t s h o u ld be op i n i o n a tiv e

d ti
circl d raw P i
A d t di d li
r
1
a
5
b
o
m
i
n
w
n
w
rd
Pri
o
c
g
it
s
o
o
i
s
f
n
;
c
t
s
r
i
i
o
T he
f
baro u s
,

s u

n es , a n

ous

es

r or.

I LL U S TR A T I O N S

A ND

2 71

p u n i s h me n t t hat b el o n g s to that gr e a t an d cri

m i n o u s g u ilt i s t he fo rfe i t u re o f hi s right a n d clai m t o all

H a mmo n d
Cr imin o us i s a barbari s m
m e rci es
Which e v en i n the m o s t o v e rly vi e w will ap p e ar i n

co m patibl e wi t h a n
s o rt o f m u s ic
K
a mes s E l emen ts
y
Ov er ly i s a S co ttici s m ; i n E n glan d it i s n o w O b so l e t e
T he p ro p e r t e r m i s cu r s o ry o r s up e r c i a l
Who s h o u ld b eli e v e that a ma n sh o u ld b e a d o ct o r

r
o
h
e
o
f
u
n
t
e
u
s
e
n
c r
b r t childr e
S teel e T he parti
f
c i l e bu r s ten i s n o w o b s o l e te
p
C al li s the n e s t he phil o s o ph e r t hat fo ll o w e d A l e x
a n d ha t e d t he ki n g
b e i n g a s k ed ho w o n e
and er s c o u r t
a m o u se s t m a n i n t he w o rld
a
s h o u ld b e c o m e t he
n s w e ed
f
r
By taki n g away him t h a t i s B a co n s Ap Op hth T he
i s a b a rbari sm ; it s h o u ld b e
s u p e rlativ e
mo s t fa
T he

mous

O L EC S

I d o n o t lik e th e s e ki n d o f men
He r e t he pl u ral
w o rd thes e i s j o i n e d to a n o un s i n g u lar ; it s h o u ld be

thi s ki n d
Th o se so r t
th e s e ki n d o f thi n g s a re
s s o l e ci s m s
N e i t h e r d o I s ee it i s a n y cri me farth e r tha n ill m a n
di ffe r i n o pi n i o n fro m the m aj o rity o f e i t h e r o r
that ill m an n e r s I hav e O ft e n bee n
and
Sw if t s Exa mi n er H e re i s a no th e r e gr e gi
th o se ill m an n e r s
H e S h o u ld ha v e sa id
so l e ci s m
t hat s pe ci e s o f ill m an n e r s
T he l a n d l o rd w a s q u it e u n fu rn i s h e d o f e v e ry ki n d o f

to
i s io n S he r i d a n s L if e of S w if t
We say

F u r n i s hed a n d u n
to fu r n i s h of
no t
c o n s tr u e d in t he sa me man n e r It s h o ul d

s h e d w i th
o f fo u r y ea r s o l d w a s th u s cr u e l ly d e s e rt e d
Thi s fo r m o f e x pr e s s i o n fre q u e n tly o c
It sh o u ld b e
a
e gr e gi o u s s o l ec i s m

no t
o f fo u r
or
a ge d fo u r y e a r s
old

C RI T I CA L R E M A R K S

2 72

y e ar s

Th o s e w ho e mpl o y thi s i nco rr e ct phr a se o l o gy

s ee m
mi sl e d by c o n fo u n di n g t w o v e ry di ffe r e n t m o d es

o f e x pr e s s i o n
a child o f fo u r y e ar s o f age o r
n a m ely
o u r y e ar s O l d
o f t he a e o f fo u r y e ar s
a
child
f
an d
g
T he pre p o s iti o n Qf i s r e q u i s i t e i n the t w o r s t o f th e s e
fo r m s b u t i n ad m i s s ibl e i n the t hird Th e y w o u ld n o t
a m fo u r y e ar s
sa
I
b
I
ut
a m o f fo u r y e ar s o l d
y
o ld
h e n c e c o n si s t en t ly t h ey o u ght t o s ay
a child

fo u r y e ar s o l d
A t t e n y ea r s o l d I w a s p u t to a gram
mar s ch o o l S teele
G ra mma tically thi s i s
I o l d at

t e n y ea r s

Thi s a cco u n t i s v e ry di ff e re n t to what I t o ld y o u

I fo u n d y o u r a ffair s had b e e n m an age d i n a di

m an n e r tha n what I advi se d

Bo th th es e p hra se o lo gi e s
a r e fa u lty
I t s h o u ld b e i n e ach
di ffe r e n t f r o m

T he v e rb
to di ffe r
i s c o n s tr u e d wi t h f r o m b e fo r e the
se c o n d o bj e ct o f di s parity ; t he a dj e ctiv e th e r e fo r e s h o u ld
o n s tr u e d i n t he s a m e m a n n e r
by
l
vii
b
e
c
x
R
u
e
(
)
Th e s e w o rd s hav e the s a me s en se o f t h o s e o th e r s
S a me s h o u ld b e fo llo w e d with a s w i th o r t he re lativ es
w ho w hich t ha t
It o u ght th e r e fo r e t o b e a s th o s e

wi t h t h o s e o r hav e the s en se o f t h o se o th e rs
or
I s h all e v e r d e p en d o n y o u r c o n s ta n t fri e n d s hip ki n d
m em o ry an d go o d o fc e s t ho u gh I w e re n e v e r t o s e e o r
'
h e ar the e ec ts o f th e m lik e the tr u s t w e hav e i n b en ev o
l e n t s pirit s w ho t h o u gh w e n e v e r s e e o r h e ar t h em w e
thi n k a re c o n s ta n tly se rvi n g a n d prayi n g
L etter s to A tter bu ry L i ke c a n hav e n o gra mmatical
fe r e n c e t o a n y w o rd i n the s e n t e n c e b u t I a n d thi s
fe r e n ce i s a b s u rd H e s h o u ld hav e s ai d
as or
ust
j

w e tr u s t i n b en e v o l e n t s pirit s
T hi s g en tl e m a n ra lli e s the b es t o f a n y ma n I kn o
A dd i s on T he su p e rl a ti v e m u s t b e fo llo w e d by qf
pre po s iti o n i mplyi n g o u t of a pl u rality e xpr e s s e d e i t
by a co ll ectiv e n o u n o r a pl u ra l n u m b e r B u t h
hav e a s el e cti o n d e n o t e d by of an d the s el ecti o n to
Thi s i s a b s u rd It s h o u ld b e
m ad e o u t o f o n e
th a n a n y o th e r the be s t o f all men
I kn o w
,

C RIT I CA L R EM A R K S

2 74

I M P R O P R I ET Y

Th e y c o u ld e a si e r ge t th e m by h e art a n d r e tai n th e m

i n m e mo ry A d a ms s H i s to ry of E ng l a n d
H e r e the
a dj e ctiv e i s i mpro p e rly u s e d f o r the adv e rb ; it o u ght to

be
m o r e e a s ily
Swift c o m mit s a s i milar e rro r wh e n

he s ay s
fo r
N e d e x plai n e d hi s t e x t s o fu ll a n d cl e ar

s o fu lly a n d cl e arly
Th u s m u ch I t hi n k i s s u fci en t to s e rv e by way o f
addre s s t o m y patr o n s the tr u e m o d e r n critic s a n d m ay
v e ry w e ll ato n e fo r my pa s t s il en c e a s w e l l a s fo r tha t

which I a m lik e to o b s e rv e fo r the fu t u re

Sw if t L i ke
o r s i mi l a r
i s h e r e i m pro p e rly u s e d f o r l i ke ly a w o rd i n
s ig n icati o n n e a rly s y n o n y m o u s with
r o ba bl e
e sa
W
p
y

he i s lik e ly to d o it o r
it i s p ro babl e he will d o i t
C harity v a u n t e t h n o t it s e lf do t h n o t b e hav e it se lf u n

H e re the adj e cti ve u n seemly i s i m pro p e rly u s e d

s e e m ly
i n a n u n s ee mly m an n e r
f o r t he adv e rb d en o t i n g
Un
t
h
s eeml i l
n o t be i n g i n u s e
e w o rd i n d e cen t l
h
o u ld b e
s
y
y
s u b s tit u t e d
T he R o m an s had n o o t h e r s u b s i s t e n c e b u t the s ca n ty

pillage o f a fe w far ms
O ther i s r e d u n dan t ; i t s h o u ld

or
n o o th e r s u b s i s t en c e t ha n
n o su b sis ten ce b u t
be
I n the S ax o n l a n g u ag e an d the e arli e r E ngli s h writ e r s
the w o rd o t her i s n o t u n ifo r mly fo llo w e d by tha n b u t

us
th
M
ark
x ii
s o m e t i m e s with bu t be o r e s a v e ex cep t
f
I t h b alread y ff r d th p i i o f th wri t ( p
d th at thi w rd w i th th
that th E gl i h w d th i th Sa
b p
t ic d
h d th Sa
th T
65
A ab i c hd th H b w h d
ll p
d pr bab ly th Lat i
g f m th
t h av
th Sw d i h dd
f th
i th p r t f th re t d
am
c
th t
ti g

th
b y i t l f Of th rigi f th S
i g l
m
m
t
b
i
i
I
t
a
ar
c
ara
t
i
t
L y h ha ard d
p
p
pp
w h h av car f lly
ami ed d hav app v d
T th
fr m b tS
f M T k i t wi l l f r i h
val i d bj ct i ag i t thi
th t h ry
t
h
t
f
i
i
t
h
a
t
w
r
d
i
i
f
r
l
y
d
a
ig
i
f
y
i
g
6
5
m
i
S
p
hav l i ttl
d i f c l ty i p c ivi g t ly fr m th
S ch
i mi l ri ty f th l m t b t fr m th af i ty i p i t f
that
me
d th
h d hd
l l m mb r
t
bb
th
f
e
b p
fam i ly
,

u us ,

or s n

as

n o n,

au , o

or a

e or no

e, O

en s ,

er e

e s o

no

o n

on

ro

a n us

er ,
ve

xo n , s

O o,

ro

a ns

on

axo n o

e a

an

en o

oun

ru n

n o

no

er , o r , a re a

eu o n

s ee

e a

ex

xo n 0

e r,

e o

e u

s un

n
a
,

u n s

a en

e,

n o

n au ,

se

n on

e e

ese

o ne

oo

c an

or

xo n O

one o

e o

o se

as

no

eo

o n e,

re

e e

er

a , an

e s o ur e, o r

or

e en

as

on
o

an

au

s e ns e,

e sa

I LL U S TR A T IO N S

A ND

th e r b u tan hi m t h u s r en
d e r e d i n t he Bi s h o p s Tran sla t i o n
t here i s o ne Go d a nd

th e re i s n o n e b u t he a n d i n the c o m mo n v e r s i o n n o n e

o t h e r b u t he
I n the b o o k o f C o mmo n P ra y e r w e hav e
t h o u s halt hav e n o o th e r g o d s b u t m e a n d the s a me
fo r m o f e x pr e s s i o n o cc u r s i n A ddi s o n Swift a n d o th e r
co n te mpo r a ry w ri te r s U s ag e h o w e v e r s ee m s o f lat e t o
hav e de cid e d al m o s t u n iv e r s ally i n fa v o u r o f tha n Thi s
de ci s i o n i s n o t o n ly co n s i s t en t wi th an al o gy if the w o rd
o the r i s t o b e d e e m e d a c o m para t iv e b u t m a
al
so
n some
i
y
ca s e s b e s u b s e rvi e n t t o pe r s pic u i t y
N o o ther bu t n o o ther
be s i d e n o o ther exc ep t a re e q u ival e n t e x p r e s s i o n s a n d d o
n o t p e rhap s c o n v e y
r
e ci s e ly t he s a me id e a with n o n e bu t
p
n o o the r tha n
Th u s if w e tak e a n e x am pl e s i mil a r t o
Bak e r s a n d s u ppo s e a pe r s o n to s a y A c all e d o n m e

N O o n e el s e ?
thi s m o r n i n g B a s k s
N o o ther

H e re the e x pre s s i o n a s
b u t m y s t ati o n e r
a n s we rs A
Bak e r r em ark s s ee m s s tri c tly pro pe r the w o rd s n o o ther
havi n g a r e fe r en c e to A Bu t if the s tati o ne r ha d be e n

n o ne b u t
or
the o n ly vi s it o r he s ho u ld s ay
n o o th e r
Thi s i s
tha n the s tati o n e r call e d o n me thi s mo r n i n g
T he di s ti n cti o n w hich he wi s h e s
the o pi n i o n o f B ak e r
to e s tabli s h i s s u i c i e n tl y e vide n t ; b u t th a t it i s war
r a n t e d by s tri c t a n aly s i s I d o n o t m ea n t o afrm
H e ha s e at e n n o brea d n o r dr u n k n o wat e r th e se t w o

day s
No i s h e r e i mpr o pe rly u se d f o r a ny t w o n e gativ e s
m aki n g a n a f r ma ti v e : it s h o u ld b e
n o r dr u n k a n
y

w a t er

T he s e r v an t m u s t h a v e a n u n d e n iabl e charact e r
Un
den i a bl e i s e q u i v al e n t to i nco n tr o v er ti bl e o r n o t a d mitti n g

u n d e n i a bl e ch a rac te r
di sp u t e
th e re fo r e m e a n s
An
a chara ct e r which c an n o t b e d e n i e d o r di s p u t e d wh e th e r

go o d o r b a d : it S h o u ld b e u n e x c e pti o n abl e
B u t y o u a r e t o o w i s e t o pro p o se t o y o u r s el v e s a n o h

Wa tso n s H is to ry of
j ce t i n ad e qu a t e to y o u r s tren gth
P hi l ip III Ina dequ a te m ea n s falli n g s h o rt o f d u e p r o

po rti o n a n d i s h e re i mp ro p e rly u se d i n a sen s e n e arly t he

32

th eer

2 75

an

Go d i s ,

an d ni s o

2 76

C RITI CA L R E M A R K S

I t s h o u ld b e
r v
t o w hich y o u r s tre n gth i s i n a d e

q u at e o r s u p e ri o r t o y o u r s tr en gth

I r e c eiv e d a l e tt e r t o d ay fro m o u r m u t u al fri e n d

I
c o n c u r w ith B a k e r i n c o n s id e ri ng t hi s e x p re s si o n to b e i n
c o rr ec t
A m ay b e a fri e n d t o B a n d al s o t o C a n d i s
th e re fo re a fri e n d c o mm o n to b o th b u t n o t t h e ir m u t u al
fri en d f o r thi s i mpli e s r e cipro city b e tw ee n t w o i n divid u al s
o r t w o p a r ti e s
T he i n divid u al s m a y b e m u t u ally fri e n d s ;
b u t o n e c an n o t b e the m u t u a l fri e n d o f t he o th e r
Lo ck e
m o r e pr o p e rly s ay s
I e s te e m t he m em o ry o f o iI r c o mmo n

fri en d
Thi s i s d o u b t l e s s the c o rre ct e x p re s s i o n ; b u t

as
t he t e r m co mmon m a
d
or
no t
e n o te
o rdi n ary
y

u n co mm o n
t he w o rd m u tu a l th o u gh n o t pro p e r m a y
pe rhap s a s B ak e r o b se rv e s b e t o l e ra t e d
T he s u pe rlativ e s l o w es t a n d l o w e r mo s t hig hes t a n d up
us
r
o b e fr e q u e n tly c o n fo u n d e d
e
o
a
p
ar
t
Th
m
s
o
m
e
t
e
t
p
p
w e sa
e n w e m ea n
wh
h
t
e l o w e s t h o u se i n t he s tr e e t
y
t he l o w e s t i n r e s p e ct to m e a s u re m e n t fro m t he ba s e m en t
t o t he to p a n d al s o the l o w e s t i n r e ga rd t o p o s i t i o n t he
i n fe ri o ri t y b e i n g o c c a s i o n e d by d e clivity N o w it appear s
t o m e that wh e n w e r e fe r t o di m en s i o n w e s h o u ld s ay
l o w es t o r hig hes t ; a n d wh en w e r e fe r t o s it e o r s i t u a ti o n
w e o u ght t o s a y l o w e rmos t o r upp er mo s t
I t w a s d u e p e rhap s m o r e t o the ign o ra nc e o f t he
S w ift
s ch o l a r s than t o the k n o wl e dg e o f the m a s t e r s

It s h o u ld b e rath e r it w a s o wi n g o r it i s a s cribabl e
T he a u t h o r had pr e vi o u s ly b ee n s pe aki n g o f the r s t i n
s tr u c to r s o f m a n ki n d a n d q u e s ti o n i n g th e ir clai m to the
titl e o f s age s T o s a y th en that th e ir right to thi s t itl e
o r that t he appe llati o n it s elf
w a s d u e m o r e t o ign o ran c e

i s m an ife s tly i mpr o p e r

t han t o k n o wl e dge
Swift ho w
e ve r
w a s n o t s i n g u lar i n u s i n g the a dj e ctiv e i n thi s se n se
St ee l e a n d s o m e o th e r c o n te mp o ra ry wri t e r s e mpl o y e d it
T he ca l a miti e s o f childr e n a re
i n the s a m e acc e ptati o n

Sp ecta tor No 43 1
d u e t o the n e glige n c e o f the p a re n t s
It i s n o w s eldo m o r n e ve r e mpl o y e d a s e q u iv al en t to

o wi n g to
o c ca s i o n ed by
or
e

e r se

CR ITI CA L R E M ARK S

2 78

i n co n gr u ity which m ight hav e b ee n p r e v en t e d by s ayi n g

wh en th e y c o m pa r e
or
o n e s u bj e ct with t he o th e r

t h e m t o ge th e r
A s thi s c o n s tr u cti o n o f o n e re fe rri n g to
s ee m s i r r e c o n ci l e a b l e w ith t he n o ti o n o f
a n o u n pl u ral
u n i ty a n d m a
e a v o id e d it be c o m e s a q u e s ti o n wh e th e r
b
y
thi s phra s eo l o gy o u ght to b e i mi t at e d T he s u bj ect a s
f ar a s I k n o w ha s n o t b ee n c o n s id e r e d by a ny o f o u r
gr a mm arian s
That t hi s w a s the c a u s e o f the di s a s t e r w a s appar en t

T he
Ap p a r en t i s s o m e t i me s u se d i n thi s s en s e
t o all
w o rd h o w e v e r i s e q u iv o cal a s it d e n o t e s s eeming o ppo s e d
I
t o r e a l ; a n d o bv i o us o ppo s e d to d o u btf u l o r o bscu re
c o n s id e r the di ff e r e n c e b e tw een hi m a n d t he t wo a u th o r s

abo v e m e n ti o n e d a s m o r e appa re n t than r e al

C a mp bell
H e r e ap p a r en t i s o pp o s e d to r ea l ; a n d to thi s s en se it
wo u ld b e right to c o n n e it a s th u s all am big u ity w o u ld
b e e ff e ct u ally pr e v e n t e d
B u t t h e r e s o o n ap p e ar e d v e ry

G o l d s mi th
apparen t r e a s o n s f o r Ja me s s partiality
Obv i o u s o r ev id en t w o u ld u n q u e s ti o n ably b e pre fe rabl e
H o w s eld o m th e n d o e s it h a pp e n that t he m i n d d o es
V e ry rare i n
n o t n d it s e lf i n s i m il ar circ u m s ta n c e s ?

Tr u s l er s P r ef a ce to Sy n o n
d eed
T he adj e ctiv e r a r e i s
h e r e i m pro pe rly u se d fo r the adv e rb A s the q u e s t i o n
i n d ee d i s a dv e rbially pr o p o se d i t i s s o m e what s u rpri si n g
that the au th o r s h o u ld an s w e r a dj ectiv e ly i t o u gh t to b e

v e ry rare ly

N o m a n had e v e r l es s fri e n d s a n d m o r e e n e m i e s
L es s r efe r s to q u an tity f ew er to n u mb e r ; it sh o u ld b e
ew er fri en d s
f
T he m i n d m a y i n s en s ibly fal l O ff fro m thi s r e li s h o f
virt u o u s a cti o n s a n d by d e gr ee s e x chan ge that p le a s u r e
w hich it tak e s i n t he pe rfo r m a n c e o f i t s d u ty fo r de li ght s

o f a m u ch m o r e i n fe ri o r a n d u n r o tabl e n a t u r e
d
A
d
i
p
I nf e r i o r i m pli e s c o m p ari s o n b u t i t i s gra mma t ic al ly
son
a p o sitiv e W h e n o n e thi n g i s i n a ny r e s pe ct l o w e r t han
a n o t h e r w e sa y it i s i n fe ri o r to it a n d if a third thi n g

w e re s t ill l o w e r w e s h o u ld sa y
i t i s s till m o re i n fe ri o r
,

'

I LL U S T RA TIO N S

A ND

2 79

au th o r i s co m p ari n g o nly t w o s u bj e ct s ; he s h o u ld
o f a m u ch i n fe ri o r
th e r efo re hav e s aid
an d m o r e u n

T he e xpr e s s i o n
pro table n at u r e
m o re pre fe rabl e
i s fo r the sa me r ea so n fa u lty u n l e s s w h en t w o d e gr e e s o f
e x c e s s a r e i m pli e d
T he a dj e ctiv es a g reea bl e s u ita bl e c o n o rma bl e i nd e
f
r el a t i v e
n d en t
o n s is t e n t
r eviou s
e
c
c
a
n
t
e
ed en t
an d
p
p
ma n y o th er s a re o ft e n u s e d wh e r e t h e ir se v e r al d e riva
t iv e adv e rb s w o u ld b e m o r e pro p e rly e m pl o y e d ; a s
he

he wr o t e t o m e p r ev i o u s t o
liv e s a g r eea ble t o n at u re

hi s c o m i n g t o to w n
to l e r a bl e g oo d
he act e d co n

o r ma bl e t o hi s pr o m i s e
I
i
w
rthy
r
ark
t
s
o
o
f
m
w
e
h
o
f
e ver
that t he idi o m o f o u r l a n g u age i s n o t r e p u gn a n t to
so m e o f th e s e phra seo l o gi e s ; a circ u ms t an c e which m a n y
m
m
of o ur
ra
ari
a ns hav e o v e rl oo k e d
if
w
j
e ma
u dg e
g
y
fro m the s e v e rity wi t h which th e y hav e co n d e m n e d th em

If I s a y
he acte d ac co rdi n g t o n at u re
t he e x pre s s i o n
i s d ee m e d u n o bj e cti o n abl e ; b u t i s n o t a cc o r d i ng a par ti
ci l e
p
rhap
s
h
e re m o re
r
o pe rly
a
or
r ti c i i a l
a
e
p
p
p
p
H e act ed c o n tra ry to n at u r e i s al s o c o n s id e re d a s fa u lt
l e s s ; b u t i s n o t c ont ra ry a n adj e ctive ? We re w e to r e a
o r t o a d o pt what i s d ee m e d the
s o n o n ab s tr a ct pri n cipl es

pre fe rabl e phra s eo l o gy w e s h o u ld sa y

co n trarily a n d

acc o rdi n gly to n a t u re

Thi s h o w e v e r i s n o t the ca se

a n d m any
C o n trary to n at u r e
a cc o rdi n g t o n at u r e
t h en i s
s i m ilar phra s eo l o gi e s ar e a d m itt e d a s go o d : why
c o n fo r m abl e t o n a t u re a n e x pre s s i o n p e rfe c t ly a n a
lo go n s so s e v e rely co n d e mn e d ? J o hn so n ha s i n d e e d
ca ll e d a cco r d ing a p r e
u s e l e s s ly e n o u gh i n my o p i n i o n
p o s i t i o n ; fe arfu l h o w e v e r o f e rro r he add s it i s p ro p e rly
a participl e f o r it i s fo ll o w e d by to A cco r d ing i s alway s
a partici p l e a s m u ch a s a g r eei ng an d ca n be n o thi n g e l se
Be c a u s e s ec un d u m i n L ati n i s t e r med a pr e p o s i t i o n h en ce
so m e ha v e r e fe rr e d a cc o r d i ng t o the s a m e s pe ci e s o f w o rd s
Wi t h e q u al pr o pri e ty m ight i n the p o w er of b e d ee m e d a
pr e po siti o n b e ca u se p enes i n L ati n i s so d en o m i n a t e d

acc o rdi n g
N o w if
he ac t e d c o n tr a ry t o n at u r e a n d
B u t the

CR ITI CA L R E M ARK S

2 80

t r b e d e e me d u n e x c e pti o n abl e e x pr e s s i o n s w ith

m a n y o t he r s o f the sa m e ki n d which m igh t b e add u c e d

i t fo llo w s that
c o n fo r m abl e
he a cte d agr ee abl e

s u ita bl e t o n at u r e
m a y pl e a d i n th e ir favo u r th e s e
a n al o go u s p hra s eo l o gi e s I o ffe r th e se o b s e r v a t i o n s i n
o rd e r t o s h o w that
m i s l e d by ab s tract r e as o n in gs o r by
t he s e rvil e i m i t a t i o n o f an o th e r la n g u ag e w e s o m e t i m e s
has tily c o n d e mn a s al t o ge th e r i n ad mi s s ibl e m o de s o f e x
e s si o n
r
a
e
n
o
e
u
r
which
t
r
p
g
a
n
t
v
r
ac
lar
n
t
o
o
ur
n
e
u
p
idi o m I w o u ld n o t h o w e v e r b e u n de r s to o d t o m e a n
tha t the adve rb i s n o t i n th e s e ca se s m u ch to b e p r e
fe rre d wh en i t ca n b e e m pl o y e d c o n si s t e n tly with go o d
u s a ge
F o r if w e sa y
he ac t s agr e e abl e to the law s o f

re aso n the q u e s ti o n i s w ho o r what i s agree abl e ? the

a n s w e r a cc o rdi n g to t he s trict c o n s tr u cti o n o f the s e n
t e n c e i s he ; b u t it i s n o t be b u t his mo de qf a cti ng o f
which t he a cco rda n c e i s pr e di cat e d : ag r eea bly i s th e re
fo re the pr e fe rabl e t e r m
I o b s e rve al so th a t wh e r e v e r the adj e ctiv e i s empl o y e d
t o m o dify t he m e a n i n g o f a n o th e r adj e cti v e it be c o m e s
u l a rly e x c e pti o n a bl e a n d ca n s carc e ly i n d ee d pl e a d
artic
p

a u gh t i n i t s fav o u r a s
i n di ffe ren t goo d
t o l e rabl e

s t ro n g
i n s t e ad o f i n di ffe ren tly go o d a n d t o l e ra

bly s t ro n g
T he fo ll o wi n g phra seo l o gy i s e x tr e m e ly
i n el e gan t an d i s s ca rc ely ad m i s s ibl e o n a ny pri n cipl e o f
a n al o gy : I mmediat e ly c o n s e q u e n t to the v ic to ry D ro

gh e da w a s i n v es te d
B e l s ha m s H is to ry
What w a s
c o n s eq u en t ? G ra mmatically D ro gh eda
N O o th e r p e r s o n be s id e m y br o th e r vi s it e d m e t o
day
H e re the s pe ak e r m e a n s t o s a y t ha t n o p e r s o n b e
vi s i t e d hi m to d ay ; b u t hi s e x pre s s i o n
s id e hi s br o t h e r
i mpli e s t w o e x c e pti o n s fro m n o n e the t er m s o ther a n d be
e r e fo r e
b
e c o rr e ct o n
a n d ca n
t
h
s i d e e ach i m lyi n g o n e
p
thi s s u pp o s i t i o n o nly that so me o ne be s id e hi s br o t h e r
n o pe r so n b e
had vi s it e d hi m It s h o u ld be rathe r

s id e
T he o l d ma n ha d s o me fty y e a r s a g o b ee n no me a n
to

na u e

C RITI C A L R EM A R KS

2 82

S E C TI O N

TH E

III

R O N O UN

BARBAR M
IS

P RONOU N S

be r a n d so s i mpl e that
t hi s s peci e s o f e rr o r i n r e s p ect t o th e m ca n s carce ly o c
T O thi s cl a s s h o w e v e r m a y p e rhaps b e r e d u c e d
cur

his n he r n o u r n y o u r n thei r n fo r hi s o w n her

s u ch a s
fe w l n

so

are

n um

&c

or

f o r hi s

W h ca ll s

ow n , o u r o w n ,

o ne ,

O L EC S

her

o n e,

82 c

a v i o l a ti o n o f t h a t
r u l e by which the v e rb to be ha s the s am e ca se a ft e r it

t ha t it ha s b e fo re it I t sh o u ld b e
It i s I
s ay s P e t u la n t i n
T he W a y
Y o u w e r e t he q ua rr e l

M il l a m a n t a n s w e r s
F o r the
Me I
o f the Wo rld
re a s o n j u s t gi v e n it s h o u ld b e I

Sp a r e th o u th e m 0 G o d which c o n fe s s th eir fa u lt s
A s the r e lativ e r e fe r s to p e r s o n s i t s h o u ld b e w ho
N o r i s m a n ki n d s o m u ch t o bla me i n hi s ch o i ce th u s

d e t e rm i n i n g him S w if t M a nkin d i s a c o ll e cti v e n o u n

a n d i s u n ifo r mly c o n s id e r e d a s p l u ral ; his th e r e fo r e i s a
gro s s s o l e ci s m
B y thi s i n s tit u ti o n e ach le gi o n t o wh o m a c e rtai n
p o rti o n o f a u x iliari e s w a s all o t t ed c o n t ai n e d withi n it s elf

a n d o f m i s s il e w e ap o n s
e v e ry s p e ci e s o f light e r tro o p s

t
w
i
e
o
h
c
h
G i bbon I t o u gh t t o b
the pr o n o u n i ts elf
w hich fo ll o w s r e fe rri n g to a n o u n o f the n e u t e r ge n d e r
To w ho m a n d i ts elf ca nn o t e ach a gr e e wi t h o n e c o m mo n
a nt e c e d e n t
T he s e em i n g i m p o r t an c e giv en to ev e ry part o f fe
m al e dr e s s e ach o f which i s c o m mitt e d t o the c a r e o f a
di ffe re n t sylph Es s ay o n the Wr i ting s of P op e Thi s

T is me

Thi s

is

I LL U S TR A T I O N S

A ND

2 83

gra mm ati c al E a ch i m plyi n g o n e o f tw o

re q u ir e s the c o r
e v e ry o n e s i n gly o f m o r e t ha n t w o
or
r el a tiv e to b e co n s id e re d a s pl u ra l ; y e t the an t e c ed en t
i
o w hich it r e fe rs
s s in g u l a r
I
t
s h ou ld b e
t
art
a
l
l
p

a rt s o f fe mal e dr e s s
p

T o b e so ld t he s t o ck o f M r S m i t h l ef t o ff b us i n e s s
T hi s i s a n u n gram ma t ic al an d v e ry o ffe n si v e v u lga ri s m
a s Bak e r o b se rve s ha s n o s u bj e ct
T he v e rb l ef t Qz
to

which i t c an g ra mmatically b el o n g I t s h o u ld be
w ho
ha s l e ft o ff
l e avi n g o ff b u s i n e s s
or
A B li e u

t e n an t v ice C D r es ign e d
H e re i s a S i m ila r e rr o r
I s C D r e sign e d ? o r i s it t he o i c e which ha s b een r e
s ig n e d ?
A n e xc e s s i v e l o v e o f br e vity giv e s o c ca s i o n to
s u ch s o l e ci s m s
H e w a s ig n o ra n t the pr o fa n e hi s t o ri an o f the t es t i

m o n y w hich he i s co m pe lle d t o giv e G i bbo n s D ecl i n e

h
t
e R o ma n E m i r e
p
of
T he y o u th a n d i n e x p e ri e n ce o f the p ri n ce he w a s
o n ly ft ee n y ea r s o f a e d e cli n e d a
e ril o u s e n c o u n t e r
g
p
is

s e n en ce

un

Ib

fo rme r s e nten c e the his to r i a n a ppe a r s n e i t h er as

If it be i n
the n o m i n ativ e n o r the r e gi me n t o a n y v e rb
te nd e d to agree wi t h he by a ppo si t i o n it s h o u ld h a v e i m
If it b e d e s ign e d e m
me dia t e ly fo ll o w e d t he pr o no u n
an d ir o n ically
hatically
t
o m ark t he ch a ract e r o f the
p
hi s t o rian it s h o u ld ha v e bee n thro w n i n to the fo rm o f a
n t he latt e r s e n t e n c e a phra s e
ar
I
e n th e tic e x cl a m ati o n
p
o l o gy
o cc u r s
which n o twith s t an di n g i t s fre q u e n cy i n
Gibbo n i s e x tr e m e ly awk w ard a n d i n el e gan t T he fa u l t
m a y b e c o rr e c t e d e ith e r by thr o wi n g the a g e o f t he pri n c e
i n t o a p are n t h e s i s o r pre fe rably by the s u b s ti t u ti o n o f
I n t he

w ho

f o r he

Fare th ee w e ll i s a p hra seo l o gy which th o u gh sa n c

ti o n ed by t he a u t ho rity o f a c e l e brat e d p o e t a n d a l s o by
T he v e rb i s i n tr a n s i
o t h e r wri t e r s i n v o lv e s a so l e ci s m
tiv e a n d i t s i m p e rativ e i s f a r e tho u N O o n e w o u ld sa y

w e fare u s w e ll
I fare me w ell
,

C R I T I CA L R EM A R KS

2 84

Th a t fa cti o n i n E n glan d w ho mo s t po w e rfu lly o p

po se d hi s arb i tr ary pr e t en s i o n s M a ca u l ay I t o u ght

ra t h e r to be
th a t facti o n in E n gla n d w hich It i s
j u s tly o b se r v e d by P ri e s tl ey
that a t e rm which o n ly
i mpli e s the id e a o f p e r s o n s a n d e x pr e s s e s th e m by so m e
circ u m s tan c e o r e pith e t will hardly a u th o ri z e the u se o f
o

w ho

He

c e rta i n ly o n e o f the mo s t ac u t e m e ta phy si

e ia u s o n e o f the d ee p e s t phil o so h e r s
a n d o ne o f the b e s t
p
cri t ic s a n d m o s t l e arn e d divi n e s w hich m o d e rn t i me s

h a v e pro d u ced Keith o n the L if e a nd Wr i ti ngs of

C a mp bell
M o se s w a s the m ild e s t o f all me n whic h w e r e th e n o n

G ed(l es
the fac e o f the e a rth
Lo rd Sid n e y w a s o n e o f the wi s e s t a nd mo s t activ e
go v e rn o r s wh o m Ir elan d had enj o y e d f o r s e v e ral y e a r s
was

H u me

r s t o f th e s e pa s s age s w hi ch i s i m pr o pe rly
t he a u th o r ha s av o id e d
a p pli e d t o p e r so n s ; i n the la s t
thi s i m pro pri e t y a n d u s e d w ho m T he pro n o un tha t
h o w e v e r i s m u ch pre fe rabl e to w ho o r w hi ch a ft e r a
s u p e rla t i v e
S u ch o f t he M o re s co e s might re mai n w ho d e me an e d
Wa tso n s L if e of P hi l ip III
t h e m se lv e s a s C hri s t ian s
S u ch i s h e r e i m pr o p e rly fo ll o w e d by w ho i n s t e ad o f a s
T he c o rr elativ e t e r m s a re tho s e w ho an d s u ch a s
It i s hard to b e c o n c e iv ed that a s e t o f m en c o u ld
t o hav e divi n e
e v e r b e ch o s e n by th e ir c o n t e m p o rari e s
h o n o u r s p aid to th em whil e n u me ro u s p e r s o n s w e re aliv e
a n d w ho
th e ms e lv e s o r
w ho k n e w th e ir i mp e rfe cti o n s
t h e ir i m m e diat e an c e s to r s m igh t h a v e a s fair a p re t en c e

e
m
P r i d ea u x s C o n n ex
n
o
with th
a n d c o m e i n c o m p e titi
T he i d e n ti ty o f s u bj e ct i n the r elativ e cla u s e s o f
i o ns
thi s se n t en c e r e qu ire s the r e pe titi o n o f the s ame pro n o un
or
It s h o u ld be
w ho th e m s e l v e s
wh o s e i mm edi a te

a n ce sto r s
If y o u w e re h e r e y o u w o u ld n d thre e o r fo u r in t he
I n the t w o

C R I T I C A L R E MA R K S

2 86

it i s a goo d r u l e fo r t h o s e w ho a re n o t w e ll a c
t
o arr a n g e the w o rd s i n t he
u ai n t ed wit h the la n g u a ge
q
b e gi nn i n g with the n o m i n a tiv e a n d the
o rd e r
n at u r al
v e rb t h u s
a S e n te n c e p re
men s a y t hat I a m w ho

h
t
e v e rb
a
th
m
en sa
a t I a m he
c i sel
n al o g o u s t o
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y
re qu iri n g the s a m e ca se a ft e r it a s be fo re it H e n ce it i s
that it s h o u ld b e
W ho d o m en sa y th a t I
o bvi o u s
t

s en e n c e s ,

am

Who

do yo u

p ea k

ght t o b e who m t he
r el a tiv e b ei n g u n d er the go v e rn m en t o f the pre p o s i t i o n
th u s T o wh o m d o y o u s pe a k ?

H en ry s H is t of B r i
W ho she k n e w to be de a d
H e r e a l s o the r e lati v e s h o u ld b e i n the o bj e cti v e
ta i n
ca s e u n d e r the g o v e r n me n t o f the v e r b th u s
wh o m s he

k n ew o r she k n e w wh o m to b e d ead

It

to P

ou

'

Th a wh
The ki g
Wi th d

ta exc pt
high r t M i lt
tha wh m
l ic f m d
f d yk

d
t
P
r
a
b
l
b
l
t
i
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r
p
p

o m,

Sa

ee

es ,

ne
n
o
,

no s u

e s

o s

oo

sa

e o

on.

Thi s p hra se o l o gy I h av e a lr ea dy e x a mi n e d I n an s w e r to
than
M r B a k e r s r eas o n s f o r c o n d e m n i n g the phra se

Sto ry s o b se r v a ti o n s b e tra y as I c o n ce iv e e x
w ho m
tre me igno ran ce a nd r e q u ire c o rre cti o n
T he E n g

li s h sa y s he i s s trictly go o d ; fo r the r elati v e w ho m

i s n o t i n t he sa m e ca s e w i t h s l u i ce ( which i s the n o m i n a
t iv e to the v e rb bl o ts ) b u t re fe rri n g to i t s an tec ed e n t the
ki ng of dy kes i s v ery pr o p e rly i n the o bj e cti v e c a s e e v e n
th o u gh the p e r so n al pro n o u n he if s u bs tit u t e d i n i ts

pla c e w o u ld b e i n t he n o mi n ativ e
If M r Sto ry c o n ce i v e s that the r el a ti v e m u s t agr ee
with i t s an tece den t in ca se he labo u r s u n d e r an egr egi o u s
mi stake
E v e ry p a g e o f E n gli sh e vi n ce s the c o n tr a ry
Y e t s u ch m u s t b e hi s O pi n i o n o r hi s a rg u m en t m e a n s
n o thi n g ; f o r the o n ly r ea s o n w hich he o ff e r s fo r w ho m i s,
tha t i t s an t e c e de n t i s i n the o bj e ctive ca se B e s ide s if
tha n w ho m b e ad mi s s ibl e n a
pr
ill
h
o per
i
f

h
e
w
e
d
v
a
y
c u l t y i n a s sign i n g a go o d r ea so n w hy it Sho u ld n o t b e a l so
.

A ND

Bu t M r

I LL U S TR A TIO N S

2 87

St o ry s h o u ld hav e k n o wn t hat wh en
t w o n o u n s a re c o u pl e d by a c o nj u n cti o n the latt e r t e r m i s
n o t g o v e r n e d by the c o nj u n cti o n
b u t i s e ith e r the n om i
o r i s go v e r n e d by it
n a t iv e to the v e rb
o r by the
re
p
u n d e r s to o d
T
h
e s e n t e n c e pr o ce e d s t h u s
o s iti o n
no
p
o f m u d bl o t s with d e e p e r s abl e
s l u ic e
th a n he o r w ho

blo t s
I t i s n o w o n d e r if s u ch a m a n did n o t shi n e at t he
c o u rt o f Q u e en E li z ab e th w ho w a s b u t an o th e r n am e fo r

H u me
pr u de n c e an d e co n o my
T he w o rd E l i z a beth
a s r e pr e sen t e d i n t he l a t t e r cl a u se
i s h e r e a m e r e w o rd
a n d n o t t he S ig n o f a pe r so n ; f o r it i s s aid t o
nu d a
b e a n o th e r n a m e f o r p r u d en c e an d ec o n o my
N o t the p e r
i s sa id to b e s ig n i ca n t o f thi s q u ali t y
so n b u t the w o rd
T he pro n o u n th e r e fo r e s h o u ld b e w hich n o t w ho
T he
h o w e v e r e v en th u s c o rre cte d w o u ld be i n el e
Sen t en c e
gan t Be tte r th u s
Q u e e n E li z abe th wh o s e n a me w a s
b u t an o th e r w o rd f o r pr u d e n c e a n d eco no my
B e n o t div e rt e d fro m t hy d u ty by a n y idl e r e e cti o n s

C o n s i s te n cy r e
the s illy w o rld m ay m ak e u po n y o u

qu ir e s e ith e r y o ur d u ty o r u po n thee
Thy a n d
o u r a S i n g u lar a n d a pl u ral pr o n o u n
e a ch ad dr e s s e d t o
y
the s a m e i n di v id u al ar e i n c o n gr u o u s
A s i mil ar e r ro r o cc u r s i n the fo ll o wi n g pa s s ag e :
I
pray y o u tarry all n ight l od ge h e r e that thy h e a rt ma y

B i bl e
b e me rry
It i s mo re go o d to fall a mo n g c r o w s th a n a tte r e r s

T he
fo r th e s e o n ly d e v o u r the d ea d th o s e the livi ng
pro n o u n this alway s r e fe r s to the n e ar e r o bj ect tha t t o the
Thi s di s ti n cti o n i s h e re r e v e rs e d
It
mo r e r e m o t e
th o s e ( cro w s) d e v o u r the de ad ; the se ( d a t
sh o u ld b e

I o b se r v e al so i n p a s s i n g that t h o se
te rer s ) t he livi n g
adj e ctiv e s wh o se mo d e o f c o m p a ri s o n i s irr e gul ar ar e n o t
o u ght t o b e
i
s
by
I
t
it
m
o r e a nd mo st
co m a r e d
p

be tt e r
I t i s s u rpri s i n g that thi s p eo p l e s o h a ppy i n in v en
ti o n h a v e n e v e r p en e tr a t e d be y o n d the e l e me n t s o f g eo m e
hi m

tha n

2 88

try

RITI CA L R E MA R K S

It Sh o u ld b e ha s this p eop l e b e i ng i n the s i n g u lar

n u mbe r
p eo pl e h a v e the n o u n b ei n g
W e m a y s ay

c o ll e ctiv e b u t n o t
thi s p eo pl e hav e
I a n d y o u l o v e re adi n g
Thi s i s a L ati n i s m a n d n o t
acc o rdan t with o u r m o d e o f a rr an ge me n t W o l s e y w a s
right wh e n he s aid E g o e t r ex m e u s b u t i n E ngli s h

w e r e v e r s e the o rd e r
I t s h o u ld b e y o u a n d I
We

sa
so
h
e an d
al
th
ey a n d I
o u a lway s
Y
re
y
p
ce d e s
E a ch o f the s e xe s s h o u ld k e e p w i t hi n i ts pr o p e r
b o u n d s a n d c o n t e n t t h em s elv e s with t he a dvan tage s o f

th e ir partic u lar di s trict s A dd iso n H e r e the pr o n o u n

d o es n o t agre e wi t h the w o rd to which i t r efe r s the w o rd
wh e r e a s themsel v es a n d thei r a re
ea ch b e i n g s i n g u lar ;
pl u ral It S h o u ld b e i ts elf a n d i ts
A s i milar e rr o r o cc u r s in the fo llo w i n g se n t en c e : S o me
o f o u r pri n cipal p u blic s ch o o l s hav e e ach a gra m m a r o f

B a r ro w o n E d u ca ti o n
It o u ght to b e e ach
w
n
r
o
thei

a gra m m a r o f i ts o w n
T he e x pr e s s i o n i s e lliptic a l f o r
Th u s
s ch o o l s h a v e e a ch ( ha s ) a gram m ar o f i t s o w n

Si me o n a n d L e vi t o o k e a ch m an his s w o r d n o t
w e s ay

G en x x x i v 2 5
w
r
d
s
r
s
o
t hei

B i bl e
L e t e a ch e s t e e m o th e r be tt e r th an th e mse lv e s
F o r the r e a s o n j u s t giv e n it o u ght t o b e hims el
S o lik e wi s e s hall m y h e av e n ly F a th e r d o a l s o u n t o y o u
if y e fro m y o u r h e art s fo rgiv e n o t e v e ry o n e hi s bro th er

B i bl e
th e ir tre s pa s s e s
H e r e i s a m a n ife s t s o l e ci s m

hi s b r o th e r
a s i n g u lar
t he pr o n o u n t hei r r e fe rri n g to
s u bj e ct
I w o n de r th a t su ch a v alian t h e ro a s y o u s h o u ld tri e

E s s ay o n
a w a y y o u r ti me i n ma ki n g w a r u p o n w o me n
H e r e the pro n o u n di s agre e s i n
the Wr i ti ng s of P op e
p e r s o n w ith the n o u n to w hi ch it r e fe r s her o be i n g o f the
third p e r so n a n d y o u r o f the se c o n d T he c o n n exi o n i s
I w o n d e r th a t s u ch a v ali a n t h ero sh o u ld tri e a w ay

ti me
T he v e n i so n which I r e c e i v e d y e s te r d a
9

C RITI CA L R EM A R K S

2 90

Wa ts o n s
G r ea t n u mb e r s w e re kill e d o n e i th e r s id e
P hi l ip III
T he N ile fl o w s d o w n t he c o u n try a bo v e
v e h u n dre d m il e s fro m the tr o pic o f C an c e r a n d m a rks
o n e i t h e r s id e the e x t e n t o f fe r t ility by t he m e a s u r e o f i t s
i n u n dati o n
G i bbo n
I t ha s b een a lre ady o b s e rv e d tha t the S a xo n w o rd ceg ther
C l e an an i m a l s th o u s halt
s ig n i e s e a ch a s G e n vii 2

tak e by s e v e n s o f e ach ki n d ceg thr es g ecy n d es T he E n g

li s h w o rd ei ther i s s o me ti m e s u s e d i n the sa m e s e n se B u t
a s thi s i s the o n ly w o rd i n o u r l a n g u ag e by which w e ca n

o n e o f t wo
which o f the t w o y o u pl e a s e
e x pr es s
a n d a s it i s g en e ra lly e m pl o y e d i n th a t s e n s e p e r s pic u ity
r e qu ire s that it b e s trictly c o n n e d to thi s s ign icati o n
F o r if ei ther b e u s e d e q u iv o cally it m u s t i n m a n y c as e s
b e u t t e rly i m po s s ibl e f o r h u m a n i n g e n u ity to a s c e rtai n

wh e th e r o n ly o n e o f t wo o r bo th b e i n t e n d e d I n

t a k e e i t h e r s ide
the
s u ch e x pr e s s i o n s f o r e x a m pl e a s

gen e r al o rd e r ed hi s tro o p s to m arch o n e i t he r ban k ho w

i s the r e a d e r o r h e ar e r t o divi n e w h e th e r bo th s id es bo th
ba n ks o r o n ly o n e b e s ig n i ed ? By e m pl o yi n g ea ch t o
b oth t ak e n i n divid ua lly a n d ei ther to d e n o t e
e x pr e s s

a ll a m big u i t y i s r e m o v e d
o n e o f t he t w o
T he B i s h o p o f C lo gh e r i n t en d s t o c a ll o n y o u thi s
m o r n i n g a s w e ll a s y o u r h u mbl e s e rv a n t i n m y r e t u r n
fro m C h a pe l I z z a r A ddi s on to S w if t A fte r the wri
te r ha s s p o k e n o f hi m s e lf i n t he third p er s o n t h e r e i s a n
i m pro p ri e ty i n em pl o yi n g the pro n o u n o f the rs t M u c h

b e tt e r i n hi s re t u r n
T he e n d s o f a divi n e a n d h u m a n l e gi s lat o r a r e va s t ly

Wa r bu r to n
di ff e re n t
Fro m thi s s en t e n c e it w o u ld
s e e m th a t th e r e i s o n ly o n e s u bj ec t o f di s c o u r s e the en ds
b e lo n gi n g to o n e i n divid u al a d i v in e a n d hu ma n l eg i s l a tor
T he a u th o r i n t e n d e d to e x pr e s s t w o di ffe r en t s u bj e ct s

n a m e ly
the o bj e ct s o f a di v i n e
an d
the o bj e ct s o f a

T he d e m o n s t r a t iv e thos e i s o mitt e d
h u m an l e gi s lat o r
I t S h o u ld b e the e n d s o f a divi n e a n d th o s e o f a h u m an

l e gi sla t o r a r e v a s tly di ffe re n t

Thi s e rro r c o n s i s t s i n d e

I LL U S T RA TIO N S

A ND

fe e t

2 91

i mpro pe r e llip s i s o f the p ro n o u n : i n t he fo ll o w

i ng s e n t en ce t he e rro r i s r e d u n da n cy
Th e y bo th m e t
o n a t ri a l o f s kill
B o th m e an s
th e y t w o a s a mbo i n

f duo
Lati n i s e q u iv a l e n t to
I t s h o u ld th e r e fo re b e

bo th m e t o n a tri al o f s ki ll

Th e s e t w o m en (A a n d B) a re bo th e qu al in s tr en gt h
Thi s s ay s B a k er i s n o n se n se ; fo r th e se w o rd s s ign ify
o n ly
t h a t A i s e q u al i n s tre ng t h a n d B e q u al i n s tre ngth
with o u t i mplyi ng to wh o m ; so th a t the w o rd equ a l ha s

n o t hi n g t o whi c h it r ef e r s
A a n d B sa y s he
ar e e q u al

i n s tre n gth i s s e n se thi s m ean s that th ey a r e e q u al to ea ch

o t he r
A a n d B a re bo th e q u a l in s tr e n gth t o C i s
lik e wi se s en se It s igni e s th a t A i s e q u a l to C an d t h a t
B lik e w i se i s e q u a l to C
Th u s M r B ak e r N o w it
a pp e ar s t o me
t hat wh e n he ad mit s the e x pre s s i o n a re

bo th e qu al a s s igni can t o f the e qua lity o f e a ch he

a d mi ts a phr a se o l o gy w hich d o e s n o t s trictly c o n v e y th a t

id e a F o r if w e sa y A a n d B a re b o th e q ua l it s ee ms
t o m e to i m ply t hat the t w o i n divid ua l s are po s se s se d o f
t w o attrib u t e s o r q u ali t i e s o n e o f which i s h e re e x pre s se d ;
an d i n thi s s e n se o n ly a s I co n c e i v e
i s thi s phra s eo l o gy
co rr e c t
Th u s w e m ay s a y wi t h s t ri ct pro pri e ty A a n d
B a re bo th e q u a l i n s tr en gt h a n d s u pe ri o r i n j u dgm en t to

th eir c o n t em p o ra ri e s
O r it may d eno t e tha t t h e y t wo

to ge th e r n a me ly A an d B a r e e q u al t o C s i n gly
In
the fo r m e r ca se bo th i s ne c e s sa rily fo ll o w e d by a n d which
i s i n L a t i n r en d e re d by et
Th u s A an d B a re the t w o
thi n g s ( b o th ) equa l i n s tr en g th a n d (ad d ) s up eri o r i n

n the latt e r ca s e
I
g
it
m
en t t o th e i r c o n t e m p o r a ri e s
u
d
j
i s e q u i v al en t t o a mbo e x p r e ss i n g tw o co ll e ctiv e ly a s

th e y t w o tog ether a r e e q u a l to C b u t n o t s ep a r a tely

I a m aw ar e that the w o rd bo th i n E n gli sh li k e a mbo i n
La ti n i s a n a mbig u o u s t e rm d e n o ti n g e ith er t he tw o

c o ll e cti v e ly o r the t w o s e para t e ly a n d th a t m an y

B
u t th a t
e x a m l es o f the l a tt e r u s ag e m a y b e a dd u ce d
p
s u re ly c a n n o t b e d ee me d a c o rr e ct o r a ppr o priat e t e r m
w hich i n i t s s t rict s ign ic a ti o n c o n v ey s an id e a di ffe r e n t
o r an

CR IT I CA L R EM A R K S

2 92

fro m t hat i n t e n de d by the s pe ak e r ; o r which l e av e s the

T he
a n d the r e ad e r i n d o u bt
s e n ti me n t i n o b s c u rity
w o rd ea ch s u b s tit u t e d f o r bo th r e n d e r s the e x pre s si o n
cl ear a n d pre ci s e th u s A an d B a r e e a ch e q u al to C in

s tr e n gth
A n e rr o r the r e v e r s e o f thi s o cc u r s i n the fo ll o wi n g s e n
t e n c e : Thi s p r o v e s that t he dat e o f e ach l e tt e r m u s t hav e
b ee n n e arly c o i n cid e n t
C o i n cid en t wi t h what ? N o t
n o r ca n t he da t e o f e ach l e t t e r b e c o i n
s u r e ly wi t h i t s e lf
I t sh o uld b e that the dat e s o f
e id e n t wi t h e a ch o th e r
bo th l e tte r s m u s t hav e b ee n n e arly c o i n cid e n t with e ach

o ther
I t s gr e at cr u e lty t o t o rt u r e a p oo r d u mb a n i m al
B e tt e r Ti s i n o rd e r to di s tin g u i s h the c o n tracti o n fr o m
the g e n itiv e s i n g u lar o f t he p r o n o u n i t
N e ith e r L ady H av e r s ha m n o r M i s s M ild m ay w ill

b u t what I h a v e b e e n e n tire ly t o bl a me
e v e r b e li e v e
T he pr o n o u n w ha t e q u i v al e n t t o t ha t w hich i s h e r e im
pro pe rly u se d f o r tha t Thi s m o d e o f e x pr e s s i o n s till
o btai n s a m o n g the l o w e r o rd e r s o f t he p eo pl e a n d i s n o t
c o n n ed to th em in t he n o rth e rn part s o f the i slan d It
T he c o n v e r s e o f thi s e rro r
s h o u ld b e
tha t I h a v e b ee n
o c c u r s i n t he fo ll o wi n g p a s s ag e s
That all o u r do i n g s m ay b e o rd e re d by thy go v e r n
a n c e to d o alway s that i s right e o u s i n t hy s ight Bo o k
o
o mmon P r a er
C
f
y
F o r if th e r e b e r s t a willi n g mi n d i t i s acc e p t e d

Bi bl e
acc o rdi n g to that a ma n hath
T he pro n o u n s i t a n d tha t w e r e fo r me rly u se d a s i h
cl u di n g t he r elativ e
Thi s s u b m i s si o n i s it imp l i e t h

th e m all
Thi s i s it m e n m e a n by di s t rib u tiv e j u s tic e

H o bbes
T o c o n s id e r advi s e dly o f that i s m o ve d
B a co n
Thi s u sa ge i s n o w o b s o l e te T he cla u s e s s h o u ld
.

hi c t i ll f it d i i im amb

i
t
m
a
l
iq
i
d
Thi
f
i
t
S t ph
j
l ar d c i t i c ck owl d g i t i f rmly

U tru m q u e fe c i s s e, d i cim u s , s i
fe c i s se d i ci mu s ,

d i t i ct i
b vd
s

ser e

o n,
.

d uo

si

h wever
o

as

et

co n un c

the

ne

e ce r

e ce r n

e s,

os

v s

s no

an

un

C RITI CA L R EM A R K S

2 94

Fo r t escue

H e r e w e h a v e the pa rticipl e o f the v e rb

t o o ne
n o w o b s o l e te f o r
to u n it e
F o r it i s n o p o w e r t o m a y ali e n a n d p u t a way e ; b u t
it i s a p o w e r t o ma y hav e a n d ke pe to hi ms elf S o it i s
n o po w e r to m a
sy n e
a n d t o d o ill
b
e s yk e
o r to m a
y
y
o r wex ol d
h
o r t hat a m a n m a
u rt hi m s e lf ; f o r al l th e e s
y

o w e r s c o m n e o f i m o te n c e
I
e
b
It
h
b
en
alr
ady
a
s
e
p
p
y
y
o b se r ved
that the v e rb may i s d e ri v e d fro m the Sa x o n
m aega n p o s s e S ee p
Fro m t he pa s s age b e fo re u s
i t app e ar s that i n t he ti m e o f F o rt e s c u e ( an n o 1 440) the

i n n itiv e to m ay f o r to b e abl e w a s i n u s e I t ha s
n o w b ee n l o n g o b s o l e t e
I n the fo ll o wi n g p a s s age it fo rm s
what i s call ed a c o mp o u n d t en s e wi t h the w o rd sha l l the
S ign o f t he i n n itiv e b ei n g s u ppre s s e d
Whe rtho ro u g h

the parl e m e n t s s chall m ay d o m o r e go o d in a m o n e th

Ib
s hall b e a bl e to d o
That i s
Wh e re fo r al th a t he d o th e o w i th to b e re fe rry e d to

hi s ki n gd o m
Ib
T he v e rb t o o w e a s e x pre s s iv e o f
d u ty i s n o w o b s o l e t e I t ha s b ee n s u pplan t e d by o ug ht
fo r m e rly i ts pre te rite t e n se an d n o w u s e d a s a pre s e n t

We S h o u ld n o w s ay o u gh t to b e r e fe rre d
Bo th th e s e a rticl e s w e r e u n q u e s ti o n ably tr u e a n d

c o u ld ea s ily hav e b e en pr o v e n
H en ry s H is tory of B r i
ta i n
A d mi tti n g the charges a g a i n s t the d e l in q u e n t s

t o b e fu lly pro v e n
P rov en i s n o w
B e ls ha m s H i s to ry
o b so l e t e
h a vi ng giv e n pla ce to the r egu l a r par ticipl e I t
i s s till h o w e v e r u se d i n Sc o t l a n d an d i s ther e fo r e d eem e d
a Sc o ttici s m
M e tho u ght s I r e t u r n e d to the gr e at h a ll wh e r e I ha d

b e en the m o rn i ng b e fo r e
DI etho ug hts i s barba ro u s a n d
t he third p e r so n b ei ng tho ug ht a n d
al s o v i o lat e s a n al o gy
&c

no t

t ho ug hts

SO

L EC

ISM

b u s y w h en I c a lle d
H e re a pro n o un
l
u ral i s j o i n e d w i h a v e rb in the s i n g u l a r n u m b e r
It
p
t

S h o u ld b e y o u w e r e
Y ou

was

A ND

I LL U S T RA TIO N S

T he

2 95

k ee pi n g go o d c o m pan y e v en t he be s t i s b u t a
l e s s s ham e fu l ar t o f lo s i n g t i m e W ha t w e h e r e call

s ci e n c e a n d s t u dy a r e lit t l e b e tt e r
Wha t i s e q u ival e n t
to tha t w hi ch
I t s h o u ld be i s a n d n o t a r e ; t h u s
t hat

which w e call
i s lit t l e b e tt e r
Thr e e ti me s three i s n i ne a n d t hr e e t i me s t hre e
a re n i n e
a re m o d e s o f e x pr e s s i o n i n c o mmo n u s e
; a nd
i t ha s be c o me a q u e s ti o n which i s the m o r e c o rrec t T he
R o m a n s ad m i t t e d b o th phra s e o l o gi e s
Q ui n q u i e s e t
u a d r a e n i s i n u li
v ici e s d u c en i
u
n
s
t
e
x
m
il
i
l
a
e
t
i
i
n
t
i
v
q
g

g
g

q u i n q u e C 0 l u m H e re the di s trib u t iv e n u m e ral s a re

t he n o m i n a t iv e s t o t he v e rb
U b i es t s e p t ic s m illi e s

Ci c
H e r e t he a dv e rbial n u m e ra l s m ak e
s e s t e rti u m
Pl u rali t y b e i n g
the no m i na tiv e a n d t he v e rb i s s i n g u lar
t he pl u r a l v e rb s e e m s m o r e c o n so n an t
e vi d e n tly i m pli e d
with o u r n at u ral c o n ce pti o n o f n u mb e r s a s w ell a s with
the idi o m o f o u r lan gu age
Thi s i s o n e o f th o s e highway me n t h a t w a s co n

A cc o rdi n g t o t he gra m m a t ical

d em n e d l as t se s s i o n s

c o n s tr u c t i o n o f thi s s en t en c e o ne o f th o se highway m e n
i s t he pr e dicat e ; f o r t he s y n tactic a l arran g e me n t i s
Thi s
s
n
m
n
a
o
e
m
n
s
highway
that
c
d
d
l
t
i
a
w
e
a
se
s
s
o
n
i
o
e
o
f
s
s
n
(
)
B u t thi s i s n o t t he m e an i ng which
t h o s e highway men
thi s se n t e n c e i s i n gen e ral i n t e n d e d to c o n v e y : fo r i t i s
u s u al ly e mpl o y e d to d e no t e th a t s e v e r a l hi ghway m e n w e r e
T he s e n t e n c e
co n d e mn ed
a n d th a t thi s i s o n e o f th e m
th e r e fo re th u s u n d e r s to o d i s u n gram matical ; fo r the
an te c e d en t i s i n thi s ca s e n o t o n e b u t hig hw ay men T he
r elati v e th e re fo re b e i n g pl u ra l s h o u ld b e j o i n e d wit h a
pl u ral v e rb th u s
Thi s i s o n e o f t h o s e highway m e n
t hat w ere c o n d e mn e d la s t s e s s io n s
I had w en t t o L i sb o n b e fo re y o u k n e w t hat I ha d

Thi s i s a n egre gi o u s s o l e ci s m the

a rriv e d i n E n gla n d
a u x ili a ry v e rb ha d which re q u ire s t he p e rfe ct participl e
b e i n g h e r e j o i n e d with the pre t e rit e t e n s e I t s h o u ld b e

I had go n e

T he v e rb
H e w o u ld n o t fall the tr ee s thi s s ea s o n
,

CR ITI CA L R EM ARK S

2 96

fall

i n tra n s i t iv e a n d ca n n o t t h e re fo re b e fo llo w e d
by a n o bj e cti v e ca s e d e no t i n g a thi n g act e d u p o n I t

he w o u ld n o t fe ll
s h o u ld b e
L e t him k n ow tha t I s hall b e o v e r i n s pri n g a n d

e
S w if t
that by al l m e an s he s e ll s t he h o r s s
H e re w e
hav e i n t he latt e r cla u s e a thi n g e x pr e s s e d a s d o n e o r
I t s h o u ld b e
t hat he
d o i n g fo r a t hi n g c o mm an d e d
h
o r e lli tically
e s e ll
that
s h o u ld s e ll
p
I t i s v e ry pr o babl e t hat n e i t h e r o f th e s e a r e the
N e i t h er m eans
n o t the o n e
m e a n i n g o f t he t e x t
nor

d en o t i n g the e x cl u si o n o f e ach o f tw o thi n gs

t he o th e r
n e i t h e r is t he m e a n i n g o f the
I t s h o u ld th e re fo re b e
t ex t
H e w a s a m a n wh o s e v ic e s w e r e v e ry gr e at a n d had
t he art t o c o n c e al t h e m fr o m t he e y e s o f t he p u blic
A cc o rdi n g t o the gra mm atical c o n s tr u c t i o n o f thi s s e n
t e n c e v i c es u n d e r s t o o d i s t he n o m i n a t iv e to t he v e rb ha d ;
th u s
wh o se vic e s w e re v e ry gr e at an d wh o se vic e s had

I t s h o u ld b e
an d w ho had
the art t o c o n c e a l t h e m

the a r t t o c o n c e al th e m
A t the fo o t o f thi s b ill w a s s o o n b u ilt s u ch a n u mb e r

t hat a mo u n t e d to a c o n s id e rabl e city

H e re
o f h o u se s
T o r e n d e r t he
the v e rb a mo u n te d ha s n o n o mi n ativ e
i t s h o u ld b e
that t h ey a mo un t
s e n t e n c e gra m m a t ic a l

ed
or
a s a m o u n t e d t o a c o n s id e rabl e ci t y
It r e q u ire s m o re l o gic t ha n y o u po s s e s s to m ak e a
m a n to b e li e v e t hat pr o digali t y i s n o t a vic e
A ft e r the
t he s ign o f t he i n n iti v e s h o u ld b e
v e rb
t o m ak e
n o te 3
S ee R u l e x
o mitt e d

he n e e d n o t
m a y b e j u s t ly p r o
H e d are n o t

he dar e s
he n e e d s
n o u n c e d s o l e ci s m s f o r

P u l s e i s a n o u n s in
H o w d o y o u r p u l s e b e at P
g u l a r a n d i s h e r e u n gramma t ically j o i n e d wi t h a v e rb

pl u ral I t Sh o u ld be ho w d o es y o u r p u l s e b e at P
T he riv e r had o v e r o w n i ts ban k s
Ov er o w n i s
c o m p o u n d e d wi t h o v er
the par ticipl e o f t he v e rb to y

It sh o uld b e o v e r o w ed the p a rtici pl e o f o v e rfl o w

to

is

C RITI CA L R EM A R K S

2 98

ign e d for thi s fe w n e s thei r d es tr u cti o n an d their ig ht ;

th e se fo rm the s u bj e ct s o f the t w o s u b o rdi n a t e cla u se s
B e tw ee n th e se t w o th e r e fo r e th e r e sho u ld b e the s trict e s t
It
c o n gr u ity ; a n d i n thi s r es p e ct t he s en t e n c e i s f a ul ty
o u gh t t o pr o c e e d e ith e r th u s
T he n o bility o f E n glan d
c o n si s t e d o n ly o f o n e d u k e fo u r e a rl s o n e V i s co u n t an d
tw e n ty n i n e b a ro n s ; fo r a l l the n o bl e s o f the L a n ca s tri a n
pa rty had e ith er bee n kill e d i n battl e s o r o n s c affo ld s or
o r th u s
all the n o bl es
ha d e d i n t o fo r eign p a rt s
havi n g b ee n kill ed o r h a vi n g e d
T he la tt e r i s t he p re
fe ra bl e fo r m

Thi s
H e n e gl e cte d t o pro t o f t hi s o cc ur re n c e

phr a s e o l o gy o c c u rs fr e q u e n tly i n H u me
T o pro t o f
t o pr o t by thi s o cc u r
i s a G a llici s m ; i t o u ght t o b e

re n c e
T he p eo pl e o f E n gla n d m ay c o n gra t u l a t e to th e m
th a t t he n a t u re o f o u r go v e r n men t an d the cl e
se l v e s

n
e
u
e
u
s
D y d en
cy
f
u
r
ki
g
s
c
r
C o n grat u la t e
n
o
o
me
T he pe r s o n co ngrat u lat e d s h o u ld b e
i s a La tin ism
to
the s u bj e ct i s
in the o bj e ctiv e c a se go v e rne d by the v e rb
pre c e de d by the pre po s iti o n o n a s
I co n gra t u la t e y o u

o n yo u r a rri v al

Y o u will a rri v e t o L o n d o n b e fo r e the co a ch

A p ri e s t n e wly arri v e d to t he n o rth w e s t p a rt s o f

I rel an d S w if t s S a cr Test

to a rri v e
i s fo ll o w e d by
I n th e s e e x a mpl e s the v e rb
i n s t e ad o f a t a n e rro r which s h o u ld b e c a r e fu lly
to
a v o id e d Go o d writ ers n e v e r c o n s tr u e i t wi t h the pre p o
but
s i ti o n s ign ica n t o f m o ti o n o r pr o g re s s i o n c o n cl u d e d
with th o se pre p o siti o n s w hich d e n o te pro p i n q u ity o r in
a t or in
n a me ly
He n c e al so t o j o i n thi s v e rb
c l u s io n
with a dv e rb s e x pr e s s i ve o f m o ti o n to o r to ward s a pl a c e
he a rriv e d her e there
i s i m pr o p e r
We s h o u ld s ay
as s

s,

w he r e

not

hi ther , thi ther ,

w hi ther

c o n c e r n e d ; s he re mo n s trat e d
'

A n d r ew s s C on ti n u a ti o n of H en ry s H i s to ry
to J ame s
Thi s i s i n c o rre ct We r e mo n s trat e w i th a n d n o t to a
p e rs o n an d a ga in st a thi n g
E li z ab e th w a s

not

un

I L L U S TR A TI O N S

A ND

2 99

I a m the Lo r d that ma k e th all thi n gs th a t s tre tch e t h

fo rth the h e av e n s a l o n e that s pre a d e th t he e a rt h abro ad

by m y se l f A cco rdi n g t o the s tr u ct u r e o f the s ec o n d a n d

third cla u se s o f thi s se n t en c e the L ord i s the a nt e ce d e n t t o
th e re fo re pr o per ly j o i n e d w ith t he third
t ha t which i s

m ak e th
pe r so n o f the v e rb s fo llo wi n g
t
h
s r ea d e
;
p
b u t the pro n o u n o f t he r s t p e rso n my s elf i n t he l a s t
cl a u se d o e s n o t a c co rd w ith thi s s tr u ct u re ; f o r as w e can

th
n o t sa
h
e s pr ea d e th the e ar t h by m y s elf
e r e b ei n g
y
an d wh e r e h
o n ly o n e a g e n t i m pli e d
e a n d my sel ar e su
f
p
po s ed to all u d e to o n e pe r so n so w e ca nn o t say
that

h
e
e
t
e
m
se
L
rd
s
pr
d
th
arth
by
y
lf
by
hi
lf
o
ea
b
u
m
t
se
(
)
a n id e n tity o f p e r so n b e i n g i n di s pe n sa bly r eq u i s it e
T he
th a t s pr e ade th
s e n t e n c e th e r e fo r e S h o u ld c o n cl u d e th u s

e e arth by hi m s el f
If my s elf be r et ai n e d the
a br o a d t h
pro n o u n I m u s t b e c o n s id e r ed a s the an t e ce d e n t a n d the
I a m the L o rd that m ak e
se n t e n c e w ill th en r u n th u s :
al l t hi n g s t h a t s tr e tch fo rth t he h ea v e n s al o n e tha t s pr ea d
abro a d the e a rth by my s el
Th g at r t ca l eas t d er t d
,

ou

Who

To

al l

my

s oo

un

u se ,

re

s e n se co n n

d,

t g
k w b t thi that th
d
A d that my l f m b l i d P p e
o u ar

s,

no

se

oo

t d e n t to the pro n o u n w ho i s t he pro n o u n o f

T he r e lativ e th e re fo r e be i n g
the s ec o n d p e r so n s i n g u lar
s h o u ld b e j o i n e d t o t he se co n d p e r so n
o f t he s a m e p e r s o n

co n n e d s t
n a m e ly
s i n g u lar o f t he v e rb
T he e x e c u ti v e d ir e ct o ry t o pr o v e that th e y will n o t

r ej e ct a n y m e a n s o f r ec o n ciliati o n d e clar e s &c B el

T he n o m i n ativ e i s h e r e j o i n e d to a v e rb
s ha m s H i s t
s i n g u l a r a n d a t the sa m e t i me r e pr e s en t e d by a pr o n o u n
l
h
T
e e rr o r m ay b e c o rr e ct e d e i t h e r by t he s u b
u ral
p
o r d ecl a r e i n s t e ad o f d ecl a r es
e
s ti t u t i o n o f i t f o r t h
y
Th ese fri en dl y a d mo n i t i o n s o f Swift th o u gh th ey
u
a
s
e
n
t
a
s
ff
s
i
o
e
ec
ght
ti
pr
d
c
e
g
o
d
t
par
ic
l
r
c
u
o
s
m
e
m
e
so
mi
w he n pro pe rly ti me d y e t c o u ld th e y d o b u t littl e t o ward s

e
a d mo n i
n
n
m
a
T
h
e
o
n
r
di
t
i
g
f
u
lt
S
h
r
d
a
i
tiv
i
e
s
a
e a
ca n
T he

a n ec e

CR ITI CA L R E M A R K S

3 00

c o n n ec ted wi th n o v e rb the pro n o u n they b e i n g

t he n o m i n ativ e t o t he v e rb co u ld
T he s e n t e n c e t h e r e
fo re i s u ngra m m a ti c al ; n o r c an the gu r e hy p er ba to n b e
h e r e pl e ad e d i n e x c u s e a s the s i mplicity an d s h o rt n e s s o f
the s e n t e n c e r en d e r it u n n e c e s sary
They i n the t hird
cla u s e s h o u ld b e s u pp re s s e d
Thi s d e dicati o n m a y s e rve f o r al m o s t a n y b o o k t hat

ha s i s o r s hall b e p u bli s h e d
B o li ng br o ke
H a s b ei n g
m e r e ly a p art o f a c o m p o u n d t en s e c o n v e y s n o p r e ci se
m e a n i n g with o u t the r e s t o f t he t e n se
W h e n j o i n ed
t h e n to the p a rticipl e h e re b el o n gi n g to the thre e a u xi l i
ari e s the s e n t e n c e pr o c ee d s t h u s
Thi s de d ica t i o n m ay

o u ght
b
It
s e rv e f o r a l m o s t a n
o o k that ha s p u bli s h e d
y

ha s b e en
T he
to b e
is
or
s h a ll b e p u bli s h ed
fo ll o wi ng s e n t e n c e i s charge abl e with a n e rro r o f the sam e
ki n d
Thi s part o f k n o wl e dge ha s b ee n al w ay s gro wi n g a n d
wil l d o s o till t he s u bj e ct b e e x ha u s t e d
D o what ? T he
a u x iliary can n o t r e fe r t o been fo r t he s u b s tan tiv e v e rb o r
v e rb o f e x i s t en c e d o e s n o t i mp ly acti o n n o r ca n w e s ay
ha s b ee n gr o wi n g a n d
It o u ght to b e
d o gr o wi n g

will s t ill b e s o
A ll that ca n b e n o w u rge d i s the r e a so n o f the thi n g
Wa r bu r to n H e r e i s a S i mila r
thi s I s hall d o
and
i n co n gr u ity H e s h o u ld hav e s aid
a n d thi s s hall be
do ne
S o m e o f the pre c e di ng e rr o r s wi t h t h o s e whic h fo ll o w
u n d e r thi s h e ad m a y b e d e n o m i n at e d rath e r i n a cc u raci e s
than So l e ci s m s
Tw a s tw e n ty y e ar s a n d m o re that I hav e k n o w n

s pe aki n g o f C o n gre v e s d e a t h
s ay s P o p e t o G a
him
y
I t o u gh t to b e
I t i s t w e n ty y e ar s a n d m o re the p e ri o d
c o n cl u di ng with the pr e s en t t i me o r the t i me th e n p r e
I t i s n o w tw en ty y ear s
H e m ight hav e s a id
s en t
wh e r e the a dv e rb n ow b e i n g o bvi o u s ly ad mi s s ibl e p o i n t s
pr e t e rite
a n d n e c e s s arily e x cl u d e s t he
t o pr es e n t t i m e
t e n s e Po pe s ay s
T wa s tw e n ty y e a r s
W h en ? n o t
is

tio ns

C R ITI CA L R E M A R K S

3 02

He

c rdi ngly dr a w s o u t his fo rce s an d o ffe r s ba t t le

t o H i e ro w ho i mm e di a t e ly a cc e pt e d it
C o n s i s t e n cy r e
q u ir e s that the l a s t v e rb be i n t he s ame t e n se w ith the
pre c edi n g v e rb s T he acti o n s a r e d e s cribe d a s pr es en t ;
t he l an g u a ge i s gra phi c a l an d that w hich ha s b ee n p r o

p e rly e n o u gh d en o m i n a te d the hi s to ri ca l t e n se s h o u ld
w ho i mme di a t e ly a c
It o u ght to b e
n o t b e e mpl o y e d

ce t s it
p
I h a v e l o s t thi s ga me th o u gh I t ho u ght I s h o u ld

It o u ght to b e
th o u gh I th o u ght I
ha v e w o n it

T hi s i s a n e rr o r o f the s a me ki n d a s
I
s h o u ld w i n it

I i n t en d e d t o ha v e writt en
e x p ec t e d to h a v e seen y o u

e xp e ct e d
T he pr e t e rit e ti me i s e xp r e s se d by t he t e n se s
i n t en d e d a nd ho w far bac k so e v e r that e xpe ctati o n
t he see i n g o r wri t i n g m u s t
o r i n t e n ti o n m a y b e r e f e rr e d
b e c o n s id e r e d a s c o n t e m p o rary o r as s o o n t o fo ll o w b u t
cann o t with o u t ab s u rdity b e c o n s id e re d a s an te ri o r I t

I e x pe ct e d t o see
I i n t e n de d to wr it e
s h o u ld b e
Pri es tl ey i n d e fe n di n g the o th e r phra se o lo gy appe a r s to
me t o h a v e gr ea tly e rr e d the e x p re s s i o n i m plyi ng a m a n i
fe s t i m po ss ibility T he a c ti o n r e pr e s e n te d a s t he o bj e c t
in r e spe c t to
o f an e x pec t a ti o n o r i n t en ti o n an d th e r e fo re
th e s e n ec e s sa rily fu t u re ca n n o t s u rely w ith o u t gro s s ab
b e e xhibite d a s pa s t o r a n t e c e d e n t to th es e
s u rdity
In
t he fo ll o w i n g p a ssa ge t he e rr o r s ee m s alt o ge th e r i n d e
f e n s ib l e
T he mo s t u n c u lti v at e d A s i a tic s di s c o v e r th a t
w hich , fr o m th e ir s it u a ti o n o n t he gl o b e w e
s e n s ibility

R
o ber ts o n s H i s to r
s h o u ld e x ec t th e m t o ha v e fel t
y of
p
T he a u th o r e xpre s s e s hi m se lf as if he r e fe rr e d
A mer i ca
t o a p a s t s en sa ti o n w hil e the i n tr o d u c to ry v e rb s h o w s
th a t he a ll u d es to a gen e ra l fa ct T he i n c o n gr u ity i s

e x p ec t th e m t o fee l
O bvi o u s
H e sh o u ld h av e sa id
a co

'

-h

M u ch

i rc
e

e as

he mo

ved

hi s

i lv r h aft reso d P p
e

un

be tte r Fi e rce a s he m o v e s
C o n gr u ity o f t e nse
i s th u s pr e s e rv e d ; a n d th e r e i s b e s id e s a p ec u li a r b e a u ty
i n e mplo yi n g t he pre se n t
a b e a u ty o f whi ch t he p re t e rit e
,

I LL U S TR ATI O N S

A ND

i s wh oll y

3 03

i n ca p able T he fo r m e r i mpa rt s v ivaci ty to t he

e x pr e s s i o n ; it pr e s e n t s the a c t i o n w ith gra hic a l e ff e ct
p
t o t he m i n d o f the r ea de r ; a n d t h u s
r en d e ri n g hi m
a s pec ta to r o f the sc en e i m pr e s se s the i m agi nat i o n a n d
ro u s e s the fee li ngs with gr e at e r e n e rgy C o mp ar e d to t he
latt e r it i s lik e t he pe n cil o f the ar ti s t to the p en of the
hi s t o rian
J e s u s ans we ri n g sa id u n t o hi m Wha t wilt th o u that

I s h o u ld d o u n to th ee P T he bl in d m an sa id u n to hi m :

Lo rd t hat I m ight r ec e iv e my s ight

I t o u ght t o b e
that I ma y re ce iv e m y sight I w i l l be i n g un d e r s t o o d ;

th u s I will that I m ay r e c e iv e my s igh t whe re the

pre se n t w i sh an d the a ttai n me n t o f it are pr o per ly r e p re
se n t e d a s c o n t e m po rary
Th e se t hi n gs hav e I S po ke n u n to y o u th a t y o u r j o y

might b e fu l l
B e t te r tha t y o u r j o y m a y be fu ll
If a n a th ei s t w o u ld pe ru se the v o l u me o f n a t u re he

w o u ld c o n fess th a t th e re w a s a G o d
U n iv e r sal o r a m
tract t r u t h s r e qu ire the pre se n t t en se ; it sh o ul d h

th a t th e re i s a G o d
i m p re s se s u s w i th a fee li n g a s if r e n eme nt w as
n o thi n g a s if fac u lti es w e re n o thi n g a s if virt u e w as n o
thi n g a s i f all that w a s s w ee t e s t an d all that w a s high e s t

G odwi n s L if e of
i n h u m an n a tu re w a s a n i dl e s h o w
C ha u c er Thi s sen ten ce e rr s a t o nce a gai n s t el e ganc e a n d
T he fo rm e r o ffe n c e m a y b e p ar tly c o rr e cte d by
a cc u r ac y
s u b s tit u ti n g the co n diti o n al f o r t he i nd ic a ti v e t en se i n the
hyp o th e tica l c la u se s B u t the a u th o r s pri n cipa l e rr o r
c o n si s t s in c o n v e rti n g a g en e ral pro p o s i ti o n i n t o a parti
by r e pre se n ti n g tha t a s pa s t which i s a l w ays
c u l a r fa ct
pre s en t a n d i mmu t abl e T he s en te n c e s h o u ld pro c ee d
th u s : I mpre s se s u s with a fee li n g a s if re n e me n t w er e
n o t hi n g a s if fac u lt ie s w e r e n o t hi n g a s if virt u e w er e n o
thin g a s i f al l t ha t i s s w ee t es t an d all th a t i s high e s t i n

h um an n a t u re w er e a n idl e S h o w
He pr o c ee de d
A s i m il a r e r r o r o cc u r s i n thi s p a s s a ge :
a n d a l so i n
t o d emo n s tr a te tha t d ea th w a s n o t a n e v il
.

'

C RITI CA L R EM A R KS

3 04

thi s
that

I hav e fr e q u en tly b ee n a s s u r e d by gr e a t mi n i s t e rs

o litic s w e r e n o thi n g b u t c o m mo n s e n se
p
T o m ha s w i t e n o u gh t o m ak e him a ple a sa n t co m
A s the lat t e r
pan i o n w a s it po li s h e d by go o d m an ne r s
cl a u se i s i n t e n de d to b e p u r ely hyp o th e tical the v e rb
Wer e it p o li s h e d
S h o u ld n o t b e i n the i n di ca tiv e mo o d
i s the pr o p e r e x pr e s s i o n
H e u n d e rs t o o d the lan g u a ge o f B al n ibarbi al th o u gh

it w e re diffe r en t fr o m t hat o f t hi s i s lan d
S w if t s Voy a g e
Fro m the phra s eo l o gy h ere e mp l o y e d the
t o L ap u t a
re ad e r m ight n at u rally i n fe r that the lan g u age o f the
i s lan d a n d t h a t o f Bal n ibarbi w e re id en tical ; f o r a c o n
c e s s i v e t e r m a s I hav e alr e ady s aid wh en j o i n e d t o what
i s call e d t he c o nj u n ctiv e fo r m o f the v e rb i m pli e s p u re
hyp o t h e si s a s c o n t rary to fact ; o r i n o th e r wo rd s i mpli e s
a n egati o n o f the attrib u t e e x pre s se d T he au th o r s i n
t e n ti o n w a s to sign ify t hat the lan g u age s w er e n o t the
alth o u gh it w a s
H e s h o u ld t h e re fo r e h a v e s a id
s am e

di ffe r e n t
T he circ u m s tan ces w e r e a s fo ll o w s
S e v e ral gra m
m arian s a n d critic s hav e appr o v e d thi s phra s e o l o gy I a m
i n cli n e d h o we v e r to c o n c u r with th o se w ho pr e fe r a s
fo llo w T o j u s tify the fo r me r m o d e o f e xpre s s i o n the
o wn
a
Thi
s
I
v e rb m u s t b e c o n s id e r e d a s i m e r so n al
p
p
p ea r s t o m e a v e ry qu e s t i o n abl e s o l u ti o n o f t he dii c u l ty ;
f o r I a m c o n v i n c e d that w e hav e n o i m p e r s o n a l v e rb s i n
We
E n gli s h b u t s u ch e s a r e u n ifo r m ly pr e ce d e d by i t
fr e q u en tly i n dee d mee t with s e n t en c e s wh ere v e rb s o cc u r
With o u t a n o m i n ativ e a n d i n the s i n g u lar n u m be r Th e s e
a re by s o m e c o n s id e r e d a s i m p e r s o n al v e rb s to which t he
I appreh en d h o w e v e r that
n o mi n a ti v e i t i s u n d e r s t o o d
o n s trict
i n q u iry s o me o n e o r o th e r o f the pre c edi n g
w o rd s which a r e n o w c o n s id e re d a s c o nj u ncti o n s adv e rb s
w a s o rigi n ally t he n o m i n ativ e ; a n d th a t it i s
o r par ticl e s
o nly s i n c e t he pri m i t i v e a n d r e a l charact e r o f th e s e w o rd s
ha s b e en o blit e rate d a n d l o s t t h a t w e hav e fo u n d i t n e ce s
s ary t o i n q u ir e f o r a n o th e r n o m i n a t i v e
Th u s if t he wo rd
,

3 06

R EM ARK S

C R1 T I C A L

Bak e r pr e fe r s the v e rb s i n g u lar a n d r e mark s that

th e re a r e i n s tan c e s i n o u r lan g u age o f v e rb s i n t he third
p e r s o n wi t h o u t a n o mi n a t iv e ca s e a s he c e n s u r e s he r s o
far a s r e gard s
I n a n s w e r t o t hi s it m a y b e o b s e rv e d
that if the w o rd a s i s to b e c o n s id e r e d i n n o o th e r ligh t
t han a s a c o nj u n c t iv e par t icl e it i s c e rtai n ly t r u e t ha t t he
v e rb r eg a r d s ha s n o n o mi n a t iv e B u t I a m p e r s u ad e d n o
p e r s o n w ho ha s e x am i n e d t he t h eo ry o f M r T o o k e c a n e u
t er ta i n a d o u b t r e s p e c t i n g t he o rigi n al a n d r e al charact e r
o f t hi s w o rd
N a y if w e i n v e s tiga t e t he t r u e a n d p ri m i
tiv e i m po rt o f t he c o rr e s p o n d e n t L a t i n t e rm s u t a n d u ti
w e s hall n d that t h e s e which a r e t e r me d adv e rb s a r e i n
fact the pro n o u n s i
uo d ( a n ci e n tly writ t e n
a n d that
q
uo d d e
e o u r w o rd
i
n
t
hi
g
l
t
ha
which
lik
s
o
n
e
s
e
n
m
)
q
t ha t i s s o m e t i m e s call e d a c o nj u n c t i o n a n d s o me t i m e s a
pro n o u n Why the o rigi n al charact e r a n d r e al i mp o rt o f
t he w o rd a s hav e b e e n c o m pl e t ely m e rge d i n t he n a m e
of
adv e rb whil e the w o rd tha t ha s b e e n a s s ign e d the
d o u bl e charact e r o f p ro n o u n a n d c o nj u n cti o n i t w o u ld
b e e a s y t o Sh o w if t he di s c u s s i o n w e r e e s s e n t ial t o t he
q u e s t i o n b e fo re u s B u t i n an s w e r to Bak e r s r e m ark i t
i s s u fci en t t o o b s e rv e that a s m e an s pr o p e rly i t tha t o r
,

n ,

w hi ch
.

pi n i o n o f Bak e r
W h en a
u s e d i m p e r o n ally it o u ght u n d o u b t
e dl
o b e i n t he s i n g u lar n u m b e r
t
wh
e t h e r t he n e u t e r
y
pr o n o u n b e e xp r e s s e d o r u n d e r s t o o d
B u t a q u e s t io n
n a t u rally ari s es wh en c e ha s the a u t h o r l e ar ne d t ha t t he
v e rb i s i m p e r s n al ? Th e r e app e ar s to me t o b e n o m o re
i m p e r s o n ali t y i n the v e rb wh en w e s ay i t i s a s fo ll o w s

t ha n wh e n w e s a
ey are
i
t
th
or
s s u ch
i
a s fo llo w s
y

s u ch
a s fo ll o w
If a s b e ad m it t e d a s the n o mi nativ e
i n t w o o f t h e s e e x a m p l e s I c an p e rc e iv e n o r e a s o n f o r
r ej e cti n g i t i n t he t hird B u t h e r e li e s a s will pre s e n t ly
app e ar the a u t h o r s gr e at e rr o r
U n ac q u ai n t e d wi t h
the t r u e m e a n i n g o f t he w o rd a s he c o n c e iv e d i t a s i n
cap able o f b e c o mi n g a n o mi n ativ e to a v e rb a s a t o r u ti

C a m pb e ll ad o p t s
v e rb
s ay s he
is

t he

A N D I LL U S T R A T I O N S
i s d eemed

to

l l ip s i s

i n L ati n ;

an

3 07

he therefo re immediately recurs

t hi s reas on ( that is because the verb i s imper

so n al ) he pr o cee d s to o bserve
an al ogy as well as us a ge
fav o ur this m o de o f expressi o n The co n d i t i o n s of the
a g r ee me n t w e r e a s
o llo w s
a n d no t a s
o llo w
f
f
H o w an al o gy fav o urs this m o d e o f expressi o n I a m
u tter l y at a l o ss t o c o n ceive
The ge n eral rule surely is
that t o every verb there shal l be a no mi n ative a n d that
this no mi n a tive s hall be expresse d u n less its presen ce i n
so me precedi n g cl au se shall re n d er the repetiti on o f it
u nn ecessary B u t ho w is it c on s o n an t w ith a n a l o gy that
no no mi n ati v e sh a ll appear ; o r that the suppo sed n o mi
n ative shall n o t be fo u n d i n a n
part
o f the sen te n ce ?
y
This surely i s repu gn an t t o an al o gy
A fe w l ate writers
he observes
have i n co n si
d e r a te l y ad o pted this last fo rm ( as fo ll o w ) thr o ugh a mis

B u t if the verb be n o t imper

take o f the c o n structi o n
s on al the erro r is his n o t theirs I m ust observe l ike
wi se that fro m the man n er i n w hich the auth o r expresses
himself o n e w o ul d n atur a lly i n fer that a fe w writers
either c on temp o rary o r immedi a tely precedi n g his o w n
time ha d i n c n siderately i n tro duced a s ol ecism i n t o o ur
l an guage
W he n he o ffered this o bserv a ti o n he surel y
was n o t aware that S teel e a n d A ddis on n earl y seve n ty
years befo re the publ icati o n o f
The P hil o s ophy o f
R het o ric
used the pl ural fo rm
The m o st emi n en t
o f the ke n n el
says S teel e
are bl o o d h o u n ds which
lead the v a n a n d a r e a s f o l l o w Ta tler N 62
The
1 04
The w o rds are
Wo rds were a s f o i l o w I bi d N

1
o
5
3
l
w
d
son
ecta t o r
N
s
o
l
o
A
S
a
d
i
p
f

c o n ti n ues he still presumi n g

F o r the same reas o n
the verb to be impers on al
we o ught t o s a y I s ha l l co n

r i en d s con
a s co n cer n s in
s i d er hi s ce n su r es s o f a r o n ly
g/f
It is ma nifest he o bserves
that the
d u ct no t co n cer n
w o rd co n d i ti o n s in the rs t case a n d cens ur es i n the sec on d
canno t serve as no mi n atives
This observati o n dem o n
For

3 08

C RI

TICAL

R E M A R KS

stra tes that the auth o r s argumen t is fo u n ded i n hi s ig n o

ra n ce o f the real character o f the w o rd a s The m o st ex

s a ys
But
t r a o r d i n a ry part o f his reas o n i n g fo ll o ws
he
if we give either sen ten ce a n o ther turn an d i n stea d
n o l on g er impe rs o n a l
the
verb
is
The
o f a s sa
s u ch a s
y
pr o n o u n s u ch i s the n o mi n a tive wh o se n umber is d eter
mi n ed by its an tece d en t Thus we mu s t say they w er e
o l l o w ; s u ch o
h
s c en s u r es o n l
s u ch a s
i
a s c o n ce rn my
f
f
y
i
s truly a n ex tr a o r d i n ar y asserti o n
Thi
s
The
r ien d
f
a n tecede n t c o rrel ative term s uch c a n
have no c o n n e a
whatever w ith the subseque n t verb but m u st agree w ith
the pri n cipal subj ect o f disc o urse N o t o n ly d o es a n al ogy
require thi s but the u s a ge o f every l an g u a ge with w hich
I am acquai n ted If we s a y P er s ev er a n t i a f ui t t a n ta

u a n ta s e r a t
c r ed i t i s

es s e

u ror

I l l ce

Is

es t ,

er a n t

u em

d i ci mu s

c o n d zti o n es ,

Ta l i s

es t ,

u u n tu r ,

i l la ,

u a: s e

l m

ua e

the

an teceden t c o rrelati v e terms ta n ta i s ta l i s

h ave n o
c on n exi on whatever w ith the verbs i n the subseque n t clause
The truth o f this o h
d i ci mus cr ed i ti s s eq u u n t u r
er a t
servati o n m us t be su fficien tly o bvi o u s t o every classical
sch o lar
B u t t o illustrate the extreme i n accuracy o f the l ear n ed
auth o r s o pi n i o n l e t u s cha n ge the c orrel ative terms a n d
sa
I
w
ill
c
on
sider
th
o
se
ce
n
sures
ly
which
c
o
cer
n
o
n
n
y
I n this se n te n ce it will n o t be questi o n ed
m y frie n d
that tho s e a n d cen su r es are i n t he o bj ective case u n d er the
go ver n men t o f the verb A n d c a n it be d o ubted if we
sa
ll
s uch ce n sures
I
wi
c
on
ider
that
w
ith
n
ce
u
r
s
e
s
y
its c o n c o rda n t a dj ective are i n the same case ? I t is i m
p o ssible I c o n ceive t o make this plai n er ; but w e shall
supp o se fo r the sake o f illu s trati o n if thi s sh o uld yet be
d ee me d n ecess a ry the exa m ple i n questi o n t o be thus
ren dered i n L ati n e a s ta n t u m r ep r ehen si on es p erp en da m
a te a d a m i c u m m e u m a t t i n e n t
what
sh
o
uld
we
N
ow
g
thi n k f his classical attai n me n ts w h o sh o uld c on ten d that
ea s o r r e r ehe n s i o n es is the no mi n ative t o the verb ?
If
p
,

C R ITI C A L R EM AR K S

31 0

IMPR

O RI
P

ET Y

They fo rm a pro cessi o n t o pr o cee d the palan qui n o f

the ambassad o r
H ere
A n d er s o n s E m ba ssy t o C hi n a
the ver b t o p r o ceed o r g o f o r w a r d is i m pr o perly u sed fo r
t o p r ece d e o r t o g o be o r e
f
H e waved the subj ect o f his greatn ess D ry d en
T o wave is pro perly to m o ve l o o s ely a n d sh o ul d
be disti n guished fro m t o waive i e t o l eave o r t o
tur n fro m
S ee S ki n ner s E ty m

I t l ays o n the tabl e ; it laid on the tabl e

This
err o r i s very c o mm on a n d sh o uld be carefully av o ided
The verb to l ay is a n acti e erb to l ie i s a n euter verb
Whe n the subj ect o f disc o urse is active the fo rmer is t o
be used ; when the subj ect i s n either active no r passive
the l atter o ug ht t o be empl oyed Thus
he lays d o w n

the b o o k
he lai d d w n the b oo k where the n o mi n a
tive expresses a n age n t o r a pers on acti n g
The b oo k
lies there
the b oo k lay there where the no mi n ative
exp resses s o methi n g n either a ctive no r passive Whe n

we hea r such expressi o n s as these

he lays i n bed

he l a id i n bed a questi on n atural ly o ccurs what d o es

he l ay P what did he lay
This questi o n dem on strates the
impropriety o f the expressi o n s The err o r has o ri gi n ated

partly i n an a ffected delicacy rej ecti n g the verb t o lie

as bei n g sy n o ny m o us w ith the verb t o tell a falseh oo d

wilfully a n d partly fr o m the iden tity o f the o n e verb i n

the prese n t with the o ther i n the preterite te n se ; thus

laid
laid
lie
lai n
l ay
l ay

The child w a s o verlai n

The participle fo r the
reas on n o w g iven sh o u l d be o v er l a i d
It has bee n m y br o ther y o u s a w i n the theatre a n d
no t my c o usi n
This u s e o f the preterite de n ite is I
believe c on n ed t o S c o tlan d where i n c oll oqui al l a n
guage it is very c o mm on The S c o ts empl oy it i n th o se
cases i n which a n E n gl ishman uses either the preterite i n
de n ite o r the verb sig n ify i n g n ecessity Thus i n the

A ND

I LL U S T RA TIO N S

31 1

prec edi n g i n sta n ce a n E n glishman w o u l d s a y

it mu s t
ha v e be en my br o ther
o u s a w i n the the a tre
y
With o ut havi n g atte de d t o this w e w ill be at a l o ss
i n u n d ersta n d i n g sever a l passa g e s i n the cl a ssics
Bl a i r s
L e c t u r es
I n the L ati n l a n gu a g e there are n o t w o
w o rds w e w o uld m o re readily take t o be sy n o n y m o us
th a n a ma r e a n d d i l ig ere
Ib
This err o r o ccurs fr e
I n the fo rmer example it sh o ul d he
q ue n tly i n B lair
s ha l l
a n d i n the latter s ho u l d
( S ee p
A n err o r the reverse o f this o ccurs i n the fo ll o w i n g
passa g e
There is n o t a girl i n t o w n but let her h a ve
her w il l i n g o i n g t o a m a s k a n d s he shall dress like a

Shepherdess
S p ec ta t o r N O
It sh o uld be s he w i l l
The auth o r i n ten d ed to s i g n ify mere futurity i n stead o f
which he has expresse d a c o m m a n d

H e r o s e the price o f bread la s t w eek

H ere r o s e
the preterite o f the n euter verb to r is e a n d therefo re u n
suscepti ble o f a regime n is u n grammatica lly j oi n ed w ith
a n o bj ective case i n stead o f r a i s ed the preterite o f the
active verb t o r a i s e This err o r therefo re i n v ol v es a
s ol ecism as well as a n impr o priety

D o es the price o f brea d raise this w eek ? This err o r

is the c o n verse o f the fo rmer the active verb bei n g here
used i n stead o f the n euter The questi on What d o es it
?
raise sh o w s the impr o priet y o f the expressi o n It o ught
t o be
D o es the price o f bread ri s e this week ? These
verbs l ike the verb to l ay an d t o l i e are very o fte n co n
fo u n ded i n v ul g ar u se
I t w o u l d be i nj uri o us t o the character o f P ri n ce
hI a u r I c e t o supp o se that he w ul d demea n him s elf s o far
as t o be c o n cer n ed i n th o se a n o n ym o u s p amphlets
Wa ts o n s P hi l ip I I I H ere the verb to d e mea n w hic h
si gn ies t o behave i s u sed as equi v alen t t o the v erb t o
This impro priety is n o w I b e
t o de g rade
d e ba s e o r
it has there
l ieve a lm o st e n tirely c o n n e d t o S c o tlan d
fo re bee n ra n ked i n t he n umber o f S c o ttici s ms
I de

mea n myself i s equivalen t t o I behave myself ; an d

,

C R ITI C A L R EM A R K S

31 2

this sen se the auth o r last qu o ted has i n a n o ther pass

age very pro perly used i t
S uch o f the M o resc o es
might remai n w h o f r a ny c on siderable time demean ed

themselves as C hristian s I bi d
C o n si d erable arrears bei n g n o w resti n g t o the s o l

I bi d
R esti n g
diers
w hich i s equivalen t t o bei n g
quiet o r remai n i n g i s i n the se n se i n w hich it i s here
empl o y ed a ran k S c o tticism : it sh o uld be
d ue
or

o wi n g

The reas on will be acc o u n ted fo r hereafter

wa r
bu r t o n
A cco u n t e d f o r is here impr o perly u sed fo r a ss ig n
ed
is t o acc o u n t fo r a n
T O acc o u n t fo r a reas on
acc o u n t
B u t n o evide n ce i s admitted i n the h o u se o f l o rds
this be i n g a d isti n ct j urisdicti o n w hich di ff ers it c on

s i d er a b l
n s ta n ces
fr
o
m
these
i
The
verb
B
l
a c ks t o ne
y
t o d if e r is a n euter verb a n d c a n n o t admit a regime n
The auth o r has impr o perly u s e d it i n an acti v e sen se f o r

t o make t o d i ffer
I t sh o uld be by which it d i ffers
or
w hich makes it di ffer co n siderably fr o m these i n
stan ces
Th e rr r h ere i v l ved ugge t f w Ob rv t i whi c h i t m y
be u e fu l t O ff er c cer i g t h e d i ti c ti ve c h r c ter f c t i ve d e u t r
verb A e u t er verb h bee de ed t be th t whi c h de te e i th er
d i g
uff er i g A c t i ve verb i t me i mp rt d e te th t
t h e u bj ec t i d i g m e thi g J h
h we er i hi D i c t i ry
gi ve every c t i ve verb t h e de ig ti f t u l e f ll wed by
h
f
i
t
c
e
t
h
t
i
u
l
e
t
h
e
O
b
j
ec
t
u
b
j
ec
t
th e ct i be expre
j
ed I th f ll wi g i t ce f ex m p l e h e c i der th e verb
I d
k;
d h m de
e u t er
u re th t H e ry d
T
th e m l d i k l
v ge
th e pr i e t
if y
p l t wh re
k
f ee l hi m wh ere h e t
hi re
t h ey t h t w i
h f
t

t e r h ll p i j y Th e e
u mberl e ex m pl e
f w
t f
whi c h m igh t be pr d u ced I deed J h
i d eem t be h
bee j u t w O b erved t h t t h e verb mu t be reg rded
e ut er u l e
O bj ec t i ve c e Thi i cer t i ly g re t i cc u r cy d
f ll w d b y
t e d t i t r d u ce perp l ex i ty d c fu i
Th e v rb u rely d e t
th e l e de t e c t i bec u e i t expre e i t b l ut e ly bec u t h e
u bj ec t c t ed u p i t p rt i c u l rly pec i ed I th e ex m p l e w
qu ted
i t be qu t i ed wh w e y h t k th t h w c t i ve ;
in

nor s

n a

so

o n

ve

as

s,

is

na

nson ,

n e u er ,

or

ss

so

s n

s,

o na

ss

on
s

as

an

ra n

an O

o ns

no

s,

r ea

an

no

or s

s,

s na

on o

ss

n s an

as

o ns ,

a ,

a a

as

se

n n

o n

ec

on

s s

r n

e s

ca

or

ea c

a s,

r ea

a so

no

ca n

a re a

an

o n,

on

s no

es

on

ea s

nso n s

s on

on

ss s

en

sa

so

e s r uc

'

or

an

s no

se

s no

as a

as

ss

s,

as

na

so

ss

as n

a n

s s

ou

as

no

ss

an

s a re

s ru c

n or

sa a

an

ou

C R ITI C A L R EM A R K S

31 2

this sen se the auth o r la s t qu o te d ha s i n ano ther pass

age very pro perly used i t
S uch o f the M o resc o es
might remai n wh o f r an y c on siderable time demean ed
themselves as C hristian s I bi d
C o n si d erable arrears bei n g n o w resti n g t o the s o l
diers
quiet
In

em

)K

t
l
p

O WI

6
1

bu r t o
e

acc o t
CC

this
sider:
di

to

The
to I
cc

o r,

s ta n c r
9"

Tl

be !
verb
d i g
th e l
gi ve e
u se

o n

su

e c ti v e

ed

g
i

ut r
th e
ne

can

tea ch i

t e r Sh ll p j y Th e e
f w
u mberl e ex mpl e
t f
whi c h m igh t be pr d u ced I d ed J h
i de ee m t be s h
bee j u t w b rved t h t t h e verb m u t be reg rded
e u t er u l e
O bj ec t i v c
Thi i cert i ly g r t i cc u r c y d
f ll w ed b y
T h verb u re ly d e
t e d t i t r d u ce perpl x i ty d c fu i
t
th e l e de t e c t i bec u e i t expre e i t b l utely b c u e th
u bj ec t c t ed u p i t p rt i c u l rly pec i ed I th e ex mp l e w
qu ted
i t be qu t i ed wh e w e y h t k th t h w c t i ve ;
r ea

a s,

In

no

se

ca n

on

s no

es

on

n so n s

a s

as e

an

o n,

on

ss s

a
,

s on

sa

or

e a

ss

an

as

o s no

e s r uc ,

s,

na

ea

so

as n

a n

ss

ou

no

ss

an

a re a

s no

as a

I LL U S T RA TIO N S

AND

31 3

o rder t o have this pr oj ect re d uce d t o practice

there seems t o w an t n o thi n g m o re th a n t o pu t th o s e i n

S w if t
mi n d
H ere
that i s
to
to w a n t
&c

n ee d
t o require is impr perly use d fo r t o b e w a n t
t o be required
t o be w an t ed
I t sh o ul d be
in g
there seems t o be n o thi n g w an ti n g
The verb t o w a n t
w a s freque n tly em pl oye d b y P o pe a n d S w ift i n the se n se
J o h n s o n like w ise i n o n e o r t w o
i n w hich w e here n d it
passages has ad o pted the s ame usag e thus
there had
n ever w a n ted w riters t o talk oc casi o n al l y o f A rcadia a n d

o
n
L y e o f P hi l l ip s
S treph
B u t i n this s e n se it may
no w be deemed o bso lesce n t if n o t e n tirely o bs olete
The reader will here permit me t o o bserve that there is
re s pecti n g the u se o f active fo r
a n idi o m i n o ur la n g ua g e
passive verbs which s eems w o rthy o f atten ti o n an d which
In

,5

wh e w e y th y th t w h ll p wi ll i t be ffi rmed th t thy

t
ct i ve ? Thi w ul d b t c f u d d i t i c ti
t m er ly
k wl ed g ed i t h e ry
d d p t ed i de i t i
b u t l f u ded i th e
very t u re f t hi g T hi m tt er I c ce i ve m y be h rtly exp l i
ed d very e i ly u der t d I t i d mi tted b y ever y g r m m r i
th t
c t i ve verb d e t e t h t th e ubj ec t i c t i g d th t e u t er
verb ig i e t h t th e u bj ec t i e i th er d i g
u ff er i g N w
tw
ki d
t r i ti ve d i t r i t i ve Th e
f c t i ve v rb th ere
l tt er i th t whi c h de te i mm e t c t i
th t whi c h d e t p
fr m t h e g e t t
I w lk I
T r i ti ve verb
y t hi g e l e
u c h de t e th t t h e c t i p
fr m th e g e t t m e thi g c t ed
up
H ec t r w u ded hi m
l w hi br t h er B u t th
C i
u bj ec t t whi c h th e ergy p
lw y be expre ed th e
m y
t
verb h w ever i t th e l e ct i ve W h e th er w y th dr ummer
be t hi dru m
th e dr mm er be t every d y i t u re ly wil l t b
c t e ded t h t t h ere i l e f c t i i m p l i ed i th e
c e th i the
th er Th e re der th e i re qu e t ed t O b erve th t i t i t ece ry
i t i ve verb th t t h e u bj ec t ct ed u p h u l d be ex
t t h e c t i ve t r
pre ed Th e c t i ve v rb m y pred i c t e f i t ubj ec t merely th e c ti
g e er lly d b l u t e ly
h e re d i th m r i g d w ri te i th e
eve i g
wi th t h e c ti m y be expre ed th e u bj ec t Obj ec t
h e re d H mer i th m r i g d w i t l e tt er i th eve i g
t h e bj ect
u bj e t m y be i mp l i ed d t expre ed
th e
m e ly hi dru m
the
drumme r be t t igh t
B u t i l l th c
v rb i e qu lly c t i ve
or

no

sa

no

na

an

s oo

no

s,

on o

as

an a
s

on

ac

a n

are

no

a so

o ns

o n,

no

a s

on

ss

as ,

no

an

as

on

s sa

o n n

an

an

an

no

ss

n a

on

or

es

s no

s s

ss

ss

o n n

na

o ne

on

e sa

on

s a re

o so

as s

an s

o s no

s e

no

ans

an,

a n

r un .

an

as ,

a s a

no r

o n, o r

as s e s

or s

so

o n

a s

a ns

as ,

ss o

or

n n

or

an

s,

as s e s ,

ans

ss

or

s no

on

en

an

s a

an

as ,

o n,

o an

as

a re

no

an

r ea

s a

so

es e

n n

as,

ase s ,

C R ITI C A L R EM AR K S

31 4

I d o no t rec ol l ect t o have see n remarked by a n y of o ur

gra m maria n s I n the la n gu a ges o f an tiquity the dis
ti n cti on bet w ee n active a n d passi v e was strictl y observed ;
but i n E n glish the active is freq uen tl y empl oy ed fo r the
passive v oice O f this remarkable i d i o m n umberless ex
amples might be pro duced ; but the few foll o w i n g w ill
su fce Th us w e s a y
the se n te n ce r ea d s i l l
the

wi n e d r i n ks harsh
the gr a ss cu ts easily
the appl es

the dru m bea ts t o arm s

the metal w o r ks
e a t hard
I n these examp l es the subj ect clear l y i s acted
wel l
up on ; the verb therefo re mu st be c o n sidered as havi n g
a passive sign icati o n I t i s al m o st u n n ecessary t o o h
serve that this phrase ol o gy sh o ul d be av o ided when ever
it is l ikel y t o create ambiguity
B o o k of
L ead me fo rth i n thy truth a n d l earn me
C o mmo n P r ay er P s a l x x v The verb to l ea r n fo rmerly

den o ted either t o teach o r t o acquire k n o wle d g e

I n the fo rmer sen se it is n o w o bs olete It S h o uld there
fo re b e
lead me fo rth i n thy truth a n d tea ch me
P reve n t us 0 Lo rd i n all o u r d oi n g s by thy m o st
H e had
graci o u s fav o ur B o o k of C o mmo n P r ay er
preven ted the h o ur because we might have the wh o le d a y

befo re u s
The verb to p r ev en t as sign ify i n g
B a co n
t o go befo re o r c o me befo re is n o w o bs ol ete
There was n o l o n ger a n y d o ubt that the ki n g was
determi n ed t o wreck his rese n tmen t o n a ll c on cer n ed
Wa ts o n s P hilip I I
They no t o n ly wrecked their ve n gea n ce o n the

but o n the ashes o f dead heretics H en ry s

l iv ing
.

B r i ta i n

the verb to w r eck o r to destr oy by dashi n g on

r o cks is impro perl y used fo r t o wreak o r to dis
charge
I n the l ast exampl e the adverbs n o t o n ly are
impr o perl y placed It sh o u l d be t hey wreaked their

ven gean ce no t o n l y 8 w
We o u tru n o u r presen t i n co me n o t d o ubti n g t o dis
burse o ursel ves o u t o f the pro ts O f so me f uture p l an
H ere

31 6

C R ITI C A L R EM AR K S

Whi l o m is n o w e n tirely disused T he adverbs w hi ler e

e r s t a n d p erhaps als o a n o n
may be ra n ked i n the class o f
b a rba risms
A n d this atte n ti on g ives ease t o the pers o n because

the clo thes appear u n s tu d ily gracefu l

Wo l l s to n ecr af t s
O r ig i na l S to r i es The w o rd u n s t u d i ly is barbaro us a n d
i ts m o de o f d erivati on c o n trary t o a nal o gy
.

S O L EC I S M

a litt l e wi n e fo r th y st o mach s sake a n d thi n e

O ften i n r mi ti e s
Of ten a n adverb is here impro perly
u sed as a n adj ective i n acc o rdan ce with the substan tive
i n firmities
I t o ught t o be thy frequen t i n r mi ti e s
W e may cast i n such seeds a n d pri n ciples as we j ud g e

m o st likely t o take s oo n est a n d deepest r o o t

H ere as
i n the prece d i n g example t he adverb s oo n est is u s e d as
a dj ective ; fo r the c on n exi o n is s o o n es t r o o t a n d
an

s o o n r o o t the
d eep es t r oo t
N o w we c a n n o t s a y
fo rmer term bei n g i n c a pable o f q u alifyi n g the latter ; n o r
therefo re say s o o n es t r oo t
It o ught to he
can we

the earliest a n d the deepest r o t

A fter these wars o f which they h o pe fo r a s o on a n d
pr o spero u s issue
S o o n i s s u e is a no ther example o f the
same err o r
H is l o rdship i n veighed wit h severity ag ai n st the
c on duct o f the then mi n istry
H ere then the adverb
equivale n t t o a t tha t t i me is s o lecistically empl oyed as a n
adj ective agreei n g with m i n i s try Thi s err o r seems t o
gai n gro u n d ; it sh o uld therefo re be vigilan tl y o pp o se d
The mi n istry o f that time
a n d carefull y av o ided
w o ul d be c o rrect
H e tel ls them that the time sh o uld c o me that the

temple sh o uld be graced with the presen ce o f the M essi a s

H ere tha t is i n c o rrectl y used fo r w hen i e at which

tim e the temple sh o u l d be g raced

U se

,
.

I M P R O P R I ET Y

B y l etters ,

dated the third

M ay

we

lear n that the

A N D I LL U S T RA TIO N S

31 7

W est I n dia eet arri v ed safely

H ere s af ely is i m p r o
perly u sed f s fe The ad v erb is equivale n t t o in a
safe mann er a n d w he n it i s i d that the eet arrived
s
l
n ies that the ma
it
sig
er
the
arriv
al
rather
e
o
f
f y
than the eet itself w as safe o r free fro m acci d e n t If I
say he carried the parcel as s a fely as p o ssible it i m
plies merely his great atte n ti on t o the man n er o f carry i n g
it ; bu t this d o es n o t i n fal libly exclu d e cciden t ; f o r I

may add but he u n luckily fell o r

he w as u n f o r t u
B u t if I
n ately thro w n d o w n a n d the glass w as bro ke n
say
he carried it as safe as po ssibl e o r he carried it
safe it impl ies that it came safe o r escaped al l acciden ts
W e sh o u l d theref re s ay that the West I n di eet ar
rived safe
he ar rived
I n disappr o i n g the expressi o n

s a el
I
c
on
cur
w
ith
B
aker
but
the
j
ud
i
ci
us
rea
er
d
;
f y
will perceive that my reaso n fo r reprehe n d i n g it d e n o t
e n tirely c o i n ci d e with his The auth r s w o r d s are these :
If a ma n says that he arri v ed safely o r i n a safe m an
supp se that there i s d an ger f s me mis
n e r he seems t
cha n ce i n arrivi n g B u t w hat d a ger i s there t o be a pp r e
hen ded i n the circumsta n ce O f arrivi n g ? The da n ger i s
o n l y duri g the j ur n ey o r v oy age ; i n th e arrival there
i s n on e at al l The pro per w a y of speaki n g i s therefo re
I arrived safe that is havi n g escaped a l l the dan gers
O f the passage
The poo r w o m an carried them t o the pers on to w h o m
they were directed ; a n d w he n L ady C athcart rec vere d
her li berty she received her diam o nd s sa fely
It sh o u l d
be s he received her d i m o n ds sa fe
E rr o rs l ike the n e o n which I have n w a ni a d e r te d
freque n tly arise fr m a desire t o av o id the ppo ite mis
take ; I mean the impr per u se o f the adjecti v e fo r the
adverb S ee Sy n ta x R u l e V No te 1 6
H en ce m n y
when they empl y such phrase o l gies as I have here e x e m
c
that
they
express
themsel
v
es
w
ith
the
n ceive
li
ed
p
strictest accuracy thu s erifyi n g the p et o bservati on
I v i t iu m d i t c ul p fug
i c re t r t e

or

sa

nn

ni

uc

ae

a, s

C R ITI C A L R EM A R K S

31 8

I n o rder to av o id this err o r it sh o uld be remembered

that ma ny E n glish verbs whi l e they afrm s o me acti on
passi o n o r state o f the subj ect freque n tly serve as a c o pula
c onn ecti n g the subj ect with ano ther predicate This is o n e
o f th o se idi ms
i n the g rammar o f o ur lan guage which
deman d the particular atten ti o n o f the classical sch olar
F o r th o ugh a n a c quai n t a n ce with the lear n ed la n g u ages
will no t se d uce him i n t o a n impr o per use o f a n adjective
f r the adverb it may as i n the example n o w befo re u s
betray him i n t o the c on verse err o r A n d I am i n cl i n ed t o
thi n k that fro m a pr o pen sity al m o st irresistible i n the
cla s sical sch olar t o assimilate o u r l an gu age with the L ati n
t on gue o u r l exic o graphers have design ated man y o f o u r
w o rds as adverbs which are strictly a dj ectives Whe n it
i s said f o r ex ampl e it go es har d J o h n s on c o n siders

ha r d as a n adverb
it g o es c on trary
Y e t whe n w e s a y
he c on siders co n tr a ry a s a n adj ective There appears t o
m e t o be m o re o f c a price than o f reas on m o re o f prej udice
tha n o f truth i n this cla s sicati on B o th w o rds I am
persuade d bel o n g t o o n e an d the same species N ay I
m ight ve n ture t o assert that n o pers on wh o had studied
th e pri n ciples o f the E n glish lan gu a ge a n d o f that on l y
w o uld pr o n o u n ce the o n e t o be an a d verb an d the o ther
It is t o be observed l ike w ise that w e have
a n adj ective
the regular adverb ha r d ly t o express the mann er Whe n

w e a rgued
w e say he reas o n ed c on cer n i n g the rule

he lives acc o rdi n g t o n ature is

r especti n g the fact
there no t s o methi n g extremely arbitrary an d u n phi l o so p hi
cal i n calli n g co n cer n i ng a prep o siti on a cco r d i ng a pre
p o siti on foll o w d by to but pr o perl y a partici p le a n d
?
r e no t all the three participl es ?
a
participle
A
r es ect in
p
g
Y e t J o h n s on has classed them as I have n o w men ti o n ed
B u t the farther i ll u strati on o f this subj ect w o ul d l ead u s
i n t o a el d mu ch t oo l arge fo r the limits o f the presen t
treatise W e m ust therefo re revert t o o u r primary o b s e r
vati on i n which w e cauti on ed the reader a gai n st the i m
pr o per u s e o f the adjective fo r the adverb I t sh o uld be
,

C R ITI C A L R EM AR K S

32 0

W hen ever I call o n him he al ways i n quires f r y o u

When ev er me n s at what time s o ever
alway s when
or
as O ften as ; a l w ay s therefo re is redu n dan t
They w ill no t liste n t o the v o ice o f the charmer
N ev er is here impr o perl y
charm he n ever s o wisel y
fo r ev er
It o u ght t o be
charm he ever s
u sed
w isely
that is ho w ev er w is ely o r ho w w is ely s o ev er
he m a y charm
A n d eve n i n th o se characteristical p o rtraits o n w hich
he has l avished al l the dec o rati on s o f his sty l e he is sel d o m

S te w a r t L if e of R o ber ts o n This erro r

o r ever misled
is the c o n verse o f the fo rmer I t o ught t o be sel d o m o r
n ever that i s seld o m o r at no time
S el d o m o r
ever i s equi al e n t t o seld o m o r always o r to seld o m
expressi on s evi d en tly impr oper
o r at a n y time

r
B i bl e
W he
W hether th o u be my so n o no t
B o th these
ther y o u will keep his c mman dmen ts o r n o
phra e ol gies are i n u se ; but I a m i n cli n ed t o agree
w ith th o se grammaria n s w h o prefer the f rmer as m o re
c o n sisten t with the ellipsis
Whether th o u be o r be
no t
W hether y o u wi ll keep his c o m ma n dmen ts o r

wil l no t keep
S o me years after bei n g rel eased fr o m pri s on by reason
o f hi s c o n summate k n o w l edge O f civi l l a w
a n d military

affairs he w a s s oo n exal ted t o the supreme po wer

The
rst cl ause O f this sen ten ce is ambigu o us ; fo r the se ten ce
may imply either that he g ai n ed the supremacy s o me
years after he was released fro m pris o n that peri d bei n g
l eft i n determi n ate ; o r that s o me years after a time pre
d
n
me
he
was
release
fr
o
m
pris
o
n ti o n e d
an d a t
v i o u sl
y
The latter bei n g the auth o r s
t a i n e d the chief p o w er
mean i n g it o ught t o be s o me y ears af ter w a rd s bei n g
released fro m pris on A no ther ambiguity is here i n v l ved
by impr o per arran g eme n t ; fo r as the se n te n ce stan ds it
is s o me w hat d o ubtfu l whether his c on summate k n w l edge
w as the cause f his rel easeme n t o the cause o f his eleva
ti on This erro r h o wever bel on gs m o re t o the rhet o rician

A N D I LL U S T RA T IO N S

32 1

than the grammarian The F ren ch term thi s ambiguity

co n structi o n l o uche o r a s q uin ti ng co n str u cti o n
The foll o wi n g erro r c o n sists i n wron g c oll o catio n : The
C el tiberi i n S pai n bo rro wed that n ame fr o m the C el taa
an d
I beri fro m wh o m they w ere j o i n tly de s ce n d e d
J o i n tl y with w h o m ? It sh o u l d be
fro m wh o m ( the
C el tm a n d Ibe ri ) j o i n tly they were desce n ded
A n d the Q uakers seem t o appr o ach n ear l y the on l y
regu l ar b o dy o f D eists i n the u n iverse the l iterati o r the

H u me s E ss ay s
disciples o f Con fucius i n C hi n a
The
adverb n ea r ly w hich is sy non ym o us w ith a lmo s t i s here

impr o perly used fo r n ea r

It s h o uld be app r o a ch n ea r
This is the L eviatha n fro m w he n ce the terrible wits
o f o u r age are sai d t o
bo rr o w their w eapo n s S w y t
F r o m i s here redu n da n t ; w hen ce de no ti n g
fro m which
pl ace
A n a n cien t auth o r pr o phesies fr o m he n ce D ry d en
H ere a simi l ar impro priety is i n v ol ved It sh o u l d be
,

'

hen ce

E er w
ff er
c m pl i t
B e h l d hi m pre e t wi t h hi id

e can o

our

a n s,

s a

"
.

a c on tracti on fo r ev er w hich is sy no n ym o us with

a l w a s an d al s o a t a n
i
is
here
impr
o
perly
used
f
o
r
m
e
t
y
y
E

er ,

ere o r

I n the t w o fol l o w i n g passages there appears t o me t o

be a simi l ar erro r : O r ever the si l ver c o rd be l oo sed
B i bl e
o r the go l de n b o w l be br o ke n
I w as s e t up
fro m everl asti n g fr o m the begi nn i n g o r e v er the earth

was I bi d
A n d as there is n o w n ever a w o ma n i n E n gl a n d I
h o pe I may tal k o f w o me n with o ut O ffe n ce S teel e
H e spake n ever a w o rd B i bl e

This u sage o f the w o rd n ever i s n o w I bel ieve e n

t i rel
c
on

n
ed
t
o
the
vu
gar
l
y
I j u t i c t t hi re p c t b l e
i i c u mb t
m t O b e rve
c
t
i
t
s
th t th e Q u ker
t D i t
d e th e i r re l igi u creed ppr c h
t D i m
,

e s

s are n o

se

e s s, n or

o s

en

on
s

oa

C R IT I C A L R EM AR K S

32 2

fo r c o n agr a tio n s an d great dr o ughts they d o

no t merel y dispe ople an d destroy B a co n M er ely is
here used as it i s u n ifo rmly by B ac o n a n d very f r e
que n tl y by Sha ks p ea re fo r en tir ely I n this se n se it is
Obso l ete ; an d it n o w sign ies p u r ely s imp ly o n ly n o thi ng
m o r e tha n
F r o m i n atte n ti on t o this the passage n o w
qu o ted has bee n c o rrupte d i n several editi on s They
have it
d o n o t merel y di s pe o ple b u t d estr o y c on vey
i n g a se n timen t very di ffere n t fr o m what the auth o r i n
te n ded
As

S E C TI O N VI
P RE P

T HE

O SI T IO N

S O L EC I S M

H ere the prepo siti on is

W HO d o y o u speak t
j i n ed wit h the n o mi n ative i n stead f the Obj ective case
I t sh o u l d be
wh o m d o y o u spea k t o ? o r t o wh o m
d o y o u speak
T o w ho is a s ol ecism
H e tal ked t o y o u a n d I o f this matter s o me days
ago
It sh o u l d be
that is t o y o u
to y o u a n d me
a n d t o me
up
h d
N w M rg re t c u r
i f ll
l im d
Wh h
H ti g y
d I
o

,7

se

e e xc a

en s

on

on ou r

en

as

s,

ea

s,

o u an

S ha ksp ea r e

It o ught t o be
o n H asti n gs
the
pr
o
o u a n d me
y
n o u n s bei n g u n der the g o ver n me n t o f the prep o siti on u n
,

d e r s to o d

N either

d o I thi n k that a n y thi n g c o u l d be m o re e n

t e r ta i n i n g than the st o ry o f it exactl y t o l d with such o h
s e r v a tio n s
such a spirit sty l e an d mann er as
a n d in

o u al on e are capable o f perfo rmi n g it

This
se
n
te
n
ce
y
is extremel y faulty
T o perfo r m a st o ry is no t E n g
l ish ; a n d the rel ative cl ause i s u n grammatical the pre
,

C R ITI C A L R EM AR K S

32 4

is pl aced H e sh o u l d have empl oyed the l atter expres

si o n
The greatest masters o f critical l earn i n g di ff er am o n g
o n e a no ther
If the ellipsis be supplied the
Sp ecta to r
sen te n ce pro ceeds thus : The g reatest masters o f critical
lear n i n g di ffer on e d i ffers am o n g a no ther
H ere the
prepo siti on a m o ng which implies a n umber o r a plu
r a l it
is
j
o
i
n ed t o a term si g n ica n t o f u n ity
It
o
ught
y

t o be
fr o m o n e an o ther that i s o n e fr o m ano ther

di ff er am on g themsel ves
or
The pre
I i n ten ded t o wait of y o u this m o rn i n g
p o siti on of is here impr o perly used fo r o n W e say to
w a i t o n no t t o w a i t o
f
H e k n o ws no thi n g o n it This is a vi l e vul garism
he k n o ws n o thi n g of it
fo r
H e i s n o w m uch altered t o the better
T o i s here
impr o perl y used i n stead o f f o r
A ltered t o the better
may I believe be d eemed a S c o tticism It o ught to be
he is altered fo r the better
A mbi g uity is s o metimes pr o duced by putti n g the pre
A clergyma n i s by the
p o siti on i n a n impr o per place
militia act exempted fro m b o th servi n g an d c o n tr i b u t

ing
This th o ugh i n te n ded t o express a di fferen t mea n
i n g strictl y impl ies that he is no t o blige d b o th t o serve
but d o es no t exc l ude his l iabil ity to d o
a n d t o c on tribute
the o n e o r the o ther If we say
he is exempte d b oth
fr o m servi n g a n d c on tributi n g w e express a n exempti on
fr o m b o th

S uch o f my readers as have a taste o f n e writi n g

T o have a taste o f a thi n g

A d d is o n s S p ect
t o feel ho w i t a ff ects the se n sitive o r perceptive fa
cu l ty
t o have a t aste fo r a thi n g i s t o rel ish its
agreeabl e qu al ities
t o have a taste i n a thi n g whic h
i s the expressi on used by A ddis on i n the same paper is
t o have a discrimin ative j udgme n t i n exami n i n g the o h

j c et
The rst expressi on i s i n c o rrect as no t c on vey
i n g hi s mean i n g
.

A ND I LL U S T RA TIO N S

32 5

speaki n g o f M arlbo ro ugh s dismissi on fro m the

queen s mi n i s try as a b a d requital o f his public services
says
If a str an ger sh o u l d hear these furi o u s o utcries
o f i n gratitude agai n st o ur ge n eral
he w o ul d be apt t o i n
n e w o uld n aturall y c on clude fr o m the a
c
&
O
uire
q
u
th o rs ex pre s s i o n that M arl bo r o ugh an d no t the n ati on
w as charge d with i n gratitu d e H e sh o uld have s a id i n
gr atitude t o w ards o u r ge n e al

I received the s w o rd i n a prese n t fro m my bro ther

This i s a very c o mm on co ll o quial S c o tticism a n d occurs
oc casi o n al l y i n wri tte n l an guage The s w o rd was n o t r e
ce i v ed i n but a s a prese n t
I n the u se o f prepo iti o n s a disti n cti on i s pr o per l y
made bet w ee n their li teral a n d gurative mea n i n g Wit
d epe n ds o n dil at o ry time
says S ha ks p ea r e
H ere the
verb is empl o yed g u ratively a n d the idea i n v o lved i n
th e primitive mean i n g is di smi ssed
F r m gi l ded r f depe d i g l m p di p l y B y d
S w ift ,

oo s

en

H ere the verb i s u sed i n i t literal acceptati o n deno ti n g

t o han g
therefo re by f r o m
a n d i s fo ll o wed
T o the s a me pu rp o se it ha s bee n remarked by C amp

be ll that the verb t o fo u n d used l iteral ly i s fo ll o w ed

by o n preferabl y t o i n as
the h o u se was fo u n ded o n
a ro ck but when empl o yed metaph o rically is better

foll o w e d by i n as d o mi n i o n i s fo u n ded i n grace

There is no n ee d f o r y o ur assistan ce
I t sh o ul d be
y
o
ur
assista
n
ce
We
say
o
c
ca si on
or
a
n
d
of
f

Need f o r may l ike w i se be pr on o u n ced at

n eed of
S co tticis m as I be l ieve this phra s eol o gy is se l d o m o r
n ever u sed by E n glish writers
F o r w hat chiey deters the s on s o f scie n ce a n d p hi
l o so p hy fr o m re ad i n g the B ibl e a n d p r o ti n g o f that
l ecture but the stumbli n g bl o ck o f absolute i n spirati on

G ed d es
T o pr o t o f i s a G all icism ; it sh o u l d be
pr o ti n g by
s

C R ITI C A L R EM AR K S

32 6

VI I

S EC TI O N
T HE

O N JU N C T I O N

S O L EC I S M

S Y ST E M o f the ol o gy i n v ol vi n g such absurdities c a n

be mai n tai n ed I thi n k by n o rati on al man much l ess b y

s
lear n ed a m a n as him
Conj u n cti on s havi n g n o g o
v e r n m en t the w o rd a s o ught no t t o be j o i n ed with a n o h

e c t i e case
l
I
t
sh
o
u
d
be
s
o
ear
n
ed
a
the
l
m
a n as he
j
verb i s bei n g u n derst oo d
Tel l the cardi n al that I u n derstan d p o etry better than

S mo l l e t
him
A cc o rdi n g t o the grammatical c n
structi on o f the l tter clause it mean s
I u n derstan d
p o etry better than I u n derstan d him
This h o wever
i s no t the sen time n t which the writer i n te n ded t o c on v ey
The cl au se sh o uld pro ceed thus
I u n derstan d p o etry
better than he that is than he u n derstan ds it Th o se
wh
c on te n d fo r the u s e o f tha n as a prepo siti n an d
j ustify the phraseo l o gy which i s here cen sured must a t
l east admit that t o c o n strue tha n as a prep o siti on creates
ambiguity Thus when it is said y o u thi n k him han d

s o mer tha n me it w o uld be imp o ssible t o d etermi n e whe

ther the mean i n g is
y o u thi n k hi m han ds o mer than I

thi n k him o r y o u thi n k him han ds o mer than y o u

thi n k me
There i s no thi n g m o re pl eases m an ki n d as t o have
o thers t o admire a n d praise their perfo rman ces th o ugh
they are n ever s o trivial
H ere there are tw o err o rs
The c o mparative mor e is fol l o wed by a s i n stead o f tha n ;
Ho w
a n d the a d verb n ev er i s impr o perly used fo r e ver

trivial s o ever
It sh o uld be
There is no thi n g that
leases
m
a
n ki n d m o re tha n
c
&
p
Co nj u n cti on s havi n g no g o er n men t the s ch ol ar de
A

C R ITI C A L R EM AR K S

32 8

I n the fol l o wi n g passage the t w o subj ects bel on g t o the

same verb
Th e
u p th e c l m t

t h lf
A pp r
b igh t t h ee P i
I t o ught t o be as th o u that is as th o u a p p ea re s t

S o as a n d a s as th o ugh frequen t l y have n o t

al w ays the same impo rt
These thi n gs sai d Thales t o
S ol on wh o w a s lame n ti n g the supp o sed death o f his s o n
which strike d o w n s o r m a ma n a s y o u have deterred me
fro m marriage
The expressi on clearly refers to S o lo n
but if he had said as rm a man as y o u it migh t
have referred t o a di ffere n t pers on fro m S ol on but a man
o f equal fo rtitude
F
ver i thi hu mb l ce l l
L e t t h ee d I my f i r
d w ll
The sec on d li n e o f the c o uplet is u ngrammatical the
c o nj u n c t i o n c on n ecti n g a n obj ective with a no mi n ative
case o r to speak m o re c o rre ctly the pr o n o u n o f the rs t
perso n w hich sh o ul d be a regime n t o the verb u n derst oo d
bei n g here i n the no mi n ative case Thu s l e t thee a n d
let I my fair o n e dwell i n stead o f l e t thee an d let me

n
d
n
a
L et us make a c o ve a n t I
th o u
B ible
The
err o r here th o u gh similar d o es n o t c o me u n der precisely
the same predicame n t with the fo rmer The pr ono u n u s
i s very pr o perly i n the o bj ective case after the verb
I a n d tho u S h o u l d therefo re be i n the same case ac
l et
c o rdi n g to R u l e vii o f Sy n tax The expressi on is i n fact
a n d whe n c o mpleted pr o cee d s thus
L et u s
e l l iptical
make a c o ven an t let me a n d thee make
Th o u gh he were a s o n yet learn ed he o bedie n ce by
the thi n gs which he su ffered
The rst clau se is i n ten d
n o t a hyp o thesis ; the verb
there
e d t o express a fact
fo re s h o ul d b e i n the i n dicative m ood Conj u n cti on s
have no g o v e rn me n t eit her o f cases o r m oo ds
.

on

sun,

ea s n o

so

es

s ea,

as

r or .

or e

an

o n e,

I M P R O P R I ET Y

If an d i n ca s e
i n case he c o me all w ill be wel l
are s y no n ym o us the o n e mea n i n g suppo se an d the
If

A N D I LL U S T R A TIO N S

32 9

ther o n the suppo siti on

O n e o f them therefo re is
redu n dan t
The reason o f my desiri n g t o see y o u was because I
B eca u se mean s
wan ted t o talk w ith y o u
by reas on
the expressi on therefo re is chargeabl e with redu n dan cy

I t sh o uld b e that I wa n ted t o tal k with y o u

N o s oon er was th e cry o f the i n fan t heard but the

M a r tin u s S e ri b
o l d g e n tlema n rushed i n t o the r oo m
The c o mparative is here impr o perl y foll o wed by bu t i n
stead o f tha n
S carce had the S pirit o f L aws made i ts appeara n ce
Tha n is empl oyed after c o mpara
than it w as attacked

ti v e s on l y a n d the w o rd o ther
It o ught t o be scarce
o r fo r re a s on s fo rm erly give n
scarcely had the Spirit o f
L aws m a d e i t s appeara n c e w hen it was attacked o r no
8 o o n e rtha n
The re s ol u ti o n was n o t the less xed that the secret
w a s as yet c o mmu n icated t o very f e w either i n the F re n ch
This passage fr o m H ume I have n o t
o r E n g l ish c o urt
bee n able to n d P riestl ey observes that it i n v olves a
If
G al licism the w o rd tha t bei n g u s ed i n stea d o f a s
the mean i n g i n ten ded be that so me circumstan ces pre
n o t sh ake n the res o luti o n
me
n ti on ed
had
becau
e
v io u s l
s
y
the secret was as yet k n o w n to fe w the n P riestley s O h
servati on is c o rrect ; a n d the w o rd a s sh o uld be s u b s ti
B ut
t u te d fo r t ha t t o express the cause o f the rm n ess
if the auth o r i n ten ded to say that the very partial dis
the
o f the secret had n o t shake n the reso l uti o n
co v e r
y
clause is the n perfectly c o rrect A cc o rdi n g t o the fo rmer
phra seo l o gy the C irc umst a n ce subj oi n ed o perated a s a
cause pre v e n ti n g the res o luti on fr o m bei n g shake n : a o
c o rdi n g t o the latter it had no e ff ect o r pro duced no
chan ge o f the p re v i o u s determi n ati on I n o ther w o rds the
les s xed that implies that the subj ect o f the foll o wi n g
c l au se d id no t a ffect that o f the prece d i n g
the l ess x e d
de no tes that the latter circum stan ce co n tributed t o
as
the pr od ucti o n o f the fo rmer A s it is Obvi o us that i n
such example s the de n ite articl e may refer either to the
90

C R ITI C A L R EM A R K S

330

a n tecede n t o r the sub seque n t cl ause the disti n cti on here

specied sh o u l d fo r the sake o f perspicuity be careful l y
,

b s e r ve d

d on ati on was the m o re acceptable that it was

give n with o u t s ol icitati on

That the w o rd tha t i s f r e
que n tl y used fo r beca u se canno t be questi o n ed ; thus I
am glad tha t y o u h ave retur n ed safe that i s beca u s e

o u have retur n ed safe

y
le
t th t I l ve y
Ti

Th wh e bef re y u r fee t I l y l V l l
H ere tha t i s equival e n t t o beca u s e
E n glish writers
h o w ever after a c o mparative e m pl oy a s o r beca u se t o de
n o te that the circumsta n ce subj o i n ed was the cause o f the
precedi n g o n e The u s e o f tha t i n such examples is a c
c o u n ted a S c o tticism it sh o ul d therefo re be his d o n a
ti o n w a s the m o re acceptable a s o r beca u s e it was give n

with o ut s olicit a ti on
H i s argume n ts o n this o ccasi o n had it m a y be pre
sumed the greater wei ght that he had n ever himsel f

e n tered withi n the wal l s o f a playh o use

S tew a r t s L if e
R
o be r ts o n
of
A m o r ti c a ti o n the m o re severe that the j o i n t a u
t ho r i ty o f the archduke a n d the i n fa n ta g o ver n ed the
Tho ms o n s co n ti n u a ti o n of Wa t
A ustrian N etherl a n ds
H is

s no

an

ss

ou

er

H i s to ry

son s

These sen te n ces are chargeable with the same err o r ;

it is n t a little remarkable th o u g h the impro priety
a nd
ha s bee n p oi n ted o u t a g ai n a n d agai n that there i s scarcel y
a S c o tch w riter no t even am o n g th o se o f the highest n ame
o

b igui t y me t i me cc u r i L t i b y th i d i im i
f q d
te
Thi m y be preve t d b y e mp l y i g q i m wh e
th
u cceed i g m mb r f th e t e ce expre
t h e c u e f t h e pre
ced i g ubj ec t T hu N ec c i l iu m m i u er t m m qu i m

ecr tu m m p p i d h er t m m i t m wh er th re fer
t
preced i g c i rc u m t ce
N ec c i l iu m mi u er t m m
qu d wh re th refer t th e u b e qu e t c l u e Th e f rm r p h
l gy f rm t h e l tt r de i th i u c f the c i rc u m t ce u bj i ed
A

na

so

er

s,

s en

uc

n e s,

u n ca u

en e o

eO

s cr

uo n a

on s

s s es

e0

co

on s

s an

e co

n e

au c s a

s o

s,

cu

ua

am

u se O

i mi l r

e co

s an

on a

ra s e o

o n

C R ITI C A L R E M A R K S

332

this i s n o t al ways the case n either Bea tti e

M e n c o me n o t t o the k n o wledge o f ideas w hich a r e
th o ught i nn ate ti ll they c o me t o the u s e o f reas on ; no r
the n n either L o cke
I n o l d E n glish t w o n egatives de n ied ; he n ce perhaps
this phraseo l o gy o rigi n ated J o h n s on remarks that the
u se o f n ei ther after a n ega tive an d at the e n d o f a s e n
te n ce th o u gh n o t grammatical re n d ers the expressi on
m o re emphatic A n al o gy h o w ever is decidedly i n fav ou r
the afrmative term ; I therefo re prefer the w o rd
of
either
W ere J o hn s o n s argumen t admitted such ex
pressi on s as these I fo rbade y o u n o t t o g o ;
I w on t
H e w o u l d n o t have non e o f my
s u e r n o such thi n g ;
assistan ce might I apprehen d be j ustied o n the same
pri n ci ple Th o se wh o empl o y them d o ubtless bel ieve
them to be m o re emphatic than if they i n c l uded a si n gle
n egative
This I am the rather d ispo sed t o d o that it w ill serve
t o illu trate the pri n ciples ab o ve l aid d o w n C a mp bel l
This sen ten ce i n v o lves an erro r on which
o n Rhet o r i c

The r a ther s ho uld be

I have already an imadverted
fol l o w ed by a s n o t th t
This is an o ther use that i n my o pi n i o n c o n tributes
rather t o make a m a n lear n e d th a n wise ; a n d is n either

capable o f pleasi n g the u n derstan din g o r imagi n ati on

Lo wth j u s tl y o bserves that o r is here impro perl y used fo r
I n a d diti o n
n o r the c o rrelative w o rds bei n g n e i the r n o r
t o this o bservati on I remark that the w o rd n ei ther is
erron e o usly place d T o ren der this c oll o cati on o f the
c o nj u n cti o n c o rrect there sh o u l d be an o ther attributi e

o pp o sed t o the w o rd capable as n either capable o f

plea s i n g the u n dersta n di n g n o r calculated t o g ratify the
imagi n a ti on
Bu t as the auth o r i n te n ded t o exclude tw o
subj ects these sh o uld have bee n c o n trasted by the excl u
sive c onj u n cti o n s thus
is capable O f pleasi n g n either
the u n derstan di n g n o r the i magi n ati o n
Ad
A simi l ar err o r o ccurs i n the fol l o wi n g se n te n ce

No

A ND I LL U S T RA TIO N S

333

versity bo th taught y o u t o thi n k a n d re a s on S teel e

The c o nj u n cti o n w hich is i n truth the adj ective bo th is

impro perly placed It sh o uld be

tau ght y o u bo th
t o thi n k a n d re a s o n
i e the t w o thi n g s
I t has been al rea d y o bserved t hat the c o nj u n cti on o r i s
used disj u n ctively a n d s ub d i sj u n c ti e l y so metime s d e n o t
i n g a diversity o f thi n g s a n d s o metime s merel y a di ff er
e n ce o f n ames H en ce O fte n arises ambi g uity where the

u tm o st precisi o n o f expressi on i s n e c e s sa r y f When R u d

diman de l ivers it as a rule that verbal adj ectives o r
such a s si g n ify a n aff ecti on o f the mi n d require the gen i
tive I have k n o w n the sch ol ar at a l o ss t o u n derstan d
whether there be t w o disti n ct classe s o f adj ectives here i n
ten ded o r o n e cl ass u n de r t w o desig n ati o n s The ambi
guity mi g ht here be av o ided b y u s i n g a n d o r w i th i n s tead
o f o r I t m ay als o be preve n ted i n m a n y c a ses by m o re
fo rcibl y marki n g the disti n cti on b y the u se o f e i ther
Thus if we say wh o s o ever shall cause o r o cca s i on a
disturban ce it may be d o ubtful w hether the l a tter o f the
t w o verbs be no t desig n ed as expl a n at o ry o f the fo rmer
they th o ugh thei r mean i n gs be disti n ct bei n g O fte n u sed
If w e s a y shall either cause o r
a s s y non ym o us term s
o ccasi on all d o ubt i s rem o ved S o meti m es ambiguity
may be precluded either by the i n serti on o r the o m issi o n
Thus if w e say a peer o r l o r d o f par
o f the articl e
l ia m e n t 1 mea n i ng t o desig n ate o n l y o n e i n dividual o r
B u t if it be i n te n d
o n e o rder the expres s i on i s c o rrect
ed t o sign ify tw o i n dividual s every peer no t bei n g a l o rd
a n d e ery l o rd o f parliame n t n o t bei n g a
o f p a rliame n t
peer we sh o u l d say a peer o r a l o rd o f parl iame n t o r
either a peer o r l o rd o f parl iame n t

p l t t u t whi c h h u l d b prec i e ly w rd d b c u e
t h ey l i ter lly i t rpr t d mu c h mb igui t y frequ e tly ri e fr m th e
d i c rrec t m
er i whi ch t hi c ju c ti i u ed
l
T h e i u f qu ti r p c t i g c t ted el ec t i t R ch e t e
i 1 8 2 0 depe ded
t h e c t ru c t i
f thi de ig t i
p er

l rd f p rl i me t
In

a re

o o s e an

ss

e o

e e

es

on

o n,

an n

e s,

n e

s a

en a

our

es

ons

on

on

o n es

on

s s

na

o n,

e a

on a

r,

or

C R I TI C A L R EM AR K S

334

H avi n g n o w e n deav o ured t o explai n a n d i l lustrate the

etym ol ogy a n d sy n tax o f the E n gl ish lan guage I can n o t
dismiss the subj ect with o ut ear n estly rec o mme n di n g t o
the classical studen t t o cul tivate a cri t ical acquai n tan ce
with his n ative t on gue I t is a n egregi o u s but c o mm on
erro r t o imagi n e that a perfect k n o w led g e o f G reek a n d
L ati n precludes the n ecessity o f stu d yi n g the pri n ciples O f
E n gli s h grammar
The structure o f the a n cie n t a n d that
O f m o d ern lan guages are very dissimilar N ay the p e
c u li a r idi o ms o f a n
l
a
n
guage
h
o w l ike
s
o
ever
i
n
i
ts
y
gen eral pri n ci pl es t o a n y o ther m ust be l ear n ed by study
a n d a n atte n tive perusal O f the best w riters i n that l an
guage N o r ca n a n y imputati o n be m o re repr o achfu l t o
the pro cie n t i n c l assical literature than with a critical
k no wl edge o f G reek an d L ati n which are n o w dead l an
guages t o be supercial l y acquai n ted with his n ative
t on gue i n which he m ust thi n k a n d speak a n d write
The superi o rity o f G reek an d L atin o ver the E n glish
l a n guage i n respect o f harm o n y graceful dig n ity c o n cise
n ess a n d uen cy will be readily admitted O ur l an guag e
is c o mparatively harsh a n d abrupt I t p o sses s es stre n gth
i n deed ; but u n acc o mpan ied with s o ft n ess with el egan ce
o r with maj esty
It m ust be gran ted al s o that the G reek
is perhaps a m o re c o pi o us a n d i s certai n l y a m o re duc
*
tile an d tractabl e l an guag e B u t th o ugh i n these
respects the E n glish be i n feri o r t o the la n guages o f
G reece a n d R o me y et i n precise n ess o f expressi o n diver
n icati o n
a n d variety o f
facility
o
f
c
o
mmu
sit
o f so u n d
y
phrase it may claim the pre emi n e n ce I t w o uld be easy
t o evi n ce the truth o f this asserti on did the l imits which
I have prescribed t o mysel f permit The fact is that
,

Th e u per i r d u c t i l i ty f th e G reek b v every th r l gu g

i gu l r p ti t u de t f rm w w rd b y c m p i
m u t pp r f r m i t
ti
d ri v t i
i mm ed i t ely t c m mu i c t e y w i de
d i ve t i
m d r d i c v ri e
H e ce th m e f m t f
Thu w h ve th e t rm mi cr c pe tel eg r p h
f G r ek ex t r c t i
p
Od m t r
m
d m y th er
s

on

or

ea

e na

an o ra

on,

a,

s n

SO

as

e e

ou r

an

an

s o

an

an

ne
n

e,

os

s an

os o

ne

e n

os

on

o n s a re

P u bl ished
1

sa

me A u tho r

on

1817
5

o o

on

an

n one

AN E SS A Y o PHIL O S OP HI C AL N EC E SS I T Y i
la r g e v o lu m e 8 o 1 7 9 3
L ETTER S
PR ES ENT S TA TE f the A G R I
th
C U LT U R A L I N T E R E S T 1 8 1 6
A R E P L Y t th S TR I C TU R ES f t h R EV J A M E S
E gl i h E ty m l gy
d
a Tr eat i e
G I L C H RI S T o
S y ta x 1 8 1 7
A L ETTE R t o D R I C A RD O E SQ
tai i g a A a
ly is f hi s Pam phlet
th D e p r ec i at i
of Ba k N o tes
,

by the

on

on

n n

con

to LETTE R S add es s e d to him b y D R JA M E S

G R EG O R Y o the S bj e c t o f Phil o s o p hi c al N e c ess i ty 8 o
R EPL I E S

1 82 0

l
7

siv e
thi r d e dit i o

G Y M NA S I U M ,

es 8 o
1 834
C L A VI S G Y M NA SI I s i v e Ex e c ita ti e s i
C i ticam partim s ic u t i e te ib u s e x tan t d at e
A u c to r e L a ti e e dd i t
1 82 8
8 o
G YM NA S I U M si v e S Y M BO L A C R ITI C A
um

1 2 mo

1 83 6

on

e e.

in t w o

vo

n v

C R I TI C A

S YM BO L A

S y mb o l a m

et

a
r
t
i
m
ab
p

A b r i dg e d

or E s s ay s o n the Ex i s te c e o f
D e i ty a n d o f P r o v i d e c e o
t he I m mate r i al i ty o f the S o l
a n d a Fut u re S tate i
1 82 9
t w o la g e v ol m es 8 v o
1 0 A L ETTE R t o LI E U T C O L T O RR EN S M P
i
a s w er t o his A D D R E S S t o the FA R M E R S o f the U N I T E D
KI NG D OM
1 8 32
l l
T H E S TR I K E o r A D i alo g ue b et w ee n John Treadle
an d A n d re w Plo w man
1 83 4

N A T U RA L T H EO L O G Y ,

L O V DON :

P RI N T E D

D ors e

BY S A M U EL

t S tr t
ee

Fl e e t

B E NT L T Y ,

St

r ee t.