POWER ELECTRONICS

LABORATORY MANUAL

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Page 1

LIST OF EXPERIMENTS
NAME OF THE EXPERIMENT

Ex No.
1a.

CHARACTERISTICS OF SCR

1b.

CHARACTERISTICS OF TRIAC

1c.

CHARACTERISTICS OF MOSFET AND IGBT

2.

SINGLE PHASE HALF AND FULLY CONTROLLED CONVERTERS

3
4.

THREE PHASE HALF AND FULLY CONTROLLED CONVERTERS

SINGLE PHASE CYCLOCONVERTER

SINGLE PHASE AC VOLTAGE CONTROLLER

6.

CURRENT COMMUTATED CHOPPER

7.

VOLTAGE COMMUTATED CHOPPER

8.

SERIES INVERTER

9.

IGBT BASED SINGLE-PHASE PWM INVERTER

10.

DESIGN OF FIRING CIRCUITS-UJT,R,RC

11.

STATIC CIRCUIT BREAKERS

12.

IGBT BASED FOUR QUADRANT CHOPPER

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Ex No: 1a
Date :

CHARACTERISTICS OF SCR
AIM
To obtain the following for a given SCR
a) Forward characteristic
b) Holding current
c) Latching current
APPARATUS / INSTRUMENTS REQUIRED
S. No.
1
2
3
4
5
6

Components name
Thyrister-TYN410
Dual regulated power supply(0-30)V/300mA
Resistors-220,6.8,680,10Kpotentiometer
Voltmeter-(0-50) V
Ammeter-(0-1000)A, (0-100)mA
Connecting wires

Quantity
1
1
Each 1
1
Each 1
As req.

THEORY
Silicon Controlled Rectifier (SCR) is a four layer PNPN device. It has three
terminals the outermost P layer is the anode, the outermost N layer is the cathode and the
inner P layer is the gate. This device acts as a controlled switch. The switch is made to
close by triggering it under forward biased condition.

VG -IG CHARACTERISTICS (GATE CHARACTERISTICS)

There are various methods of triggering the SCR and among them the most
popular one is the gate triggering method. When a positive voltage is applied to the gate
with respect to the cathode, keeping anode also positive referred to the cathode, a current
flow into the gate and this current trigger the SCR. The relationship between the gate
voltage VG and gate current IG is known as the gate characteristic. There is a PN junction
in between the gate and cathode and hence the gate characteristic will be similar to a
diode. This characteristic is useful in designing the trigger circuit. The values of VG and IG
must be within their maximum values specified in the sheet.

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VFB IG CHARACTERISTICS (BLOCKING CHARATERISTIC)

With the gate circuit open, the SCR remains in the OFF state or block the
forward voltage across it. As the forward voltage is increased, the SCR goes to ON state
at a voltage VFBO called as forward break over voltage. With gate current, the forward
voltage at a fixed value as the gate current is increased, the SCR conducts beyond a
certain gate current denoted as IG min. this characteristic between the forward voltage and
IG min. is useful in determining the minimum gate current to be supplied for a given
forward voltage.

In the ON state, the SCR offers a resistance between its anode and cathode.
This resistance causes a drop in voltage across the device when a current flows through it.
The relationship between this voltage drop VF and the anode current IF is known as the
VF -IF characteristic. The product of the voltage drop and the current causes a loss of
power across the device. This power loss increases the temperature of the device. This
power loss and the switching losses are required for selecting the heat sink.

LATCHING CURRENT (IL)

A SCR can be represented by a two transistor analogy as shown above. Here the
collector of the PNP transistor feeds the base current of the NPN transistor and the
collector of the NPN transistor forms the base current of the PNP transistor. Due to this
interconnection there is a regenerative action between the two transistors and this action
can be explained as follows.

Let a small current be injected momentarily into the base of NPN transistor. The
base current increases the collector current of PNP transistor. This in turn increases the
collector current of PNP transistor which form the base current of NPN transistor. This
cumulative action continues until both the transistors are saturated. Thereafter the
external base current is not required to keep the transistor ON.

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It can be said that the two transistors are latched ON. This latching action can
occur only when the sum of the current gain of the transistors is unity. This occurs
beyond a certain minimum anode current which is called as latching current.

In practice when a SCR is triggered and the gate current is maintained, the SCR
will remain in ON state even for current less than be latching currents. But when the gate
current is removed the S CR will turn off. Repeating the above procedure for increasing
values of anode currents, it can be found that the SCR remains is ON state beyond as
certain anode current even after removing the gate current. This minimum current is the
latching current of the SCR. Thus the latching current can be defined as the minimum
anode current required turning ON the SCR and keeping it ON even after the removal of
the gate current.

HOLDING CURRENT ( IH)

It has been explained that the SCR is a latching device and it remains in ON
state even after the gate current is removed. With the SCR in ON state as the anode
current is decreased the SCR will remain in ON state up to certain anode current but it
many turn off below a certain current. This minimum anode current at which the SCR
remains in ON state is called as the holding current IH .It may be defined as the minimum
anode current that can flow through the device without reverting the device to OFF state
with the gate circuit open. The hold on current is slightly less than the latching current.

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POWER CIRCUIT DIAGRAM

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MODEL CHARACTERISTICS
V-I CHARACTERISTICS
Ia(A)

Forward conduction ON state

Ig3
Ig2

Ig1

IL
Igo

IH

Va(V)
-Va(V)

VBO
Reverse
Blocking
current

Reverse
Leakage
Current

Forward
Blocking

Forward
leakage current

-Ia(A)

VBO -Forward Break over voltage

VBR- Reverse Break over voltage
Ig- Gate current

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TABULATION
FORWARD CHARACTERISTICS

S.NO.

Gate current IG

Gate voltage VG-K

Anode current

Anode Voltage

(mA)

(V)

IA (mA)

Av (V)

REVERSE CHARACTERISTICS

S.No.

Anode voltageVA-K (V)

Anode current Ia(mA)

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Page 8

PROCEDURE

FORWARD CHARACTERISTICS
1. Connections are made as per the circuit diagram.
2. Initially the gate is at the open condition means that there is no voltage applied
to the gate.
3. Apply a positive voltage by adjusting the potentiometer, across the anode and
cathode so that the device is forward biased.
4. The anode to cathode voltage is increased, until the thyristor starts conduction.

REVERSE CHARCTERISTICS
1. Apply a reverse voltage across the anode to cathode, as the same way as like
the forward characteristics.
2. Keep on increasing the reverse voltage across that a small leakage current
flow, until the reverse break down occurs.
3. Note down the corresponding voltmeter and ammeter readings.

INFERENCE

RESULT

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VIVA QUESTIONS
1.

A thyristor is a ________________ carrier semi controlled device.

2.

A thyristor can conduct current in ________________ direction and block voltage in

________________ direction.

3.

A thyristor can be turned ON by applying a forward voltage greater than forward

________________ voltage or by injecting a positive ________________ current
pulse under forward bias condition.

4. To turn OFF a thyristor the anode current must be brought below ________________
current and a reverse voltage must be applied for a time larger than
________________ time of the device.
5. A thyristor may turn ON due to large forward ________________.
6. Which layer among the PNPN layers dissipates more power and which junction
supports a higher voltage?
7. Explain whether a SCR can be used in an amplifier or not?
8. Distinguish DC triggering, pulse triggering and multipulse triggering?
9. Define the boundaries of the complete VG -IG characteristic?
10. Explain the significance of average and RMS current ratings of SCR?
11. What is the significance of the I2 Rt rating of SCR?
12. How does di /dt of the load affect the SCR and how is it taken care of?
13. What is meant by critical rate of rise of forward voltage? How does it affect the
operation of SCR? How is its effect minimized?
14. What is the order of current that flows through the SCR in blocking state?
15. Explain series and parallel operation of SCRs?

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Ex. No: 1b
Date:

CHARACTERISTICS OF MOSFET
AIM
To study the characteristics of MOSFET and observe the waveforms for
1. Transfer characteristics
2. Drain characteristics

APPARATUS / INSTRUMENTS REQUIRED

S.NO

COMPONENTS NAME

MOSFET

Regulated power supply

Ammeter

RANGE/TYPE
3N200

QUANTITY
1

(0-30)V/DC

(0-10) mA /MC

(0-15)V,
4

Voltmeter

(-5-15)V

MC
5

Connecting wires

As req.

1k/1W
6

Resistors

470/1W
5K/1W

Each 1

10K/1W

THEORY
A bipolar junction transistor (BJT) is a current controlled device and requires base
current for current flow in the collector. Since the collector current is depends on the
input

(or base) current, the current gain is highly dependent on the junction

temperature.

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A power MOSFET is a voltage controlled device and requires only a small input
current. The switching speed is very high and the switching times are in the order of
nanoseconds. Power MOSFETs are finding its applications in low-power high-frequency
converters. MOSFET do not have the problems as in BJT by secondary phenomena.
However, MOSFET have the problem of electrostatic discharge and require special care
in handling. In addition, its relatively difficult to protect them under short-circuited fault
conditions.MOSFET are two types:

(1) Depletion MOSFETs and

(2) Enhancement MOSFETs.
n-channel depletion-type MOSFET is formed on a p-type silicon substrate with
two heavily doped n+ silicon for low resistance connections. The gate is isolated from
the channel by a thin oxide layer. The three terminals are called gate, drain and source.
The substrate is normally connected to the source. The gate to source voltage, VGS could
be either positive or negative. If VGS is negative, some of the electrons in the n-channel
area will be repelled and a depletion region will be created below the oxide layer,
resulting in a narrower effective channel and high resistance from the drain to source, RDS
If VGS is made negative enough, the channel will be completely depleted, offering
a high value of RDS, and there will be no current flow from the drain to source, IDS = 0.
The value of VGS when this happened is called pinch-off voltage, VP. On the other hand,
VGS is made positive, the channel becomes wider, and IDS increases due to reduction in
RDS. With a p-channel depletion type MOSFET, the polarities of VDS, IDS, and VGS are
reversed.
An n-channel enhancement-type MOSFET has no physical channel. If VGS is
positive, an induced voltage will attract the electrons from the p-substrate and accumulate
them at the surface beneath the oxide layer. If VGS is greater than or equal to a value
known as threshold voltage, VTH, a sufficient numbers of electrons are accumulated to
form a virtual n-channel and the current flows from the drain to source. The polarities of
VDS, IDS, and VGS are reversed for a p-channel enhancement-type MOSFET. Power
MOSFETs of a various sizes.

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Working Of N-Channel MOSFET

1) When VGS = 0V and VDS = 0V

The drain current ID = 0, because VDS = 0, the depletion region around the PN
junction are of equal thickness and symmetrical.
2) When VGS = 0V and VDS increase from zero,
The majority carrier flow through N channel from source to drain. There fore ID flows
through the channel from drain to source. Because of the resistance of the channel and
applied voltage VDS there is gradual increase of positive potential as we go source to
drain. The reverse voltage across the PN junction increase and the thickness of the
depletion region increases; hence the channel is wedge shape. At a certain value of the
VP, of VDS the cross sectional area of the channel reduced. Then the drain characteristics
are drawn.

3) When VDS = 0V, VGS is decreased from zero,

Here PN junction is reverse biased. Hence thickness of the depletion region
increases. As VGS is decreased. The reverse voltage across the junction increases. Hence
the thickness will increase until the two depletion regions make contact. In this condition,
the channel is said to be cut off and the VGS is know as cut off voltage.

4) when VGS is negative and VDS is increased,

The value of VP as well as breakdown voltage is decreased. In this condition we get
the transfer characteristics.

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POWER CIRCUIT DIAGRAM

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MODEL CHARACTERISTICS

DRAIN CHARACTERISTICS

TRANSFER CHARACTERISTICS

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TABULATION

DRAIN CHARACTERISTICS

VGS = 0V
VDS(V)

VGS = 2.5V

ID(mA)

VDS(V) ID(mA)

VGS = -2.5
VDS(V)

ID(mA)

TRANSFER CHARACTERISTICS

VDS = V
ID (mA)

VGS(V)

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PROCEDURE

1) TRASFER CHARACTERISTICS
1) Here VDS is kept constant at zero voltage and VGS is increased step by step by
varying VGG
2) The gate source voltage and ID is noted down.
3) The same procedure is repeated for different value and transfer characteristics are
drawn between VGS and ID.
4) Transfer conductance is determined from the transfer characteristics
The transfer characteristic is obtained plotting ID vs. VGS at VDS constant. The drain
current at VGS = 0 is called VDSS. The drain current is given by the formula,
IDS = IDS (1- VGS /VP) 2
i) Drain resistance (rd):
rd = VDS / ID

VGS constant

This is the output resistance of the MOSFET and evaluate in the constant drain
current region of the VDS - ID curves. Its in the order of the 10 to 30 thousand ohms.
ii) Transconductance(gm):
It is the forward transfer characteristics. It will be around the order of 2000 to
6000 micro mhos
gm = ID/ VGS

VDS constant

iii) Amplification factor ():

= rd gm
= VDS / ID x ID /VGS
= VDS / VGS
iv) Input resistance rgs:
rgs = VGS / IGSS
It is the order of hundreds of mega ohms and it is a high input impedance.

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Page 17

2) DRAIN CHARACTERISTICS
1) The circuit connections are given as shown in the circuit diagram.
2) To obtain the drain characteristics VGS is kept constant at zero volts, VDS is
increased step by step varying VDD.
3) The drain source procedure is repeated for different VGS values and the curves are
drawn between VDS and ID.
4) AC drain resistance is calculated from the characteristics curves.
Pinch-off or saturation Region:
Pinch-off voltage VP is that the voltage applied to the gate which keeps the drain
current constant with increase in VDS. VDS at which saturation occurs of ID occurs
when VGS = 0 is called Pinch off voltage.
Breakdown Region:
We note from the characteristics curves that avalanche breakdown occurs at a
higher VDS when VGS is zero and VDS (breakdown) decreases as the reverse bias is
applied to gate. This is because the reverse bias externally applied adds to the self
bias at VGS = 0 and causes avalanche breakdown.
Cut off Region:
The drain current becomes zero when the VGS (reverse bias) is increased making the
channel width to decrease. This is the cut of point through there will still be some
leakage current. IGSS is of the order of nano amperes.

INFERENCE

RESULT

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VIVA QUESTIONS
1.

A MOSFET is a ________________ controlled ________________ carrier device.

2.

Enhancement type MOSFETs are normally ________________devices while

depletion type MOSFETs are normally ________________ devices.

3.

The Gate terminal of a MOSFET is isolated from the semiconductor by a thin layer of
________________.

4.

The MOSFET cell embeds a parasitic ________________ in its structure.

5.

The gate-source voltage at which the ________________ layer in a MOSFET is

formed is called the ________________ voltage.

6.

The thickness of the ________________ layer remains constant as gate source

voltage is increased byond the ________________ voltage.

7.

State MOSFET is the current control device. Explain?

8.

What is the different between BJT and MOSFET?

9.

What happens if the positive voltage is applied between gate and source?

10. Define

11.

a.

pinch-off or saturation (VP)

b.

shorted gate drain current (IDSS)

c.

gate source cut off voltage (VGS)

State the condition of the channel width at the pinch off region, and the status of the
current flowing through it.

12. Compare SCR, MOSFET, IGBT, Power transistor and GTO.

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Ex No: 1c
Date:

CHARACTERISTICS OF IGBT
AIM
To draw the static characteristics of IGBT
APPARATUS REQUIRED
Sl.No.
1

IGBT KIT

Apparatus

Variable Resister

Type
Moving
Coil
Moving
Coil
-

Voltmeter

Ammeter

4
5

Range
(0-20)V,

Quantity
1

(0-100)mA

2.5k/25W

1
As
required

Connecting wires

THEORY
The major difference with the corresponding MOSFET cell structure lies in the
addition of a p+ injecting layer. This layer forms a pn junction with the drain layer and
injects minority carriers into it. The n type drain layer itself may have two different
doping levels. The lightly doped n- region is called the drain drift region. Doping level
and width of this layer sets the forward blocking voltage (determined by the reverse break
down voltage of J2) of the device. However, it does not affect the on state voltage drop of
the device due to conductivity modulation as discussed in connection with the power
diode. This construction of the device is called Punch Trough (PT) design. The NonPunch Through (NPT) construction does not have this added n+ buffer layer. The PT
construction does offer lower on state voltage drop compared to the NPT construction
particularly for lower voltage rated devices. However, it does so at the cost of lower
reverse break down voltage for the device, since the reverse break down voltage of the
junction J1 is small.

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Page 20

POWER CIRCUIT DIAGRAM

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Page 21

MODEL CHARACTERISTICS
OUTPUT CHARACTERISTICS

TRANSFER CHARACTERISTICS

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Operating principle of IGBT

When the gate emitter voltage is less then the threshold voltage no inversion layer
is formed in the p type body region and the device is in the off state. The forward voltage
applied between the collector and the emitter drops almost entirely across the junction
J2.Very small leakage current flows through the device under this condition. When the
gate emitter voltage is lower than the threshold voltage the driving MOSFET of the
Darlington configuration remains off and hence the output p-n-p transistor also remains
off. When the gate emitter voltage exceeds the threshold, an inversion layer forms in the
p type body region under the gate. This inversion layer (channel) shorts the emitter and
the drain drift layer and an electron current flows from the emitter through this channel to
the drain drift region. This in turn causes substantial hole injection from the p+ type
collector to the drain drift region. A portion of these holes recombine with the electrons
arriving at the drain drift region through the channel. The rest of the holes cross the drift
region to reach the p type body where they are collected by the source metallization.
From the above discussion it is clear that the n type drain drift region acts as the base of
the output p-n-p transistor. The doping level and the thickness of this layer determines the
current gain . of the p-n-p transistor.

This is intentionally kept low so that most of the device current flows through the
MOSFET and not the output p-n-p transistor collector. This helps to reduced the voltage
drop across the body spreading resistance and eliminate the possibility of static latch up
of the IGBT. The total on state voltage drop across a conducting IGBT has three
components. The voltage drop across J1 follows the usual exponential law of a pn
junction. The next component of the voltage drop is due to the drain drift region
resistance. This component in an IGBT is considerably lower compared to a MOSFET
due to strong conductivity modulation by the injected minority carriers from the
collector. This is the main reason for reduced voltage drop across an IGBT compared to
an equivalent MOSFET. The last component of the voltage drop across an IGBT is due to
the channel resistance and its magnitude is equal to that of a comparable MOSFET.

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Page 23

PROCEDURE
OUTPUT CHARACTERISTICS

Connections are made as per the circuit diagram.

Switch on the supply, keep VCE say 10V vary VGE note down the range of VGE.
Keep VGE constant.
Vary VCE step by step at different constant VGE the corresponding readings are
noted down.
Plot a graph between VCE and IC for different VGE.
TRANSFER CHARACTERISTICS
Connections are made as per the circuit diagram.
Switch on the supply vary VGE note down the corresponding value of IC at
different constant VCE.
Plot a graph between VGE. and IC for different VCE.
TABULATION

OUTPUT CHARACTERISTICS

VGE= V
VCE
(V)

IC
(mA)

VGE= V
VCE
(V)

IC
(mA)

VGE= V
VCE
(V)

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IC
(mA)

Page 24

TRANSFER CHARACTERISTICS

VGE= (v)

IC ( mA)

INFERENCE

RESULT

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Page 25

VIVA QUESTIONS
1. From the input side the IGBT behaves essentially as a __________________.
2. When

the

gate

emitter

voltage

is

below

__________________

no

__________________ layer is formed in the p type body region.

3. Electrons arriving through the drive MOSFET causes __________________
injection from the __________________ to the drain drift region.
4. In an IGBT most of the collector current flows through the __________________
and not through the __________________.
5. When the gate-emitter voltage of an IGBT is below threshold if operates in the
__________________ region.
6. In the active region of operation the collector current of an IGBT is determined by
the__________________

characteristics

which

are

reasonably

__________________ over most of the collector current range.

7. For the same load resistance as the vgE of an IGBT is increased it enters
__________________ region.
8. The forward voltage drop of an IGBT in the saturation region remains
approximately __________________.
9. An IGBT has small __________________ temperature coefficient of on state
voltage drop.
10. An IGBT does not exhibit __________________ failure mode.

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Page 26

Ex No: 1d
Date :

CHARACTERISTICS OF TRIAC
AIM
To study and verify the characteristics of TRIAC in the possible modes of
operation.

APPARATUS / INSTRUMENTS REQUIRED

S. No.
1

Apparatus / Instrument
TRIAC kit

Voltmeter

Ammeter

Connecting wires

Type
Moving
Coil
Moving
Coil
-

Range
(0-50)V,
(0-2)V

Quantity
1

(0-50)mA

As
required

1,1

THEORY
An SCR is a unidirectional device as it can conduct from anode to cathode only
and not from cathode to anode. A TRIAC can, however, conduct in both directions. A
TRIAC is thus a bidirectional SCR with three terminals. It is used extensively for the
control of power in AC circuits. TRIAC is the word derived by combining the capital
letters from the words TRIode and AC. When in operation, a TRIAC is equivalent to two
SCRs connected in anti-parallel. The circuit symbol and its characteristics are shown.
(Fig. 1 & 2 respectively). As the TRIAC can conduct in both directions, the terms anode
and cathode are usually designated as MT1 (main terminal 1), MT2 and the gate by G as
in a SCR.
With no signal to gate, the TRIAC will block both half cycles of the AC applied
voltage in case peak value of this voltage is less than the break over voltage of VBO2 of
the TRIAC.

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Page 27

Mode I
MT2 is positive and gate current is also positive. When MT2 is positive with
respect to MT1, junction P1N1, P2N2 are reverse biased but junction N1P2 is reverse
biased. When gate terminal is positive with respect to MT1, gate current flows mainly
through P2N2 junction like an ordinary SCR as shown in Fig. (a). When the gate current
has injected sufficient charge into P2 layer, reverse biased junction N1P2 breaks down just
as in normal SCR. As a result, TRIAC starts conducting in P1N1P2N2 layers.
Mode II
MT2 is positive but gate current is negative. When terminal is negative with
respect to MT1, gate current flows through P2N3 junction as shown in Fig. (b) And
reverse biased junction N1P2 is forward biased as in a normal SCR. As a result, TRIAC
starts conducting through P1N1P2N3 layers initially. With the conduction of P1N1P2N3, the
voltage drop across this path falls but potential of layer between P2N3 rises towards the
anode potential of MT2. As the right portion of P2 is clamped at the cathode potential of
MT1, a potential gradient exists across layer P2, its left hand region behind at a higher
potential than its right region.
Mode III
MT2 is negative but gate current is positive. The gate current Ig forward biases
P2N2 junction as shown in Fig (c). Layer N2 injects electrons into P2 layer as shown by
dotted arrows as a result reverse biased junction N1P1 breaks down as in conventional
SCR. Eventually the structure P2N1P1N4 is completely turned ON.
Mode IV
Both MT2 and gate current are negative. In this mode, N3 acts as a remote gate, as
shown in Fig.(d). The gate current Ig closed from P2 to N3 as in normal SCR. Reversebiased junction N1P1 is broken and finally, the structure P2N1P1N4 is turned ON
completely.
It can, therefore, be concluded from above that:

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Page 28

1. Sensitivity of the TRIAC is greatest in the first quadrant when turned on with
positive gate current and also in the third quadrant when turned on with negative gate
current
2. Sensitivity of the TRIAC is low in the first quadrant when turned with the negative
gate current and also in the third quadrant when turned on with the positive gate current.
Thus the TRIAC is rarely operated in the first quadrant with negative gate current and in
the third with positive gate current.

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Page 29

CIRCUIT DIAGRAM

MODEL CHARACTERISTICS

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Page 30

TABULATION
FORWARD CHARACTERISTICS

IG in

VG-MT1

IMT2

(mA)

in volts

in (mA)

REVERSE CHARACTERISTICS

IG in

VMT1-MT2

IMT2

(mA)

in volts

in (mA)

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Page 31

MODE-I
1. Terminal MT1 is made positive with respect to MT2 and the gate is connected
to the positive supply.
2. Initially the gate current is kept at zero.
3. Vary the voltage across the main terminal MT1 and MT2.
4. Note down the forward break over voltage.
5. Vary the gate current and note down the voltage across MT1 and MT2 and the
current through the device.

MODE-II
1. Terminal MT1 is made negative with respect to MT2 and the gate is connected to the
negative supply.
2. Repeat the steps from 2 to 5 as in MODE I.

INFERENCE

RESULT

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Page 32

VIVA QUESTIONS
1.

A Triac is a ________________ minority carrier device

2.

A Triac behaves like two ________________ connected thyristors.

3.

The gate sensitivity of a triac is maximum when the gate is ________________ with
respect to MT while MT is positive with respect to MT or the gate is
1

________________ with respect to MT while MT is negative with respect to MT

1

4.

A Triac operates either in the ________________ or the ________________

quadrant of the V-I characteristics.

5.

In the ________________ quadrant the triac is fired with ________________ gate

current while in the ________________ quadrant the gate current should be
________________.

6.

The maximum possible voltage and current rating of a Triac is considerably

________________ compared to thyristor due to ________________ of the two
current carrying paths inside the structure of the triac.

7. What is the acronym for TRIAC?

8. TRIAC is a bidirectional device justify.
9. Name the modes of operation of TRIAC.
10. List out the applications of TRIAC.
11. Explain the characteristics of TRIAC in all the possible modes of operation.

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Ex No: 2.a
Date :
SINGLE PHASE HALF CONTROLLED CONVERTER
AIM
To study the single phase half controlled converter and to observe the waveforms
for
a) Resistive load
b) Resistive and inductive load
APPARATUS REQUIRED
S.NO
1
2
3
4

Components name
Converter kit
Voltmeter
CRO with probe
Patch cords

Range / Type
(0-30)V/MC
-

Quantity
1
1
1
As req

THEORY
A converter is power controlled equipment which converts AC voltage DC
voltage. The output voltage can be either of fixed magnitude or of variable magnitude.
This depends on the devices in converters. If the devices are all diodes, the output voltage
is uncontrollable and if the devices are all SCRs or diodes and SCRs it is controllable.
The input Ac voltage can be of single phase or of three phases. Accordingly the converter
can classify into following categories.

Single phase
(i) Uncontrolled converter (all diodes).
(ii) Controlled converter
(a) Semi controlled (diodes and SCRs)
(b) Fully controlled (all SCRs)

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Page 34

Single Phase Semi Converter with R-Load

A single-phase semi converter with two thyristor and three diodes is shown and
the two thyristor are T1, T2 and the two diodes are D1, D2. The third connected across
load as free wheeling diode FD.The SCR T1 and D2 are triggered in the positive half
cycle and the current flows to the secondary A-T1-load-D2-B. For resistive load, the load
current becomes zero at zero crossing of the voltage and T1 and D2 are tuned OFF. In the
negative half cycle T2 and D1 are triggered. The conduction of T2 and D1 applied
reverse voltage across T1 and D2. During this half cycle the current flows through
secondary B-T2-load-D1-A. As in the positive half cycle the current becomes zero at the
end of negative half cycle. It can be seen Io at those current flows in the load from C to D
during both positive and Io negative half cycles. Hence we get a unidirectional voltage
across the load from the AC input voltage.

When the input voltage is applied and the thyristor T1 is triggered at a firing angle
of . With T1 ON, load gets connected to source through T1 and D2 For the period t =
to , load current o flows through load, D1, source and T1. The load terminal voltage
Vo is of the same wave shape as the AC source voltage Vs. Soon after t = , load
voltage Vo tends to reverse as the AC source voltage changes polarity. Just as Vo tends
to reverse (at t = +). As SCR T1 is reverse biased at t = by natural commutation.
After t = during the negative half cycle, T2 will be forward biased, T2 is triggered at
t = + , and starts conducting. Soon after ( + ), T1 is reverse biased and therefore it
turned off, hence load current now shifts to T2, D1. At t = 2, T2 is reversed biased due
to natural commutation and the process repeats.

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Page 35

Single-Phase Semi converter with R-L Load

For this converter, power circuit diagram is shown in fig. For this controller 2pulse converter, when SCR T1 is triggered at t = , load current builds up from zero,
rises to a maximum and then decays to zero at >. From to , T1 D2 conduct and Vo=
Vs tends to become negative, FD is forward biased and starts conducting the load current.
When FD conducts from P to B, Vo = 0. From to +, as load current is zero, this
makes the load current discontinuous. When T2 is triggered at +, no circuit component
conducts, therefore Vo = 0 as shown in fig and during to +, as load current is zero,
this makes the load current discontinuous. When T2 is triggered at +, Io builds as
shown. At 2, FD is forward biased and starts conducting till +. During the time FD
conducts, Vo = 0. From + to (2+), no circuit component conducts, therefore Vo=0.
At (2+), T1 is triggered again and the above process repeats.

= conduction angle = -

The average output voltage for this converter with R-L load is given by,

= Vm / (cos -cos)

The average output current Io is given by

Io = Vm / R (cos cos)

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Page 36

CIRCUIT DIAGRAM

RESTIVE LOAD

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Page 37

MODEL GRAPH

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Page 38

TABULATION

S.No

Type of
load

Output
voltage
amplitude
(v)

Firing
angle
In degree

Firing angle
in (ms)

Average
output
voltage
(v)

R-Load

R-L
Load

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Page 39

PROCEDURE
1. Study the waveform at salient points of the triggering circuit.
2. Connect the load without free wheeling diode and energize the converter.
3. Observe the voltage waveform across the load for different delay angles.
4. Measure the output dc voltages for different delay angles.
5. Connect a free wheeling diode across the load for different delay angles.
6. Measure the output dc voltages for different delay angles.
7. Calculate the harmonics in the output voltage for the cases with and without free
wheeling diode.

INFERENCE

RESULT

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Page 40

VIVA QUESTIONS
1.

Define conduction angle and extinction angles?

2.

Explain the variation of the V-I waveforms due to the effect of inductance?

3.

The effect of inductance on power factor-explain?

4.

Explain the action of freewheeling diode?

5.

Sketch the current waveforms across the freewheeling diode.

6.

Find the power factor this converter having R-L load?

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Page 41

Ex No: 2.b
Date :
SINGLE PHASE FULLY CONTROLLED CONVERTER

AIM
To study the single phase fully controlled converter and to observe the wave forms
for
a) Resistive load
b) Resistive and inductive load

APPRATUS REQUIRED
S.NO.

Components name

Range / Type

Quantity

1
2
3
4

Converter Kit
DC voltmeter
CRO with probe
Patch

(0-30)V/MC
-

1
1
1
As Req

THEORY
A converter is power control equipment which converter AC voltage to DC
voltage. The output voltage can be either of fixed magnitude or of variable magnitude.
This depends on the devices used in the converter. If the devices used are all diodes, the
output voltage is uncontrollable and if the devices used are all SCRs or diodes and
SCRs it is controllable. The input AC voltage can be of single phase or of three phases.
Accordingly the converter can be classified into the following categories.
1. Single phase
(i) Fully controlled (all SCRs)

When the load has some inductance, the current through it will not become zero at
the zero crossing of the voltage. It will continue to flow for some more duration in the
subsequent half cycle which depends on the amount of inductance. During this extended
conduction period the already conducting SCRs continue to conduct and the voltage
across the load becomes negative during this period. The appearance of negative voltage
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Page 42

causes a reduction in the average DC output voltage. But we have regeneration of the
inductive energy during this negative voltage conduction period.

The negative portion of the output voltage can be eliminated by connecting a

diode (shown by dotted line) across the load. When the output voltage becomes negative
the diode conducts and provides a local path for the inductive energy. The output voltage
is clamped to zero during this period. The diode is called as free wheeling diode.

Let the equation of the input voltage be

Vs = 2Vs sin t
Then the DC output voltage for resistive load is
Vdc = 1 Vm sin t dt
= 2Vm / (1 + cos )
The same expression will hold good for the, inductive load with free wheeling
diode also. For an inductive load having continuous current and without free wheeling
Vdc = 1 / Vm sin t dt

diode,

= 2Vm / cos
The single phase fully controlled converter consists of four SCRs. Conduction
dose not take place until the SCRs are fired. During positive half-cycle SCRs 1 and 2
are forward biased and when these two SCRs are fired simultaneously at a firing angle,
the load is connected to the input supply. During negative half cycle SCRs 3 and 4 are
forward biased and firing of these SCRs will apply the supply voltage across SCRs 1
and 2,as reverse blocking voltage.SCR`s 1 and 2 will be turned off due to line or natural
commutation. To ensure simultaneous firing, the pair of SCRs 1&2 and 3&4 is to be
fired from the same firing circuit .The output of the gating signals is supplied through a
pulse transformer as the cathodes of the respective SCRs are at different potentials in the
rectifier circuit. The load may be of resistive (R), R-L Load. The operation of the
converter with R, R-L Load and R-L load with free wheeling diode are described in the
following.

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Page 43

POWER CIRCUIT DIAGRAM

RESISTIVE LOAD

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Page 44

MODEL WAVEFORM

Vs

Vo
R LOAD

Vo

RL LOAD

T1 D1

Io

2+
OUTPUT CURRENT

T2 D2

2+

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Page 45

TABULATION

S.No

Type of
load

Output
voltage
amplitude
(v)

Firing
angle
In degree

Firing angle
in (ms)

B=+

Average
output
voltage
(v)

R Load

R-L
Load

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Page 46

RESISTIVE LOAD
The converter with R- load is shown in fig, during positive half cycles of the input
voltage SCRs 1 and 2 is forward biased and are fired simultaneously at a firing angle
delay of .The supply voltage appears across the load resistance R. The load occurring
flows from supply through SCR1, load and SCR2.The current waveform will follows the
voltage waveform. At the end of positive half cycle, (at t =) the current falls to zero
and SCRs 1 and 2 turn off by natural commutation. The load voltage is zero from to
+, until the SCRs 3 and 4 are fired in the negative half cycle.

The load current now flows from the supply, via SCR3, load and SCR4.Thus the
direction of current through the load is the same in both half-cycles. Rectified DC voltage
therefore appears across the load. The relevant waveforms, showing the operation of the
converter are shown below. The voltage across any non conducting SCR is opposite of
the input AC voltage as long as any two SCRs are conducting. When none of the SCRs
are conducting this voltage is the half the input AC voltage.

The average DC voltage across the load is

V dc = (2Vm / ) (1+cos )
Where
Vm maximum value of the input AC voltage
firing angle delay

R L LOAD (DISCONTINUOUS CURRENT MODE)

The converter with R-L load is shown below. The relevant waveforms pertaining
to the operation of the converter, during positive half cycle SCRs1 and 2 are forward
biased and can be triggered into conduction at

t = by applying gating signals to

both SCRs simultaneously. Current flows from the supply through SCR1, load and
SCR2.Due to the inductive load, SCRs1 and 2 will continue to conduct beyond t = ,
even through input voltage reverses polarity.

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Page 47

If the load inductances are small, the current will reach zero before. The SCRs3
and 4 are fired at + . The angle = , at which the current reaches zero, is known as the
extinction angle.

For <t< the load current is positive and the load voltage is also positive. The
power flows from the supply to the load. For <t<, the load current is positive and the
load voltage VL=Vac is negative. The stored energy in the inductor is returned to the
supply. The power during this period is negative.

For the given firing angle , the average DC voltage across the load will be less than that
with the resistive load. The average DC voltage across the load is given by
V dc = (2Vm / ) [ cos + cos ]
Where
Vm Rms value of the input AC VOLTAGE
Extinction angle
firing angle
The voltage across any non conducting SCR, is opposite of the input AC
voltage, as long as any two SCRs are conducting. When none of the SCRs are conducting
this voltage is half the input AC voltage.

R L LOAD CONTINUOUS CURRENT MODE

The circuit diagrams are shown below and the relevant waveforms pertaining to
the operation of the converter are shown. The load inductance is sufficiently large so that
the current is continuous. During positive half cycles SCRs1 and 2 are fired
simultaneously.

The current starts flowing from supply, SCR1, load and SCR2.During to the load
inductance, the current continue to flow, beyond t = . For < t < both the load
voltage VL and load current IL are positive. The power flows from supply to load. For <
t < + , the load voltage is negative and the load current is positive. The stored energy
in the inductor is returned to the supply.
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Page 48

Since the load inductance is large, the current continuous to flow, until the SCRs
3 and 4 are fired in the negative half cycle. The average DC voltage across the load is
given by
V dc = 2Vm / [cos ]
Where
Vm rms value of the input AC voltage
firing angle delay
Waveforms for fully controlled converter with R L load continuous current mode.

PROCEDURE
1. Study the waveform at salient point of the trigger circuit.
2. Connect the load without free wheeling diode and energize the
Converter.
3. Observe the voltage waveform across the load for different delay
angles.
4. Measure the output dc voltages for different delay angles.
5. Calculate the harmonics in the output voltage.

INFERENCE

RESULT

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Page 49

VIVA QUESTIONS

1.

Sketch the voltage waveform across the SCR.

2.

Assuming a constant load current, sketch the waveform of the current through the
SCR and ac input current.

3.

What are the effects of source inductance on the conduction of SCRs and the
output voltage?

4.

Suggest a filter at the output.

5.

If S1 and S2 are replaced by diodes, what will be the waveform of the output
voltage for a highly inductive load?

6.

What are the lowest harmonics present in the output voltage for single phase and
for three phase rectifiers? Explain

7.

Draw a three phase rectifier circuit and number the various devices that will
conduct in sequence

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Page 50

CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:

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Page 51

Ex. No. 3
Date:

THREE PHASE HALF AND FULLY CONTROLLED BRIDGE

RECTIFIER

AIM:
To study the operation and performance of the three phase half and fully
controlled bridge rectifier with R load.
(a)THREE PHASE HALF CONTROLLED CONVERTER:

APPARATUS REQUIRED:
S.NO

COMPONENTS NAME

RANGE

QUANTITY

PEC14HV5A and 5B module

Patch cards

As required

CRO

Voltmeter

(0-300v) MC

DC motor

THEORY:
In the three phase half controlled converter, the frequency of output voltage is
3Fs.The delay angle can be varied from 0 to . During the period/6+t<7 /6,
thyristor t1 is forward biased. If t1 is fired at wt= (/6+), t1 and d1 conduct and the line
to line voltage Vac appears across the load. At wt=7 /6, Vac starts to be negative and
freewheeling diode Dm conducts. The load current continues to flow through Dm and T1
and D1 are turned off.
If there were no freewheeling diode,T1 would continue to conduct until thyristor T2
is fired at wt=5/6+ and the freewheeling action would be accomplished through T1 and
D2.If /3,each thyristor conducts for 2/3 and freewheeling diode Dm does not
conduct.

The average output voltage for0180 is given by,

Vdc=33 Vm/ (1+cos)
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Page 52

MODEL GRAPH:

TABULATION:

TYPE OF
LOAD

FIRING ANGLE (ms)

TON

TOFF

FIRING
ANGLE(deg)

OUTPUT VOLTAGE
(V)

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AVERAGE OUTPUT
VOLTAGE
(V)

Page 53

PROCEDURE:
1. Check the SCR firing circuit and SCR power circuit phase sequence was (R, Y,
B) synchronized then conducts experiment by following procedure.
2. After synchronizing, replace auto transformer and phase sequence (R, Y, B)
connected to three phase main supply same phase sequence (R-R, Y-Y, B-B).
3. Switch off the SCR firing and power circuit then set the MCBs in OFF position.
4. Set the SCR firing circuit module pot P1in minimum position.
5. Set the SCR firing circuit pot P1 nearer the switch is working for two modes, one
is INT internal and EXT external mode. Set the switch in INT mode.
6. Switch ON the SCR firing circuit check the firing pulse and other wave forms at
the test positions.
7. Connect the SCR terminals as T1 to T3, T3 to T5, diode anode terminal as D2 to
D4, D4 to D6.
8. Connect DC motor across banana connectors T5 and anode terminal of diode
D6.
9. Voltmeter and CRO with 10:1 attenuation probe was connected to across of
resistive

load.

10. Connect voltmeter is across the three phase load and connects the CRO with 10:1
attenuation probe across the voltmeter.
11. Switch on the SCR power circuit and MCB.
12. Vary pot P1 to change the firing angle then vary load.
13. Note down voltmeter readings at various firing angle.
14. Observe voltage waveform in CRO.

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Page 54

CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:

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Page 55

(b) THREE PHASE FULLY CONTROLLED CONVERTER

APPARATUS REQUIRED:
S.NO

COMPONENTS NAME

RANGE

QUANTITY

PEC14HV5A and 5B module

Patch cards

As required

CRO

Voltmeter

(0-300v) MC

DC motor

THEORY:
Three phase converters are extensively used in industrial applications up to the
120 KW levels, where two quadrant operations are required. The load is fed via a three
phase half-wave connection, the return path being via another half-wave connection to
one of the three supply lines, no neutral being required. The circuit consists of two groups
of SCRs, positive group and negative group. The positive groups SCRs are turned ON
when the supply voltage are positive and negative group SCRs are turned on when the
supply voltage are negative. If SCR T1 is triggered at a particular instant, it can conduct
provided there is a return path for the current.

OPERATIONS:
i) Continuous conduction mode (0/3)
ii) Discontinuous conduction mode (/3 2/3), -->firing angle of thyristor
i) Continuous conduction mode (0/3)
When the phase A and phase B are all over to conduct at between zeros to /3, it
continuous to conduct by 60 when the phase C is fired. The phases A&C conduct after
another 60 after which it is replaced by phases B&C when phase B voltage assumes
greater value than C or A. Hence the load current is continuous for between 0 and /3.
ii) Discontinuous conduction mode (/3 2/3)
when (/3 2/3), the phases A and B conducts up to angle after which both
the thyristor T1 and T5 are commutated off due to natural commutation and after 60
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when T6 and T1 are fired, phase A and C conducts also up to angle .Hence load current
remains zero from angle to the next firing pulse and becomes discontinuous.

MODEL GRAPH:

TABULATION:

TYPE OF
LOAD

FIRING ANGLE (ms)

TON

TOFF

FIRING
ANGLE(deg)

OUTPUT VOLTAGE
(V)

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AVERAGE OUTPUT
VOLTAGE
(V)

Page 57

PROCEDURE:
1. Check the SCR firing circuit and SCR power circuit phase sequence was (R, Y,
B) synchronized then conducts experiment by following procedure.
2. After synchronizing, replace auto transformer and phase sequence (R, Y, B)
connected to three phase main supply same phase sequence (R-R, Y-Y, B-B).
3. Switch off the SCR firing and power circuit then set the MCBc in OFF position.
4. Set the SCR firing circuit module pot P1in minimum position.
5. Set the SCR firing circuit pot P1 nearer the switch is working for two modes, one
is INT internal and EXT external mode. Set the switch in INT mode.
6. Switch ON the SCR firing circuit check the firing pulse and other wave forms at
the test positions.
7. Connect the SCR terminals as T1 to T3, T3 to T5, diode anode terminal as D2 to
D4, D4 to D6.
8. Connect DC motor across banana connectors T5 and anode terminal of diode D6.
9. Voltmeter and CRO with 10:1 attenuation probe was connected to across of
resistive

load.

10. Connect voltmeter is across the three phase load and connects the CRO with 10:1
attenuation probe across the voltmeter.
11. Switch on the SCR power circuit and MCB.
12. Vary pot P1 to change the firing angle then vary load.
13. Note down voltmeter readings at various firing angle.
14. Observe voltage waveform in CRO.

INFERENCE:

RESULT:

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Page 58

VIVA QUESTIONS:
1. What is mean by phase controlled rectifier?
2. What is meant by delay angle?
3. Give expression for average voltage of single phase full converters.
4. What are the disadvantages of continuous gating signal?
5. What is meant by high frequency carrier gating?
6. Define conduction angle and extinction angles?
7. Sketch the current waveforms across the freewheeling diode.
8. Find the power factor this converter having R-L load?
9. Sketch the voltage waveform across the SCR.
10. Assuming a constant load current, sketch the waveform of the current through the
SCR and ac input current.
11. What are the lowest harmonics present in the output voltage for single phase
rectifier? Explain
12. Draw a single phase rectifier circuit and number the various devices that will
conduct in sequence

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Page 59

Ex No: 04
Date :

SINGLE PHASE CYCLOCONVERTER

AIM:
To study and observe the output waveform of the single phase mid point type
Cycloconverter.

APPARATUS REQUIRED:
1. Single Phase Cycloconverter Module
2. Single Phase Cycloconverter Firing Circuit
3. Step down Centre Tap Transformer (30-0-30)V
4. Resistive Load
5. CRO
6. Patch Cords

THEROY:
A converter (or) rectifier is used to convert AC power to DC power. An inverter
used to convert DC power to AC power or AC power to AC power by means of an
intermediate DC link. But a cycloconverter converts AC power of a certain frequency
without the help of intermediate DC link .that is a device, which converts input power at
one frequency to output power of a different frequency with one stage conversion, is
called a cycloconverter. A cycloconverter is thus a one stage frequency changer.

FREQUENCY DIVISION BY TWO AT THE OUTPUT:

In the circuit SCR1and SCR2 comprise the positive converts and SCR2 and SCR3
are the negative converter. If SCR1 (P1) and SCR2 (P2) operate for a complete cycle and
SCR (N1) and SCR3 (N2) for the next cycle of the input frequency. Varying the firing
angle of Scars can alter the magnitude of output voltage.
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Page 60

FREQUENCY DIVISION BY 4 AT THE OUTPUT:

When a is positive with respect to 0 forward biased SCR P1 is triggered at t=
with this, load current starts building up in the positive direction from A to O. load
current to becomes zero at t=> But less than (+),fig. Thyristor P1 is thus
naturally commutated at t= which is already reverse biased after. After half cycle
positive with respect to o. now forward biased thyristor P2 is triggered at t= +.

Load current is again positive from A to O and builds up from zero as shown in
fig . At t=+, To decays to zero and P2 is naturally commutated. At 2+, P1 is
again turned on. Load current in fig is seen to be discontinuous.
After four positive half cycles of load voltage and load current, thyristor N2(after
P2,N2 should be fired ) is gated at (4+) when 0 is positive with respect to b. as N2 is
forward biased, it starts conducting but load current direction is reversed, ie. It is now
form 0 to A. after N2 is triggered, load current builds up in the negative direction as
shown in the fig. in the next half cycle, 0 is positive with respect to a but before N1 is
fired, io decays to zero and N2 is naturally commutated.

Now when N1 is gated at (5+), io again builds up but it decays to zero before
thyristor N2 in sequence is again gated. In this manner, four negative half cycles of load
voltage and load current, equal to number of four positive half cycles are generated. Now
P1 is again triggered to fabricate further four positive half cycles of load voltage and so
on. For discontinuous load current, natural commutation is achieved, ie. P1 goes to
blocking

state

before

P2

is

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gated

and

so

on.

Page 61

CIRCUIT DIAGRAM

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Page 62

OUTPUT WAVEFORM

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PROCEDURE:
1. Patch the firing units as per the circuit diagram.

2. Switch on the firing circuit unit through the power on indicator switch provided in
the front panel.

3. Verify the test points through the CRO it is proper or not.

4. Then press the soft start switch.

5. Study and observe the various stages of waveforms through the appropriate test
points.

6. Observe the firing pulse output and their phase phase sequence through the
corresponding terminals using dual channel in CRO.

7. Now switch OFF the firing circuit. And patch the power circuit unit as shown in
the patching diagram, also inter link the firing unit and power unit as shown in the
patching diagram.

8. Connect the CRO probe across the load resistor. (It may be a fixed or variable
resistor)

9. Switch on the both firing & power circuit and observe the cycloconverter output
in the CRO, and change the firing angle through the firing angle variation (0
180) potmetter.

10. Repeat the experiments for various values for various frequency divider output.
Also observe and trace the cycloconverter output and note down the voltage and
current readings for various values of R.
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TABULATION
S.No Frequency Amplitude Triggering Conduction Total
Output
Division
(P P)V
Time
Time
Time Frequency

Firing
angle in
degree

INFERENCE

RESULT

QUESTIONS:
1. What is the need for cycloconverter?
2. List out the various configuration of cycloconverter?
3. Name few application of step up and step down cycloconverter?
4. How the variable frequency is achieved in the cycloconverter?
5. Compare step up and step down cycloconverter?
6. What are the limitations of cycloconverter?

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Page 65

Ex. No. 6
Date:

CURRENT COMMUTATED CHOPPER

AIM:
To construct a chopper circuit and study its time ratio (TRC) controls.
APPARATUS REQUIRED:
S.NO

NAME OF THE COMPONENTS

SPECIFICATIONS

QUANTITY

Input source DC power supply

Output :0-30V/2ADC

control modules

Chopper module

Output load

Resistance -1kohms/1A

Measuring instruments

Oscilloscope dual trace D.C.

Voltmeter (0-100v)

Connecting wires

As required

.
THEORY:
Chopper converts fixed DC voltage to variable DC voltage through the use of
semiconductor devices. The DC to DC converters have gained popularity in modern
industry .Some practical applications of DC to DC converter include armature voltage
control of DC motors converting one DC voltage level to another level, and controlling
DC power for wide variety of industrial process. The time ratio controller (TRC) is a
form of control for DC to DC conversion.
Time ratio controller (TRC) or chopper is basically a thyristor switch
connector between the source and the load. The switch is closed and opened periodically
such that the load is connected to, and disconnected from, the supply alternatively. Thus
the average voltage impressed on the load is controlled by controlling the ratio of ON
state interval to one cycle duration.
The average voltage of the chopper is given by
Var= (TON/T) V
Where V is input voltage, TON is the time duration of the chopper.
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CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:

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MODEL GRAPH:

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Page 68

The ratio (TON/T) is called the duty ratio of the chopper. The most important
factor that governs the performance of the chopper is the duty ratio. The duty ratio can be
controlled in many ways, such as by changing the ON period duration or by changing
frequency keeping ON period constant. The third alternative method is to change both
ON period and Frequency. Changing the frequency of the chopper introduces different
harmonics at different frequencies. At some frequency of operation the harmonic contents
are larger than the tolerable limits. Therefore fixed frequency choppers with a variable on
period technique are generally used.

Chopper circuit shown is class-B current commutation circuit. In this circuit

source voltage source voltage Vs charge capacitor C to voltages Vs with the top side
positive as shown. Main thyristor T1 and auxiliary thyristor TA are off. Positive direction
of capacitor voltage and capacitor current ic are established in the load circuit .Here ,for
simplicity ,load current is assumed constant .For initiating the commutation of main
thyristor T1 ,auxiliary thyristor TA is triggered. With TA is on ,a resonant current ic
begin to flow from C through TA ,L and back to C .Then capacitor is charged to Vs
,Resonant current ic no build through L ,D and T1 .As this current IC grows opposite to
forward thyristor current of T1, net forward current It1 =Io ic begins to decreases
.Finally ,when ic in the reverse direction attains the value Io ,forward current in T1
(IT1=Io-I0) is reduced to zero and the device is turned off .For reliable commutation
,peak resonant current Ip must be greater than load current Io .As thyristor is commutated
by the gradual built up of resonant current in the reverse direction , this method of
commutation is called current commutation, ClassB commutation or resonant pulse
commutation.

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Page 69

TABULATION:

SL
NO

NO OF DIVISION:
TON

TOFF

DUTY
CYCLE (ms)

THEORETICAL
VALUE(V)

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PRACTICAL VALUE
(V)

Page 70

PROCEDURE:
1. Switch on the chopper firing circuit, check for the firing pulses.
2. Circuit connections are made as shown in the circuit diagram by connecting
rheostat as load with input DC voltage at 24 V.
3. The gate cathode terminals of the 2SCRS are connected to the respective points
on the firing module.
4. Check all the connections and confirm connections made are correct before
switching on the equipments.
5. Switch on the DC power supply to the chopper and also firing circuit.
6. Keeping frequency constant vary duty cycle of the chopper firing circuit in steps
and note down corresponding load voltage for each step.
7. The output wave forms are seen on a CRO.
8. Keeping frequency constant vary duty cycle of the chopper firing circuit in steps
and down corresponding load voltage for each step.
9. Plot a graph of duty cycle against load voltage.

INFERENCE:

RESULT:

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Page 71

VIVA QUESTIONS:
1. In Dc choppers, if Ton is the on period and f is the chopping frequency then
output

voltage in terms of input voltage Vs is given by___

2. In Dc Choppers per unit ripple is maximum when duty cycle is ___

3. In Dc Chopper the waveforms for input and output voltages are ____ respectively.
4. For type- A chopper, Vs is the source voltage, R is the load resistance and is the
duty cycle. The average output voltage and current for this chopper are ___
respectively.
5. For a chopper,Vs is the source voltage R is the load resistance and is the duty
cycle rms and average values of thyristor currents for this chopper are___
6. A chopper has Vs as the source voltage, R as the load resistance and as the duty
cycle. For this chopper rms value of output voltage is___
7. A load commutated chopper, fed from 200v dc source, has a constant load current
of 50A. For a duty cycle of 0.4 and a chopping frequency of 2 kHz, the value of
commutating capacitor and the turn off time for 1 thyristor pair are ___
respectively
8. For a Type-A chopper; Vs,R,Io and are respectively the dc source voltage, load
resistance, constant load current and duty cycle for this chopper, average and rms
values of free wheeling diode currents are ___
9. A step up chopper has Vs as the source voltage and as the duty cycle. The
output voltage for this chopper is given by ___
10. A regulated power supply should be able to maintain output voltage within
specified limits in spite of ___

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Page 72

Ex. No. 7
Date:

VOLTAGE COMMUTATED CHOPPER

AIM:
To construct a chopper circuit and study its time ratio (TRC) controls.

APPARATUS REQUIRED:
S.NO

NAME OF THE COMPONENTS

QUANTITY

Chopper power module

Chopper firing unit

Loading rheostat (50 ohm/5W)

CRO

Multimeter

Patch cards

As required

THEORY:
Chopper converts fixed dc voltage to variable dc voltage through the use of
semiconductor devices .the dc to dc converters have gained popularity in modern
industry. Some practical applications of dc to dc converter include armature voltage
control of dc motors converting one dc voltage level to another level, and controlling dc
power for wide variety of industrial processes. The time ratio controller (TRC) is a form
of control for dc to dc conversion.
The time ratio controller (TRC) or chopper is basically a thyristor switch as
shown in figure connector between the source and load. The switch is closed and opened
periodically such that the load is connected to, and disconnected from, the supply
alternatively. Thus the average voltage impressed on the load is controlled by controlling
the ratio of ON state interval to one cycle duration.
The average output voltage of the chopper is given by
Var= (TON/T) V

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CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:

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MODEL GRAPH:

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Where V is input voltage, TON is time duration of chopper. The ratio TON/T is
called the duty ratio of the chopper .The most important factor that governs the
performance of the chopper is the duty ratio. The duty ratio can be controlled in many
ways, such as by changing the on period duration by keeping frequency constant or by
changing frequency keeping on period constant. The third alternative method is to change
both ON period and frequency. Changing the frequency of the chopper introduce
different harmonics at different frequencies. At some frequency of operation the
harmonic contents are larger than tolerable limits. Therefore fixed frequency chopper
with a variable on period techniques are generally used.

Chopper circuits shown is class D commutation circuit here an auxiliary thyristor is

used to turn OFF the main SCR TM. It is assumed that the capacitor is initially charged to
voltage EC with the polarity shown. When TM is turned ON, the capacitor will
discharged through it, and through inductor L. At the end of discharge cycle the capacitor
voltage will reverse and will be held by diode D to stay with this polarity when TA is
fired, the capacitor will discharge through TM and will turned it off. Since a reverse
voltage is applied across the TM immediately after turning ON the SCR, this
phenomenon is known as voltage commutation.

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TABULATION:

NO OF DIVISION:
S. NO
TON

TOFF

DUTY
CYCLE (ms)

THEORETICAL
VALUE(V)

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PRACTICAL VALUE
(V)

Page 77

PROCEDURE:
1. Switch on the chopper firing circuit, check for the firing pulses.
2. Circuit connection are made as shown in the circuit diagram by connecting rheostat as
load with input DC voltage at 24V.
3. The gate cathode terminals of the 2 SCRs are connected to the respective points on the
Firing module.
4. Check all the connections and confirm connections made are correct before switching
on the equipments.
5. Switch on the DC power supply to the chopper and also firing circuit.
6. Keeping frequency constant vary duty cycle of the chopper firing circuit in steps and
note down corresponding load voltage for each step.
7. The output waveforms are seen on a CRO.
8. Keeping duty cycle constant vary frequency of the chopper firing circuit in steps and
note down corresponding load voltage for each step.
9. Plot a graph of duty cycle against load voltage.
10. Tabulate theoretical and practical values.
11. A graph of Vdc (av) versus duty cycle is plotted.
12. Draw the following waveforms.
a. Load voltage waveform.
b.Voltage across the capacitor.

INFERENCE:

RESULT:

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Page 78

VIVA QUESTIONS:
1. What is meant by voltage commutation?
2. In Type-A chopper, source voltage is 100V Dc, on period=100s, off
period=150s and load RLE consists of R=2,L=5mH,E=10V for continuous
conduction, average output voltage and average output current for this chopper
are ___ respectively
3. In Dc chopper if T is the chopping period, then output voltage can be controlled
by PWM by varying ___
4. Linear isolated power supplies will generally be superior to switched-mode power
supplies (outputting isolated voltage) in respect to the following ___
5. High frequency transformers are used for output voltage isolation and scaling in
the following type of power supplies ___
6. A 60watt, 15V 0.2V, power supply specified to deliver regulated output for
input supply (50Hz) variation from 180 volts to 270 volts will be different from
another power supply with identical output rating but capable of outputting
regulated voltage over input range of 90 volts to 270 volts in respect of ___
7. What kind of output rectifier and filter circuit is used in a fly back converter?
8. A fly-back converter operates in discontinuous conduction mode with fixed ON
duration of the switch in each switching cycle. Assuming input voltage and the
resistive load at the output to remain constant, how will the output voltage change
with change in switching frequency? (Assume discontinuous conduction
throughout and neglect circuit losses.)
9. A fly-back converter has primary to secondary turns ratio of 15:1. The input
voltage is constant at 200 volts and the output voltage is maintained at 18 volts.
What should be the snubber capacitor voltage under steady state?
10. What are the advantages of voltage commutated chopper?

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Ex No: 8
Date :
SINGLE PHASE SERIES INVERTER
AIM
To study and obtain the characteristics of SCR series inverter for its effects of
variation of the triggering frequency on the output voltage.
APPARATUS REQUIRED
S.No
1
2
3
4

Components Name
Electro Technique Thyristors set-19m
Multimeter
CRO and probe
Regulated power supply

Range/Type
30V,1A

Quantity
1
1
1
1

THEORY
The DC to AC power converters are known as inverters. In other words, an
inverter is a circuit, which converters a DC power into an AC power at desired output
voltage and frequency. The AC output voltage could be fixed at a fixed or variable
frequency. This conversion can be achieved either by controlled turn-on and turn-off
devices (e.g., BJTs, MOSFETs, IGBTs, SITs, GTOs, and SITHs) or forced commutation
thyristors, depending on applications. For low and medium power outputs, the above
mentioned power devices are suitable but for high power outputs, thyristors should be
used.

The Thyristor inverter can be classified in the following categories:

1. According to the method of commutation and
2. According to the connections.
According to the connections of thyristors and commutating components, the
inverters can be three groups, these are,
1. Series Inverters
2. Parallel Inverters
3. Bridge Inverters
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In some inverters, the commutating elements may come in series with the load or
in parallel with the load during operation. In this type of inverters, as indicated by the
name, the commutating elements, and viz. L and C are connected in series with the load.
This constitutes a series R-L-C resonant circuit. If the load is purely resistive, it only has
resistance in the circuit. In case of load being inductive or capacitive part is added to
commutating elements. This type of thyristorised inverter produces an approximately
sinusoidal waveform at a high output frequency, ranging from 200Hz to100Hz, and is
commonly used in relatively fixed output applications such as ultrasonic generators.
Induction heating, sonar transmitter, fluorescent lighting, etc. due to the high-switching
frequency, the size of commutating components is small.

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Page 81

BASIC SERIES INVETER

POWER CIRCUIT DIAGRAM

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MODEL WAVEFORM

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PROCEDURE
1. Connect 30V DC supply to the unit and turn on.
2. Turn the output frequency pot fully anticlockwise (i.e.). Minimum frequency
and connect one beam of the oscilloscope between its top and DC.
3. Connect the other beam of the oscilloscope between its top and DC.
4. Observe both waveforms, vary the frequency pot clockwise and observe the
waveforms and note the changes in the output pulse frequency.
5. Disconnect the 30V DC supply.
6. Connect G and G1 by short links.
7. Connect load voltage DC side across load terminals and oscilloscope across
the individual terminals.
8. Connect one current sensing resistor between lower end of C and the SCR
anode. The voltage drop across this gives the diode current waveform.
9. Connect another current sensing resistor between lower end of C and the diode
cathode. The voltage drop across this gives the diode current waveform.
10. Connect DC supply. Turn ON frequency pot fully anticlockwise and put the DC
ON.
11. Observe the various voltage and current waveform.
12. Observe the above waveform by slowly varying the trigger frequency.

INFERENCE

RESULT

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VIVA QUESTIONS
1. What is the difference between series inverter and parallel inverter?
2. What is the commutation circuit involved in the series inverter?
3. Why it is called as series inverter?
4. Why the series components are under damped?
5. What happens if T2 is not present?

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Page 85

Ex No: 9
Date :
SINGLE PHASE PWM INVERTER
AIM
To study the working principle of single phase PWM inverter.

APPARATUS REQUIRED
S.NO
1
2
3
4
5

Components name
IGBT based Single Phase
PWM inverter kit
Single Phase Resistive (R) and
Inductive (L) Load
Voltmeter
CRO with probes
Patch cords

Range/ Type
-

Quantity
1

(0-300V)/MI
-

1
1
As req

THEORY
Output voltage from an inverter can also be adjusted by exercising a control
within the inverter itself. The most efficient method of doing this is by pulse-width
modulation control used within an inverter. In this method, a fixed DC input voltage is
given to the inverter, and a controlled AC output voltage is obtained by adjusting the ON
and OFF periods of the inverter components. This is the most popular method of
controlling the output voltage and this method is termed as pulse-width modulation
(PWM) control.

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PULSE-WIDTH MODULATED INVERTERS

PWM inverters are gradually taking over other types of inverters in industrial
applications. PWM techniques are characterized by constant amplitude pulses. The width
of these pulses is, however, modulated to obtain inverter output voltage control and to
reduce its harmonic content. Different PWM techniques are as under.
One of the most promising means of controlling the inverter output and voltage is
to incorporate time ratio control within the inverter. These inverters are called as Pulse
Width Modulated Inverters. This control of inverter in this method a fixed DC input
voltage is given to the inverter through the bridge rectifier and a controlled AC output
voltage is obtained by adjusting the ON/OFF periods of inverter components.
PWM techniques are characterized by constant amplitude pulses. The width of
these pulse is however, modulated to obtain inverter output voltage control and reduce
the harmonic content.

Different PWM techniques are as follows:

1. Single Pulse Modulation(SPM)
2. Multiple Pulse Modulation(MPM) and
3. Sinusoidal Pulse Modulation (SPWM)

In PWM inverters, forced commutation is essential. The three PWM techniques

mentioned above differ from each other in the harmonic content in their respective output
voltages. The choice of a particular PWM technique depends upon the permissible
harmonic content in the output voltage. In out experiment we are employing SPWM
technique. In this modulation also several pulses per half cycle is used.

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Page 87

However the pulse width is made sinusoidal function of the angular position of
the pulses as shown in sample waveform. The frequencies of the triangular wave decide
the number of pulses per half cycle and the frequency of the reference sinusoidal signal
decides the frequency of the output. The output voltage is controlled by the varying the
amplitude of the sinusoidal reference voltage.

In PWM inverters, forced commutation is essential. The three PWM techniques

mentioned above differ from each other in the harmonic content in their respective output
voltages. The choice of a particular PWM technique depends upon the permissible
harmonic content in the output voltage. In industrial applications PWM inverter supplied
from a diode bridge rectifier and an LC filter.
Advantages

The output voltage control with this method can be obtained without any
additional components.

It is possible to substantially reduce or eliminate lower order harmonic

frequencies. The higher order harmonics can by filtered by the load
inductance itself. Hence no filter circuit is required even if required it will
have lower size and hence the cost is less.

The main disadvantages of this method are that the SCRs are expensive as
they must possess low turn-on and turn-off times.

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Page 88

POWER CIRCUIT DIAGRAM

BASIC BRIDGE PWM INVERTER

MODEL GRAPH
Ig1
Ig2
0
wt
Ig3
Ig4
0
output voltage

wt

Vs
Vo

2T

0
T

wt

-Vs

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Page 89

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Page 90

TABULATION
Carrier signal
S.NO Amplitude
(V)

Reference signal

PWM signal

Output current

Time
Time
Time
Time
Amplitude
Amplitude
Amplitude
Period
Period
Period
Period
(V)
(V)
(V)
(ms)
(ms)
(ms)
(ms)

SINGLE PHASE FULL BRIDGE INVERTER

In the circuit there are four IGBT Power switches are there S1 to S4. During the
positive half cycle +ve voltage is obtained by firing S1 and S2. Zero level of the output
voltage for a general load is obtained by turning OFF S2 and firing S3, since gate pulses
are available for both S2 and S3, depending on the nature of the load inductive the load
current flows through one of these IGBTs and the diode connected in parallel with the
other IGBT.
In the negative half cycle, the output voltage level negative is obtained by turning
ON S3 and S4. The zero level of the output voltage for a general load is obtained by
turning OFF S3 and Firing S2.Depending upon the nature of the load, the current flows
through one of the two switches (S2 or S4) and the diode connected in parallel with the
other IGBT.

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Page 91

PROCEDURE
1. The connections are made as per the circuit diagram.
2. The control circuit and input AC mains supply are switched ON.(Ensure the
that pulse release is in OFF position, potentiometers at zero position).
3. The DC voltmeter reading is noted down.
4. The input triggering pulse is switched ON.
5. The frequency, Amplitude controller knobs are adjusted to obtain the variable
output voltage and frequency.
6. Voltmeter, Frequency meter readings for various load conditions are noted
down.
7. The triggering pulse circuit is switched OFF and then AC mains supply is
switched OFF.

INFERENCE

RESULT

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MODEL QUESTIONS
1. Why IGBT are used instead of SCRs power Transistors?
2. Define Modulation Index?
3. How PWM inverters are superior to conventional inverters?
4. Explain about various PWM techniques?
5. What is the need for connection of diodes in parallel with IGBTs?
6. Mention the other methods used to eliminate the Harmonics?
7. Give the difference between converter and inverter?
8. State the difference between voltage and current source inverter?

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Page 93

Ex. No10
Date:
DESIGN OF UJT OSCILLATOR
AIM:
To design a Uni junction transistor oscillator for a given frequency and study the
circuit.

APPARATUS REQUIRED:
S. No

Apparatus

Range

Qty

1.

UJT

2N2646

2.

Resistors

47,

pot

(0-30)k

3.

Capacitors

0.1f

4.

Regulated power supply

(0-30)v

5.

Connecting wires

As req

6.

Bread board

7.

CRO with probe

THORY:

THE Uni Junction Transistor (UJT) is a three terminal device with only on
junction. It is of n-type silicon wafer with a p-type alloy junction. Two leads are
connected to the ends of the n-material and they are called as bases B1 and B2. the lead
connected to p-material is called as emitter. Hen the emitter junction is not forward
biased, th UJT behaves as a high resistance. This resistance is called inter base resistance
RBB.

The resistance RBB can be considered as the series connection of two resistance
RB1 and RB2. RB1 is the resistance between the junction point and the end of base B1
within the wafer and RB2 is between the junction point and the end of bas B2.

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At 25c the value of Rbb lies between 4 and 10 k- and it increases linearly with
temperature. The normal operation B1 is connected to ground of the supply and B2 is
connected to positive end if the supply. There are connected either directly or through
resistors. The voltage between B1 and B2 is called as the inter base voltage. The inter
base voltage allows the leakage current to flow through Rbb causing a voltage drop
scross Rb1. the ratio of this voltage to the inter base voltage Vbb is called as the intrinsic
stand off ratio (). The value of lies between 0.51 and 0.82 and it is about 0.63 for the
popularly used UJT (2N2646).

The emitter junction forms a diode. When the voltage applied to the emitter is less
than the cut-in voltage of the diode, the emitter junction is reverse biased and only
leakage current flows through the UJT. As the emitter voltage (Ve) is increased, the diode
gets forward biased at a particular emitter voltage and large emitter current flows through
B1. This emitter voltage is called as peak point potential (Vp). This voltage can be
expressed as
Vp=Vbb+Vd
Where
Vd is the diode voltage of nearly 0.5V.
Once the diode conducts it remains in conduction even after Ve is reduced below
Vp. But below certain lower voltage the diode again stops conduction and this lower
voltage at emitter is called as the valley voltage (Vv).
It is found that Vp decreases with temperature and the temperature coefficient is
about -3v/C. the inter base resistance Rbb has a positive temperature coefficient and this
compensates the variation of Vp some extent. It can further be compensated by a resister
R2 in series with B2.
The UJT oscillator is properly used as a relaxation oscillator and in triggering
circuit for SCR and TRIAC.

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WORKING PRINCIPLE:
To explain the operation of the circuit, let us assume that the initial voltage across
C to be zero. Since the emitter voltage is zero, the emitter diode is reversed and the
capacitor charges exponentially through R3. when the emitter voltage Ve reaches Vp, the
diode conducts and the capacitor discharges through R1 producing a positive pulse across
R1. The capacitor voltage discharges until Ve falls to Vv. Now the emitter junction diode
is reverse biased and the capacitor C charges again through R3. thus the circuit works as
a free running oscillator and a train of pulses is produced across R1.

In designing the oscillator the approximate values of R2 can be optained by the

equation,
R2 = 10000 / Vs ------- (1)

Where
Vs Supply voltage

Let Vgt (OFF) be the maximum voltage at which the SCR will not trigger. Then the value
of R1 is selected by the equqtion.

Vs / R1 + R2 + RBB <_ Vgt ( OFF ) ------- ( 2 )

Let the time constant of the discharging circuit of UJT be 10 Ton

Where,

Ton is the turn on time of SCR.

Then charging time constant of resistor capacitor for the circuit
R1C = 10 Ton -------- (3)
The value C is found out using above equation.

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The period T of the oscillator is fairly independent of the supply voltage and is
derived as below
Vc = Vbb [1-exp (-t/R3C] ----- (4)
The discharge occurs when Vc = Vp
Vc = Vbb + Vd
Vbb = Vbb [1-exp (-t/R3C]
= [1-exp (-t/R3C]
exp (-t/R3C = [1- ]
t = R3 C log 1/ 1-
time period, t = 2.3 R3 C log e 1/1-
frequency f = 1 / t Hz

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CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:

MODEL GRAPH:

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PROCEDURE:

Let the supply voltage Vs and the oscillator frequency be given. The design and study
of the oscillator can be done as detailed below.

1. Calculate R2 using eqn ( 1 )

2. Assuming Vgt (OFF) as 0.1 volt and Rbb as 9k, calculate R1 using eqn ( 2 ).
3. Assuming Ton as 10 use c, calculate Causing eqn ( 3 ).
4. Calculate R3 using eqn ( 4 ) for the given frequency.
5. Compare the actual frequency either by using an oscilloscope or a frequency
counter.
6. observe the waveform of voltage across the capacitor using oscilloscope and
sketch it. Note the maximum and minimum voltage across C.
7. sketch the waveform of the pulse across R1 and note the maximum voltage VR1
during the charging periode.
8. also design the oscillator for a given frequency range of Fmin and Fmax by the
following expressions
F min = 1 / R3 max C
F max = 1 / R3 min C

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TABULATION:

Voltage scross R1:

S. No.

Amplitude (v)

Charging time (ms)

Discharge time (ms)

Charging time (ms)

Discharge time (ms)

Voltage across capacitor:

S. No.

Amplitude (v)

INFERENCE:

RESULT:

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Ex No: 11
Date :
STATIC DC CIRCUIT BREAKER

AIM
To study the performance of DC circuit breaker under the following.
1. SCR turn-off action under varying loads.
2. D.C. over voltage trip action.
3. Over current trip action.
EQUIPMENTS REQUIRED
S.No
1.
2.
3.
4.

Equipments
D.C. power
supply
Laboratory
Multi meter
Double beam
oscilloscope
Patch cards

Type
-

Range
(0-30)V,1A

Quantity
1

Unearthed

As required

THEORY
A typical SCR current limiting circuit breaker is shown. It is basically a parallel
capacitor commutated flip-flop. When the START button is momentarily pushed,
SCR2 starts to conduct and delivers power to the load.Capicitor C1 then charges to the
load voltage through R2,the left hand terminal of C1 being positive w.r.t. the right hand
terminal. When SCR2 is triggered by momentarily closing the STOP button, the
positive terminal of C1 gets connected to the cathode of SCR2,which gets back biased
and turns off, provided C1 is sufficiently big to keep the SCR reverse biased for a period
greater than its turn-off time.
This triggering of SCR1 and hence tripping of SCR2 can also be done
automatically incase of over voltage or over current by using the given circuit. This
consists essentially of two separate UJT trigger circuits. If the DC supply voltage exceeds
the desired maximum value as determined by the setting of R6, the voltage at the
emitter of the UJT-TR1 exceeds its peak point voltage causing it to trigger and produce
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an SCR firing pulse across R7.When the voltage across R12

exceeds the desired

maximum value as determined by the setting of potentiometer R11, the voltage at the
emitter of UJT-TR2 exceeds its peak point voltage, causing it to trigger and produce the
firing pulse across R7.Due to the stable firing voltage of UJT, the trip voltage across
R12 can be very low,a value in the range from 100 mV to 50 mV being suitable for most
applications.

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+
load
30 V
D.C.Supply

R1
- +
C

T1

T2

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PROCEDURE
To study SCR turn- off action under varying load:

1.

Connect P-P1 and G-G1.

2. Connect C1D from condenser bank C1 and RL1 for load.

3. Turned on the supply.Intially both SCR1 and SCR2 will found to be
off.
4. Push the START button to turn on SCR2.This on condition is
indicated by drop across it falling to around 1V.
5. Push the STOP button to turn on SCR1.This should turn off SCR2,if
not increases the condenser C1 by choosing higher condenser such as
C1C, C1B,etc,till the value is suitable to turn off the SCR2.
6. Try various load values and find out corresponding values.

To study the voltage trip action

1. Connect P-P2 and G-G2.
2. Choose some load and the corresponding suitable values for C1.
3. Initially adjust both R6 and R11 fully anticlockwise connect a multimeter or
oscilloscope across the load to measure the drop across it.
4. Put on the supply, the drop across load shall be zero. Turn on the SCR2 by
pushing START button. This will make drop across the load to be zero.
5. Slowly advance the potentiometer R6. At one setting when the voltage across C3
reaches the break over voltage of UJT-TR1, it triggers and turns on SCR1. This
will in turn make SCR2 off as indicated by the drop across load again drop to zero.
6. Reduce the setting of R6 very slightly. This now represents the Over voltage
trip. At this setting, putting on the supply shall have no effect but slight increases
in the input voltage shall trigger SCR1 turn off SCR2 giving break action.

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To study the current trip action

1. Repeat the procedure as above.
2. Slowly advance the potentiometer R11.At one setting, the combined drop across
potentiometer R11 & R12, the resistance in the load path is voltage across C4
reaches the break over voltage of UJT-TR2 & hence SCR1 turn on. This sets to off
the SCR2 as indicated by the drop across the load dropping to zero.
3. Reduce the setting of R11 very slightly. This now represents the over current trip
slightly. Putting on the supply has no effect, but if the load current is increased by
choosing a higher load such as R13 or R14 or by paralleling them , then the drop
across C4 shall reach the break over voltage of UJT-TR2 and cause the over
current trip circuit breaker action.

INFERENCE:

RESULT:

QUESTIONS:
1. What is the purpose of DC circuit breaker? How it transferring the
load current from one thyristor to other?
2. What is the commutation method behind this experiment?
3. What is the purpose of choosing the load initially?
4. What is the need for UJT in this experiment?
5. Compare AC andDC circuit breakers?

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Ex. No: 12
Date:
IGBT BASED FOUR QUADRANT CHOPPER

AIM
To study the DC chopper and observe the waveforms at salient points of the
triggering circuit.

APPARATUS REQUIRED
S.NO.

1
2
3
4
5
6

COMPONENTS NAME

IGBT based four quadrant chopper kit

module
Voltmeter
DC motor
Tachometer
CRO with probe
Patch cards

RANGE/TYPE

QUANTITY

(0-300V)/MC
0.5KW
Contact type
-

1
1
1
1
As reqd

THEORY
Chopper is a high speed ON/OFF switch that connects the load to and disconnects
it from the supply and produces a chopper load voltage, from a constant input supply
voltage. A DC chopper circuit is a power controller used to convert a fixed DC voltage to
a variable DC voltage. Basically it has a switch in series with the source and the load.
When the switch is closed, the load is connected across the source and when the switch is
opened the load is disconnected from the source. By varying the ratio of the ON and OFF
periods of the switch, the average voltage across the load can be varied the basic chopper
circuit and the load voltage waveforms are shown in fig
Choppers may be classified according to the number of quadrant of the Vo and Io
diagram in which they are of operating. And also they classified depends on the
configuration.
1) Step-up choppers (Vo>Vs)
2) Step-down choppers (Vo<Vs)
Where
Vo average output voltage
Vs Input voltage
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POWER CIRCUIT DIAGRAM

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TABULATION

S.NO.

Carrier wave
Amplitu Time
de (V)
(ms)

PWM wave
Ton

Toff

Amplitude
(p-p)

Duty
cycle

Output
voltage

Speed
in
r.p.m

Forward
motoring

Reverse
motoring

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The expression for the average dc voltage the load can be written as
Vdc = E ton / (ton + toff)
= E* ton/ T
Where,

T = ton + toff
Duty cycle = Ton / T

It can be seen from the above equation that the dc voltage across the load can be varied
by two methods,
(i)
varying ton and keeping T constant, and
(ii)
varying T and keeping ton constant
The former method is called as frequency, variable t on control or pulse width
modulation and the latter method is called as variable frequency, constant t on control
schemes as shown in fig.
The frequency modulation scheme has some disadvantage compare to the pulse
width modulation scheme.
1)

2)

The chopping frequency has to be varied over the wide range for
control of output voltage in frequency modulation. Hence the filter
design is quite difficult.
The large off time in frequency modulation scheme may make the load
current discontinuous which is undesirable.

If the load is separately excited motor of constant field then the positive voltage
and positive current in the first quadrant gives rise to a forward drive i.e., first Quadrant
operation.
Changing the polarity of both the armature voltage and the armature current
results in a reverse drive i.e., third quadrant operation.
In second and the fourth the direction of energy flow is reversed and the motor
operates as a generator braking rather than driving.

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PROCEDURE
1. The connections are made as per the circuit diagram.
2. Switch ON the input AC mains and the control circuit power.
3. The DC voltage is checked and triggering pulse circuit is switched ON to
chopper CH1 to CH4
4. By adjusting the armature voltage and field voltage control knobs to obtain the
four quadrant operation of DC motor.
5. The waveforms, voltmeter reading, speed and the direction rotation are noted
down.
6. The triggering pulse circuit is switched OFF and then the AC mains.

INFERENCE

RESULT

MODEL QUESTIONS
1. Why four quadrants operation is not possible with the experimental setup.
2. List out the Advantages of regenerative braking.
3. How variable output voltage is obtained.
4. Explain about various configurations of DC chopper.
5. Explain about the various speed controlling methods of DC motor with necessary
equations.
6. How PWM is differed from frequency modulation.
7. In PWM Ton cannot be reduced to near zero-true or false. Justify the Answer.

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