910 F.

2d 1072
30 Fed. R. Evid. Serv. 925

UNITED STATES of America

v.
CRUZ, Jose, Appellant.
UNITED STATES of America
v.
ALVERIO, Julian Miguel, Appellant.
Nos. 89-1563, 89-1566.

United States Court of Appeals,

Third Circuit.
Argued Nov. 28, 1989.
Decided July 31, 1990.
Rehearing and Rehearing In Banc Denied in No. 89-1563 Aug. 29, 1990.

Joseph A. Torregrossa (argued), John A. Gephart, Morgan Lewis &

Bockius, Philadelphia, Pa., for Jose Cruz, appellant in No. 89-1563.
Mary McNeill Zell (argued), Philadelphia, Pa., for Julian Miguel Alverio,
appellant in No. 89-1566.
Michael M. Baylson, U.S. Atty., Walter S. Batty, Jr., Asst. U.S. Atty.,
Chief of Appeals, Ewald Zittlau (argued), Asst. U.S. Atty., Philadelphia,
Pa., for appellee.
Before SLOVITER and BECKER, Circuit Judges, and LIFLAND, District
Judge.*
OPINION OF THE COURT
BECKER, Circuit Judge.

This is an appeal by Jose Cruz and Julian Miguel Alverio from their
convictions in the district court for the Eastern District of Pennsylvania for
conspiracy to possess cocaine with intent to distribute, and conspiracy to

distribute cocaine, 21 U.S.C. Sec. 846. Cruz argues that the district court erred
by denying his motion to suppress certain statements made after his arrest on
the grounds that: (1) the law enforcement officers did not have probable cause
to arrest him; and (2) his fifth amendment rights were violated. On the latter
issue, Cruz contends that the Miranda warnings he was given were inadequate
and that he did not waive his right to remain silent. Additionally, Cruz contends
that the district court erred by allowing a United States Customs Agent to
testify about a conversation he overheard between two unidentified Hispanic
women because: (1) it was unreliable; (2) it was hearsay; (3) it was not
relevant; and (4) it violated the defendants' sixth amendment confrontation
clause rights. As will be seen, the resolution of this aspect of the appeal turns
on whether the statement of the unidentified woman was admissible as a coconspirator declaration. Alverio also submits that there was insufficient
evidence to support his conviction, and that his sentence was excessive. For the
reasons that follow, we will affirm.
I. THE FACTS
2

The facts of the case, developed at the hearing on the defendants' motion to
suppress evidence and at the trial, are largely undisputed and are as follows.

A.
3

In November 1988, United States Customs Service Agent Julio M. Velez was
working on a joint investigation with United States Drug Enforcement
Administration (DEA) Special Agent Frank Marrero into drug activity
conducted by one Rene Guzman on the 3000 block of North Leithgow Street in
Philadelphia. On Friday, November 18, Velez conducted surveillance in the
vicinity of 3052 North Leithgow and on at least seven separate occasions
observed individuals drive up to 3052 North Leithgow, enter the building, and
then exit carrying brown paper or plastic bags. Based upon Velez's experience,
he believed that the individuals entering and exiting the building were engaged
in drug trafficking. On November 21, from 3:00 to 4:00 p.m., Velez again
established surveillance in the vicinity of 3052 North Leithgow and observed at
least ten cars pull up to 3052. An individual would exit 3052, approach the
cars, receive currency from the people in the cars, re-enter 3052, and then
return to the cars and hand the people in the cars a plastic bag with a white
substance. During the surveillance, Velez observed Rene Guzman drive up to
the area, enter 3052 North Leithgow, exit the building after a few minutes and
enter 3054 North Leithgow, then return to 3052 with a package, and then return
to 3054.
By November 18, 1988, Velez had determined that Guzman had a prior

By November 18, 1988, Velez had determined that Guzman had a prior
criminal record involving arrests and a conviction for drug trafficking. Velez
had also learned that Guzman had purchased a grocery store at 5100 Whitaker
Avenue, Philadelphia. On that date, Velez conducted surveillance at the
grocery store, and noticed a vehicle parked in the carport which was registered
to Rene Guzman, of 3054 North Leithgow. On November 21, 1988, at
approximately 8:00 p.m., federal search warrants were executed at 3052, 3054
and 3056 North Leithgow Street.

At approximately 10:00 p.m. that evening, while the search was underway (a
process that took several hours), Velez was standing around the corner from the
scene of the search, with a group of neighbors, watching the police activity. At
that time, Velez observed a young Hispanic female running down the street.
She spoke to another young Hispanic female in Spanish, asking for a third
woman. Velez overheard the first young female excitedly state that she wanted
the keys to 5100, that the police had just raided Rene's house, and that they
needed the keys to the store because there were "two things" (translation) in the
store. Velez immediately left the area and contacted other police units by radio
to dispatch vehicles and agents to 5100 Whitaker Avenue because he believed
that evidence was going to be removed from the building. Velez then drove his
own unmarked car to that address.

Shortly after Velez arrived at 5100 Whitaker Avenue, he observed a tan El

Camino make a U-turn on Whitaker Avenue and park on the corner opposite
the store. A Hispanic male, later identified as Cruz, exited the passenger side of
the El Camino, walked over towards the store, put his hand into his pocket as if
he were reaching for something, but "froze" when he observed Velez in the
unmarked car. Velez circled the block to avoid suspicion. When he returned to
the area, he observed Cruz looking in the window of the store. When the
headlights of Velez's vehicle hit Cruz, Cruz walked away from the store and got
back into the El Camino, which quickly departed the scene. Velez activated his
portable red overhead light and siren, and a high-speed chase ensued. After
approximately a mile, the El Camino was cut off by another vehicle driven by
Customs Agent William Braker. Both Alverio, the driver of the El Camino, and
Cruz were removed from the vehicle.

Because he was working undercover, Velez did not carry his Miranda warnings
card, so, from memory, he advised both Cruz and Alverio (in Spanish) of their
rights to remain silent and to have counsel present during questioning. See
Miranda v. Arizona, 384 U.S. 436, 86 S.Ct. 1602, 16 L.Ed.2d 694 (1966). He
also advised them that the court would appoint counsel for them if necessary.
Velez concluded his recitation of the Miranda warnings by stating that if the

defendants decided to answer his questions without the presence of a lawyer,

they had the right to do so. Velez then asked Alverio and Cruz if they
understood their rights. Alverio and Cruz responded in the affirmative. Cruz
then asked Velez in Spanish what was going on. Velez responded by asking
Cruz where he was coming from, and Cruz stated that he was coming from a
restaurant. Cruz also stated that he lived at 3056 North Leithgow Street. Agent
Braker searched the car and found a small amount of marijuana in the console.
8

After hearing the testimony establishing these facts, the district court denied
Cruz's motion to suppress the statements he made after his arrest. Cruz, who
was particularly affected by the statement that he lived at 3056 North Leithgow
Street because of the evidence that the address was a location for drug
trafficking, argued that the statements should be suppressed for three reasons:
first, because Velez did not have grounds to stop the El Camino or grounds to
arrest him; second, because the Miranda warnings were inadequate; and third,
because he did not waive his right to remain silent. The district court concluded
that there were "adequate grounds for law enforcement officers to stop the El
Camino," and that, once the car was stopped, in "all functional senses" Cruz
was "under arrest." Although the court did not explicitly find that Velez had
probable cause to arrest Cruz, such a finding appears to be implicit in its denial
of Cruz's motion to suppress. The court expressly found that the Miranda
warnings given to Cruz were adequate and that Cruz had then waived his fifth
amendment rights.

B.
9

At trial, Edwin Melendez Montes, who was a codefendant on the indictment

and who had been convicted in a separate trial, was a witness for the
government. Melendez testified that he knew Alverio when both lived in Puerto
Rico, and that after he moved to Philadelphia in November 1988, he had a
chance meeting with Alverio on the street. Melendez wrote his name, address
and telephone number on a piece of paper and gave it to Alverio. Melendez
again met with Alverio near Alverio's home sometime after the first meeting
and asked him where he could obtain cocaine. Alverio took Melendez to 3052
North Leithgow Street and introduced him to Cruz. Cruz then sold a half gram
of cocaine to Melendez for twenty-five dollars in Alverio's presence. Melendez
later returned to 3052 North Leithgow and eventually began selling cocaine at
that location. While selling cocaine at 3052 North Leithgow, he observed Cruz
selling cocaine in front of the house.

10

On November 21, 1988, the date the search warrants were executed at 3052,
3054 and 3056 North Leithgow Street, Melendez was selling cocaine at 3052.

Approximately half an hour before he was arrested as a result of the execution

of the search warrants, Melendez saw Cruz talking to Sonia Guzman, Rene's
wife, in front of 3054 North Leithgow Street, where Sonia lived. Alverio and
Melendez were in front of 3052 while Cruz was speaking with Sonia in front of
3054. After Cruz spoke with Sonia, Cruz and Alverio departed the area
together.
11

At 7:05 p.m. on November 21, 1988, before the execution of the search
warrants, Philadelphia Police Officer Robert Clements made an undercover
purchase of cocaine from Melendez and a Paul Rivera inside 3052 North
Leithgow Street. Prior to entering the building, Clements observed Rivera exit
3056 North Leithgow Street. Clements followed Rivera inside 3052 and
observed Rivera deliver a package of a number of smaller bags of cocaine to
Melendez there.

12

As a result of the search, 3052 North Leithgow Street was found to be a

distribution house for cocaine, and 3056 North Leithgow Street was determined
to be a packaging house for cocaine. Melendez and Rivera were found hiding in
the back of 3054 North Leithgow Street. Also found inside 3054 were Rene and
Sonia Guzman, $12,729 in cash, and a radio to communicate with a radio found
at 3052 North Leithgow Street. According to a deed obtained from the City of
Philadelphia Records Department, Rene Guzman owned 3054 North Leithgow
Street.

13

Velez also testified at trial, and substantially repeated his testimony at the
pretrial suppression hearing. He also testified that after the search warrants
were executed at the North Leithgow Street location, he and other agents
executed a search warrant for Guzman's grocery store at 5100 Whitaker
Avenue, and found approximately one kilogram of cocaine. The district court
decided not to exclude his testimony as to the conversation between the two
unidentified Hispanic females because it concluded that this conversation was
not hearsay but rather, was evidence of a conspiracy between Guzman and the
two females. The jury returned a verdict of guilty as to both defendants. This
appeal followed.

II. PROBABLE CAUSE

14

We first consider Cruz's argument that the district court erred by denying his
motion to suppress the statements he made after his arrest, which he maintains
was illegal.1

15

In order for an arrest to be legal, it must be sustained by probable cause. See

15

In order for an arrest to be legal, it must be sustained by probable cause. See

Wong Sun v. United States, 371 U.S. 471, 479, 83 S.Ct. 407, 412, 9 L.Ed.2d
441 (1963); United States v. Elias, 832 F.2d 24, 26 (3d Cir.1987). Probable
cause exists where the facts and circumstances within the arresting officer's
knowledge are sufficient in themselves to warrant a reasonable person to
believe that an offense has been or is being committed by the person to be
arrested. See Dunaway v. New York, 442 U.S. 200, 208 n. 9, 99 S.Ct. 2248,
2287 n. 9, 60 L.Ed.2d 824 (1979). Cruz argues that his arrest was without
probable cause because the facts in his case are similar to those in the
celebrated case of Wong Sun, in which the Supreme Court concluded that the
arrest of the defendant Wong Sun was not supported by probable cause. Our
scope of review is plenary. See United States v. Belle, 593 F.2d 487, 497 (3d
Cir.) (in banc) cert. denied, 442 U.S. 911, 99 S.Ct. 2825, 61 L.Ed.2d 277
(1979); United States v. Thompson, 420 F.2d 536, 540 (3d Cir.1970) (applying
independent review to question of whether there was reasonable ground for
believing that the arrest was warranted).

16

In Wong Sun, federal narcotics agents in San Francisco learned from a

defendant arrested for heroin possession that he had bought the heroin from
Blackie Toy, the proprietor of a laundry on Leavenworth Street. The narcotics
agents thereupon visited Oyes Laundry on Leavenworth Street and told its
operator, James Wah Toy, that they were federal narcotics officers. There was
nothing in the record identifying James Wah Toy and Blackie Toy as the same
person. Toy slammed the door on them and ran to his living quarters in the
back of the store. The agents chased Toy and arrested him in his bedroom as he
was reaching into his nightstand drawer. The agents did not find any weapons
or contraband in either the drawer or the premises. However, they did learn
from Toy that, while he did not sell heroin, he knew someone else who did.

17

Toy was later convicted of a narcotics offense. On appeal, the Supreme Court
held that Toy's statement to the narcotics officers should not have been
admitted because the narcotics officers did not have probable cause to arrest
him. It noted that "the sparse information at the officers' command," essentially
Toy's flight, did not provide them with probable cause. See 371 U.S. at 481,
484, 83 S.Ct. at 413, 415. The court noted that "[a] contrary holding here
would mean that a vague suspicion could be transformed into probable cause
for arrest by reason of ambiguous conduct [flight] which the arresting officers
themselves have provoked." Id. at 484, 83 S.Ct. at 415.

18

Wong Sun is distinguishable. In Wong Sun, the only evidence that Toy had
committed a crime was his flight, which the Supreme Court concluded was not
enough to support a finding of probable cause. In the present case, by contrast,
there were a number of other factors, in addition to Cruz's flight, that could

support a belief that he had committed a crime.

19

Velez knew that drug trafficking was ongoing at 3052 North Leithgow Street
and that this trafficking involved Rene Guzman, who Velez knew had prior
arrests and a conviction for drug trafficking. Velez knew that Guzman had
purchased a store at 5100 Whitaker Avenue, and three days earlier, Velez had
observed an automobile registered to Guzman parked at that location.
Moreover, Velez saw the young Hispanic female running and attempting to
locate another female in order to obtain the key to "5100" in order to remove
"two things" because the police had just raided "Rene's house."

20

Velez went to 5100 Whitaker Avenue to prevent the anticipated removal of

evidence and observed Alverio and Cruz arrive in an El Camino. The El
Camino made a quick, concerted movement--a U-turn on Whitaker Avenue--to
park directly across from the store. Velez observed Cruz exit the vehicle and
proceed directly to the store, reach into his pocket to retrieve something, and
then stop when he noticed Velez. After circling the block, Velez observed Cruz
looking in the window of the store. When Cruz again noticed Velez, he left the
store and immediately re-entered the El Camino. The El Camino quickly
departed the scene, and was stopped after a police chase of approximately one
mile only when another police car was used to cut it off.

21

The issue is close, but we think that these facts are enough to constitute
probable cause. In view of Cruz's directed movements toward the store,
especially the U-turn and his looking in the window, coupled with his reaching
into his pocket as for a key and freezing, and then the flight, we believe that a
reasonable person, armed with the knowledge that Velez had about what had
gone on at Leithgow Street and Guzman's relationship to 5100 Whitaker
Avenue, would believe that an offense--participating in a drug conspiracy--was
being committed by Cruz. Flight at the approach of law enforcement officers,
when coupled with specific knowledge relating the suspect to evidence of a
crime, is a proper factor to be considered in the decision to make an arrest. See
Sibron v. New York, 392 U.S. 40, 66-67, 88 S.Ct. 1889, 1904, 20 L.Ed.2d 917
(1968). We thus conclude that the district court did not err in finding that Velez
had probable cause to arrest Cruz.

III. THE FIFTH AMENDMENT ISSUES

22

Cruz contends that the district court erred by not suppressing his statements
because they were taken in violation of his fifth amendment rights. We
disagree.

A. Adequacy of the Miranda Warnings

23

Cruz argues first that he was not adequately informed of his fifth amendment
rights, as required by Miranda. Although not challenging the bulk of Velez's
Miranda recitation, Cruz claims that Velez's follow-up statement, i.e., that the
defendants had a right to answer questions without a lawyer present, was
misleading. The district court rejected this argument, finding "no reason to
believe that Messrs. Cruz and Alverio were misled as to their entitlement to be
silent or to wait and consult with a lawyer or to speak as they chose."
Accordingly, the district court denied Cruz's attempt to suppress the statements.
1. Scope of Review

24

The scope of our review on the question of whether a non-exact recitation of

the Miranda warnings is sufficient to satisfy Miranda requirements is,
surprisingly, an issue of first impression for this court. A survey of analogous
cases convinces us, however, that our inquiry involves "a hybrid question of
law and fact subsuming a complex of values, and as such cannot be treated as a
simple question of historical fact." United States v. Fraction, 795 F.2d 12, 14
(3d Cir.1986) (issue of involuntariness is subject to plenary review.)

25

Determining whether any given explanation of rights is sufficient "requires us

to 'consider legal concepts in the mix of fact and law and to exercise judgment
about the values' underlying the Miranda rule and the fifth amendment." United
States v. Calisto, 838 F.2d 711, 717-18 (3d Cir.1988) (quoting United States v.
Poole, 794 F.2d 462, 465 (9th Cir.1986)) (applying plenary review to a
determination of what constitutes "custodial interrogation"); see also Ahmad v.
Redman, 782 F.2d 409, 413 (3d Cir.) ("[V]oluntariness of a defendant's waiver
of Miranda rights is a mixed question of law and fact, subject to plenary
review...."), cert denied, 479 U.S. 831, 107 S.Ct. 119, 93 L.Ed.2d 66 (1986). As
the Supreme Court has observed: "Where ... the relevant legal principle can be
given meaning only through its application to the particular circumstances of a
case, the Court has been reluctant to give the trier of fact's conclusions
presumptive force and, in so doing, strip a federal appellate court of its primary
function as an expositor of law." Miller v. Fenton, 474 U.S. 104, 114, 106 S.Ct.
445, 451, 88 L.Ed.2d 405 (1985).2 We believe that the relevant legal principles,
i.e. whether the warnings, as given, "conveyed to [Cruz] his rights as required
by Miranda," California v. Prysock, 453 U.S. 355, 361, 101 S.Ct. 2806, 2810,
69 L.Ed.2d 696 (1981) (per curiam), can be given meaning only through their
application to the particular facts of this case.3

2. Were the Warnings Misleading?

26

27

28

In Duckworth v. Eagan, --- U.S. ----, 109 S.Ct. 2875, 106 L.Ed.2d 166 (1989),
the Supreme Court explained that Miranda warnings do not have to be given in
the exact words that the court scribed in its landmark Miranda decision.4 Id. at ---, 109 S.Ct. at 2880. "The prophylactic Miranda warnings are 'not themselves
rights protected by the Constitution but [are] instead measures to insure that the
right against compulsory self-incrimination [is] protected.' " Id. (quoting
Michigan v. Tucker, 417 U.S. 433, 444, 94 S.Ct. 2357, 2359, 41 L.Ed.2d 182
(1974)). The Court noted that officers in the field sometimes may not have
access to printed Miranda warnings (e.g., while working undercover) and that it
is sufficient for an officer to provide the functional equivalent of the Miranda
warnings from memory. Id., 109 S.Ct. at 2879-80. We note that officers
generally do not carry a Miranda warning card while working undercover.
In light of Duckworth, we believe that Velez's recitation of the rights
sufficiently conveyed Cruz's rights to him. The one problematic statement, that
the defendants could speak without a lawyer present if they wanted to, was not
an inaccurate characterization of the defendants' rights. We do not endorse this
statement for inclusion in the Miranda litany, but under these circumstances we
do not believe that it diluted the substance of the warnings. There is nothing in
this record indicating that Cruz felt intimidated by Velez's gratuitous remark.
According to Velez's testimony, Cruz stated that he understood his rights.5
Although the district court did not explicitly find that the defendants understood
their rights, it apparently found Velez's testimony credible, and we accept that
credibility determination as not clearly erroneous.6 In sum, we hold that Velez's
warnings "reasonably 'convey[ed] to [Cruz] his rights as required by Miranda.'
" Duckworth, --- U.S. at ----, 109 S.Ct. at 2880 (quoting California v. Prysock,
453 U.S. 355, 361, 101 S.Ct. 2806, 2810, 69 L.Ed.2d 696 (1981) (per curiam)).

B. Waiver of Rights
29

Cruz also argues that the government did not establish that he voluntarily
waived his right to remain silent. The district court found, implicitly, that his
waiver was voluntary.7
1. Scope of Review

30

As with the foregoing inquiry into whether the defendants were misled with
regard to their rights, we must first address our scope of review. That issue has
been settled, however, by this court. In Ahmad v. Redman, 782 F.2d 409, 413
(3d Cir.1986), we held that "the voluntariness of a defendant's waiver is a
mixed question of law and fact, subject to plenary review."8 Thus, although the
district court has already found, implicitly, that Cruz waived his rights

voluntarily, we have an independent duty to make that determination ourselves.

31

2. Did Cruz Voluntarily Waive his Rights?

32

Our review leads us to the conclusion that Cruz's relinquishment of his right to
remain silent was voluntary. Velez testified that Cruz and Alverio both
acknowledged that they understood their rights. He also testified that he asked
them whether they waived their rights prior to any questioning. After that, Cruz
asked what was going on and Velez asked Cruz where he lived. Cruz's response
to Velez's question was particularly important because it linked Cruz to the
drug activity at his home on Leithgow Street. But Cruz never indicated that he
wished to remain silent on this or any issue and there is no indication that he
even hesitated before answering questions.

33

Admittedly, Cruz did not answer affirmatively when Velez asked him if he
waived his rights prior to questioning, but we do not believe the circumstances
were such that we should conclude that Cruz's responses were involuntary.
Once "the warning[s] [have] convey[ed] the relevant information[,] ... the
suspect's choice whether to exercise his privilege to remain silent should
ordinarily be viewed as an 'act of free will.' " Oregon v. Elstad, 470 U.S. 298,
311, 105 S.Ct. 1285, 1294, 84 L.Ed.2d 222 (1985) (pre-Miranda confession
does not taint process so as to render inadmissible statements made after an
otherwise valid post-Miranda waiver of the right to remain silent) (quoting
Wong Sun v. United States, 371 U.S. 471, 486, 83 S.Ct. 407, 416, 9 L.Ed.2d
441 (1963)).

34

In coming to the conclusion that Cruz waived his right to remain silent, we are
mindful that the conversation in question did not involve prolonged, postindictment questioning. Cf. Brewer v. Williams, 430 U.S. 387, 398, 97 S.Ct.
1232, 1239, 51 L.Ed.2d 424 (1977) (sixth amendment context); Spano v. New
York, 360 U.S. 315, 323-24, 79 S.Ct. 1202, 1207, 3 L.Ed.2d 1265 (1959) (fifth
amendment context). This is not a case in which the police had zeroed in on
Cruz and were questioning only to strengthen their case. Although, as the
district court found, the "stop" was custodial and Miranda warnings were
necessary, there was still an on-going police investigation. The drugs had not
even been discovered in the store when Velez started asking Cruz questions;
there was no evidence, except Cruz's own suspicious conduct, which linked
Cruz to the conspiracy. Although unlikely, it was conceivable, at least, that
Cruz was just a passerby, looking in the store window. Thus, Velez needed to
ask questions in order to see if he had the right man.

35

Requiring an affirmative waiver by the suspect could seriously inhibit the

35

Requiring an affirmative waiver by the suspect could seriously inhibit the

ability of police officers to do essential investigative work, particularly in cases
like this, where the drama is still unfolding during the questioning. We have not
required an affirmative Miranda waiver in the past, even when the suspect was
already being held in a cell, see Ahmad, 782 F.2d at 410, 413, and, in light of
the policy concerns just expressed, we do not feel compelled to impose such a
requirement now. Of course, Cruz had every right not to answer Velez's
questions and Velez had an affirmative obligation to inform him of that right
and make sure that he understood it. But, giving "weight to the considered
conclusions" of the district court, Miller v. Fenton, 474 U.S. 104, 112, 106 S.Ct.
445, 450, 88 L.Ed.2d 405 (1985),9 we find that Cruz answered Velez's
questions voluntarily. Hence, we reject Cruz's Miranda claim.

IV. THE STATEMENT OF THE UNIDENTIFIED WOMAN

36

We next consider the argument, advanced vigorously by defendants at trial as

well as on appeal, that the statement of the unidentified Hispanic female should
have been excluded. Velez testified that the woman "said she needed the keys to
5100 because there were two things in 5100." Velez also heard her say that "the
police had just raided Rene's house." The primary question is whether the
woman's statement is admissible as a co-conspirator declaration.10 Our review
is plenary.11

37

Fed.R.Evid. 801(d)(2)(E) allows into evidence out-of-court statements, offered

for the truth of the matter asserted, if they are "statement[s] by a co-conspirator
of a party during the course and in furtherance of the conspiracy."12 However, "
[b]efore admitting a co-conspirator's statement ... [t]here must be evidence that
there was a conspiracy involving the declarant and the nonoffering party."
Bourjaily v. United States, 483 U.S. 171, 175, 107 S.Ct. 2775, 2778, 97
L.Ed.2d 144 (1987). In coming to the necessary preliminary factual conclusion
as to the existence of the conspiracy, the court may evaluate the "hearsay"
statement itself. "Congress has decided that courts may consider hearsay in
making ... factual determinations." Id. at 178, 107 S.Ct. at 2780. The Supreme
Court has explained the reasoning behind this rule as follows:

38
[I]ndividual
pieces of evidence, insufficient in themselves to prove a point, may in
cumulation prove it. The sum of an evidentiary presentation may well be greater
than its constituent parts. Taken together, these two propositions demonstrate that a
piece of evidence, unreliable in isolation, may become quite probative when
corroborated by other evidence. A per se rule barring consideration of these hearsay
statements during preliminary factfinding is not therefore required. Even if out-ofcourt declarations by co-conspirators are presumptively unreliable, trial courts must
be permitted to evaluate these statements for their evidentiary worth as revealed by

the particular circumstances of the case.

39

Id. 483 U.S. at 179-80, 107 S.Ct. at 2781.

40

In this case, the district court admitted the unidentified female's statement
because it furnished evidence of a conspiracy between the women and
Guzman.13 At first blush, evidence of a conspiracy between the unidentified
women and Guzman might seem irrelevant in Cruz and Alverio's trial. Guzman
was not a defendant here; therefore a statement by Guzman's co-conspirator
could not come into a trial in which someone else (i.e., Cruz and/or Alverio)
was the defendant, unless there was also evidence linking the actual
party/defendants to the same conspiracy. Upon review, see supra note 12, we
find that the record does contain enough evidence linking Cruz and Alverio to
the conspiracy, and hence we hold that the statement was properly admitted.14

41

In analyzing the evidence, it is helpful to break the conspiracy down into two
groupings: the woman and Guzman, and the woman and Cruz and Alverio. If
there is evidence supporting both of these conspiracies, and both conspiracies
involve the same drugs, then there is evidence of one larger conspiracy
involving everyone.

42

The connection between the woman and Guzman is evident from the text of the
statement, particularly in light of the fact that it was made while the police raid
was going on. The unidentified female said that the police had just raided
"Rene's [Guzman's] house." The statement was made in the immediate vicinity
of the house while the raid was still going on. Additionally, she stated that she
needed the keys to 5100. Admittedly, Cruz and Alverio would not be implicated
by these statements unless there was evidence linking them to either Rene's
house or 5100. Without such evidence, these comments would have been both
hearsay and irrelevant because, although they would show evidence of a
conspiracy between the woman and Guzman, absent the Alverio/Cruz
connection, such evidence would have nothing to do with defendants'
conspiratorial activities.

43

However, the fact that Cruz and Alverio went to 5100 Whitaker Avenue
immediately after the unidentified female made this statement, and acted so
suspiciously at that location, provides evidence of the necessary Alverio/Cruz
connection.15 The woman's statement indicates that she felt that someone must
get to 5100 right away, and, right away, Cruz and Alverio were there. This
activity implicates them in conspiratorial involvement with the woman because
it suggests that they heard or learned of the woman's statement and then

responded to it. Because the woman's statement indicates that the need for the
urgency at 5100 stemmed from the recent police raid of Guzman's house, Cruz
and Alverio's activity also links them to Guzman and the drug activity at
Guzman's house. Hence, the totality of the evidence establishes, at least by a
preponderance of the evidence, the existence of a conspiracy.
44

Once that conspiracy is established, the statement can come in as the

declaration of a co-conspirator, and if it can come in as the statement of a coconspirator, there is no violation of the sixth amendment confrontation clause.
Bourjaily, 483 U.S. at 182, 107 S.Ct. at 2782 (citing United States v. Inadi, 475
U.S. 387, 106 S.Ct. 1121, 89 L.Ed.2d 390 (1986)). We so hold. We add that
defendants' claim that the statement was not relevant clearly cannot withstand
the foregoing analysis. The statement was not only relevant, it was pivotal in
establishing the conspiracy for which Cruz and Alverio were convicted.16

V. ALVERIO'S CLAIMS
45

We turn next to Alverio's claim that there was insufficient evidence to support
his conviction. In considering this claim, we must uphold the verdict of the jury
if, when viewed in the light most favorable to the government, the evidence is
sufficient to support the verdict. Glasser v. United States, 315 U.S. 60, 80, 62
S.Ct. 457, 469, 86 L.Ed. 680 (1942); United States v. Leon, 739 F.2d 885, 89091 (3d Cir.1984).

46

There is evidence that Alverio took Melendez to 3052 North Leithgow Street
and introduced Melendez to Cruz so that Melendez could purchase cocaine
from Cruz and that Alverio remained present while Cruz sold the cocaine to
Melendez. There is also evidence that after the execution of the search warrants
on North Leithgow Street, Alverio drove Cruz to 5100 Whitaker Avenue, where
a kilogram of cocaine was stored, stopping directly in front of the location.
Finally, there is evidence that Alverio rapidly departed the scene after Cruz,
while standing in front of the store, noticed Velez in an unmarked car. Alverio
did not stop when Velez attempted to stop his vehicle by using an overhead red
light and siren. Indeed, he did not stop until he was cut off by another police
car. We agree with the government that this is sufficient evidence to support the
jury's verdict.

47

We have also considered Alverio's sentencing argument, and we find it to be

without merit. His principal contention, that his role in the charged crimes was
"minimal," as opposed to "minor," is essentially a factual determination and
hence is subject to clearly erroneous review. United States v. Ortiz, 878 F.2d
125, 127 (3d Cir.1989). Given the evidence described above, the district court's

finding of minor participation was not clearly erroneous.

VI. CONCLUSION
48

For the foregoing reasons, the judgment of conviction will be affirmed.

Honorable John C. Lifland, United States District Judge for the District of New
Jersey, sitting by designation

Statements made to the police following an illegal arrest are subject to the
exclusionary rule and may not be admitted at trial unless they are the result of
an independent intervening act of free will. See Wong Sun v. United States,
371 U.S. 471, 484-87, 83 S.Ct. 407, 415-17, 9 L.Ed.2d 441 (1963). The
government does not contend that Cruz's statements were the result of an
independent intervening act of free will

We recognize that Miller was a habeas corpus case, not a direct appeal, but in
our view, the same principles of deference apply. A federal appellate court
reviewing a federal trial court has no less reason, and indeed probably more
reason (given the absence of federalism concerns), to refrain from abdicating its
responsibility as an "expositor of law." See Fraction, 795 F.2d at 14. See also
Miller, 474 U.S. at 118, 106 S.Ct. at 454 (Rehnquist, J., dissenting)

The Supreme Court and the Seventh Circuit have, arguably, come to a similar
conclusion. In Eagan v. Duckworth, 843 F.2d 1554 (7th Cir.1988), rev'd --U.S. ----, 109 S.Ct. 2875, 106 L.Ed.2d 166 (1989), the Seventh Circuit did not
give any weight to the district court's opinion that the warnings, as given,
"clearly manifest[ed] adherence to Miranda." --- U.S. at ----, 109 S.Ct. at 2878,
quoting App. to Pet. for Cert. The Supreme Court proceeded to reverse the
Seventh Circuit, upholding the validity of the Miranda warnings as given, but
neither did the Court, in any way, base its decision on principles of deference to
the state or district court findings. However, given the complete absence of
discussion on the issue in both courts, we decline to rest our holding on our
interpretation of how we believe those courts approached the issue

In Miranda, the Court instructed that a suspect must be informed that "he has
the right to remain silent, that anything he says can be used against him in a
court of law, that he has the right to the presence of an attorney, and that if he
cannot afford an attorney one will be appointed for him prior to any questioning
if he so desires." Miranda v. Arizona, 384 U.S. 436, 479, 86 S.Ct. 1602, 1630,
16 L.Ed.2d 694 (1966). As we understand it, most law enforcement officials
use what is virtually the exact language from Miranda. See Duckworth, --- U.S.

at ---- n. 4, 109 S.Ct. at 2879 n. 4

5

We do not intimate that a defendant's subjective understanding of his or her

rights controls the question of whether the warnings, as given, were misleading.
Nonetheless, whether a defendant understood his rights is arguably relevant
when a court is trying to determine whether plausibly equivalent warnings
sufficiently convey notice of the fifth amendment rights protected in Miranda.
The Court has made clear that the exact Miranda words are not necessary, but
unless Miranda is overturned, something essentially equivalent to the familiar
Miranda recitation must be conveyed to the suspect. In determining whether it
is equivalent, we believe that a suspect's subjective opinion of what those
words meant may sometimes be relevant

We recognize that Cruz may have stated that he understood his rights without
actually understanding them, or he could have said that he understood only out
of fear of what might happen to him if he did not so indicate. After having his
rights administered to him he did ask "what's going on?" However, we do not
think that that statement casts significant enough doubt on his affirmative
statement that he understood his rights to lead us to the conclusion that the
rights, as given, were misleading

The district court's only explicit finding was that Cruz and Alverio were not
misled. However, the decision to let Cruz's post-Miranda warning statements
into evidence demonstrates the district court's view that those statements were
made voluntarily

For the reasons expressed above in note 2, we do not believe that the habeas
setting in Ahmad distinguishes it in any way relevant for our analysis

In Miller, notwithstanding its determination that review should be plenary, the

Supreme Court held that the federal court must give "great weight to the
considered conclusions of the coequal state judiciary." 474 U.S. at 112, 106
S.Ct. at 450. In direct appeal cases, the appellate court is not reviewing the
conclusions of a coequal judiciary; it is reviewing a lower court. Thus, although
we find Miller 's call for deference instructive, it would appear that there is a
somewhat less compelling need for deference to the lower court's conclusions.
See Miller, 474 U.S. at 118-19, 106 S.Ct. at 453-54 (Rehnquist, J., dissenting)

10

Relying on Carden v. Westinghouse Electric Corp., 850 F.2d 996 (3d

Cir.1988), Cruz argues that the statement should have been excluded because
the woman was unidentified. In Carden, we ruled that the district court should
have excluded, as hearsay within hearsay, Fed.R.Evid. 805, an age
discrimination plaintiff's "smoking gun" testimony that his immediate
supervisor told him that "they wanted a younger person." See id. at 1002. We

stressed that the "they," who wanted a younger person, was unknown. See id.
Unlike the case at bar, however, the identity of that declarant was critical
because without knowing who she was or when she stated that she or the
company wanted someone younger, the court could not determine if the
statement was made by an agent, concerning the scope of the agency, and
during the agency. Without that information, the indicia of reliability embodied
in the Fed.R.Evid. 801(d)(2)(D) non-hearsay definition were absent, and the
statement had to be excluded
Comparable kinds of information about the unidentified Hispanic woman in
this case are unnecessary and there is no hearsay within hearsay problem.
Viewing the statement of the declarant as a co-conspirator declaration,
Fed.R.Evid. 801(d)(2)(E) was a sufficient basis for admitting the statement and
all the district court needed to know for the conspiracy determination was that
the declarant, whoever she was, was connected to Cruz and Guzman. As we
explain below, the totality of the evidence suggests the necessary connection.
Unidentifiability may be important in some situations, but when the statement
itself and the surrounding circumstances provide sufficient evidence of
reliability, unidentifiability will not be particularly important. See Miller v.
Keating, 754 F.2d 507, 510 (3d Cir.1985) (Excited utterance exception,
Fed.R.Evid. 803(2), without more, is insufficient indication of trustworthiness
to allow into evidence statement of an unidentified eyewitness.).
11

If the district court had found, explicitly, that a conspiracy existed, that finding
would be reviewable under a clearly erroneous standard. See In Re Japanese
Electronic, 723 F.2d 238 (3d Cir.1983), rev'd on other grounds sub. nom.
Matsushita Electric Industrial Co. v. Zenith Radio Corp., 475 U.S. 574, 106
S.Ct. 1348, 89 L.Ed.2d 538 (1986); United States v. Strauss, 678 F.2d 886, 891
n. 11 (11th Cir.), cert. denied, 459 U.S. 911, 103 S.Ct. 218, 74 L.Ed.2d 173
(1982). However, because no such finding was made, the clearly erroneous test
no longer applies and the appellate court must decide whether the record
supports a finding of conspiracy. See Strauss, 678 F.2d at 891 n. 11. See also
United States v. Ammar, 714 F.2d 238, 247 (3d Cir.), cert. denied sub nom.
Stillman v. United States, 464 U.S. 936, 104 S.Ct. 344, 78 L.Ed.2d 311 (1983).
We note that the failure to make the explicit finding does not render the district
court ruling reversible. "[E]ven in the absence of explicit findings by the trial
court [with respect to admissibility of co-conspirator statements] the necessary
threshold determination is implicit in the court's decision to send the case to the
jury." Ammar, 714 F.2d at 247 (citations omitted). Therefore, if there is
sufficient evidence of a conspiracy (i.e., a preponderance), appellate courts can
infer a conspiracy finding

12

There has been no contention that, if this statement is otherwise admissible, it

should be excluded because it was not made "during the course and in
furtherance of the conspiracy."
13

The district court's actual conclusion was:

I do think that it's worth reconsidering my ruling with respect to the unidentified
females. That, in my judgment, the Government is now offering for an
appropriate purpose. That is to say I do think that it tends to establish that at
least the declarant, and perhaps the person she's talking to, is/are involved in
the conspiracy with Rene, who is Guzman.
I think that the jury would well draw that inference, and that there is no [sic]
reasonable ground for thinking that they were talking about the 5100 location.
So I'm now going to let Mr. Zittlau introduce that testimony....

14

Although Alverio did not make a formal Fed.R.App.P. 28(i) motion in his brief,
at oral argument, counsel for Alverio joined in Cruz's arguments with regard to
the statements of the unidentified female. Thus, we analyze the admissibility of
the statement for both defendants

15

In this respect, this case is quite similar to Bourjaily. There, the coconspirator
statements indicated that the party against whom they were to be admitted
would be in a certain hotel's parking lot, in his car, and would accept the
delivery of some cocaine. 483 U.S. at 180-181, 107 S.Ct. at 2781-82. The fact
that these events later occurred was other evidence, besides the statement itself,
tending to show the existence of a conspiracy between these two individuals
and the court ruled that the statement was admissible

16

Nor is there any basis for defendants' claim under Fed.R.Evid. 403. In light of
the foregoing analysis, there was no concern that the defendants would be
harmed by unfair prejudice