3

Completion Equipment & Accessories

Packers
Mechanical-set packers
Hydraulic-set packers
Permanent packers
Cement packers
Subsurface control and safety valves
Subsurface tubing safety valves
Bottomhole chokes and regulators
Subsurface completion accessories
Wellhead and flow control equipment
Wellhead assemblies
Christmas tree
Beans and chokes
Wellhead ratings
Overview of well completion equipment

Major equipment systems used to complete oil and gas wells include:

Subsurface packers,
Subsurface flow control and safety valves,
Subsurface accessories,
Tubing and
Wellhead equipment.

Components of each of these systems and their functions will be described here.

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3.1 Packers
A packer may be defined as a subsurface tool used to provide a seal between the
tubing and the casing of a well to prevent the vertical movement of fluids past this
sealing point.
Packers are used for the following reasons:

to improve safety by providing a barrier to flow through the annulus

to keep well fluids and pressures isolated from the casing
to improve flow conditions and prevent heading
to separate zones in the same wellbore
to place kill fluids or treating fluids in the casing annulus
to pack off perforations rather than use squeeze cementing
to keep gas lift or hydraulic power fluid injection pressure isolated from the
formation
to anchor the tubing
to install a casing pump
to minimise heat losses by allowing the use of an empty annulus or thermal
insulator
to isolate a casing leak or leaking liner lap
to facilitate temporary well service operations (e.g., stimulations, squeezes)

BASIC MECHANICS
For a packer to perform its designated function, two things must happen. A cone must
be driven behind a tapered slip to force the slip out and into the casing wall. A
packing element must then be compressed to affect a seal against the casing wall. The
two most important basic components of packer construction are then obviously the
slips and the sealing element.
Packer slips can be unidirectional or designed to resist force from either direction
(Fig. 3.1).
Sealing elements may be of either one-piece construction, or composed of multiple
elements of different degrees of hardness.
PACKER TYPES
There are three basic types of production packers:

Mechanical set,
Hydraulic-set and
Permanent.

All packers fall into one of, or a combination of, these three classifications. Selection
of one type in preference to another for a given production application should be
based on design for those parameters critical to the successful performance of this
equipment in a particular completion situation. Select the packer that will most
economically satisfy the conditions dictated by each individual completion situation.

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Fig. 3.1 Types of packer.

3.1.1 Mechanical-Set Packers

Mechanical-set packers are set by some form of tubing movement. They can be subdivided into three sub-types:
WEIGHT-SET PACKERS
1. Setting
Weight-set packers employ a slip-and-cone arrangement, a shear pin, or a
collet for setting (Fig. 3.2). With the slip-and-cone version, the slips are
attached to a friction device, such as drag springs or friction blocks, which
assists the setting operation. Tubing weight is used to compress and expand
the sealing element.
2. Retrieving
The packer is released for retrieving by simple upstrain pull.
3. Selection Considerations
Weight-set packers are well suited for use in straight, relatively shallow, lowpressure wells. They are not designed to withstand pressure differentials from
below unless a hydraulic hold-down is incorporated into the packer assembly.

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Fig. 3.2 Weight-set packers.

TENSION-SET PACKERS
1. Setting
Tension-set packers (Fig. 3.3) are set by pulling tension on the tubing.
2. Retrieving
With most varieties, release is accomplished by simply slacking off on the
tubing. Most models also have some form of "emergency release" mechanism.
3. Selection Considerations
Tension packers are excellent for use in reasonably shallow wells where
moderate differential pressures from below are anticipated. Pressure from
below only serves to increase the setting force on the packer.

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These packers are often used in water injection wells, and in wells where
stimulation work is planned. They receive frequent use in shallow wells where
available tubing weight is not sufficient to compress the packing element of a
weight-set packer.

Fig. 3.3 Tension-set packer.

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ROTATIONAL-SET PACKERS
1. Setting
Tubing rotation obviously plays a major role in setting and retrieving
rotational-set packers. Once set, compression and pack-off are mechanically
"locked in". Upward or downward movement of the packer is prevented
regardless of application of weight or tension via the tubing.
Figure 3.4 shows a typical rotational-set packer. Setting can be accomplished
by weight-assisted rotation, or by rotation alone.
2. Retrieving
Right-hand rotation is required to retrieve the packer.
3. Selection Considerations
A rotational-set packer can be used to isolate bad order casing in a pumping
well and, by applying tension, serve also as a tubing anchor-catcher.
In water-flood injection wells, the use of a rotational set packer permits
landing of the tubing in a neutral weight state. This eliminates the possibility
of unseating the packer due to elongation of the tubing, or of parting due to
contraction.
Rotational-set packers are excellent for use in shallow to medium depth
straight holes where high differential pressures are not expected. Their biggest
disadvantage or drawback is generally felt to be that they must be released by
rotation of the tubing string. Solids settling on top of the packer can make it
impossible to work any tubing rotation down the hole. However, this
limitation with regard to solids settling versus retrievability would also apply
for at least weight-set and hydraulic-set packers. Use of either brine water, oil,
or unweighted low-solids mud as the packer fluid will assist retrievability.

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Fig. 3.4 Rotational-set packer.

3.1.2 Hydraulic-Set Packers

1. Setting
Hydraulic-set packers use induced fluid pressure to drive the cone behind the
slips. Once set, they remain set by use of either entrapped pressure or a
mechanical lock. The latter device is the more generally preferred approach.
Figure 3.5 shows schematics of the setting and releasing mechanisms for a single,
hydraulic-set packer. Multi-string hydraulic packers are set and retrieved by
essentially the same process.

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2. Retrieving
Most hydraulic-set packers are released by picking up on the tubing. There are
varieties that require tubing rotation for release.
3. Selection Considerations
The principal advantage of hydraulic-set packers is that the production tubing
string can be run in the well and the tree installed before the packer is set. In highpressure wells, this permits bringing in the well without swabbing by displacing
the tubing with a fluid of lower density than that required to contain the formation.
Hydraulic-set packers are excellent for use in deviated or crooked holes, where
tubing movement is restricted or undesirable.
Hydraulic-set packers permit the tubing to be hung in neutral tension. This results
in a straight tubing string, which assists the performance of future wireline or
concentric work. An additional advantage is that multiple completion strings may
be run and landed simultaneously. This is of particular assistance in triple or
quadruple completions.

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Fig. 3.5 Single hydraulic-set packer, schematic of setting and releasing mechanism.

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INFLATABLE RUBBER ELEMENT ("BALLOON") PACKERS

Figure 3.6 illustrates versions of inflatable element packers. They are designed to
affect a seal in open hole or casing. Setting is accomplished by applying fluid
pressure to the tubing (Fig. 3.7). This packer has found excellent use in wells
where casing is partially collapsed (Fig. 3.8). However, inflatable packers cannot
withstand high pressure differentials and are recommended only for specialised
applications as illustrated.

Fig. 3.6 Inflatable packers.

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Fig. 3.7 Setting and releasing mechanism of inflatable packer.

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Liner

Collapsed
Casing

Fig. 3.8 Use of inflatable packer.

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3.1.3 Permanent Packers

Permanent packers (Fig. 3.9) can be run and set on electric wireline, drillpipe or
tubing. Opposed slips are positioned above and below the packing element to "lock
in" compression. Once set, this packer is resistant to movement from either direction.

Fig. 3.9 Permanent packer.

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1. Setting
(a) WIRELINE SETTING PROCEDURE (Fig. 3.10):
The packer, adapter kit and pressure-setting assembly are connected to an
electric wireline and run in the hole to the desired setting depth. An electric
current ignites a powder charge within the setting tool. Gas pressure then
transmits a setting force to the packer. Shearing a release stud frees the setting
assembly from the packer. It is then removed from the wellbore on the
wireline.
(b) TUBING SETTING PROCEDURE:
Various methods are employed to set permanent packers on drillpipe or
tubing. They can be set hydraulically, hydraulically with upward pull assist, or
by combination of sequential rotation and upward pull.
2. Accessories
Figures 3.11(a & b) show a permanent packer plus companion accessories, which
include a locator sub or anchor sub, seal nipples, and production tube.
3. Retrieving
Until recently, permanent packers were not retrievable. Most varieties still cannot
be retrieved. However, there are opposed-slip type packers available now that can
be retrieved.
Figure 3.12 illustrates the method of how one manufacturer's model is retrieved.
A J-slot pulling tool run on tubing is used to release the packer mandrel collet.
Upward pull releases both sets of slips.
4. Selection Considerations
Permanent packers are excellent for use in wells with high pressure differentials or
large tubing load variations. They permit precise control as to setting depth. Trip
times are faster because the tubing may be run separately from the packer.
Permanent packers can be set at deeper depths than other packer types. The
"permanence" of these packers is no longer the problem it once was. Wireline and
concentric "through-tubing" remedial techniques have eliminated the necessity for
packer removal much of the time. Permanent packers are often used to test, treat,
and/or squeeze on remedial workover. Where bad order casing exists above a
permanent packer, it is possible on workover to gravel pack perforations, hang a
long screen-liner assembly on a second permanent packer above the bad order
casing point, and use the original packer to complete the isolation of the bad order
section (Fig. 3.13).

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Fig. 3.10 Wireline-setting procedure of permanent packer.

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Fig. 3.11a Accessories of permanent packer.

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Fig.3.11b Accessories of permanent packer

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Fig. 3.12 Releasing or retrieving mechanism of permanent packer.

production tubing

casing

upper (isolation)
permanent packer

locator sub

partially collapsed
casing
seal assembly
original
permanent
packer

tell-tale screen

screen

perforations
gravel

Fig. 3.13 Gravel pack screen and liner assembly hanging on permanent packer.

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3.1.4 Cement Packers

Cement plugs are sometimes used in the casing-tubing annulus, or the open holetubing annulus, as replacements for conventional packers. In this application, the
tubing is cemented in place inside the casing or open hole.
1. Selection Considerations
The objection to this approach is obviously the permanence of cement plugs.
Where it is applicable, however, it can offer several benefits. Packer purchase
expense is eliminated. There are no packer replacement costs. Communication due
to packer failures is eliminated. Casing leaks may be isolated by spotting cement
rather than squeezing and isolating them between packers. Liner casing string
expense on deepened wells is avoided. Workovers may be accomplished by using
less expensive concentric tubing rigs or wireline units.
Figure 3.14 illustrates use of the "cement packer" technique to isolate a casing
leak in a dual completion.
Fig. 3.15 illustrates use of the "cement packer" technique to complete a deepened
well.

conventional dual
completion with
casing leak

conventional remadial
completion: cement
squeeze to exclude
casing leak, recomplete
as dual with two strings
of tubing & two packers

"cement packer":
run 2 strings of tubing
cement in place
and perforate

Fig. 3.14 Cement packer technique to isolate a casing leak in a dual completion.

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Fig. 3.15 Cement packer technique to complete a deepened well.

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3.2 Subsurface Control and Safety Valves

Types of subsurface control equipment include:
1. Tubing safety valves that shut in the well down hole in the event surface
control equipment becomes damaged or is completely removed.
2. Bottom hole chokes and regulators that reduce the wellhead flowing pressure
and prevent the freezing of surface controls and lines by taking a pressure drop
down hole.
3. Check valves that prevent the back flow of injection wells.
3.2.1 Subsurface Tubing Safety Valves
Subsurface tubing safety valves come in a variety of types:

Ball valves,
Flapper valves,
Valve and
Seat principle, etc.

They can be controlled - or actuated - by either "direct" or "remote" methods.

DIRECT CONTROLLED SUBSURFACE TUBING SAFETY VALVES
The well known "storm choke" (Fig. 3.16) is an example of a direct controlled
valve. It operates on a conventional spring-loaded valve and seat principle. A coil
spring holds the valve off the seat until flow from the well reaches a
predetermined rate. When the pressure differential across the bean exceeds the
spring tension, the valve closes. Figure 3.17 illustrates a direct controlled balltype safety valve. Operation is essentially identical to that of the valve and seat
variety. However, the through-conduit design of this model lessens turbulence
through the valve, protects the sealing area out of the direct flow path, and permits
higher flow volumes.
Direct controlled subsurface tubing safety valves are normally installed and
retrieved by wireline methods. The valve is usually set in a landing nipple in the
tubing. However, by use of a locking device, the valve can be set at any depth in
the string.
Subsurface safety valves are susceptible to erosion due to solids production. For
this reason, the well should be brought in and cleaned up prior to installing this
equipment. In addition, the successful performance of these valves is dependent
upon the following information:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.

Tubing size,
Setting depth of valve,
Flowing temperature at setting depth,
Fluid production at the desired closing rate,
Wellhead flowing pressure at the desired closing rate,
Gas/liquid ratio and
Specific gravity of each of the produced fluids.

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Direct controlled subsurface safety valves are generally set between 1000 and
3000 feet. They should be retrieved and inspected for damage periodically.

Fig. 3.16 Direct controlled valve-and-seat type subsurface tubing safety valve.

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Fig. 3.17 Direct controlled ball-type subsurface tubing safety valve.

REMOTE CONTROLLED SUBSURFACE TUBING SAFETY VALVE

Remote operated valves are divided into two categories:
1. Wireline retrievable and
2. Tubing integral types.
Both varieties are controlled by means of a hydraulic line connecting the valve or
landing nipple to a control manifold at the surface (Fig. 3.18). The valves are
spring-loaded in the closed position when run in the well. They are opened, and
held open, by applying and maintaining hydraulic pressure against the spring
through the control line. If this induced pressure is released for any reason, the
valve closes. Pilots for sensing pressure changes and fusible plugs for sensing
high temperatures are installed with the control manifold at the surface.
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Fig. 3.18 Surface control manifold for remote controlled subsurface tubing safety valves.

(1) WIRELINE RETRIEVABLE TYPES

Figure 3.19 shows a schematic drawing of a typical wireline retrievable valve
installation. A special landing nipple with an external control line is made up
on the tubing string and run into the well. With this nipple in place, the valve
can be run or retrieved by wireline methods.
The single hydraulic line hookup is normally run to depths of 1000 feet or
less. However, the depth capability of the single-line system can be extended
to 4000 feet by use of additional closing springs and reduced valve bores to
combat the increased hydrostatic head in the hydraulic control line. If a remote
operated valve is to be set at a depth greater than 4000 feet, a two-hydraulicline system will be required (Fig. 3.20). The second line is used as a
hydrostatic pressure balancing line.
Figure 3.21 shows a typical wireline retrievable valve. Induced hydraulic
pressure from the surface acts against a piston within the valve, forcing it
downward against the resistance of the spring. This moves the flow tube
downward and rotates the ball-type valve to the open position. If surface
pressure is released, the spring then returns the valve to the closed position.
The main advantage of this valve is: it can be easily and economically
retrieved for inspection, repair or replacement.

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The primary disadvantage related to the restricted bore through these devices:
The valve does present a restriction to flow, and can cause plugging or
paraffin problems.

surface
control
manifold

wellhead

Hydraulic control line

Safety valve
Hydraulic landing
nipple

casing

tubing

Packer

Fig. 3.19 Wireline retrievable remote operated subsurface tubing valve installation.

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Fig. 3.20 Wireline retrievable remote controlled subsurface tubing valve with pressure
balancing line.

Fig. 3.21 Wireline retrievable remote controlled subsurface tubing safety valve.

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(2) TUBING REMOVABLE TYPES

This valve is run as an integral part of the tubing string. Figure 3.22 shows a
schematic of a typical installation.
This valve is essentially identical in operation to the wireline retrievable type.
Pressure applied through the control line acts against the piston, forces the
flow tube downward, and rotates the valve to the opened position.
The primary advantage of this valve type is that its full opening design permits
unrestricted flow. The valve does not contribute to plugging. Paraffin removal
can be accomplished without the necessity of retrieving any equipment from
the tubing.
The main disadvantage of tubing integral valves in the past was that the tubing
had to be pulled to repair the valve in event of failure. This can be an
extremely expensive operation in many areas. This disadvantage has now been
partially overcome by the development of remote controlled tubing removable
valves which, in the event of failure, can be converted to remote controlled
wireline retrievable valve service. Figures 3.23 and 3.24 show schematics of
one variety of this "dual application" valve.
In summary, the principal advantages of remote controlled subsurface safety
valves over the direct controlled variety are:
1. Larger internal diameters permit higher flow rates, are less affected by
sand production, and provide the capability of running wireline tools
through the valve.
2. Insensitivity to pressure and fluid surges.
3. More positive control because operation of the valve is independent of
wellbore influence.
Their disadvantages are twofold:
One is cost. A two-inch wireline retrievable remote operated valve, complete
with control manifold and wellhead modifications, will cost approximately
US$4000 installed in a single well, and about US$3500 per string in a dual
well. The two-inch tubing removable valve would cost roughly US$5000 for a
single well and US$4000 per string in a dual well.
The second disadvantage is that installation of this equipment is more
complicated than for a direct controlled system. However, as rig crews and
service personnel become more experienced in running this equipment,
installation normally becomes reasonably efficient and not overly timeconsuming.

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Fig. 3.22 Tubing removable remote operated subsurface tubing safety valve installation

Fig. 3.22 Tubing removable remote controlled subsurface tubing safety valve.

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96

control line

landing nipples
shear pin
snap ring
shifting sleeve

spring

ball

spring

Fig. 3.24 Dual application remote controlled subsurface tubing safety valve.

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3.2.2 Bottom-Hole Chokes and Regulators

These devices can be run, set and retrieved on a wireline. They are used primarily to
restrict fluid flow in a tubing string to prevent the freezing of surface controls and
lines due to the formation of hydrates. They also provide a means of maintaining a
workable surface pressure in a high pressure well. They can be additionally used to
prolong the flowing life of a well by maintaining bottomhole pressure.
BOTTOM-HOLE CHOKES
Bottom-hole choke beans (Fig. 3.25) are attached to the lower end of mandrels
designed to be set in a landing nipple or anchored to the tubing wall. Type-A bean
is a spring-loaded ground seat bean that is recommended for high-pressure or
heavy fluid wells. The bean is mounted inside a cage and seats against the lower
end of the mandrel. The bean is held on seat by the spring inside the bean cage.
Type-B bean incorporates a positive orifice and will accommodate any size choke
up to the internal diameter of the mandrel.
A bottom-hole choke is susceptible to erosion and is also rate sensitive; however,
if a well produces without sand and at a fairly constant rate, this positive choke
assembly is superior to the bottom-hole regulator due to its economy, simplicity,
and minimum maintenance.
Bottom-hole chokes are excellent for use in wells that produce sand free at a
reasonably constant rate. Where applicable, they represent the most economical
approach to the problem. Required maintenance is normally minimal.

Fig. 3.25 Bottomhole chokes.

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BOTTOM-HOLE REGULATORS
Figure 3.26 shows a bottom-hole regulator. This device consists of a valve and a
spring-loaded seat. A predetermined spring tension is loaded against the valve.
The amount of spring tension is dependent upon the pressure differential to be
carried across the regulator. When this differential is reached, the seat moves up
and off the valve, permitting the well to flow.
This device differs from a bottom-hole choke, in that it maintains a constant
pressure differential across the valve regardless of flow rate.
Regulators can be installed in the tubing string in a landing nipple, slip-type
mandrel, or collar-lock mandrel. Pressure differentials up to 1500 psi can be taken
across a single regulator. Flow couplings are often placed above or above and
below landing nipples, which are intended for bottom-hole choke or regulator
service.

Fig. 3.26 Bottomhole regulators.

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SUBSURFACE INJECTION SAFETY VALVES

Subsurface injection safety valves are simply check valves installed in the tubing
string in injection wells. Their function is to prevent reverse flow in the event of
failure of surface equipment.
Two varieties of injection check valves are pictured in Fig. 3.27. The stem and
seat type is designed to be run, set and retrieved on wireline. It is a simple springloaded valve. Injection pressure holds the valve open. If injected flow reverses,
the spring tension and the flow pressure force the valve to the closed position.
The ball-type valve is designed to either be run in the well as an integral part of
the tubing string, or to be run inside the tubing by wireline means. It is so
constructed that injection pressure will hold it open. Should injection pressure
reverse, the ball will rotate to the closed position.
The ball-type valve offers the advantage of a large, unrestricted bore with sealing
areas out of the direct flow path.

Fig. 3.27 Subsurface injection safety valves.

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3.2.3 Subsurface Completion Accessories

Major downhole accessories necessary to complete a well include:

Sitting nipples,
Sliding sleeves and
Blast joints

SEATING NIPPLES
There are three main types of seating nipple used as integral parts of the tubing
string:

Pump-seating nipples
Selective landing nipples
Nonselective or no-go landing nipples

Seating nipples:
Seating nipples, that are used to accommodate a pump, plug, hanger, or flow
control device, consist of a polished bore with an internal diameter just less than
the tubing drift diameter. Usually a lock profile is also required, especially for
landing nipples. Heavy-duty tubing sections, called flow couplings, are often run
on either end of a seating nipple to minimise the effects of turbulence (Fig. 3.28).
Seating nipples and the devices that are set inside them are used for the following
purposes:

to facilitate pressure testing of the bottomhole assembly and tubing

couplings, and the setting of hydraulic packers
to land and seal off a bottomhole pump (pump seating nipple)
to isolate the tubing if it is to be run dry for high drawdown perforating
to land wireline retrievable flow controls, such as plugs, tubing safety
valves, bottomhole chokes and regulators
to plug the well if the tree must be removed
to land bottomhole pressure bombs
to pack-off across blast joints
to install a standing valve for intermittent gas lift
to plug the tailpipe below packer in order to pull the tubing without killing
the well to temporarily plug the well while the rig is moved on or off the
well

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Fig. 3.28 Landing nipple and flow coupling installation.

Selective landing nipples:

Selective landing nipples are nipples with a common internal diameter. In some,
the lock profile is varied for easy identification (Fig. 3.29). Others are accessed
by tripping the lock mechanism at the selected depth. Selective nipples are used
when more than one nipple is required within a single string of tubing, and the
designer wishes to maintain maximum throughbore. They should be no closer
than 30 ft (10 m) from a similar profile, and at least 10 ft (3 m) from any change
in diameter.
No-Go Landing Nipples:
No-go landing nipples are designed with an ID that is slightly restricted to
provide a positive shoulder to locate a locking mandrel (Fig. 3.29). The ID of
these nipples should be checked against the dimensions of any through-tubing
equipment that may be used. This type of nipple is usually located at the bottom
of the tubing string or tailpipe and at least 5 ft below any profile change.
In tailpipe installations, it is best to include a sliding sleeve above the nipple in
case debris prevents the pulling of any plug set in the nipple by regular wireline
methods. Alternatively, a mechanical perforator may be used to punch a hole
above the plug.

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Fig. 3.29 Landing nipples and locking mandrels

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SLIDING SLEEVES
Also referred to as sliding side doors or circulating sleeves, these tubing
components are used to obtain access from the tubing to the tubing/casing annulus
either for fluid circulation or to permit a previously isolated zone to be produced
(Fig. 3.30). They are opened and closed with a wireline tool that has a locating
key that engages the profile in the sleeve. A through-flow line (TFL) version is
also available for subsea completions.
These devices are typically placed above each packer in the well. Obviously they
are an essential requirement of multizone completions scheduled for selective
production. Many producers run sliding sleeves in each string in a multistring
completion to increase production flexibility.
A sleeve above the upper packer is particularly useful for the following
operations:

Kick-off by displacing the tubing contents with a low density fluid,

thereby avoiding the use of coiled tubing within the tubing
Well killing prior to a tubing pulling job or workover
Circulating out completion fluid with a packer fluid (e.g., from mud to
brine or from water to inhibited brine)
Testing of subsurface safety valve (SSSV)
Temporarily producing a selective zone into the tubing so it can be tested
or so a bottomhole pressure survey can be obtained.

The quality of the elastomer seals in sliding sleeves has improved greatly over the
last decade. They are now much easier to open and less prone to failure. Special
elastomers are needed for some well fluids and suitable design procedures are now
available for elastomers.
A ported nipple is sometimes used in place of a sliding sleeve. Alternatively,
some completion engineers prefer to use a side pocket mandrel and valve as a
circulation point above the packer.

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Fig. 3.30 Sliding sleeves.

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BLAST JOINTS AND FLOW COUPLINGS

Blast joints and flow couplings are special joints having special tubing ID and
collar OD dimensions. They are usually manufactured from special heat-treated
steel (Fig. 3.31).
Blast Joints:
Blast joints are used to increase the abrasion resistance of the tubing string against
the jetting action of a producing formation. Blast joints should be located in the
tubing string opposite all upper perforations spanned by the tubing. Blast joints
should also be used in the wellhead area where abrasive fracturing fluids may be
pumped into the casing access. Polished nipples are sometimes included in the
tubing string on either end of a blast joint in order to provide sealing surfaces for a
spacer pipe should the blast joint fail.
Flow Couplings:
Flow couplings should be run immediately above each selective or no-go landing
nipple in the tubing string that may be used to locate a flow control device. In high
rate or corrosive gas wells, flow couplings should be used above and below all
upsets or profile changes to reduce erosion, especially if the turbulent fluid
contains abrasive particles. Since most flow controls restrict the tubing ID, the
tubing above and below the controls should be protected by use of a flow
coupling.

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Fig. 3.31 (a) Blast joints; (b) polished nipples; (c) schematic of polished nipple run to
provide sealing surface in case of blast joint erosion.

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3.3 Wellhead and Flow Control Equipment

3.3.1 Wellhead Assemblies
Typically, wellheads are the joint responsibility of the production department (tubing
head and Christmas tree) and drilling department (casing head and intermediate
casing head). Figure 3.32 shows a typical flanged wellhead. The size and pressure
ratings of wellheads are dictated by the design considerations for the tubulars (e.g.,
tubing size, casing size, kill and stimulation pressure requirements, flowing pressure
requirements etc.). However, government regulations sometimes require that the
rating of the upper part of the wellhead be at least equal to the reservoir pressure.

Fig. 3.32 Wellhead and Xmas tree for a dual completion utilizing clamp-type connections.

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CASING HANGING EQUIPMENT

Wellhead assemblies may be divided into three segments, Fig. 3.33, each of which
serves a different and unique function during the construction of a well. The lower
most pieces of the wellhead are installed for the purposes of hanging and
supporting the individual casing strings as they are installed in the well. These are
usually called a landing base or casing head. In a typical well construction, the
casing head is welded or screwed directly to the top of the surface casing string.
The surface casing string serves as the foundation pile for the well, transferring
the subsequent hanging loads to the earth through the cement sheath around the
surface casing. The casing head is prepared with a bowl into which a set of slips
may be nested between the subsequent casing string and the wall of the casing
head. When the casing is "landed", the slips are installed in the bowl and the
casing lowered gently until the slips engage, transferring the load from the rig to
the casing head housing. Most casing heads are equipped with two-side outlets so
that pressure readings may be taken on the annuli and means provided to bleed off
pressure or pump into the annulus if necessary. The top of the casing string and
the annulus below are usually sealed one from the other. Various techniques for
sealing are used, the most common at this time being the provision of an RX
bushing. This is a ring that is installed over the top of the casing stub sticking up
above the casing head, and nesting into a groove into the bottom of the upper
head, which may be either a casing or tubing head. The ring is provided with
suitable seals and plastic packing may be pumped in behind the seals, packing off
the top of the casing between the casing and the upper head. Formerly, wide use
was made of a welding flange, which was inserted over the top of the casing stub.
The casing was welded directly to this heavy weight flange, forming a metal-tometal rather than a plastic packing seal (see Fig. 3.34).

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Fig. 3.33 Typical wellhead assembly.

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Figure 3.34

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TUBING HANGER
The second component is a tubing hanger. Multiple casing heads may be
provided, one for each full string of casing that will be landed in the well. The
tubing head is installed immediately above the last casing head. The tubing head is
almost identical in design to the casing head, with the exception that it is bored for
receiving a tubing hanger. A common tubing hanger is the bowl type, which
resembles a large donut with packing on the outside, that screws directly onto the
top of the tubing. After the tubing has been run in the well and spaced out, this
donut is threaded onto the top of the tubing, the tubing lowered back into the
packer at the bottom of the well, and the donut lowered into the tubing head. The
packing on the donut provides a pressure-type seal for the annulus between the
tubing and the casing. Because of changes in temperature and pressure, the tubing
head donut is usually held down with lock-down screws. There are a variety of
other types of tubing hangers, but the two basic types are designed either to allow
pickup of a tubing string through blowout preventers or to manipulate a tubing
string through the tree or a live well by use of a slick joint.
The bore and size of the top flange are generally determined by completion and
well servicing requirements (BOP size, packer, and tool ODs) rather than the
Christmas tree flange size.
Like the casing, the pressure rating of the tubing head spool is often dictated by
stimulation pressure requirements and may therefore be of a higher rating than the
Christmas tree, which can be removed or protected during stimulation.
In offshore, a compact wellhead, or unihead, is often used to combine both the
casing and tubing spool's function and reduce the overall height of the wellhead.
Three types of tubing hangers are commonly used:

The boll weevil (also called a threaded mandrel) hanger, which is an

integral part of the tubing string and therefore a fixed point that shoulders
into the tubing head spool (Fig. 3.35).

The wrap around hanger, which is hinged to permit installation onto any
part of the tubing other than a coupling.

The dual hanger, either multibore mandrel or split hanger. The mandrel
types are the most common (Fig. 3.36).

It is highly desirable to have an internal thread in the tubing hanger to allow the
installation of a back-pressure valve while removing, repairing, or pressure testing the
tree. This can be installed and removed under pressure with a special tool.

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Fig. 3.35 Tubing hanger.

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Fig. 3.36 Segmented flanges for dual completions.

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3.3.2 Christmas Tree (see Fig. 3.37)

There are three main types of trees: the assembled tree, the solid block tree and the
control head tree (often found on thermal wells). The major components (from
bottom up) are:

Flange
Master valve(s)
Tee or flow cross
Swab valve
Crown plug
Wing valve
Bean box or choke
Flow line valve

For high-rate wells the flow tree is often Y-shaped to reduce turbulence and erosion.
Similarly, a flow control valve may be installed in a straight run rather than in the
conventional right-angled bean arrangements.
A second side outlet is often used on high-pressure wells as a connection for a tubing
kill line. Similarly, two master valves are often used in severe operating conditions.
This is often a regulatory requirement in sour or high-pressure wells.
Full opening gate valves are used for the master and swab valves (Fig. 3.38). These
should not be opened when a significant differential pressure exists across the closed
valve.
The throughbore of the tree is specified by the API and is generally 1/16 larger than
the tubing ID to facilitate installation of a back-pressure valve in the tubing hanger.
Although the body of a Christmas tree is normally pressure tested to twice the
working pressure for trees rated at 5000 psi (34.4 MPa) or less, and 1.5 times the
working pressure for 7500 to 20,000 psi (52 to 140 MPa) ratings, the flange bolts and
valves may not necessarily have the same rating. Therefore, it is extremely imprudent
to overload Christmas trees when stimulating a well. Similarly, many valves are
unidirectional and this should be taken into account when planning pressure test
sequences. Valve gates can be damaged by applying significant pressure from the
wrong side.

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Fig. 3.37 Typical Xmas tree.

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Fig. 3.38 Gate valves

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3.3.3 Beans and Chokes

In flowing wells, rate is controlled by a bean, choke, or flow control valve.
Traditionally, the most common was the fixed bean operating under critical flow
conditions (i.e., at sonic velocity). Under these conditions the upstream pressure, or
tubing head pressure (THP), is independent of the downstream pressure, or flow line
pressure (FLP). To achieve this, THP must be greater than or equal to 2.0 times the
flow line pressure. The advantages of operating under these conditions include the
following:

Over the short term (generally one to three months) the well rate is fixed, and
a single monthly test is representative of the entire producing period

Test separator conditions need not be the same as the bulk separator to ensure
a representative test, since fluctuations in downstream pressure do not affect
THP at sonic velocity

Well flow rate is limited in event of a line break

Lower pressure ratings can be used for flow lines and separators

The sand face is not subjected to production surges in event of a production

facility fluctuation (this point is particularly important in weak formations)

Choke performance can be used as an indication of production rate.

The disadvantages relate primarily to lower pressure wells and gas wells:

The choke introduces a major pressure loss into the system

Flow lines may need to be larger to accommodate the higher flow velocities
without excessive erosion or pressure loss

Associated cooling can cause hydrate formation at the choke

Choke beans are inconvenient for changing production rates in accordance

with changes in gas sales requirements.

To meet the last objection, motorised or manual variable chokes or flow control
valves are often used on key wells so that the operator can quickly change the field
flow rate.
3.3.4 Wellhead Ratings
API RATINGS
At the present time, there are seven nominal ratings of wellheads available: 2000,
3000, 5000, 10000, 20000 and 30000 psi working pressure. These pressure ratings
are applicable at temperatures from 50oF to + 250oF. Because of the high
pressure and possible high temperatures involved, ring-type seal gaskets are
provided. These are available in two basic types (Fig. 3.39). The lower pressure

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ratings - 2000 through 5000 psi are equipped with a type 6B ring joint. A 6B
ring joint may be provided with a type R or type RX ring type gasket. The type R
ring joint gaskets are available in either octagonal or oval shape. The type RX
gasket is a pressure-energized gasket. The 5000 through 15,000-psi flanges are
available in type 6 BX ring joints. 6 BX ring joints use API type BX pressureenergized ring joint gaskets. Pressure rating changes are made using restricted
area rings (Fig. 3.34).
TYPES OF STEEL
Although API and USASI ring joints are dimensionally the same, there is a
significant difference in their rating. API material yield strength ranges from
36,000 to 75,000 psi, depending upon the type of steel specified, whereas USASI
material does not exceed 30,000-psi yield strength.
INSTALLATION
Because the wellheads and ring joints are installed basically to provide pressure
control, extreme care must be exercised in installing and making up the ring
joints. It is absolutely essential that the ring be clean, smooth, and free of burs and
that the gasket be new. Nicks or dings on a ring gasket may cause leaks when the
ring joint is tested.
SPECIAL PROBLEMS
Providing wellheads for multiple completions introduce special problems in
landing the separate tubing strings. This is usually solved by segmenting the
hanging flange, or landing bushing (Fig. 3.36), or providing each string with
separate sealing segments that land in multiple head flanges. Similarly, the
individual master valves must have separate conduits for each stream, which
involves simultaneous sealing of two or more ring gaskets. These problems have
been solved successfully with commercially available equipment that operates
reliably and satisfactorily. Most produced fluids are corrosive, and in some
environments, particularly where CO2 is produced in the gas, rapid deterioration
of the tubing hanger and master valves may occur. In these situations, special
materials are frequently used, the most common being a 410 stainless steel,
although for sour service K monel or 316 stainless steel is required.
UNDERWATER WELLHEADS
Underwater wellhead is basically no different from the land or above water
wellhead, except that the landing system is spread out over a considerable vertical
distance and involves the use of items that are installed on the casing string as it is
run. Most hanging and manipulating operations are conducted blind because the
wellhead normally is installed on the ocean bottom, which ranges from 200 to as
much as 1000 ft below the surface of the rig floor. Although only a limited
number of underwater producing completions have been successfully performed
to date, the equipment is available, has been tested for reliability, and operates
satisfactorily. Although functionally the equipment is much the same, the
operational details involved in the remote assembly make manipulation of the
equipment rather complex. If more information is required, a detailed analysis of a
specific manufacturer's equipment and procedures should be studied.

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Fig. 3.39 Wellhead API ratings.

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3.4 Overview of Well Completion Equipment

Figures 3.40 and 3.41 describe different equipment necessary to complete a well.
At the surface, the tubing (which serves as the conductor for the gas and/or oil) is
attached to the wellhead. The wellhead has 8 systems of valves and fittings that allow
manual control of the well's flow at the surface. The wellhead is commonly referred to
as the "Christmas tree" or simply the "tree".
From the wellhead, gas and/or oil is directed to its surface destination through pipe on
the surface, which connects the Christmas tree to storage tanks, large pipelines, etc.
This surface piping is commonly referred to as the flowline.
1. Pressure Gauge
2. Swage
3. Flange
4. Crown Valve
5. Upper Master Valve
6. Lower Master Valve
7. Production Casing
8. Tubing
9. Wing Valve
10. Choke Body
11. Flow Line
12. Casing Valve
13. Selective Landing Nipple
14. Sliding Sidedoor
15. Packer
16. No-Go Nipple
Refer to the following items for description of each equipment.
[Detail 1]

GAUGE - This gauge shows the pressure (in psi) contained in the
tubing at the surface.

[Detail 2]

SWAGE CONNECTION - This is a threaded pipe nipple that is

screwed into the top flange and which has a thread on its upper end
into which the gauge is screwed. Refer to section on threads and tree
connections.

[Detail 3]

TOP FLANGE - In this particular schematic, the top flange has a

thread where the swage is screwed in. Depending upon the size and
type of thread and the amount of pressure on the well, we sometimes
use this thread to attach the wire line valve and lubricator assembly to
the Christmas tree in order to perform downhole wireline work. In
some cases, we must remove the top flange from the tree and replace it
with one with a specific type of fitting which will adapt to the wire line
valve. On some trees, the top flange will already have a fitting other
than a thread to which we can attach the wireline valve.

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121

CROWN or SWAB VALVE - Notice that this valve is placed above

the flow outlet of the tree. This valve can be closed and still allow the
well to flow, if necessary, while rigging up service equipment to the
top of the tree. The crown valve should always be used when doing
wireline work rather than one of the master valves which are located
below the flow outlet of the tree.

[Details 5 & 6] UPPER AND LOWER MASTER.VALVES - Both of these valves

are below the flow outlet of the tree. Detail 5 is called the upper master
valve. Assuming that the crown valve (Detail 4) or the wing valve
(Detail 9) malfunctioned and would not hold pressure. The master
valves then would be the only means on the surface of shutting off the
well flow. Therefore, these valves, especially the lower master valve,
should not be used indiscriminately or unnecessarily in order to
preserve them in good condition.
[Detail 7]

CASING - This lines or cases off the hole that has drilled to the
formation. The external diameter of some of the most commonly used
sizes of casing are 5, 5, 6 5 8 , 7, 7 5 8 , 8 5 8 , 9 5 8 and 10.

[Detail 8]

TUBING - The tubing serves as a conductor to allow the oil and/or gas
to come to the surface. Tubing is available in various external
diameters of from through 4 and larger.

[Detail 9]

WING VALVE - This valve is a part of the Christmas tree and is

attached to the flow outlet of the tree. It serves as a means of shutting
off the well's flow at the surface.

[Detail 10]

CHOKE BOX - This houses the surface choke. The choke is an orifice
that restricts or controls the rate of flow coming from the wellbore.
These chokes are usually sized in 1 64 increments.

[Detail 11]

FLOW LINE - This is simply the surface pipe that serves as the
conductor for the well content (oil and gas) to take it to the storage
tanks, pipelines, etc.

[Detail 12]

CASING VALVE - This is a valve attached to the casing outlet at the

surface. It provides access to the tubing/casing annulus (the space
between the internal diameter of the casing and external diameter of
the tubing).

[Detail 13]

SELECTIVE LANDING NIPPLE - These are short pieces of pipe that

are a part of the tubing string. They are machined internally to provide
locking and sealing profile that will accept a locking mandrel which
can be used to install control devices such as plugs, safety valves and
pressure regulators in the nipple by use of wireline. Refer to the
landing nipple section of this manual for further explanation.

[Detail 14]

SLIDING SIDEDOOR (SLEEVE or SLIDING SLEEVE) - This is

simply a device which is a part of the tubing string. Its primary purpose

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is to provide controlled communication from the tubing to the

tubing/casing annulus. By use of wireline from the surface, the sleeve
may be opened or closed to gain communication or to shut off
communication between the tubing and the tubing/casing annulus.
[Detail 15]

PACKER - This is a device installed inside the casing bore. It packs

off (seals) in the I.D. of the casing and provide a means of allowing the
OD of the tubing to seal in its internal diameter.

[Detail 16]

NO-GO LANDING NIPPLE - This landing nipple serves the purpose

as the selective landing nipple except that it is not selective. Only one
no-go nipple of given size may be used in a single tubing string. Refer
to the landing nipple section of this manual for further explanation.

[Perforations] Perforations are holes that have been "shot" through the casing and
cement in order to allow the formation content to enter the wellbore.

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Fig. 3.40 Completion equipment.

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Fig. 3.41 Dual completion.

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REFERENCES
1. Hammerlindl, D.T., 1997: Movement, Forces and Stress Associated with Combination
Tubing Strings Sealed with Packers. JPT (February).
2. Lubinski, A., Althouse, W.S., Logan, T.L., 1962: Helical Buckling of Tubing Sealed in
Packers. JPT (June).

REVIEW QUESTIONS
1. What are packers used for?
2. Describe the setting and retrieving procedures of hydraulic-set packers?
3. In what situations would you consider using permanent packers?

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