Error Correction 2

Submitted by TE Editor on 7 August, 2003 - 13:00

As mentioned in Error Correction 1, students can differ greatly in their
attitude to producing spoken English. Some are only interested in
developing their fluency at the expense of accuracy while others are so
focused on accuracy that they have no fluency. While these are clearly
extremes, it is not unusual to find students like this in a typical class. In
Error Correction 2 we look at...

A basic approach to improving fluency and accuracy

Dictogloss - A way of raising students' awareness of their inter-language

Criteria for dealing with spoken errors

Practical techniques for correcting spoken English

Further reading

A basic approach to improving fluency and accuracy

In contrast to writing, students have very little processing time when it
comes to speaking, so it is hardly surprising that the following may
occur.
Students don't experiment with new language presented by the teacher.

At lower levels students' output is mostly lexical.

The more accuracy-focused students test the patience of the listener in the time
they take to say something.

The speech of some very fluent students is littered with errors and therefore may
have a negative effect on the listener.

Just as with writing we can help students to improve their accuracy and
fluency. Teachers can help students improve their fluency by giving
guided preparation time for a task. Students receive specific guidance
in choosing appropriate language as well as rehearsal time. Task-based
learning research shows that this leads to a greater range of language
being used.
When it comes to accuracy, research into second language acquisition
says that the first stage of improving accuracy is awareness-raising.
Namely, raising students' awareness of gaps in their inter-language.

You can do this by using a recording of teachers / higher level students

performing the same task that your students have done. Use
awareness-raising exercises to focus on specific linguistic areas in the
recording.
Dictogloss - A way of raising students' awareness of their interlanguage
Dictogloss (see 'Grammar Dictation' by R.Wajnryb OUP) is a very
effective technique for doing this. After an introduction to the subject
and some pre-teaching of essential lexis, students are read a text
twice. The first time they listen to get the gist of the text. The second
time they have to note down the key words. Then, in groups they work
together to produce a version of the text. The emphasis is on
successfully communicating the main points using their English. If they
can reproduce the original text, that is great, but it is not essential. The
teacher and groups then correct their texts and compare them with the
original. The aim is to make students aware of the gaps in their interlanguage.
Criteria for dealing with spoken errors
In 'Correction' by M.Bartram and R.Walton, these questions are
presented as a guide to deciding whether to let an error go or not.
Which do you consider to be the most important?
1. Does the mistake affect communication?
2. Are we concentrating on accuracy at the moment?
3. Is it really wrong? Or is it my imagination?
4. Why did the student make the mistake?
5. Is it the first time the student has spoken for a long time?
6. Could the student react badly to my correction?
7. Have they met this language point in the current lesson?
8. Is it something the students have already met?
9. Is this a mistake that several students are making?
10. Would the mistake irritate someone?
11. What time is it?
12. What day is it?
13. What's the weather like?
Practical techniques / ideas for correcting spoken English
On-the-spot correction techniques.
These are used for dealing with errors as they occur.
o Using fingers
For example, to highlight an incorrect form or to indicate a word order
mistake.
o Gestures
For example, using hand gestures to indicate the use of the wrong tense.

Mouthing
This is useful with pronunciation errors. The teacher mouths the correct
pronunciation without making a sound. For example, when an individual
sound is mispronounced or when the word stress is wrong. Of course it
can also be used to correct other spoken errors.
Reformulation
For example:
Student: I went in Scotland
Teacher: Oh really, you went to Scotland, did you?

Delayed Correction techniques - For example, after a communication activity.

o Noting down errors
Either on an individual basis i.e. focusing on each student's mistakes or for
the class as a whole. 'Hot cards', as Bartram and Walton call individual
notes, can be used to focus on recurring mistakes. The student then has a
written suggestion of what to work on.
o Recording
In addition to recording students (individually, in pairs etc.) during a
speaking task to make them aware of errors that affect communication we
can use a technique from Community Language Learning. Students sit in a
circle with a tape recorder in the centre. In monolingual classes they check
with the teacher, who is bilingual, about how to say something in English,
then rehearse it and record it. At the end of the lesson they listen back to
the tape and can focus on specific utterances etc. With higher level
multilingual classes students take part in a discussion which they have
prepared for in advance. When they have something to say they record
themselves and then pause the tape. Just as with monolingual classes they
can use the teacher as a linguistic resource. At the end of the discussion
students analyse their performance with the teacher. The focus is on
improving the quality of what they say and expanding their inter-language.
Although this form of discussion may seem a bit artificial it has two main
advantages:
Students pay more attention to what they say as they are taking
part in a kind of performance (it is being recorded)
Students not only become more aware of gaps in their spoken
English but also can see how their spoken English is improving.

Rolf Donald, teacher and teacher trainer, Eastbourne School of English

http://www.teachingenglish.org.uk/articles/error-correction-2
Volume 6. Issue 1 Article 6
MAKE THEM BE AWARE, NOT BEWARE OF LEARNING

The Cognitive Therapy Technique (CTT) in adult EFL classes

Kemal Sinan zmen
Kemal Sinan Ozmen has been teaching english at Gazi University Turkey for a year. His
previous
experience was dominantly in adult teaching. He has worked as a
playwright for theatre companies.Kemal Sinan Ozmen holds a BA diploma in ELT and
qualifications in DipELT and CertELT.
Table of Contents
Abstract
Introduction
Adult Education
Adult Learners
How Adults Learn
Kolb's Experiential Learning Theory
Making Them be Aware of Their Learning
The Three Dimensions of Grammar
*Witnesses of a Miracle
Cognitive Therapy Technique
Conclusion
References

Abstract
By pointing out dimensions of adult learners and teaching, this article aims to discuss a
way of strengthening the awareness on and through learning and self-esteem in adult
language classes. The cognitive therapy technique emphasizes the importance and
necessity of informing the learners of basic aspects of learning and language learning
in order to aid them to build up their learning strategies effectively and consciously.
Also it is claimed that an awareness on personal learning process contributes effective
learning and raising self-esteem. Some CTT activities and awareness sessions are
presented and a sample lesson plan is designed to bridge the gap between theory and
practical use .
Introduction
When the language teaching literature is read at a glance, in last decades, it can be

observed that the field has focused its attention on some studies in
Humanistic/Analytic Psychology, and has been searching for the ways of effective
language teaching models in view of universals of human cognition and psyche. Also
many of the innovative language teaching methods and approaches have been
benefiting from humanistic psychology. These teaching methods express the interest in
the total person and not simply the intellect and offer to provide a blend of the
cognitive and affective way of teaching in EFL/ESL classes.
Many of the studies on language learning underline the importance of raising selfesteem and awareness in our classes, which means that we can not talk about a
successful language class in which the students feel insecure and discouraged.
Haycraft notes (1999) that teaching English successfully is not just a question of
method. I have observed many classes where teacher's techniques were superb, but
where the students were reluctant to learn because the teacher was not interested in
them as people, and the lesson developed like the workings of a machine, functioning
in isolation.(P.6)As Haycraft emphasizes, the best lesson may fail due to the fact that
the personal diversity and needs are underestimated. Moreover, when we think of a
class in which the audience is willing to participate in, speak and produce yet they can
not break their walls, Haycraft's picture can be seen so optimistic.
There are many similarities and differences between adult and younger learners.
Perhaps the greatest difference is that the former come to class with a long history of
learning experience.(Harmer 1999) Learning experiences of adults maybe both full of
glories and failures which possibly leads them to anticipate how teaching and learning
should be carried out. It can be said that most adult learners have a definition of
learning. Also we should recall adults are more nervous of learning than younger
learners are.
When we reorganize the picture of adult classes that we have reviewed up to now, a
need for CTT can be emphasized : Let's imagine a class where most of the students
have an idea of learning, and bring a great record of learning experience which is full
of success and failure and where they are nervous of making mistakes just in front of
the beautiful ladies and handsome gentlemen. One of the most appropriate solution is
that we must lead them to learn about learning itself so that they can monitor their
learning process consciously and of course, can make some changes in their definition
of learning. This awareness merely itself is a cognitive therapy since if one can observe
her/his own learning process, s/he also consciously or unconsciously knows that s/he
can learn a language successfully. An awareness about learning process will both assist
learners to build up their learning strategies effectively and redefine their values and
beliefs on language learning.
ADULT EDUCATION
"If the education is life, then the life is also education."
Linderman
In the 1950s,the attention on adult education had researchers to identify the
differences between young and adult learners. In the following decade, educators
reached a consensus on the concept "Andragogy" (Knowles) referring to adult
education. The studies on adult education can be classified in two main streams : the
scientific stream and the other the artistic or intuitive/reflective stream ( Knowles
1998:36). In his book, Throndike notes that the scientific stream seeks to discover

new knowledge through rigorous (and often not experimental) investigation. On the
other hand, the artistic stream seeks to discover new knowledge through intuition and
the analysis of the experience. Very similarly to this study, another educational
pioneer, Carl Rogers (1969) distinguished two types of learning : Cognitive
(Meaningless) and Experiential ( Significant). Cognitive learning refers to academic
knowledge while the experiential equates to personal change and growth. Also Rogers
states that all human beings have a natural ability to learn. The nature of experiential
learning is :
*
*
*
*
*

Setting a positive climate for learning

Clarifying the purposes of the learners
Balancing intellectual and emotional components of leaning
Sharing feelings and thoughts with learners but not dominating
Organizing and making available learning results

As the experiential learning suggest a personal change and development process, it is

clearly a mere fact that learners should feel safe in the classroom. Also clarifying the
purposes of the learners and organizing and making available learning results can be
fulfilled effectively if this process is linked to learn about the learning. We will discuss
this issue in detail in CTT class techniques.
In order to take a closer look at adult education, the brief summary of Linderman
should be underlined, as follows :
1. adults are motivated to learn as they experience the needs and interests that
learning will be safe.
2. Adults' orientation to learning is Life-Centered .
3. Experience is the richest source for adults' learning.
4. Adults have a deep need to be self-directing.
5. Individual differences among people increase with age.
One important issue is that most of the studies on pedagogy and andragogy
dichotomize adult versus youth education. However, Linderman draws a line between
adult versus conventional education.
In a recent theory, Cross (1981) developed the Characteristics of Adults as Learners
( CAL model). The CAL model integrates the previous studies on adult learning such as
andragogy, experiential learning and lifespan psychology. The CAL model consists of
two variables, personal and situational. The former include aging, life phrases, many
sort of stages such as marriage, job changes and retirement. Situational
characteristics include part-time versus full-time learning, and voluntary versus
compulsory learning. The CAL model of adult learning aims to provide guidelines for
adult instruction programs. The principles are as follows :
* Adult learning programs should adapt to the aging limitations of the participants.
* Adults should be challenged to move to increasingly advanced stages of personal
development.
* Adults should have as much choice as possible in the availability and organization of
learning programs.

Among all these theories, one can easily anticipate that one of the major role of an
adult education policy and program is to build up an experience process that they can
reflect upon their own development, and go through this program by cooperating with
other adult learners.
ADULT LEARNERS
" The experience is the adult learners' living textbook."
Linderman
There are many factors that must be taken into account to establish a productive
learning and teaching situation in adult classes. However, we should first recall who an
adult learner is. According to Knowles(1976),a prime characteristics of adultness is the
need and capacity to self-directing (P.182). Also adult learners have some
characteristics which can sometimes make learning and teaching problematic. In some
cases, unfamiliar teaching patterns and innovative activities may make them feel
uncomfortable since their previous learning experiences get them to be critical of these
teaching methods. Moreover, many other adult learners worry that their intellectual
powers may be diminishing with age-they are concerned about keeping their creative
powers alive, maintaining a "sense of generativity"(Williams and Burden 1997:32).
Needless to say, this generativity is directly related to how much learning has been
going on in adult life before they come to a new learning experience.(Rogers 1996:54)
As we have mentioned the problem of self-esteem and inhibition in adult learners, it
will be beneficial to recall a study to see the other side of the coin: A survey by ChildLine shows that a sample of 1000 secondary school pupils were worried more about
doing well at school than anything else in their lives. Children as young as twelve were
worried about university entrance(Fletcher 2000:63) The report concludes:
Examinations involve a judgement delivered publicly, by others, of someone's
performance. The fear of being judged is anathema to the sensitive or those with a
fragile self-esteem. Parents and tutors should watch out for symptoms which suggest
possible psychiatric storms ahead and make every effort to ease the ordeal for the
child or undergraduate.
Whereas the main concern of this article is not the young learners, it should be
considered that adultness is not a promotion or a medal of maturity. Naturally, adult
learners also go through such educational jungles, processes, given above and the
ones who are more sensitive or having a fragile self-esteem fulfill their beliefs and
values on learning through those experiences. This survey is a notable evidence to
convince us of importance of strengthening the self-esteem and encouraging the
personal relations in our classes, whether our students are very young learners or
socially accepted mature adults.
HOW ADULTS LEARN
"Self-esteem is the jet fuel of motivation"
Murray White
A study by psychologist David Kolb on the question "How adults learn? " shows that
when the adults undertake to learn something through their own initiative, they start
with a concrete experience. Then they make observations about the experience, reflect
on it and diagnose what new knowledge or skill they need to acquire in order to

perform more effectively. Then, with the help of material and human resources, they
formulate abstract concepts and generalizations which they deduce what to do next.
Finally, they test their concepts and generalizations in new situations, which refers to
the new experiences.
Figure 1 shows the cyclical process of experiential learning theory :
KOLB'S EXPERIENTIAL LEARNING THEORY

Also when we pool our thinking to seek a connection between Kolb's research and
studies of previous educators, it can be observed that Experiential Learning Theory is
strongly related to Linderman and Roger's studies. For example, Linderman and
Eduard emphasize that adult education is a process through which learners become
aware of significant leads to evaluation. Meanings accompany experience when we
know what is happening and what importance the event includes for our personalities.
(1926:1691) Consequently, we can assume that an adult learning program should
construct a safe experience road on which the signs show the destination clearly and
how to go through this road more effectively.
MAKING THEM BE AWARE OF THEIR LEARNING
* CTT and its practical use
Adult learners can be critical of teaching methods. In some cases, it can be observed
that some of the adult learners ponder over doing the classroom activities. The
question " Why do we have to fill in this ticket order form ? "or many of other
questions are familiar with the language teachers. In such cases, the teacher may
underline the importance of developing language skills, or draw a distinction between
knowing about the language and being able to use language communicatively. Even
talking about the three dimensions of grammar ( Celce-Murcia, Larsen freeman)
maybe helpful to convince the adults to involve in the activities. The figure 2 shows the
three dimensions of grammar and possible answer for confused learners.
THE THREE DIMENSIONS OF GRAMMAR
Figure 2

This figure may be drawn on the board and presented to our language learners . A
brief explanation will help them figure out the importance of purposeful communication
in the target language and necessity of skill activities. Actually, one does not have to
be a language teacher or a teacher trainee to recognize the use of language. Also the
teacher may response (in L1 or in L2) as :
T : To know the grammar rules is not enough to achieve a communication. We
should also learn how to use these rules. As an example, a grammatically correct
sentence can be inappropriate, even rudeness in a situation. That's why these
(addressing the language activities) are useful for us to learn how to communicate
in English.
Many of the adult learners do not attempt to speak in English in the class for fear that
they can make a mistake. A cognitive therapy for those is a funny one.
T : Where did you learn your first language ? Was it a good language course
or did you attend to private lessons ?
Their response is worth seeing and a relaxing one. The aim of this question is to make
them recognize that learning a language is a natural behavior of us, and if the walls in
front of this natural behavior are broken, the learning will be more effective. These
information activities are called "Question and answer sessions".
Instead of verbal responses, the teacher can use some CTT activities to enhance the
learning process. In some lessons, 5-10 minutes can be spend for Making Mistakes
Time (MMT) activities. In MMT activities, the learners make mistakes in L2 consciously,
and these activities creates a precious time to speak in English for adults having fragile
self-esteem. Some MMT activities are :
1. Pronunciation Games : All fluency-speaking activities can be modified as a MMT
pronunciation games. During these activities the learners can make pronunciation
mistakes. If the activity is recorded and listened for feedback session, it will be useful.
Also the teacher may lead the learners to do the delayed correction.
2. Tense Free Games : These are both fluency and accuracy activities and can be
fulfilled as writing and speaking skill practices. All the writing& speaking activities can
be used as Tense Free Games. The students are free to make mistakes in using tenses

through activities. At the end of the activity, the students may do a peer correction
activity in group works.
3. Jumbled Words Games : All free-speaking & writing activities can be modified .In
these activities, structural rules are not important. The students can make any sort of
structural mistake. However, they should transmit their messages effectively. A
delayed peer correction in groups or teacher's feedbacks will be useful.
We must draw a line between free-speaking activities and MMT activities : In freespeaking activities, the teacher does not correct the students immediately so that the
communication in the classroom is not interrupted. Nevertheless, the role of the
teacher in these activities is sometimes not enough to diminish the stress. However,
the important aspect of MMT activities is that the teacher asks to the students to make
mistakes in L2 through activities, which means they can easily involve in the activities
without the fear and the anxiety of making mistakes.
* Witnesses of a Miracle
Another useful CTT is to inform the learners about the MI theory and NLP. This
information process, called "awareness sessions", will be more effective if it is done
through activities that create a time for learners to identify and observe their learning
styles. The aim, or theme, of awareness sessions is to make them understand that
they can learn a language and this is scientifically a fact, and also show the students
underlying principles of language activities. There are many MI and NLP activities both
on internet and in books that tests personal aptitudes. A sample lesson plan is
designed, as follows :
" AN AWARENESS SESSION "
A SAMPLE LESSON PLAN FOR CTT
Aim of the lesson : At the end of the lesson, the students will become aware of their
intelligences through the activities.
Materials needed :" Find Someone Who" handouts (Figure3), MI test(Figure 4),
Visuals showing 8 Intelligences.
PRE Warm up : Free-Speaking --- Talking about the talents and
hobbies.
Lead in : The teacher asks to the students whether they 'd like to learn
about their
intelligences.
WHILE activity :
1- controlled-integrated skills activity : Find SMN Who
The students mingle in the classroom and perform the
activity.
2- Free-integrated skills activity : Reflection of the
activity. The students work in groups and discuss
the results.
Lead in : The teacher asks to the students whether they'd like to learn

more
about their intelligences and MI.
3- Reading activity : The MI test
The students read about their multiple intelligences.
POST activity : The teacher sticks the MI pictures all around the class and asks,
students to share their opinions.
MATERIALS

If necessary, the teacher may prepare an extra reading activity on MI .

"Why do we have to speak in English?" or "Why do you teach in English?" are the
famous questions of EFL classes. Besides, in the first months of a long-term and
extensive language courses, the students may be disappointed due to the fact that
they still can not communicate in L2 successfully. Such cases can be overcome by
pointing out Krashen's "Input Hypothesis and Silent Period", as a question and answer
session. The aim of this cognitive therapy is to show them that the reason of their
failures in L2 communication is not the problem of their skills and abilities, but just a
process.
The CTT activities can be dichotomized in two main parts. The information sessions
that are held in both class or in one to one conversations are called Question-Answer
sessions. Aim of these sessions is to give the merely the wanted information to the

class or individual. The second one is the awareness sessions that are fulfilled in class.
The nature of the awareness sessions is to associate the language teaching with
learning. In other words, awareness sessions and CTT language activities are done in
the context of language teaching and the primary aim is to make the learners
recognize their potentials and abilities and observe their learning styles. Also many of
the activities can be modified as CTT activities. MMT is an example given in the article.
In Figure 4, CTT summarized as follows :
Cognitive Therapy Technique
1. Question-Answer Sessions

2. Awareness sessions

Conclusion
An important issue is that the information presented to our students in CTT activities
shall be as simplified as possible. It is unnecessary, even harmful, to load their minds
and confuse them with boring theoretical issues. It should be just like talking about
quality of a sports car; natural and worth listening. The cognitive therapy will be
precious if it is comprehensible.
The activities and the lesson plan are designed to show the CTT in practical use. It is
clear that hundreds of activities and various therapy themes can be generated by
enthusiastic teachers. However, the main point is that CTT activities are aim to link
class activities to nature of learning and help adult learners observe their own learning
styles through tasks. In brief , it is important to make our students be aware of their
learning abilities and capacities, but not beware of learning and this is all about CTT.
The MMT activities, question-answer sessions and awareness sessions given in the
article, and some other CTT lessons have been performed at Gazi University,
Preparatory department. The undergraduate students and adult EFL classes have been
observed and their reflections are positive through CTT activities.
References :

1. Aslan, Glfem. 2002 Diploma in ELT -part one -The MI Test : British Council
2. Celce-Murcia, M 2001 Teaching English as a Second or Foreign language : Heinle &
Heinle
3. Celce-Murcia, M - Larsen Freeman 1999 The Grammar Book :An ESL/EFL
teacher's course : Heinle & Heinle
4. Fletcher, M 2001 Teaching for Success : English Experience Press
5. Haycraft, J 1998 An introduction to ELT : Longman
6. Harmer, J 2002 Practice of English Language Teaching : Longman
7. Harmer, J 2000 How to Teach English : Longman
8. Knowles, M , Halton, E.F -Swanson and R.A 1998 The Adult Learner : Gulf
Publishing
9. Knowles, M ,1976 Contact Learning .In materials and methods in continuing
education: Klewing
10. Kolb, D 1984. Experiential Learning. Experience as the source of learning and
development: Prentice Hall
11. Linderman, E.C 1926 The Meaning of Adult Education
12. Murray Loom's website : htpp://crilt.canberra.edu.au
13. O'Brian, G Principles of Adult Learning :
www.southernhealth.org.au./cpme/articles
14. Rogers, C 1969 Freedom to learn : Merril Publishing
15. Rogers, A 1996 Teaching Adults : Open University Press
16. Williams, B and Burden, K 1997 Psychology for Language Teachers : CUP

http://www.asian-efl-journal.com/04_kso.php

Monday, May 02, 2005

Why delay gratification in language education?
Link to the Original Article
The following is a fantastic article from Stepen Krashen, who says it all so much better
than I:
by Dr. Stephen Krashen
The Language Teacher, 28(7), 3-7. (2004)
The Comprehension Hypothesis is consistent with empirical research. The Skill-Building
Hypothesis is not. The Comprehension Hypothesis allows immediate gratification, that is,
interesting and comprehensible input from the beginning. The Skill-Building Hypothesis
is a delayed gratification approach. Nevertheless, researchers continue to search for
evidence for skill-building, and practitioners are reluctant to provide more
comprehensible input in their classrooms.
A Delayed Gratification Hypothesis
We have made a serious error in language education: We have confused cause and effect.
We have assumed that students first need to consciously learn their "skills" (grammar,

vocabulary, spelling), and that only after skills are mastered can they actually use these
skills in real situations. This assumption, the "Skill-Building Hypothesis," insists on
delayed gratification. Only after hard and tedious work do we earn the right to actually
enjoy the use of language.
The Alternative: Comprehensible input
There is an alternative. It hypothesizes that "skills," or mastery of the components of
language, is the result of one particular aspect of language use, comprehensible input. It
claims that grammatical competence and vocabulary knowledge are the result of listening
and reading, and that writing style and much of spelling competence is the result of
reading. The Comprehension Hypothesis does not require delayed gratification. It claims
that we can enjoy real language use right away: we can listen to stories, read books, and
engage in interesting conversations as soon as they are comprehensible. The
Comprehension Hypothesis, in fact, insists on pleasure from the beginning, on acquirers
obtaining interesting, comprehensible input right from the start. The path of pleasure is
the only path. The path of pain does not work for language acquisition. I have referred to
the Comprehension Hypothesis as the Input Hypothesis in previous writing, a term that I
do not reject. But "Comprehension Hypothesis" appears to be more precise-it is
comprehension that counts, not simply input. Smith (1975) made this clear in the title of
his book, Comprehension and Learning, pointing out that they are closely related: In
order to learn anything (using the term "learn" here in the more general sense, not as
contrasted with "acquisition"), we must first understand it. Once we have understood it,
we have learned it.
The evidence for this alternative hypothesis is strong. It has been shown that
comprehensible-input based methods are very successful when compared to methods
based on skill-building; this research includes beginning and intermediate foreign
language teaching, and the consistent positive impact of free voluntary reading (Krashen,
2003).
Problems with the Skill-Building Hypothesis
There are serious problems with the Skill-Building Hypothesis: The effects of deliberate,
direct skill-based instruction are very weak and fragile. Studies claiming to show a
positive effect for grammar study show only that grammar study makes a limited
contribution to competence: Subjects in all of these studies have been experienced
"grammar learners," are given extensive training, and make only modest progress on tests
that focus them on the target form, which are usually given immediately after the
treatment (Krashen, 2003; Truscott, 1998). In terms of theory, the conditions for Monitor
use (Krashen, 1982) are met in these studies.
The systems involved (grammar, spelling, vocabulary, etc) are too complex to be
consciously learned.
Numerous cases exist of "acquisition without learning," cases of people who have

reached very high levels of competence without skill-based instruction. There are,
however, no known cases of high levels of proficiency without comprehensible input.
The skill-building hypothesis is an "output" hypothesis, that is, it demands that students
produce language in order to acquire it. Actual output, according to skill-builders, serves
two functions: (1) it exposes our errors, which can then be corrected, and corrections are
supposed to lead to better rules, and (2) repeated output is supposed to help us solidify or
"automatize" our knowledge of rules. But the amount of output we produce, either in
speech or writing, is far too small to account for more than a small fraction of what we
eventually acquire. In addition, correction is infrequent and studies show that it has either
no effect or a weak effect, with its impact only evident in studies in which students are
able to focus on form on the posttest (Krashen, 2002; Truscott, 1996), that is, when the
conditions for the use of conscious Monitor are met.
n alternative to both the Skill-Building and Comprehension Hypotheses is the
Comprehensible Output Hypothesis, which claims that language is acquired when we
produce it, fail to communicate our meaning, and then try again, eventually succeeding in
communicating by using a form that is correct. This hypothesis suffers from findings
showing that few instances of comprehensible output actually occur: There are few
instances in which language acquirers fail to communicate and then re-formulate their
message in a way that brings it closer to the correct target language form. Only one
experimental study (Nobuyoshi & Ellis, 1993) has attempted to demonstrate that
comprehensible output is effective: Despite the authors' claims, it did not. One of the
three subjects in the study failed to make any gains, only one subject made a significant
improvement, and it was quite possible that the "improvement" was due to increased
Monitor use of a previously learned rule (see Krashen, 2003). The Comprehensible
Output hypothesis was originally formulated as a supplement to comprehensible input
(Swain, 1985), but there is no evidence that it plays even a small role in language
acquisition.
"Balanced" Methods
Several combination approaches have been proposed. One "balanced" method insists that
methods for beginners should be based on skill-building, and that communicative
activities can be introduced after the beginning stage, in order to solidify or reinforce the
skills that were learned. This is really a pure skill-building approach that denies the
possibility of language acquisition and that assumes that all linguistic knowledge must
result from skill-building instruction.
Another "balanced" method prescribes communicative activities from the beginning, but
claims that comprehensible input alone is not enough: it needs "supplementation." The
usual form supplementation takes is additional output and/or grammar activities.
Mason (2003) provided a direct demonstration of the inefficacy of output and correction
as supplements to comprehensible input: In her study, three groups of adult EFL students
participated in an extensive English reading program for three semesters. One group

wrote brief summaries of what they read in Japanese, another wrote their summaries in
English, and a third wrote summaries in English that were corrected, and they then
rewrote the summaries. Those in the second and third groups had requested the treatment
they received. Mason reported no differences in gains on three different measures of
English among the three groups, and concluded that the group that wrote their summaries
in Japanese was the most efficient, in terms of amount of English acquired and the total
time devoted to English.
Some conscious knowledge of grammar can be of use in editing, in filling small gaps left
by acquisition that even very advanced second (and first) language users seem to have. It
appears to be the case, however, that there are severe limitations on the learning and use
of this knowledge (Krashen, 1982).
The kinds of supplementation that can have a strong impact on language development are
those that help students get more comprehensible input (e.g. discussion of books students
may find of interest) or make input more comprehensible (e.g. provide background
information). In other words, what will work are activities that deal with the cause of
language acquisition and not the effects.
Research Directions
Despite this evidence, the major focus of current research is to continue to search for
ways to demonstrate the effectiveness of the skill-building approach, a desperate search,
in my view. There has been little interest in seeing the effects of increasing the quality
and quantity of comprehensible input, even though many pay lip-service to the value of
comprehensible input, claiming to support the "comprehensible input + supplementation"
position. As a result of this negligence, I suspect that we have not even come close to
tapping the potential of comprehensible input.
Why is this true? I discuss here only two of the possible reasons.
The ruthless capitalist argument
It could be the case that researchers are defending their own economic interests. They
continue to search for a role for grammar not because they believe in it but because they
have sold out to big publishers who make profits from grammar-based materials. I have
no evidence that scholars have been deliberately dishonest, but the potential for conflict
of interest exists.
he grammar-lover argument
Another reason for the determination to find a major role for grammar is the fact that so
many researchers find the study of grammar fascinating. I think this is true: I know this
from personal experience-I love grammar too. I enjoy learning about grammatical
systems, and I get a feeling of deep satisfaction from successfully applying a grammar
rule to my output. Unlike some others, however, I have realized that I am a member of a

tiny minority and that most people get their pleasures elsewhere.
Barriers to Using CI-based Methods
Even if practitioners are interested in using CI-based methodology, there are barriers to
using it in the classroom.
The students made me do it.
Skill-building is the "common-sense" folk theory of language development, and it is
reinforced by the fact that it is used in nearly all foreign and second language classes and
is the basis for nearly all materials. Although skill-based teaching is not effective,
students simply blame themselves for their lack of progress. When asked, adult students
insist that they want all their errors corrected (Cathcart & Olsen, 1976), many feel that
the study of grammar is very important (research reviewed in Krashen, 1994) and that we
learn to speak another language by speaking it. It is of course difficult for teachers to
resist this pressure, especially when doing communicative activities is sometimes
perceived to be non-professional and a sign of ignorance of grammar. We must, however,
realize that it is our professional responsibility to teach according to our convictions
about how people acquire language. As Smith (1986) put it, engineers do not consider
public opinion on how to build bridges, nor do surgeons allow the public to tell them how
to perform operations.
Both a short- and long-term solution to this problem is to provide information to students
on how language is acquired. This will justify methodology, provide an interesting topic
for sheltered subject matter teaching, and give students the tools to continue to improve
after the course is over. At a minimum, students should be informed that the skill-building
hypothesis is in fact a hypothesis, not an axiom, and that other hypotheses exist.
The curriculum/text made me do it.
It is likely that many language teachers work in situations where the established
curriculum is not in agreement with their personal view of how language is acquired.
These teachers have several options: The first is simply to go along with the curriculum,
suffering silently, or complaining only to one's peers. From my observations, this appears
to be the most frequent reaction. Second, one can "close the door" and secretly do what
one thinks is best. This may profit one's current students, but the current curriculum and
the skill-building hypothesis receives undeserved credit. "Closing the door" thus
perpetuates and strengthens the dominance of the skill-building approach. In addition, the
publishers make the profit from unused texts while teachers spend their own money on
supplementary materials.
The only constructive option is to be honest with our students and attempt to inform the
public.
Most language tests are based on the skill-building hypothesis; they test grammar,

vocabulary, spelling, etc. It seems obvious to many people that the best way to study for
these tests is to study grammar, vocabulary, spelling, etc. The research, however, tells us
differently: Students in classes with more comprehensible input do better on such tests
than those in traditional classes.
The best way to help students prepare is to provide massive amounts of comprehensible
input in class, and provide the means for them to obtain comprehensible input outside of
class (see below). It is quite possible that some direct instruction (e.g. test-taking
strategies) may be helpful, but it remains an empirical question just how much and what
kind of instruction is best.
The lack of real-world input made me do it.
As many have commented, there is a profound difference between second and foreign
language education; in the former, there is plenty of input outside the classroom but in the
latter there typically is not. For this reason, some teachers have opted for skill-building
over comprehensible input, claiming that there is not enough time for "the real thing."
But comprehensible input is more efficient, according to method-comparison studies
mentioned earlier.
Also, note that for the beginner the situation is identical: outside world input is not
comprehensible anyway. The real difference between the foreign and second language
situation is at the intermediate level.
We can't reproduce the second language informal environment, but we can do much
better, and the Comprehension Hypothesis gives us a clear idea of what to do: Foreign
language students need better libraries, libraries filled with books, magazines, comics, as
well as audiotapes and videotapes. It should be possible for second language acquirers to
spend a great deal of time reading books and magazines, watching TV shows and films
they are really interested in, and that are comprehensible. Such a facility should be open
to the public, to make it possible for anyone to get comprehensible input in the second
language of their choice whenever necessary or desired.
Even if rich sources of comprehensible input are unavailable for the EFL student, this is
still not a valid reason for employing a method that is incorrect. Presenting and
reinforcing a false view of how language is acquired will only make language acquisition
unlikely (or extremely inefficient) when input is available.
References
Cathcart, R., & Olsen, J. (1976). Teachers' and students' preferences for correction of
classroom conversation errors. In J. Fanselow & R. Crymes (Eds.), On TESOL '76 (pp.
41-53). Washington, DC: TESOL.
Krashen, S. (1982). Principles and practice in second language acquisition. New York:
McGraw-Hill.

Krashen, S. (1994). The pleasure hypothesis. In J. Alatis (Ed.), Georgetown University

round table on languages and linguistics (pp. 299-322). Washington, DC: Georgetown
University Press.
Krashen, S. (1994). The input hypothesis and its rivals. In N. Ellis (Ed.), Implicit and
explicit learning of languages (pp.45-77). London: Academic Press.
Krashen, S. (2002). The comprehension hypothesis and its rivals. In Selected papers from
the Eleventh International Symposium on English Teaching/Fourth Pan-Asian
Conference (pp. 395-404). English Teachers Association/ROC.
Krashen, S. (2003). Explorations in language acquisition and use: The Taipei lectures.
Portsmouth, NH: Heinemann.
Mason, B. (2003). A study of extensive reading and the development of grammatical
accuracy by Japanese university students learning English. Ed.D. Dissertation, Temple
University, Osaka, Japan.
Nobuyoshi, J., & Ellis, R. (1993). Focused communication tasks and second language
acquisition. ELT Journal, 47 (3), 203-10.
Smith, F. (1975). Comprehension and learning. New York: Holt Rinehart Winston Smith,
F. (1986). Insult to intelligence. Portsmouth NH: Heinemann.
Swain, M. (1985). Communicative competence: Some roles for comprehensible input and
comprehensible output in its development. In S. Gass & C. Madden (Eds.), Input in
Second Language Acquisition (pp. 235-266). New York: Newbury House.
Truscott, J. (1996). The case against grammar correction in L2 writing classes. Language
Learning, 46 (2), 327-69.
Truscott, J. (1998). Noticing in second language acquisition: A critical review. Second
Language Research, 14 (2), 103-135.
...........
http://effortlessacquisition.blogspot.com/2005/05/why-delay-gratification-inlanguage.html

ESL Coaching Techniques: Error

Correction
79

By Bathtubber

Coaching Techniques: Error Correction

A really important skill for ESL coaches is error correction. There is a
fine balance needed to maintain lesson flow and develop students
confidence. It is easy to tip this balance and the results are disastrous
for your students. Over-correction will result in students losing
confidence and then always speaking hesitantly, often stuttering and
always looking to the teacher for confirmation. Under-correction will
result in students developing bad habits and not learning proper
grammar, forms, usage; eventually decreasing communicative ability.
The first step is learning whether to correct or not. A key to developing
this skill is to understand the difference between errors and
mistakes (TESOL and TEFL courses focus a lot on this differentiation).
A mistake is a slip up: you know the correct thing to say, but by
accident said the wrong thing. Often mistakes result in fun statements
and students can get a kick out of them. Mistakes are not critical to
correct. If you identify that it was a simple mistake, let it go. If it is
repeated too often, it has become an error. Errors are when the student
does not know the correct form, term, or usage. Errors need to be
corrected for students to develop their skills and to avoid developing
bad habits.
Once an error has been identified, coaches need to consider the type
of error and how best to deal with it.
Jim Scrivener1 (1994) writes:
1. Decide what kind of error has been made (grammatical?
pronunciation?, etc.).
2. Decide whether to deal with it (is it useful to correct it?).
3. Decide when to deal with it (now? end of the activity? later?).
4. Decide who will correct (teacher? student self-correction? other
students?).
5. Decide on an appropriate technique to indicate that an error has
occurred or to enable correction.
In order to make the decisions above, we must hone our skills. The
bigger our knowledge base, the easier to make these decisions, the
better we can deal with them. Some suggested error correction
techniques are explained below.

On the Spot (Selective)

On the spot can be dangerous to your students confidence. Do so with
caution and not too often, and choose an appropriate technique that
doesnt slow down the pace too much. Be careful not to jump on one
student for making a mistake.

Echo the Error: Quick and easy, be an echo to your students error.
Ask for Repetition: Just say please repeat or please say that
again.
Repeat up to the Error: Echo up to the error; let it hang for students
to finish...
Ask a Question: Highlight students error by asking a question that
will expose the error.
Provide Options: Without stopping the flow of the lesson, write
options on the board.
Gestures: Especially useful with phrasal verb and preposition
mistakes.
Write on the Whiteboard, Underline: The standard whiteboard
technique. Highlight the error with an underline

Delayed Error Correction (After)

At an appropriate stop in the lesson, do some error correction. A good
place to do this is at the end of a section, practice, or activity (error
correction makes a nice transition between parts of the lesson). Dont
make students feel bad about their errors; they often dont know the
correct thing to say. Instead of saying You said ~, say I heard ~ or
just simply write the error(s) on the board. When possible, change the
sentence for anonymity; we dont want to embarrass students.
Echo the Error: I heard ~
Ask for Reformulation (questions): Can you change this question
to get the same answer?
Repeat up to the Error: good for vocabulary errors, write the
sentence on the board up to the error, have students finish the
sentence. This can be done with all students, thus re-enforcing the
correct form to be used by hearing several variations.
Ask a Question: Good for concept checks and getting students to
repeat a section where they made an error, simply ask them a question
that will bring up the error. The question can be directed at any student
or all students.
Repetition of the Correct Answer: Once the error has been
corrected, have students repeat the correct answer. This technique
works best with low level students or when the error seems to have
become a bad habit.
Provide Options: Write the error on the board and provide several
options. Have students choose the option they think is best.
Use a Visual Aid: Draw a timeline, pie chart, picture or other visual
aide on the board to help students to understand the error. Have them
self-correct.
Write on the Whiteboard, Underline: The standard whiteboard
technique. Highlight the error with an underline.

Highlight the Issue: Rather than bringing up a specific error, when

you notice repeated errors of the same type, highlight this issue and
discuss. If necessary, mark students files and teach the appropriate
curriculum item as soon as possible.

Other Technique Notes

Here are a few other notes to help you develop your error correction
techniques.
Anonymous Error Correction: With delayed error correction, try to make
the correction anonymous. For a grammar mistake, try changing the
nouns so that the sentence is unidentifiable by students but still helps
them learn their mistake. For example: if a student said Yesterday, I
go to Kyoto, change it to Last week, I go to Daimaru. Also say I
heard, rather than Mr Suzuki said. This anonymity will help
students feel more confident by not highlighting a specific students
mistake in front of peers. All students will benefit from this
consideration as all students will be curious to fix the mistake, not
knowing who made it originally.
Self Correction: As much as possible try to encourage self-correction. If
students can fix their own mistake, it shows that they understand and
allows them to feel more confident in their knowledge. Confident selfcorrection habits lead to students depending less on others (i.e. their
coach) and thus speaking more freely, knowing if they make a mistake
they can correct it themselves. They will become more confident
speaking outside of the classroom, which is the true goal of ESL
education.
Peer Correction: Above we saw numerous techniques which allow
students to work together to correct errors and avoid individual error
correction. Coaches should further encourage students to correct each
other (peer correction). Peer correction will increase student talk time
and also increase student interaction. This is particularly easy to do
with homework and written work, but can be done on the spot and with
delayed correction on the board.

Final Note
Error correction is only one of many important skills all good coaches
must develop. Remember to keep a pleasant lesson pace: overcorrecting will result in stop and start lessons and students will lose
confidence, under-correcting may result in students developing badhabits which take time and energy to correct. Good luck!
I practice what I preach at my school, Smith's School of English in Ohtsu City, Japan (
). If you are interested in owning your own English school in Japan,
click HERE. I'd be happy to help you get started as an ESL teacher and business owner.

Do you know other error correction techniques? Got some advice for
coaches to help them develop their error correction skills? Please add
them in the comments box below. Thanks!

Citation Note
1

Scrivener, J. (1994). Learning Teaching. Oxford, U.K.: Macmillan

Heinemann English Language Teaching.
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