1.

INTRODUCTION TO FIBRE REINFORCED POLYMER (FRP)

COMPOSITES
1.1 Development of fibre reinforced composite materials
Composites are a young but rapidly developing technology which is being
applied to various branches of industry including civil engineering. It relies upon
understanding of physical and mechanical properties of the material and upon the
structural design techniques.
The composite material means a material made by dispersing particles of one
or more materials in another material, which forms a continuous network around
them. The properties of a composite may bear little relation to those of the
components even though the components retain their integrity within the composite
(Piggott 2002). Inside the composite the components can be randomly arranged, or
organized in some sort of pattern.
Fibre reinforced materials have been used for a very long time; the first
materials of this kind were natural composites such as wood or straw reinforced
clay, but it has been easily found out that there are advantages to be gained from
using artificial mixtures of materials with one fibrous component. With the advent
of cheap and strong glass fibres and with fabrication of new high performance
fibres the interest in fibre reinforced materials has increased rapidly. Fibre
reinforced polymer (FRP) composites are replacing metallic materials in many
structural applications where load-carrying capacity is important. More efficient
engineering structures can be designed and fabricated with fibrous composites and
new applications are being developed almost every day.
Fibre reinforced composite materials represent a radical approach to
designing structural materials when compared to traditional materials such as
metals and ceramics. The systematic approach and development of fibre reinforced
composites began on the second half of the 20 th century, although the living world
(both the structures of plants and animals) is based on the reinforcement of matrix
by flexible filaments. Nowadays composites find uses in all areas and in some
(aerospace industry) they are the major form of structural material.
The building sector is one of the biggest for the use of composites, which in
the past were dominantly reinforced with glass fibres, but a market for carbon and
aramid fibre reinforced products is developing.

Matter in the form of a filament can posses impressive mechanical

properties. The reasons why fibres are so much stronger than the same material in
bulk form is because the fine fibres contain, by far, fewer defects than does the bulk
material. Therefore an assembly of fibres making up a certain volume will be
much stronger than the same volume of material in bulk form. If we consider the
assembly of fibres mentioned before it should be obvious that the strength we are
considering is parallel to the fibres axes, while if the bundle is stretched at the right
angle to the fibres the strength will be negligible. Composites at the level of layers
of fibres are inherently anisotropic whereas most traditional structural materials are
isotropic. Composite materials are fundamentally two-dimensional whereas
traditional materials are usually made as a block in three dimensions and then
formed into their final shape. This is an advantage in forming composites as, just as
cloth can be draped and made to take the shape of complex structures, such as a
body, so can composites be formed into complex shapes (Bunsell and Renard,
2005). The manufacturing of composite parts takes advantages of this and is able to
integrate many parts in one operation so reducing the overall cost of the structure.
This is important since the raw material for composites is more expensive than the
raw constituents for traditional materials. For example, in case of glass fibre
reinforced polyesters, glass fibre and polyester resins are about three times more
expensive than the price of conventional materials, while some carbon fibres and
more exotic resins can be up to thirty times more expensive. However, the
possibility of reducing operation steps in the manufacture of parts reduces
considerably the overall final cost of a composite product.
The fibres acting as reinforcing components are held together in a matrix.
There are many materials that can be used as matrix for composites: polymeric
resins, metals and ceramics. There is also a growing market for fibre reinforced
cement although in this type of composite the fibre volume fraction is small and the
fibres are used to prevent crack growth rather than to reinforce. The choice of
matrix and the fibre reinforcement is determined by the end use to which the
composite product will be put and will depend on the properties of the constituents
and the manufacturing procedure. The use of two or more types of different
materials to make up a composite element opens up many possibilities which are
not available to the designer using conventional bulk materials. However to design
with composites a large number of variables have to be considered than in the case
of traditional bulk isotropic materials.
The size of overall composite market is expected to reach ten million tonnes
by the end of the first decade of the 21 st century. Presently glass reinforced plastics
(GRP) represent more than 90% of the composite global market and have been
growing at annual rates of about 4%, although great regional differences exist. GRP
composites are a low value added product so that although they represent such a
2

large part of the industry, they represent a lower percentage of the value of the
worlds composite market. Advanced composites, based on higher performance
fibres, account for a large part of the overall value of the market even though they
account for only about 1% of market share. The rate of growth of advanced
composites is significantly higher than that of GRP. Nowadays the largest use of
high performance composite materials is in civil applications but initially it was
military and in particular aerospace structures which used composites for the
weight saving.
Glass is an interesting borderline material as it is amorphous and even in the
form of a fibre its microstructure does not become aligned as in the case for most
other fibres. This results in glass fibres having the same elastic modulus as bulk
glass and there is no weight saving for stiffness by replacing the metals by glass
fibres.
1.2 Production and markets
Early applications for advanced composites were for military jets in those
countries which had developed military industry with the USA the UK and France
becoming leading actors followed by Germany and Italy. Japan has, from the
beginning, invested heavily but on a basis of a much broader approach in such
areas as civil engineering and sports goods. Later on Taiwan and China became
more and more involved in a large variety of composite products so that the
producers and the markets are spread all around the world, Figure 1.1

Asia 31%

31 %

Latin & S.America

4%

4%
3%

Others 3%
N. America 31%

31 %

Europe 31%

31 %

Figure 1.1 The composite market distribution (www.compositesworld.com)

Over 90% of composites produced are reinforced with glass fibres. Rates of
growth suggest some saturation of the overall composite market in North America
but impressive growth in Asia, especially in China and India. The breakdown of
markets for GRP is shown in Figure 1.2 and it can be noticed that no mention is
made of aerospace and military applications for GRP. This reflects the lack of
weight savings advantage for stiffness criteria if structural design.
Others 12%
Industrial equipment
11%

12 %
11 %
8%
6%

Marine 8%
Public works 6%
Ground transport 23%

23 %

Building 20%
Electronics &appliances
20%

20 %
20 %

Figure 1.2 Distribution of the overall GRP market (www.reinforcedplastics.com)

Carbon fibres are the reinforcements of choice for many advanced polymer
composites. They represent around 0.6% of the overall market but they account for
about 12% of the total composite market value (Bunsell and Renard 2005). Carbon
fibre reinforced plastics (CFRP) composites have become a standard choice not
only for military industry but also for many civil engineering applications. The
world wide carbon fibre production is around 30 000 tones and its distribution is
illustrated in Figure 1.3.
It is expected that the CFRP will mature during the first part of the 21 st
century into a larger market now that, apart from aerospace and military areas, it is
finding applications in sectors like strengthening of civil engineering structures,
reinforced and prestressed concrete members, hybrid load carrying elements for

various structures, gas pressure vessels, wind turbines, offshore oil applications,
sports goods and car sector.
Aramid fibres are another type of high performance fibre important for the
advanced polymer composites. They represent about 0.4% of the fibre
reinforcement market and around 5% of its value. These fibres are also used for
internal reinforcing bars for concrete, for structural rehabilitation of members made
of reinforced concrete, masonry and timber, cables, etc.

20
%
6%

Europe 20%
Taiwan 6%

38
%

N. America 38%
Japan 36%

36
%

Figure 1.3 World distribution of carbon fibre production

(www.compositesworld.com)
The high energy absorption of aramid fibre reinforced polymer (AFRP)
composites makes them suitable to strengthening civil engineering structures
subjected to dynamic and impact loading. An approximate distribution of aramid
fibre manufacture for use in composites is shown in Figure 1.4. There are only two
major commercial producers of aramid fibres: Du Pont which produces fibres in the
USA, Europe and Japan, the Teijin group located in Japan (producing the Twaron
fibre and the Technora fibre). A related producer is the Teijin-Twaron based in
Holland.
The FRP composites are obtained by embedding the fibres in a matrix and in
the most cases the matrix is a thermosetting resin or a thermoplastic. The first
organic resins used were the thermosets and the still account for around 68% of the

overall composite market and about the same fraction of the overall market value,
Figure 1.5.

10 %

48 %
Japan 10%
N. America 48%
Europe 42%

42 %

Figure 1.4 World wide distribution of aramid fibre production

(www.compositesworld.com)
Epoxy 6%

6%
9%

Phenolic 9%

20%

Polypropylene
20%

12 %

Polyamide and other

thermoplastics 12%
Unsaturated
Polyester 53%

53 %

Figure 1.5 The overall composite market based on resin type (

www.reinforcedplastics.com)
6

Unsaturated polyesters, epoxy resins and vinyl esters are the most utilised
thermosetting matrices while phenolics are used for special applications because of
their fire resistance. The finished products made of fibre reinforced thermosetting
resins can not be altered after manufacture and recycling off-cuts is not practicable.
This is not the case for thermoplastic composites which represent about one-third
of the overall market but generally have a higher growth rate. Polypropylene is the
preferred matrix material for many markets because of its low cost and ease of
recycling. However polyamide 66, saturated polyester and other specialist
thermoplastic resins are also utilised. An overview of the composite market with
corresponding value fractions is illustrated in Figure 1.6.
Epoxy 10%
Other thermosets
10%
Polyamide 9%

10 %
10 %
9%
5% 7%
4%
1%
28 %

Other thermoplastics
7%
Polypropylene 5%
Carbon fibres 4%
Aramid fibres 1%
Unsaturated polyester
28%
Glass fibres 26%

26 %

Figure 1.6 Percentages of the overall value of the fibre

reinforced composite market based on fibres and matrix materials
(Bunsell and Renard 2005)
It is obvious that the high performance components used in advanced
composites represent a larger fraction of the overall value of the composite market
than their volume share would suggest.
1.3

Applications in civil and structural engineering

The construction sector is one of the most extended for the use of polymeric
composites which, at the beginning were almost invariably reinforced with glass
fibres. Faades in glass reinforced polyester for buildings enable architects to
produce innovative appearances of new and refurbished buildings. Imaginative
architects are permanently developing new and spectacular roofing shapes which
could not be produced in more conventional building materials.
Much piping is made of glass fibre reinforced polymeric resins and large pipes
fabricated by centrifugal casting are used to refit large diameter drainage and
sewerage. Rehabilitation techniques allow existing deteriorated pipelines to be
upgraded in situ.
All composite structures made of pultruded sections are currently utilised in
aggressive environments and in special structures requiring electric neutrality.
Increasingly new pedestrian and vehicular bridges are made of FRP composites
incorporated into the structure with road decks and bars being made from GFRP or
CFRP composites. The structural members (struts and beams) are made by
pultrusion, while the decks are made in the form of sandwich structures with
foamed or discontinuous cores (Keller 2003).
Advanced polymeric composites are nowadays utilised as internal reinforcement
for concrete structures and wood members and for high performance hybrid
structures (Van Den Einde et al 2003).
New strengthening solutions based on FRP composites have been elaborated for
structural rehabilitation of civil engineering structures made of concrete, masonry,
timber and even steel. Seismic retrofitting solutions have been developed especially
in countries and regions prone to earthquakes (Hollaway 2003).
High performance carbon fibres are utilized to replace the steel rods in
prestressed concrete for applications where their high resistance to corrosion or
their electromagnetic transparency are important.
An application of increasing importance is the use of composites in wind turbine
blades. Blades of unusual lengths (up to 125m) made of a sandwich construction
consisting of FRP facings and light weight foam cores have become familiar to
many regions where wind speeds are high and the wind blows almost continuously.
These wind turbines provide a valuable source of clean and renewable energy.
The offshore platforms have become a new important sector of use for advanced
polymer composites. CFRP composites are utilised not only in underwater piping
but also in structural parts of the platform. As the drilling in depths of water
increases the weight of pipes and underwater structural components becomes a
major issue. The whole assembly must be supported by the floating platform.
Carbon fibre composites with a density 5.5 times lower than that of steel provide
significant increased buoyancy compared to steel. In addition CFRP composites
provide greater resistance to corrosion and better thermal insulation to the pumped
8

oil. By selecting the type of carbon fibre and suitable constituent volume fractions
CFRP can match the stiffness and strength of steel members. On the offshore
platform the initial fears of fire hazard decreased after the research work showed
that composite laminates thicker than 8mm perform better than steel in a major fire.
The stairways and walkways are also made of composites for weight saving and
corrosion resistance. Even the cables and ropes made of steel are now being
replaced by similar items made of aramid or high modulus polyethylene fibres.
(Bunsell et al 2005).
1.4 Basic concepts on fibre reinforced polymer composites
Fibre reinforced polymer (FRP) composites represent a class of materials that
has relatively recently won attention of engineers in construction of civil structures
(Bakis et al. 2002).
There are many materials that can be considered as composites and it is
difficult to choose a single definition. It is only when the constituent phases have
significantly different physical properties and thus the composite properties are
noticeably different from the constituent properties that we have come to recognize
these materials as composites. Thus classification of certain materials as
composites is often based on cases where significant property changes occur as a
result of combination of constituents, and the property changes will generally be
most obvious when one of the phases is in fibrous form, when fibre volume fraction
is greater than 10%, and when the property of one constituent is much greater (5
times) than the other (Agarwal et al. 2006).
Composites are materials consisting of two or more chemically distinct
constituents on a macro-scale, having a distinct interface separating them,
(Figure 1.1), and with properties which cannot be obtained by any constituent
working individually.
a
b
c

Figure 1.1 Phases of a composite system:

acontinue phase (matrix); bdisperse phase (reinforcement);
c-interface

In fibrous polymeric composites, fibres with high strength and high stiffness
are embedded in and bonded together by the low modulus continuous polymeric
matrix. Each of the individual phases must perform certain functional requirements
based on their mechanical properties so that a system containing them may perform
satisfactorily as a composite.
In the case of FRP composites the reinforcing fibres constitute the backbone
of the material and they determine its strength and stiffness in the direction of
fibres.
The polymeric matrix is required to fulfill the following main functions: to
bind together the fibres and protect their surfaces from damage during handling,
fabrication and service life of the composite; to disperse the fibres and separate
them and to transfer stresses to the fibres. The matrix should be chemically and
thermally compatible with the reinforcing fibres.
The interface region is small but it has an important role in controlling the
overall stress-strain behavior of the composites. It exhibits a gradation of properties
and it is a dominant factor in the resistance of the composite to corrosive
environments. It also has a decisive role in the failure mechanisms and fracture
toughness of the polymeric composites.
1.5 Types of composites
Composites are commonly classified at two distinct levels (Miracle and
Donaldson 2001). The first level of classification is made with respect to the matrix
constituent and the major composite classes include:
polymer matrix composites (PMCs);
metal-matrix composites (MMCs);
ceramic-matrix composites (CMCs).
In each of these systems the matrix is typically a continuous phase
throughout the component. The second level of classification, Figure 1.2, is derived
from their form:
Particulate reinforced composites are generally made up of randomly
dispersed hard particle constituent in a softer matrix. A particle is a reinforcement
with all its dimensions roughly equal. Examples of particulate composites are metal
particles in metallic, polymeric or ceramic matrices. A widely used particulate
composite is concrete in which gravel is embedded in the cement paste.
Flake composites are formed by adding thin flakes to the matrix material.
Although flake dispersion in the matrix is generally random, the flakes may be
made to align with one another forming a more orderly structure compared to
particulate composites.

10

Fibre reinforced composites (fibrous composites) are the most commonly

used form of the constituent combinations. The fibres of such composites are
generally strong and stiff and therefore serve as primary load-carrying constituent.
The matrix holds the fibres together and serves as an agent to redistribute the loads
from a broken fibre to the adjacent fibres in the material when fibres start failing
under excessive loads. This property of the matrix constituent contributes to one of
the most important characteristics of fibrous composites, namely improved strength
compared to the individual constituents.

Figure 1.2 Composite materials with different forms of

constituents (Gurdal et al. 1999)
Continuous fibre-reinforced composites contain reinforcements having
lengths much greater than their cross sectional dimensions. A fibrous composite is
considered to be discontinuous fibre or short fibre composite if its properties vary
with fibre length. On the other hand, when the length of the fibre is such that any
further increase in length does not, for example, further increase the elastic
modulus or strength of the composite, the composite is considered to be continuous
fibre reinforced composite. Most continuous fibre reinforced composite contain
fibres that are comparable (in length), to the overall dimensions of the component
part.
Laminated composites are formed from thin elementary layers (laminae,
plies) fully bonded together. The layers of a laminated composite material may be
composite themselves, such as fibrous composite layers placed so that different
layers have different characteristics. This type of composite is the most commonly
encountered laminated composite material used in high-performance structures.
11

An individual layer of laminated composite material may assume a number

of different forms, depending on the arrangement of the fibre constituent, Figure
1.3. The layers may be composed of short fibres embedded in a matrix. The short
fibres may be distributed at random orientations, or may be aligned in some
manner forming oriented short-fibre composites.
Continuous fibre reinforced composite materials are commercially available
in the form of unidirectional tape, with fibres aligned along the length of the tape.
The fibres of the tape are preimpregnated with the matrix material and for this
reason the tape is sometimes referred to as a prepreg.

Random short fibers

Plain weave

Oriented short fibers

Plain Fibrous Layers

Tri-axial weave
Woven fabric

Continuous fibers

Bi-plane weave

Figure 1.3 Fibre arrangement patterns in the layer of a fibre

reinforced composite ( Gurdal at al. 1999).
This arrangement of aligning the fibres in a given direction provides the
unique feature of the material properties of fibre reinforced composites.
Another form of continuous fibre reinforced composite layers is the woven
fabric type composite, where fibre tows, which are large bundles of fibres are
woven in two or more directions. Various fabric types with different weave features
are available, Figure 1.3.
The earliest FRP composite used glass fibres embedded in polymeric resin,
during World War II to produce materials with higher specific strength and higher
specific stiffness than existing structural materials. At that time existing structural
alloys (based on aluminum) were subject to corrosion and fatigue damage, and FRP
composites provided an approach to overcome these issues. By the end of the war

12

glass-fibre reinforced polymers had been in use in filament-wound products and

prototype structural aircraft applications.
Glass-fibre reinforced plastics (GFRP) were put in broader use in 1950s and
provided important improvements in structural response and corrosion resistance.
In 1960s commercial applications in consumer sport equipment, established
consumer familiarity, provided a larger market and lowered the costs.
After 1960s important defense spending ensured sufficient resources for
research and development of new high-technology materials applied to an
important number of military aircrafts. The energy crisis during 1970s provided a
significant incentive for the introduction of fibre reinforced polymeric matrix
composites into commercial aircraft. Dramatic improvements in structural
efficiency became possible during 1960-1970s through the introduction of highperformance carbon fibres. Significant increases in FRP composites use for military
and commercial aircraft and spacecraft structures have been obtained through
improved manufacturing capabilities and design methodologies. Over the past three
decades FRP composites have won an increasing mass fraction of aircraft and
spacecraft structures. Significant investments from private and public funds were
made toward research, development, testing, fabrication and demonstration
projects. Parallel programs were ongoing for the use of composites in both military
and civilian applications. Confidence in using composite materials increased
dramatically. This was also a period of great innovation in manufacturing, assembly
and repair method development. The construction industry has also become a major
end user of FRP composites due to certain advantages that will be briefly discussed
below.
1.2 ADVANTAGES OF POLYMERIC COMPOSITES IN CONSTRUCTION
INDUSTRY
Fibre reinforced polymeric composites became an important construction
material in 1950s when glass-fibre plastics (GFRP) were put in broader use and
provided significant improvements in structural response and corrosion response.
Over the past four decades substantial investments from private and public funds
were made toward research, development, testing, and fabrication and
demonstration projects, Figure 1.4
This was also a period of great innovation in manufacturing, assembly and
repair method development. The construction industry has also become a major end
user of FRP composites due to certain advantages that will be briefly discussed
below. One of the most important features of FRP composites is that they usually
exhibit the best qualities of their constituents and often some qualities that neither
constituent possesses, (Mallick 1988).
13

High specific strength (ratio strength /density) is the most often mentioned
advantage of FRP composites. Figures 1.5-1.7 provide a comparison between main
mechanical properties of usual mechanical properties, including composites
(Oprisan and Taranu 2004) while Table 1.1 gives typical densities of the most
common fibre reinforced polymeric composites with common fibre volume
fractions (Vf) used in civil engineering applications (ACI 2001).

Figure 1.4 Composite structures, demonstration projects: a. Kodak exhibition

pavilion; b. Soviet Union pavilion at Osaka World Trade Fair (Dietz 1969)
[
M
P
a
]

Figure 1.5 Tensile strengths

for traditional and composite
materials

2500

50
0

14

Materials

STEEL 37

100

FIR TREE //
to the grain

250
500
200
0
150

FIR TREE //
to the grain

300
1000

GFRP 50 % fibre
PVC
content by weight

1500

GFRP 50 % fibre
GFRP 80 % fibre
content by weight
content by weight
GFRP 80 % fibre
CFRP 65 % fibrecontent by weight
content by weight
CFRP 65 % fibre
content by weight
CFRP 75 % fibre
content by weight
CFRP 75 % fibre
content by weight
CONCRETE
STEEL 37

2000

Figure 1.6 Youngs modulus

for traditional and composite
materials

Materials

Yo
un
g's
Mo
dul
us
[G
Pa]

s
t
r
e
n
g
t
h
T
e
n
s
i
l
e

STEEL 37

GFRP 50 % fibre
content by weight
GFRP 80 % fibre
content by weight
CFRP 65 % fibre
content by weight
CFRP 75 % fibre
content by weigh
CONCRETE

PVC

Figure 1.7 Density for

traditional and composite
materials

FIR TREE //
to the grain

8000
7000
6000
5000
4000
3000
2000
1000
0

Materials

FRP
Matrix

CFRP

AFRP

GFRP

Polyester

14301650

13101430

17502170

Epoxy

14401670

13201450

17602180

Vinyl
ester

14401630

13001410

17302150

Steel

7900

De
nsi
ty
[K
g/
m3 ]

Table 1.1 Typical densities of reinforcing bars for usual fibre volume fractions,
Vf=0.5 to 0.7 (kg/m3)
This characteristic leads all composite light weight structures made of
pultruded sections, Figures 1.8 and 1.9, with improved performance and reduced
energy consumption, both vitally important in the design of almost all engineering
structures. The same advantage have enabled development of efficient
strengthening solutions of civil engineering structures, Figures 1.10-1.16, with little
additional permanent loading, (ACI 2002, Taljsten 2003).

15

Figure 1.8 FRP Pultruded sections (www.strongwell.com)

Figure 1.9 Light-weight bridge made of pultruded FRP sections

16

(www.fiberline.com)

Figure 1.10 Strengthening of masonry walls with carbon-epoxy composite plates (www.sika.com)

a.
b.
c.
d.

Figure 1.11 Masonry strengthening solutions with FRP composites (Oprisan at al. 2004)
17

Figure 1.12 Strengthening of RC beams with prefabricated FRP plates and FRP wraps (CCC
University of Sheffield)

Figure 1.13 Confinement of concrete columns with FRP composite jackets

(CCC University of Sheffield)

Fabric confinement
Fabric confinement
Orientation 00/900 Orientation -450/+450

Flexural

Fabric confinement
Figure 1.14 FRP strengthening
applied after fiberglass
techniques applied to wood columns
rod embedding
18
Strips

ent

1-1

a.

Figure 1.15 FRP strengthening solution 1applied at the ground line of a timber pole
2
b.

2-2

2
c.

d.

3
4

e.

4
5
19
5

3-3

4-4

5-5

Figure 1.16 FRP strengthening solutions for wood beams: a. shear strength improvement
using bonded CFRP/epoxy or GFRP/epoxy; b. resistance moment improvement using
bonded CFRP plates at the bottom side of the beam; c .increasing of shear strength and
moment with U jacketing; d. prestressed CFRP plate; e. CFRP strands or rods .

Tailored design enables FRP composites to be designed and manufactured to

meet the specific requirements of a particular
application. Available design variables include: the choice of constituents
(fibre and polymeric matrix), the volume fractions of fibre and matrix, the
manufacturing process, fibre and layer orientation, Figure 1.17, number of layers in
a specified direction, thickness of individual layers, type of layer (unidirectional or
fabric) and layers stacking sequence. This vast array of design variables enables
FRP composites to be designed for desired properties in specified directions
without over-designing in other directions (Herakovich 1998)
Fatigue resistance of FRP composites is superior to that of most metals and
metallic alloys. Their improved fatigue behaviour is explained by the complex
deterioration mechanisms, under cyclic loading (Hollaway 1993).

1
1
1

20

Figure 1.17 Lamina stacking and orientation

Dimensional stability is important in structural applications in which thermal

stresses can be critical. Therefore controlling the values of thermal expansion
coefficients (CTE) through proper design enable composites to match these
characteristics so that resulting thermal stresses can be minimized. Typical values
of CTEs for the most common FRPs used in civil engineering (AFRP = aramid
fibre reinforced polymers; CFRP = carbon fibre reinforced polymers, GFRP = glass
fibre reinforced polymers) are given in Table 1.2 (ACI 2002, Rizkalla 2001).

Direction
Longitudinal,
L
Transverse,T

Coefficient of Thermal Expansion (x

10-6/C)
Steel

GFRP

CFRP

AFRP

11.7

6.0 to
10.0

-1,0 to
0

-2.0 to
-6.0

11.7

21.0 to
23.0

22.0 to
50.0

60.0 to
80.0

Table 1.2. Typical coefficients of thermal expansion for FRP materials

(Vf=0.5-0.7)

Corrosion resistance to various chemicals is one of the most significant

advantages of FRP composites. Polymeric composites can often be made
essentially maintenance free as compared to traditional engineering materials. This
feature makes FRPs excellent choice for structures working in corrosive
environments, Figures 1.18-1.19 (www.creative pultrusion.com 2001, Taranu and
Isopescu 1996, Pilakoutas 2000)

21

Figure1.18 Composite platform in chemical processing environments (left) and GFR Polyester
dome in corrosive environment (right)

Figure 1.19. Bridge deck reinforced with FRP bars

Electrical non-conductivity of some FRPs, especially glass-fibre reinforced

polyesters, is an essential feature that enables the replacement of steel and
aluminum elements to reduce the possibility of electrocution, Figure 1.20.

22

Figure 1.20 Electrically non-conducting elements (www.strongwell.com).

Electromagnetic transparency is an essential characteristic for microwave
related applications Electromagnetic non-interference is required for electronic
testing facilities and for radar equipment shelters, Figure 1.21

a.

b.

Figure 1.21 Polymeric composites with electronic transparency: a-test facilities for
electronic components (www.stronwell.com), b- radom for radar equipment
protection (Dietz, 1969).
Formability enables FRP polymeric composites to be formed into complex,
desired shapes. This makes possible efficient forms such as curved shells, folded
plates, ribs and corrugations, variations in thickness and sandwiches, Figure 1.22,
enabling efficient stress distribution, appropriate stiffness and other functions.
Light transmission and translucency. Thin structural FRP composites can
transmit a high percentage of incident light thus providing structure, enclosure and
illumination, a combination unique among structural materials. These are essential
features for skylights, atriums and waste water treatment facilities. Figure 1.23.

23

a.

b.

c.

d.
e.

Figure 1.22 Various types of FRP structures: a, d- folded plate structures; b-sandwich structure;
c,e-shell structures

24

Figure 1.23 Transparent roofs made of polymeric materials (Dietz, 1969)

Cost-effective fabrication and repair. FRP composite structures can be

fabricated efficiently through the use of automated methods, with little material
waste. This is in contrast to the use of metals where it is often necessary to remove
large portions of the material to arrive at final configuration. Composite structures
can be manufactured for simple assembly, minimum painting requirements and
moderate tooling cost. FRP composite parts can often be repaired and restored onsite with minimum disruption of operations.
Overall cost considerations. A FRP composite element or structure can be
cost competitive only if the total life time is assessed. On a per kilogram basis FRP
composites are more expensive than traditional construction materials. For a
realistic cost comparison other factors should be included (Herakovich 1998).
- less material is required because of higher specific strength;
- many times fabrication costs are lower;
- transportation and erection costs are generally lower for structures made of FRP
composites;
- in most cases life of the composite structures will be longer than that made of
traditional materials and will require less maintenance during its life span.
3. DISADVANTAGES OF FRP COMPOSITES IN CONSTRUCTION
INDUSTRY
The use of FRP polymeric composites in construction may be sometimes
obstructed due to some particularities of their behaviour, properties or due to
misconceptions about the material.

25

Lack of ductility. FRP composite have an almost linear behaviour for the
whole range of loading. In many cases the yield and ultimate strengths are almost
the same and they can be considered to be identical, Figure 1.24. Due to the
absence of plastic flow at yield, FRP composites are incapable of relieving stress
concentrations ( Benjamin 1981). A brittle failure of a FRP shelter is illustrated in
Figure 1.25 (Taranu and Isopescu 1996)
Stress [MPa]
CFRP
3000

AFRP

2500

GFRP
High Strength Steel

2000
1500
1000
500

Mild Steel
0

5
Strain [%]

Fig 1.24 Stress-strain curves of some FRP composites and steel

Figure 1.25 Failure of a FRP composite shelter due to lack of ductility

Different values of strength and modulus in tension and compression.
Experimental work has proved that compressive strengths of FRPs are lower than
26

the tensile strengths. Compressive strengths are higher for bars with higher tensile
strengths, except for AFRP bars where fibres have a nonlinear behaviour in
compression even at low levels of stress. The compressive modulus of elasticity of
FRP reinforcing bars is also smaller than its tensile modulus of elasticity. The
compressive modulus of elasticity is about 80 % for GFRP, 85 % for CFRP and 100
% of the same products made of AFRP (ACI 2001)
FRP composites exhibit anisotropic behaviour, Figure 1.26.

STRENG HTH

U N ID IR E C T IO N A L

45

B I - D IR E C T IO N A L W O V E N F A B R IC
2 2 ,5

Q U A S I-IS O T R O P IC L A Y U P O F
0 , 9 0 , + 4 5 , -4 5 L A Y E R S

C H O P PE D S TR AN D M AT

E F F E C T S O F F IB R E O R IE N T A T IO N
O N S T R E N G T H A N D S T IF F N E S S

STRENG TH 90

Figure 1.26 Variation of mechanical properties with loading direction

Fibre reinforced polymeric composites are orthotropic when are reinforced
with unidirectional fibres, woven roving and cloth. Special attention should be
given to transverse properties which are mainly determined by the polymeric
matrices. Both mechanical and thermal properties vary with direction and fibre
volume fraction (Taranu and Isopescu 1996). Variation of the coefficient of thermal
expansion (CTE) with fibre volume fraction and orientation is illustrated in Figure
1.27.
The mechanical properties can be affected by the rate of straining,
temperature and duration of loading. In civil engineering practice it is difficult
to define the rate at which loading is imposed on the structure. The effects of time
and high temperature on the behaviour of polymeric matrix are similar, in the sense
that the creep strain can be accumulated over time. High fibre volume fractions

27

reduce these effects and decrease the creep rate. Long term high temperature
exposure may cause degradation due to thermal effects. In FRP composites, low
temperatures lead to matrix shrinkage and because of the relatively stiffer fibres
residual stresses may arise. Except for very cold environments the induced stresses
are insignificant.
z

y
Vf=01

=0

01

(1) L

Fig 1.27 Variation of coefficients of thermal expansion with fibre orientation

and fibre volume fraction (Taranu and Isopescu 1996)
The properties of FRP composites can be affected by environmental
conditions. Some polymeric resins although may be attacked by chemical solvents
or alkalis. In particular bare glass fibres can be degraded by the alkaline solutions.
However suitable polymeric resins can protect the fibre and slow the diffusion
process. In particular vinyl esters provide a protective barrier and FRP composites
can perform well in alkaline environments.
The fire effects. Fire may ignite the composite materials with organic
matrices and the results of this ignition are the spread of flame on the composite
surface, release of heat and generation of smoke (potentially toxic). When the
polymeric resin in the outermost layer of a FRP element burns, heat-induced
gasification occurs. This has an insulating effect, slowing the heat penetration in the
depth of composite. The first effect of fire is to heat up the composite surface. Over
the core of the composite element heated at temperatures beyond glass transition
temperature, the elastic modulus of composite decreases. This loss in modulus is
reversible below the temperature of chemical degradation (ACI 2001)
Effects of UV radiation. Polymeric resins are significantly affected by action
of UV radiation. A long exposure to UV radiation may determine the matrix to
harden and change in colour. These effects are, however, felt only on a thin surface
28

layer and research work carried out on this topic showed that the UV effects on
structural properties is minimal. Application of UV resistant coatings to the surface
of FRP composite elements has a good protective influence (Sheard 2003).
4. CONCLUSIONS
The use of FRP in civil engineering applications enables engineers to obtain
significant achievements in the functionality, safety and economy of construction.
These materials have high ratio of strength to density, can be tailored to posses
certain mechanical characteristics, have excellent corrosion behaviour, convenient
electrical, magnetic and thermal properties. On the other hand FRP composites are
brittle, exhibit anisotropic behaviour and their mechanical properties may be
affected by the rate of loading, temperature and environmental conditions.
Therefore an efficient use of polymeric composites in construction requires a
careful evaluation of all aspects involved.
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