21

CHAPTER 20 Current Electricity

4. Ten cells each of emf 1 V and internal resistance 1 are connected in series. In this arrangement polarity
of two cells is reversed and the system is connected to an external resistance of 2 . Find the current in
the circuit.
R1

5. In the circuit shown in figure, R1 = R 2 = R 3 = 10 . Find the

currents through R1 and R 2.

10V

R2

R3

10V

Fig. 20.41

6. Draw (a) current versus load and (b) current versus potential difference graph for a cell.

20.7 Heating Effects of Current

An electric current through a resistor increases its thermal energy. Also, there are other situations in
which an electric current can produce or absorb thermal energy.
Power supplied or Power absorbed by a Battery
When charges are transported across a source of emf, their potential energy changes. If a net charge
q moves through a potential difference E in a time t, the change in electric potential energy of the
charge is E q. Thus, the source of emf does work,
W = E q
Dividing both sides by t, then taking the limit as t 0, we find,
dq
dW
=E
dt
dt
dq
dW
By definition,
= P , the power output of (or input to)
= i, the current through the battery and
dt
dt
the battery. Hence,
P = Ei
The quantity P represents the rate at which energy is transferred from a discharging battery or to a
charging battery.
E

Energy is transferred from the source at a rate Ei

Fig. 20.42
E

Energy is transferred to the source at a rate Ei

Fig. 20.43

Power dissipated across a Resistance

Now, lets consider the power dissipated in a conducting element. Suppose it has a resistance R and
the potential difference between its ends is V. In moving through the element from higher to lower
potential, a positive charge q loses energy U = V q. This electric energy is absorbed by the
conductor through collisions between its atomic lattice and the charge carriers, causing its temperature to

22

Electricity and Magnetism

rise. This effect is commonly called Joule heating. Since, power is the rate at which energy is
transferred, we have,
q
U
P=
=V .
=V i
t
t

P =V i
which with the help of Ohms law can also be written in the forms,
V2
R
Power is always dissipated in a resistance. With this rate the heat
produced in the resistor in time t is,
H = Pt
P = i2R

or

P=

V
i

H
R

Fig. 20.44
V
t
R
Joule heating occurs whenever a current passes through an element that has resistance. To prevent
the overheating of delicate electronic components, many electric devices like video cassette recorders,
televisions and computer monitors have fans in their chassis to allow some of the heat produced to
escape.

H = Vit = i 2 Rt =

or

Sample Example 20.12 In the circuit shown in figure, find :

(a) the power supplied by 10 V battery
(b) the power consumed by 4 V battery and
(c) the power dissipated in 3 resistance.

10V

4V

3
Fig. 20.45

Solution

(a)
(b)
(c)
Note

Net emf of the circuit = (10 4) V = 6 V

Total resistance of the circuit = 3
net emf
6
Current in the circuit i =
= =2A
total resistance 3
Power supplied by 10 V battery = E i = (10) (2) = 20 W
Power consumed by 4 V battery = Ei = ( 4) (2) = 8 W
Power consumed by 3 resistance = i 2 R = (2) 2 (3) =12 W

Ans.
Ans.
Ans.

Here, we can see that total power supplied by 10 V battery (i.e., 20 W) = power consumed by 4 V battery
and 3 resistance. Which proves that conservation of energy holds good in electric circuits also.

Sample Example 20.13 In the circuit shown in figure, find the heat
developed across each resistance in 2 s.

6
3
3

20V
Fig. 20.46

23
Solution

The 6 and 3 resistances are in parallel. So their combined resistance is,

1 1 1 1
or R = 2
= + =
R 6 3 2
The equivalent simple circuit can be drawn as shown.
Current in the circuit,
net emf
20
=2A
i=
=
total resistance 3 + 2 + 5
i.e.,

V = iR = (2) (2) = 4 volt

potential difference across 6 and 3 resistances are 4 V. Now,
H 3 = i 2 Rt = (2) 2 (3) (2) = 24 J

2
V

20V
Fig. 20.47

( 4) 2
V2
16
t=
(2) =
R
6
3
( 4) 2 (2) 32
V2
=
t=
=
J
R
3
3
= i 2 Rt = (2) 2 (5) (2) = 40 J

H6 =
H3
and

H5

Ans.

Introductory Exercise 20.4

1. In the circuit shown in figure, a 12 V power supply with unknown
internal resistance r is connected to a battery with unknown emf E
and internal resistance 1 and to a resistance of 3 carrying a
current of 2 A. The current through the rechargeable battery is 1 A in
the direction shown. Find the unknown current i, internal resistance r
and the emf E.

12V

r
i

1
1A
3

2. In the above example, find the power delivered by the 12 V power

supply and the power dissipated in 3 resistor.

2A
Fig. 20.48

20.8 Grouping of Cells

Cells are usually grouped in following three ways.
(a) Series Grouping
Suppose n cells each of emf E and internal resistance r are connected in series as shown in figure.
Then,
E
E
E
r
r
r
Net emf = nE
Total resistance = nr + R
net emf
i
Current in the circuit i =

total resistance
R
or

i=

nE
nr + R

Fig. 20.49

24
Note

If polarity of m cells is reversed, then equivalent emf = (n 2 m) E

while total resistance is still nr + R
(n 2 m) E

i=
nr + R

(b) Parallel Grouping

Here three cases are possible.
Case 1

When E and r of each cell has same value and positive terminals of all cells are connected at one
junction while negative at the other.
E r
r
In this situation the net emf is E. The net internal resistance is as n
E r
n
resistances each of r are in parallel. Net external resistance is R.
r

E r
Therefore, total resistance is + R and so, the current in the circuit will
n

i
i

be,

net emf
i=
total resistance
i=

or
Note

Fig. 20.50

E
R + r/ n

A comparison of series and parallel grouping reveals that to get maximum current, cells must be
connected in series if effective internal resistance is lesser than external and in parallel if effective
internal resistance is greater than external.

Case 2

If E and r of each cell are different but still the positive terminals of all cells are connected at one
junction while negative at the other.
E1 r1
Applying Kirchhoffs second law in loop ABCDEFA,
A
F
E1 iR i1 r1 = 0
i1
E2 r2
R E
i2
or
(i)
i1 = i + 1
B
E
r1 r1
E3 r3
i
3
Similarly, we can write
R E
i
i
(ii)
i2 = i + 2
r2 r2
R

D
C
Adding all above equations, we have
Fig. 20.51
1
E
( i1 + i2 + + in ) = iR +
r
r
But

i1 + i2 + + in = i

25

1
E
i = iR +
r
r

i=

where

E eq =

(E / r )
(1/ r )

E eq
(E / r )
=
1 + R (1/ r ) R eq

and

From the above expression, we can see that, i =

R eq = R +

1
(1/ r )

E
if n cells of same emf E and internal
R + r/ n

resistance r are connected in parallel. This is because,

and
( E / r ) = nE / r
(1/ r ) = n / r
nE / r

i=
1 + nR / r
Multiplying the numerator and denominator by r / n, we have
E
i=
R + r/ n
Exercise In parallel grouping (Case 2) prove that,
E eq = E if
E1 = E 2 = K = E and r1 = r2 = K = r
Case 3

E1 r1

This is the most general case of parallel grouping in which E and

r of different cells are different and the positive terminals of few cells
are connected to the negative terminals of the others as shown.
Kirchhoffs second law in different loops gives the following
equations,
E1 iR i1 r1 = 0
E
iR
or
(i)
i1 = 1
r1
r1

i1
i2
i3

i2 =
i3 =

Similarly,

E3 r3
i

i
R
Fig. 20.52

E 2 iR i2 r2 = 0
or

E2 r
2

E 2 iR

r2
r2

E 3 iR

r3
r3

Adding Eqs. (i), (ii) and (iii), we get

i1 + i2 + i3 = ( E1 / r1 ) ( E 2 / r2 ) + ( E 3 / r3 ) iR (1/ r1 + 1/ r2 + 1/ r3 )
or

i [1 + R (1/ r1 + 1/ r2 + 1/ r3 )] = ( E1 / r1 ) ( E 2 / r2 ) + ( E 3 / r3 )
i=

( E1 / r1 ) ( E 2 / r2 ) + ( E 3 / r3 )
1 + R (1 / r1 + 1 / r2 + 1 / r3 )

(ii)
(iii)

26
(c) Mixed Grouping
The situation is shown in figure.
There are n identical cells in a row and number of rows are
m. Emf of each cell is E and internal resistance is r. Treating
each row as a single cell of emf nE and internal resistance nr,
we have

Net emf = nE
Total internal resistance =

nr
m

Total external resistance = R

Fig. 20.53

Current through the external resistance R is,

i=

nE
nr
R+
m

This expression after some rearrangements can also be written as,

i=

mnE
( mR nr ) 2 + 2 mnrR

From this expression we see that i is maximum when,

mR = nr
or
or

R=

nr
m

total external resistance = total internal resistance.

Thus, we can say that the current and hence power transferred to the load is maximum when load
resistance is equal to internal resistance. This is known as maximum power transfer theorem.
Sample Example 20.14 Find the emf and internal
resistance of a single battery which is equivalent to a
combination of three batteries as shown in figure.

10V 2
6V 1

4V

Fig. 20.54

Solution The given combination consists of two batteries in parallel and resultant of these two in series
with the third one.
For parallel combination we can apply,

27

E eq

E1 E 2 10 4

r
r2
= 1
= 2 2 =3V
1 1
1 1
+
+
r1 r2
2 2

Further,

1
1 1 1 1
= + = + =1
req r1 r2 2 2

req = 1
Now this is in series with the third one, i.e.,
6V

3V
1

1
Fig. 20.55

The equivalent emf of these two is (6 3) V or 3 V and the internal

resistance will be, (1 + 1) or 2 .

E = 3V
r = 2
Fig. 20.56

20.9 Electrical Measuring Instruments

So far we have studied about current, resistance, potential difference and emf. Now in this article we
will study how these are measured. The basic measuring instrument is galvanometer, whose pointer
shows a deflection when current passes through it. A galvanometer can easily be converted into an
ammeter for measuring current, into a voltmeter for measuring potential difference. For accurate
measurement of potential difference or emf a potentiometer is more preferred. Resistances are accurately
measured by using post office box or meter bridge which are based on the principle of Wheatstone
bridge. All these are discussed here one by one in brief.
Galvanometer
Many common devices including car instrument panels, battery chargers measure potential
difference, current or resistance using dArsonval Galvanometer. It consists of a pivoted coil placed in
the magnetic field of a permanent magnet. Attached to the coil is a spring. In the equilibrium position,
with no current in the coil, the pointer is at zero and spring is relaxed. When there is a current in the coil,
the magnetic field exerts a torque on the coil that is proportional to current. As the coil turns, the spring
exerts a restoring torque that is proportional to the angular displacement. Thus, the angular deflection of
the coil and pointer is directly proportional to the coil current and the device can be calibrated to measure
current.
The maximum deflection, typically 90 to 120 is called full scale deflection. The essential electrical
characteristics of the galvanometer are the current ig required for full scale deflection (of the order of
10 A to 10 mA) and the resistance G of the coil (of the order of 10 to 1000 ).

28
The galvanometer deflection is proportional to the current in the coil. If the coil obeys Ohms law,
the current is proportional to potential difference. The corresponding potential difference for full scale
deflection is,
V = ig G
Ammeter
A current measuring instrument is called an ammeter. A
galvanometer can be converted into an ammeter by connecting
a small resistance S (called shunt) in parallel with it.
Suppose we want to convert a galvanometer with full scale
current ig and coil resistance G into an ammeter with full scale
reading i. To determine the shunt resistance S needed, note that
at full scale deflection the total current through the parallel
combination is i, the current through the galvanometer is ig
and the current through the shunt is i ig . The potential
difference Vab ( = Va Vb ) is the same for both paths, so,

G
ig
i

S
a

i ig

Fig. 20.57

ig G = ( i ig ) S
ig
S =
i ig

Sample Example 20.15 What shunt resistance is required to make the 1.00 mA,20 galvanometer
into an ammeter with a range of 0 to 50.0 mA?
Solution

Here, ig = 1.00 mA = 10 3 A, G = 20 ,

Substituting in,

ig
S =
i ig

i = 50.0 10 3 A

(10 3 ) (20)
G =
(50.0 10 3 ) (10 3 )

= 0.408

Note

Ans.

The resistance of ammeter is given by

1 1 1
1
1
= + =
+
A G S 20 0.408
or

A = 0.4

The shunt resistance is so small in comparison to the galvanometer resistance that the ammeter resistance
is very nearly equal to the shunt resistance. This shunt resistance gives us a low resistance ammeter with the
desired range of 0 to 50.0 mA. At full scale deflection i = 50.0 mA, the current through the galvanometer is
1.0 mA while the current through the shunt is 49.0 mA. If the current i is less than 50.0 mA, the coil current and
the deflection are proportionally less, but the ammeter resistance is still 0.4 .

29
Voltmeter
A voltage measuring device is called a voltmeter.
It measures the potential difference between two
points.
A galvanometer can be converted into a voltmeter
by connecting a high resistance (R) in series with it.
The whole assembly called the voltmeter is connected
in parallel between the points where potential
difference has to be measured.
For a voltmeter with full scale reading V, we need
a series resistor R such that
V = ig (G + R )
R=

or

G
R
ig

ig
+

Circuit
element

V
G
ig

Fig. 20.58

Sample Example 20.16 How can we make a galvanometer with G = 20 and ig =1.0 mA into a
voltmeter with a maximum range of 10 V?
Solution

Using

We have,

R=

V
G
ig
R=

10

20
10 3
= 9980

Ans.

Thus, a resistance of 9980 is to be connected in series with the galvanometer to convert it into
the voltmeter of desired range.
Note

At full scale deflection current through the galvanometer, the voltage drop across the galvanometer
Vg = i g G = 20 10 3 volt = 0.02 volt
and the voltage drop across the series resistance R is,
V = i g R = 9980 10 3 volt = 9.98 volt
or we can say that most of the voltage appears across the series resistor.

Potentiometer
The potentiometer is an instrument that can be used to measure the
emf or the internal resistance of an unknown source. It also has a number
of other useful applications.
Principle of Potentiometer
The principle of potentiometer is schematically shown in figure. A
resistance wire ab of total resistance R ab is permanently connected to the
terminals of a source of known emf E1 . A sliding contact c is connected
through the galvanometer G to a second source whose emf E 2 is to be

E1

i
a

i2 = 0
G
E2, r

Fig. 20.59

30
measured. As contact c is moved along the potentiometer wire, the resistance R cb between points c and b
varies. If the resistance wire is uniform R cb is proportional to the length of the wire between c and b. To
determine the value of E 2 , contact c is moved until a position is found at which the galvanometer shows
no deflection. This corresponds to zero current passing through E 2 . With i2 = 0, Kirchhoffs second law
gives,
E 2 = iR cb
With i2 = 0, the current i produced by the emf E1 has the same value no matter what the value of emf
E 2 . A potentiometer has following applications.
To find emf of an unknown battery
E1

E1

i
l1
a

l2

c1

i
b

c2

i2 = 0
G

i2 = 0
G

EK

EU
Fig. 20.60

We calibrate the device by replacing E 2 by a source of known emf E K and then by unknown emf EU .
Let the null points are obtained at lengths l1 and l2 . Then,
E K = i ( l1 )
EU = i (l2 )

and

Here, = resistance of wire ab per unit length.

or

EK
l
= 1
EU
l2
l
EU = 2 E K
l1

So, by measuring the lengths l1 and l2 , we can find the emf of an unknown battery.
To find the internal resistance of an unknown battery

To find the internal resistance of an unknown battery let us

derive a formula.
In the circuit shown in figure :
E
(i)
i=
R +r
and V = potential difference across the terminals of the battery
or

V = E ir = iR

(ii)

i
R
Fig. 20.61

31
From Eqs. (i) and (ii), we can prove that
E
r = R 1
V

E1

Thus, if a battery of emf E and internal resistance r is

connected across a resistance R and the potential difference
across its terminals comes out to be V then the internal resistance
of the battery is given by the above formula. Now, let us apply it
in a potentiometer for finding the internal resistance of the
unknown battery.
The circuit shown in Fig. 20.62 is similar to the previous one.
Hence,
(i)
E = il1

i
l1

b
c1
i2 = 0
G

Now, a known resistance R is connected across the terminals

of the unknown battery as shown in Fig. 20.63.
This time
but

E
Fig. 20.62

Vcb E ,
Vcb = V

where V = potential difference across the terminals of the

unknown battery. Hence,
(ii)
V = i l2
From Eqs. (i) and (ii),
E l1
=
V l2
E
Substituting in r = R 1 , we get
V

r = R 1 1
l2

So, by putting R, l1 and l2 we can determine the internal

resistance r of unknown battery.

E1

i
l2
a

c2

i2 = 0
E

G
i 0
R
Fig. 20.63

Sample Example 20.17 A potentiometer wire of length 100 cm has a resistance of 10 . It is

connected in series with a resistance and a cell of emf 2 V and of negligible internal resistance. A source
of emf 10 mV is balanced against a length of 40 cm of the potentiometer wire. What is the value of
external resistance?
Solution From the theory of potentiometer,
Vcb = E , if no current is drawn from the battery
E1
or

R cb = E
R + R ab
40
Here, E1 = 2 V, R ab = 10 , R cb =
10 = 4
100
and E = 10 10 3 V
Substituting in above, we get
R = 790

Ans.

E1
i
R
a

c
E
G
Fig. 20.64

32
B
i1
P
A

ig = 0

Principle of Wheatstones Bridge

The scientist Wheatstone designed a circuit to find unknown
resistance. Such a circuit is popularly known as Wheatstones bridge.
This is an arrangement of four resistances which can be used to
measure one of them in terms of the rest.
The figure shows the circuit designed by him. The bridge is said
to be balanced when deflection in galvanometer is zero, i.e., ig = 0,

i1
Q
C

G
R

i2

i2

i
E

and hence,

VB = VD
Fig. 20.65

V A VB = V A VD
i1 P = i2 R
i1 R
=
i2 P

Under this condition,

or
or

(i)

VB VC = VD VC
i1Q = i2 S
i1 S
=
i2 Q
R S
=
P Q
P R
=
Q S

Similarly,
or
or
From Eqs. (i) and (ii),
or

(ii)

So, this is a condition for which a Wheatstone bridge is balanced.

To measure the resistance of an unknown resistor, it is connected as one of the four resistors in the
bridge. One of the other three should be a variable resistor. Let us suppose P is the unknown resistance
and Q is the variable resistance. The value of Q is so adjusted so that deflection through the galvanometer
is zero. In this case the bridge is balanced and
R
P = Q
S
Knowing R, S and Q, the value of P is calculated. Following two points are important regarding a
Wheatstones bridge.
(i) In Wheatstone bridge, cell and galvanometer arms are interchangable.
B
Q

P
A

P
A

D
G
Fig. 20.66

33
In both the cases, condition of balanced bridge is
P R
=
Q S
(ii) If bridge is not balanced current will flow from D to B if,
PS > RQ
Exercise : Try and prove the statements of both the points yourself.
Different forms of Wheatstones bridge
Following are given few circuits which are basically Wheatstones bridge circuits.
P
P

G
S

Q
S

Fig. 20.67

Most simple practical application of this bridge is the

meter bridge.
It consists of a straight and uniform wire of
manganin or constantan stretched along a meter scale.
The balance is obtained on the wire, if lengths of two
parts are l1 and l2 then the ratio of two resistances

Q
G

l1

l2
Meter bridge

P l1
=
Q l2

Fig. 20.68

Sample Example 20.18 The resistance wire AB is 100 cm long. When AC = 40 cm, no deflection
occurs in the galvanometer. Find R.
R

10
G
A

Fig. 20.69

34
Solution

10 AC
=
R CB
100 40
60
CB
R = 10
= (10)
= 10
AC
40
40
= 15

Ans.

Post Office Box

Initially this apparatus was used for measuring the resistance of the telephone or the telegraph wires,
or for finding faults in these wires.
The post office box is a resistance box in which two arms AB and BC are connected in series. Each of
these arms contains resistances 10, 100 and 1000 . In the third known arm AD, there are resistances
from 1 ohm to 5000 ohm arranged in a U-shape. The unknown resistance S to be determined is connected
in the arm CD. The galvanometer G is connected between B and D through the key K 2 and the cell is
connected between A and C through the key K1 .
A

P
100

1000

10

10

100

C
1000
E

5000 2000

2000 1000

500

200

200

100

10
K1

20

20

50

D
1
Shunt

5
K2

Fig. 20.70

In balanced condition, galvanometer shows zero deflection.

From Wheatstones principle
P R
=
Q S
RQ
P
By putting the values of P , Q and R, we can find S.

The unknown resistance S =

Introductory Exercise 20.5

1. Find the equivalent emf and internal resistance of the
arrangement shown in Fig. 20.71.

10V

1
2

4V

6V

Fig. 20.71

35
2. If a battery of emf E and internal resistance r is connected across a load of resistance R. Show that the
rate at which energy is dissipated in R is maximum when R = r and this maximum power is P = E 2 / 4r.
3. Two identical batteries each of emf E = 2 volt and internal resistance r = 1 ohm are available to produce
heat in an external resistance by passing a current through it. What is the maximum power that can be
developed across an external resistance R using these batteries.
4. The full scale deflection current of a galvanometer of resistance 1 is 5 mA. How will you convert it into
a voltmeter of range 5 V?
5. A micrometer has a resistance of 100 and full scale deflection current of 50 A. How can it be made to
work as an ammeter of range 5 mA?
6. A voltmeter has a resistance G and range V. Calculate the resistance to be used in series with it to extend
its range to nV.
E

7. The potentiometer wire AB is 600 cm long.

(a) At what distance from A should the jockey J touch the wire to
get zero deflection in the galvanometer.

R = 15r

(b) If the jockey touches the wire at a distance 560 cm from A,

what will be the current through the galvanometer.

r
G
E
2
Fig. 20.72

20.10 Chemical Effects of Current

With the exception of mercury pure liquids are in general bad conductors of electricity. However, if
some metallic salt or an acid is added to a liquid it passes current through it. This is because the
molecules of the salt in solution breaks up into two parts. One part possesses a positive charge while the
other an equal negative charge. This process of breaking up of molecules of salt is called dissociation and
the two parts ions.
A
Anode

Cathode

+
+

Electrolyte
Anion

+
+

Cation

Fig. 20.73

When an electric field is applied between the two electrodes dipped in the solution the
positively charged ions (called cations) move towards the negative electrode (called cathode) while
negatively charged ions (called anions) move towards the positive electrode (called anode) and
deposited there.
This process of decomposition of a compound by the application of an electric field is called
electrolysis or chemical effect of current. The liquid containing the compound is called electrolyte and
the device in which electrolysis takes place is called voltameter.

36
Let us take an example, in case of copper voltameter with copper anode and CuSO 4 electrolyte.
The following reactions take place at electrodes.
A
Anode

Cathode

Soluble
electrode

SO4
Cu
dissolves

Cu
deposits

++

Cu

CuSO4 Soln
Copper-Voltameter
Fig. 20.74

At cathode,
At anode,

Cu 2+ + 2e Cu
Cu Cu

2+

+ 2e

(Reduction)
(Oxidation)

Faradays Laws of Electrolysis : Faraday in 1834 discovered following two laws regarding
electrolysis.
(i) First Law : The mass of a substance deposited at an electrode is directly proportional to the
charge passed through the electrolyte, i.e.,
mq
or
(i)
m = Zq
Here Z is a constant called electrochemical equivalent (ECE).
If a current I passes for a time t, then as we know,
q = It
(ii)

m = ZIt
From Eq. (i), we can see that,
m
(mass deposited per unit charge flown)
Z=
q
Thus, electrochemical equivalent (ECE) can be defined as the mass of ions deposited at an electrode
when one coulomb of charge is passed through the electrolyte. The SI unit of Z is kg/C and dimensions
[MA 1T 1 ] .
(ii) Second Law : The mass of a substance liberated at an electrode by a given amount of charge
is proportional to chemical equivalent (E) of the substance. Thus,
mE
Thus,
Note

m1 E1
=
m2 E 2

That E and Z are two different physical quantities.

(iii)
if q1 = q 2

37
Relation Between E and Z, Faradays Constant F : From Eqs. (i) and (iii), we can see that,
m1 Z1
=
m2 Z 2
m1 E1
=
m2 E 2

and
or

if q1 = q 2

E1 E 2
E
=
= = = constant
Z1 Z 2
Z

E
is called Faraday constant F.
Z
E

=F
Z
Faraday constant is universal constant. It has the unit of charge and it has a numerical value of
96500 C. Thus,
1 F = 96500 C
Here, the constant

Following points are worthnoting regarding the different constants used in Faradays two laws of
electrolysis.
(i) Chemical equivalent (E ) of a substance is the ratio of atomic weight (A) to its valency (V ).
Thus,

E=

A
V

(ii) One Faraday is the charge that liberates one gram equivalent of any substance in electrolysis.
This means that if 96500 C of charge is passed in electrolysis then 1 gm-equivalent of mass will be
liberated of any substance.

20.11 Thermoelectricity
Seeback Effect In 1822, Thomson Johann Seeback discovered that an emf could be produced in a
circuit composed of two different metals with their junctions at different temperatures. This effect is
called Seeback effect. The two metals constitute a thermocouple, the emf produced in a circuit is called
thermo emf.
In a copper-iron couple, the current flows from copper to iron at hot junction and from iron to copper
at cold junction.
Similarly current flows from bismuth to antimony at the hot junction.
A series of metals was given by seeback in the order that, when a circuit is made up of any two metals
in the series, the current flows across the hot junction from the earlier occurring metal in the series to the
one occurring later. The Seebacks series is :
Bi, Ni, Co, Pd, Pt, U, Cu, Mn, Ti, Hg, Pb, Sn, Cr, Mo, Rh, Ir, Au, Zn, W, Cd, Fe, As, Sb, Te. The
separation of the metals in this series is the representative of the magnitude of the emf to be expected
with a given temperature difference between the junctions. Thus, we can see that the emf produced
between the junction of a Bi Sb couple is greater than that of Cu Fe couple. The metals to the left of Pb
are called thermoelectrically negative and those its right are thermoelectrically positive.

38
Fe
Cu

Hot

Cold

Fig. 20.75

Let us consider a thermocouple of two metals Fe and Cu. Their junctions are kept cold and hot. If a
galvanometer G is connected in the circuit the galvanometer deflection is observed which corresponds to
thermoelectric current. If the temperature of the hot junction be continuously increased, thermoelectric
current increases until maximum value is reached. The temperature of the hot junction at which
maximum current flows is constant for a given thermocouple. It is independent of the temperature of cold
junction and is called the neutral temperature, for the couple. On further increasing the temperature of
hot junction the current decreases to zero and is then reversed. The temperature at which the current is
zero and its reversal begins is called inversion temperature. It depends on the temperature of cold
junction and the chosen couple. It is always as much above the neutral temperature as the cold junction is
below it. Thus,
Tn
Ti Tn = Tn Tc
Here, Ti = inversion temperature
Tn = neutral temperature and
Tc = cold junction temperature.
The graph between the emf and the temperature difference of the
two junctions is of the parabolic form for majority of couples. Thus,
10C
270C
530C
emf can be given as,
T Hot
e = a + bt + ct 2

Fig. 20.76

The production of Seeback emf can be explained as under :

All metals contain large number of
free electrons. The density of free
electrons is different in different metals Hot
Cold E1
and depends upon the temperatutre.
When two different metals are
connected to form two junctions and
Different temperatures
these junctions are kept at different
temperatures free electrons will diffuse
into one another metal at the junctions.
Net flow is from higher electron
pressure to the metal of lower electron
E1
pressure. If the junctions are at the same
temperature the emf at one junction will
be equal and opposite to that in the
Same temperatures
other junction. Hence, net emf is zero.
Fig. 20.77

E1 > E2

E2

E1 = E2

E2

39
20.12 Primary and Secondary Cells
When a metal electrode is dipped in an electrolyte, negative and positive ions tend to go from the
electrolyte to the electrode. Thus, an emf is produced between the electrolyte and the electrode.
If the two electrodes of different metals are dipped in an electrolyte, the emfs produced at the two
electrodes are different and there is a net emf between the electrodes. This forms a voltaic cell or simply
called a cell.
A cell is called primary if it can be only discharged. On the other hand, a secondary cell can be
charged as well as discharged. The current can go both ways in this cell.
Primary cells

+
C

Zn

MnO2

NH4Cl
Fig. 20.78

Leclanche cell
This cell has a carbon and a zinc electrode in a solution of NH 4Cl. The carbon electrode is packed in
a porous cup containing MnO 2 . The zinc electrode forms the negative terminal and the carbon forms the
positive terminal. The emf of this cell is about 1.5 V. This cell is used when intermittent currents are
needed.
+

Dry cell : It is a special kind of Leclanche cell in which

both NH 4Cl and MnO 2 are prepared in the form of a paste. The
Cu
Zn
internal resistance of the cell is very small, of the order of 0.1 .
Daniell cell : It consists of a zinc electrode in a dilute
H 2SO 4 solution and a copper electrode in CuSO 4 solution. The
H2SO4
two solutions are separated by a porous cup which allows any
gas to pass through, but generally prevents the liquids to mix.
CuSO4
The emf of a Daniell cell is around 1.09 V and its internal
resistance is around 1 . This cell is used when a continuous
Fig. 20.79
current is needed.
Secondary cell : (Lead Accumulator)
In a secondary cell one can pass current in both directions. During discharging current leaves the cell
at the positive terminal and enters the cell at the negative terminal. During charging of the battery current
flows in opposite direction.

40

+
Pb

+
Pb

PbO2
H+

PbO2
H+

SO2
4

SO2
4

discharging

charging

(a)

(b)
Fig. 20.80

A lead accumulator consists of electrodes made of PbO 2 and of Pb immersed in dilute H 2SO 4 . The
emf of a lead accumulator is about 2.05 V when fully charged and fall to about 1.8 V in discharged position.
A practical lead accumulator contains several plates of lead connected together to form the negative
electrode and several plates of lead peroxide connected together to form the positive electrode. For
commercial use several such cells are connected in series. The capacity of an accumulator is measured in
ampere-hour. A 50 A-h accumulator can supply 10 ampere current for 5 h or 5 A current for 10 h.

20.13 Colour Codes for Resistors

Resistors are of following two major types
(i) wire bound resistors and (ii) carbon resistors
First type of resistors are made by winding the wires of an alloy like nichrome, manganin or
constantan etc. Materials are so chosen that their resistivities are relatively less sensitive to temperature.
In carbon resistors, carbon with a suitable binding agent is molded into a cylinder. Wire leads are
attached to this cylinder and the entire resistor is encased in a ceramic or plastic jacket. The two leads
connect the resistor to a circuit. Carbon resistors are compact and inexpensive. Their values are given
using a colour code.
Colour

Number

Black
Brown
Red
Orange
Yellow
Green
Blue
Violet
Gray
White
Gold
Silver
No colour

0
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9

Multiplier

1
101
10 2
10 3
10 4
10 5
10 6
10 7
10 8
10 9
10 1
10 2

Tolerance (%)

5
10
20

41
The resistors have a set of four (or three) co-axial coloured rings, whose significance are listed in
above table. The colour are noted from left to right.
Colour 1 First significant figure
123 4
Colour 2 Second significant figure
Fig. 20.81
Colour 3 Decimal multiplier
Colour 4 (or no colour ) Tolerance or possible variation in percentage.

Important Point

To remember the value of colour coding used for carbon resistor, the following sentences are found to
be of great help (where bold letters stand for colours)
B B ROY Great Britain Very Good Wife wearing Gold Silver necklace.
Black Brown Rods Of Your Gate Become Very Good When Given Silver colour

Sample Example 20.19 The four colours on a resistor are : brown, yellow, green and gold as read
from left to right. What is resistance corresponding to these colours.
Solution

From the table we can see that,

Brown colour 1
Yellow colour 4
Green colour 10 5 and
Gold colour 5 %
R = (14 10 5 5%)

Ans.

Sample Example 20.20 An electric toaster uses nichrome for its heating element. When a negligibly
small current passes through it. Its resistance at room temperature (270
. o C ) is found to be 75 .3 .
When the toaster is connected to a 230 V supply, the current settles, after a few seconds, to a steady
value of 268
. A. What is the steady temperature of the nichrome element? The temperature coefficient
of resistance of nichrome averaged over the temperature range involved, is 170
. 10 4 o C 1 .
Solution

Given,
T0 = 27 o C and R 0 = 753
.
At temperature T,
RT =

VT
iT

230
268
.
= 8582
.

Using the equation,

RT = R 0 [1 + (T T0 )]
We have
8582
. = 753
. [1 + (170
. 10 4 )(T 27)]

R =

42
Solving this equation, we get
T 850 o C

Ans.
o

Thus, the steady temperature of the Nichrome element is 850 C .

Introductory Exercise 20.6

1. For the given carbon resistor, let the first strip be yellow, second strip be red, third strip be orange and
fourth be gold. What is its resistance?
2. The resistance of the given carbon resistor is (2.4 106 5% ) . What is the sequence of colours on the
strips provided on resistor?

Extra Points

The -T equation derived in article 20.4 can be derived from the relation,
d
=
dT
d
or
= dT

T
d

0 = T0 dT

(i)

ln = (T T0 )
0

= 0 e (T

As in small, e (T

(if = constant)

T0 )

T0 )

can approximately be written as 1 + (T T0 ). Hence,

= 0[1 + (T T0 )]

Which is the same result as we have discussed above.

In the above discussion we have assumed to be constant. If it is function of temperature it will come
inside the integration in Eq. (i).

The principle of superposition : Complex network problems can sometimes be solved easily by
using the principle of superposition. This principle essentially states that when a number of emfs act
in a network, the solution is the same as the superposition of the solutions for one emf acting at a time,
the others being shorted.

Figure shows a network with two loops. The currents in

various branches can be calculated using Kirchhoffs laws.
We can get the same solution by considering only one
battery at a time and then superposing the two solutions. If
a battery has an internal resistance, it must be left in place
when the emf of the battery is removed. Figure shows how
the superposition principle can be applied to the present
problem.

10.8V

4
8

12

14.4V
Fig. 20.82

43
10.8V

1.2A

4
0.4A
12

1A
12

1A
0.4A

0.8A

0.6A

14.4V
(b)

(a)

10.8V

1.8A
8

12

1.8A

2
(c)

14.4V

Fig. 20.83

The current values in figure (a) and (b) are easily verified. For example when the 10.8 V battery
alone is acting, the total resistance in the circuit is,
4+

This makes the total current

12 8
+ 2 = 10.8
12 + 8

10.8 V
= 1 A. This current splits between 8 and 12 in the ratio 3 : 2.
10.8

Similarly, the total resistance when only the 14.4 V battery is acting is,
8+

Therefore, the total current is

12 6
= 12
12 + 6

14.4 V
= 1.2 A.
12

The superposition principle shows that there is no current in the 12 resistance. Only a current of
1.8 A flows through the outer loop. All these conclusions can be verified by analyzing the circuit using
Kirchhoffs laws.

The equivalent emf of a cell can also be found by the following method.
10V 2
A

i=0

i=0
4V 1
Fig. 20.84

r
B

44
Suppose we wish to find the equivalent emf of the above circuit. We apply the fact that
E =V
when no current is drawn from the cell. But current in the internal circuit may be nonzero. This current is,
10 + 4 14
i=
=
A
2+1
3
14
= VB
3
14
2

VA VB =
4 = volt
3
3
2

E = VA VB = V = volt
3
2

E = volt
3
Further, VA VB is positive, i. e.,VA > VB or A is connected to the positive terminal of the battery and B to
the negative.
Now,

VA + 4 1

Internal resistance of the equivalent battery is found by the normal procedure. For example,
here 2 and 1 resistances are in parallel. Hence, their combined resistance is
1 1 1 3
= + =
r 1 2 2
or

r =

(i) The reading of an ammeter is alwsays lesser than actual current in the circuit.
i
R
i

R
A

G
i

(a)

(b)
Fig. 20.85

For example, in figure (a),

actual current through R is,

E
i=
R

(i)

GS
while the current after connecting an ammeter of resistance A =
in series with R is,
G + S
i =

E
R+A

From (i) and (ii), we see that i < i and i = i when A = 0.

i.e., resistance of an ideal ammeter should be zero.
(ii) Percentage error in measuring a current through an ammeter is

(ii)

45
1
1

R R+A
i i
100

100 =
1
i

A
% error =
100
R + A
GS
(iii) Resistance of ammeter A =
.
G+S
(i) The reading of a voltmeter is always lesser than true value.
For example, if a current i is passing through a resistance r, the actual value is,
V = ir
or

(i)

r
i

RV
V

Fig. 20.86

Now, if a voltmeter of resistance RV ( = G + R ) is connected across the resistance r, the new value will
be,
i (rRV )
V =
r + RV
ir
or
(ii)
V =
r
1+
RV
From Eqs. (i) and (ii), we can see that,
V < V
and
if
V = V
RV =
Thus, resistance of an ideal voltmeter should be infinite.
(ii) Percentage error in measuring the potential difference by a voltmeter is,

1
V V

100 =
V
1+ r

RV

100

1
% error =
1+ r

RV

100

or

(iii) Resistance of voltmeter RV = R + G.