Organisational Behaviour> Needs and Motivation

1. Abraham Maslow's hierarchy of needs

Abraham Maslow's hierarchy of needs is a theory in psychology proposed by Abraham
Maslow in his 1943 paper "A Theory of Human Motivation" in Psychological Review. Maslow
subsequently extended the idea to include his observations of humans' innate curiosity. His
theories parallel many other theories of human developmental psychology, some of which
focus on describing the stages of growth in humans.
According to Maslows need theory each of us is motivated by needs. Our most basic needs
are inborn, having evolved over several many years. Abraham Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs
helps to explain how these needs motivate us all.
Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs states that we must satisfy each need in turn, starting with the
first, which deals with the most obvious needs for survival itself.
Only when the lower order needs of physical and emotional well-being are satisfied are we
concerned with the higher order needs of influence and personal development.
Conversely, if the things that satisfy our lower order needs are swept away, we are no longer
concerned about the maintenance of our higher order needs.
Maslow's original Hierarchy of Needs model was developed between 1943-1954, and first
widely published in Motivation and Personality in 1954. At this time the Hierarchy of Needs
model comprised five needs. This original version remains for most people the definitive
Hierarchy of Needs.

Maslows Hierarchy of Needs

SelfEsteem needs
Belongingness and Love needs
Safety needs
Biological and Physiological needs

1. Biological and Physiological needs - air, food, drink, shelter, warmth, sex, sleep, etc.
2. Safety needs - protection from elements, security, order, law, limits, stability, etc.
3. Belongingness and Love needs - work group, family, affection, relationships, etc.
4. Esteem needs - self-esteem, achievement, mastery, independence, status, dominance,
prestige, managerial responsibility, etc.
5. Self-Actualization needs - realising personal potential, self-fulfillment, seeking personal
growth and peak experiences.

2. Organisational Behaviour > Frederick Herzbergs Two Factor Theory

In 1959, Frederick Herzberg, a behavioural scientist proposed a two-factor theory or the
motivator-hygiene theory. According to Herzberg, there are some job factors that result in
satisfaction while there are other job factors that prevent dissatisfaction. According to
Herzberg, the opposite of Satisfaction is No satisfaction and the opposite of
Dissatisfaction is No Dissatisfaction.
Herzberg classified these job factors into two categoriesa. Hygiene factors- Hygiene factors are those job factors which are essential for
existence of motivation at workplace. These do not lead to positive satisfaction for
long-term. But if these factors are absent / if these factors are non-existent at
workplace, then they lead to dissatisfaction. In other words, hygiene factors are those
factors which when adequate/reasonable in a job, pacify the employees and do not
make them dissatisfied. These factors are extrinsic to work. Hygiene factors are also
called as dissatisfiers or maintenance factors as they are required to avoid
dissatisfaction. These factors describe the job environment/scenario. The hygiene
factors symbolized the physiological needs which the individuals wanted and
expected to be fulfilled. Hygiene factors include:

Pay - The pay or salary structure should be appropriate and reasonable. It

must be equal and competitive to those in the same industry in the same domain.

Company Policies and administrative policies - The company policies should

not be too rigid. They should be fair and clear. It should include flexible working
hours, dress code, breaks, vacation, etc.

Fringe benefits - The employees should be offered health care plans

(mediclaim), benefits for the family members, employee help programmes, etc.

Physical Working conditions - The working conditions should be safe, clean

and hygienic. The work equipments should be updated and well-maintained.

Status - The employees status within the organization should be familiar and
retained.

Interpersonal relations - The relationship of the employees with his peers,

superiors and subordinates should be appropriate and acceptable. There should be
no conflict or humiliation element present.

Job Security - The organization must provide job security to the employees.

b. Motivational factors- According to Herzberg, the hygiene factors cannot be

regarded as motivators. The motivational factors yield positive satisfaction. These
factors are inherent to work. These factors motivate the employees for a superior
performance. These factors are called satisfiers. These are factors involved in
performing the job. Employees find these factors intrinsically rewarding. The

motivators symbolized the psychological needs that were perceived as an additional

benefit. Motivational factors include:

Recognition - The employees should be praised and recognized for their

accomplishments by the managers.

Sense of achievement - The employees must have a sense of achievement.

This depends on the job. There must be a fruit of some sort in the job.

Growth and promotional opportunities - There must be growth and

advancement opportunities in an organization to motivate the employees to
perform well.

Responsibility - The employees must hold themselves responsible for the

work. The managers should give them ownership of the work. They should
minimize control but retain accountability.

Meaningfulness of the work - The work itself should be meaningful, interesting

and challenging for the employee to perform and to get motivated.

Limitations of Two-Factor Theory:

1. The two-factor theory overlooks situational variables.
2. Herzberg assumed a correlation between satisfaction and productivity. But the
research conducted by Herzberg stressed upon satisfaction and ignored productivity.
3. The theorys reliability is uncertain. Analysis has to be made by the raters. The raters
may spoil the findings by analyzing same response in different manner.
4. No comprehensive measure of satisfaction was used. An employee may find his job
acceptable despite the fact that he may hate/object part of his job.
5. The two factor theory is not free from bias as it is based on the natural reaction of
employees when they are enquired the sources of satisfaction and dissatisfaction at
work. They will blame dissatisfaction on the external factors such as salary structure,
company policies and peer relationship. Also, the employees will give credit to
themselves for the satisfaction factor at work.
6. The theory ignores blue-collar workers. Despite these limitations, Herzbergs TwoFactor theory is acceptable broadly.
Implications of Two-Factor Theory: The Two-Factor theory implies that the managers
must stress upon guaranteeing the adequacy of the hygiene factors to avoid employee
dissatisfaction. Also, the managers must make sure that the work is stimulating and
rewarding so that the employees are motivated to work and perform harder and better. This
theory emphasize upon job-enrichment so as to motivate the employees. The job must
utilize the employees skills and competencies to the maximum. Focusing on the
motivational factors can improve work-quality.
3. Organisational Behaviour

The Big 5 Factors or O C E A N theory of Personality Traits

Introduction:Many contemporary personality psychologists believe that there are five basic dimensions of personality, often referred
to as the "Big 5" personality traits. The five broad personality traits described by the theory are openness, conscientiousness,
extraversion, agreeableness, and neuroticism (OCEAN).

The need for the theory: Trait theories of personality have long attempted to pin down exactly how many different personality traits
exist. Earlier theories have suggested a various number of possible traits, including Gordon Allport's list of 4,000 personality
traits, Raymond Cattell's 16 personality factors and Hans Eysenck's three-factor theory.
However, many researchers felt that Cattell's theory was too complicated and Eysenck's was too limited in scope. As a result, the
five-factor theory emerged to describe the essential traits that serve as the building blocks of personality.
The theory: The "big five" are broad categories of personality traits. While there is a significant body of literature supporting this fivefactor model of personality, researchers don't always agree on the exact labels for each dimension. However, these five categories
are usually described as follows:

1. Openness: This trait features characteristics such as imagination and insight, and those high in this trait also tend to have a
broad range of interests. People who are high in this trait tend to be more adventurous and creative. People low in this trait are often
much more traditional and may struggle with abstract thinking.

2. Conscientiousness: Standard features of this dimension include high levels of thoughtfulness, with good impulse control and
goal-directed behaviors. Those high on conscientiousness tend to be organized and mindful of details.

3. Extroversion: Extroversion is characterized by excitability, sociability, talkativeness, assertiveness and high amounts of emotional
expressiveness. People who are high in extroversion are outgoing and tend to gain energy in social situations. People who are low in
extroversion (or introverted) tend to be more reserved and have to expend energy in social settings.

4. Agreeableness: This personality dimension includes attributes such as trust, altruism, kindness, affection and other pro-social
behaviors. People who are high in agreeableness tend to be more cooperative while those low in this trait tend to be more
competitive and even manipulative.

5. Neuroticism: Neuroticism is a trait characterized by sadness, moodiness and emotional instability. Individuals who are high in this
trait tend to experience mood swings, anxiety, moodiness, irritability and sadness. Those low in this trait tend to be more stable and
emotionally resilient.
Conclusion:It is important to note that each of the five personality factors represents a range between two extremes. For example,
extraversion represents a continuum between extreme extraversion and extreme introversion. In the real world, most people lie
somewhere in between the two polar ends of each dimension. Always remember that behavior involves an interaction between a
person's underlying personality and situational variables. The situation that a person finds himself or herself in plays a major role in
how the person reacts. However, in most cases, people offer responses that are consistent with their underlying personality traits.

4.
Principles of Management >Behavioral approach to management
Behavioral approach to management focuses on the fact thathuman behavior is
learned, thus all behavior can be unlearned and new behaviors learned in its place.

Behaviorism is concerned primarily with the observable and measurable aspects of human
behavior. Therefore when behaviors become unacceptable, they can be unlearned.
The Behavioral approach to management evolved mainly because the practicing
managers discovered that adopting the ideas of the classical approach failed to achieve total
efficiency and workplace harmony. The behavioral approach to management highlighted
what the classical advocates overlooked the human aspect. The classical theorists looked
at the organization from a production perspective; the behavioral advocates viewed it from
the individuals viewpoint. The behavioral approach to management highlighted individual
behavior & group processes, and acknowledged the importance of behavioral processes at
work. The Hawthorne studies at Western Electric Company in Illinois, USA, (led by Elton
Mayo and other experts and associates from 1924 to 1933) helped to lend credence to the
behavioral approach.
Some of the main behavioral researchers who made considerable contributions to the
progression of the behavioral approach to management are: Elton Myao, Mary Parker Follett,
Douglas McGregor, Kurt Lewin, Chester Barnard, Abraham Maslow, George Romans, etc.
Branches of Behavioral Approach to Management
The behavioral approach has been divided into two branches: the Human relations approach
and the behavioral science approach. In the human relations approach managers should
know why their subordinates behave as they do and what psychological and social factors
have an impact on them. Supporters of this approach make an effort to show how the
process and functions of management are influenced by differences in individual behavior
and the influence of groups in the office.
Human Relations Approach
The initial encouragement for the movement came from the Hawthorne experiments. The
term human relations mean the way in which managers connect to subordinates.
Managers face many difficulties because staff members usually do not stick to
predetermined and balanced patterns of behavior. Supporters of Human relations approach
feel that management should recognize employees need for recognition and social
acceptance. Management therefore involves getting things done with and through peopel.
Understanding worker response and inter-personal relations is essential in the development
of any management approach. Thus, managers must be competent in human relations skills
along with technical skills. The core of human relations approach is "being nice to workers"
and it focused on the following six propositions:
1. A focus on people, rather than upon machines or economics
2. People exist in an organizational environment rather than an organized social context
3. A key activity in human relations is motivating people
4. Motivation should be directed towards team work which requires both the coordination and cooperation of individuals involved.
5. Human relations, through team work,
organizational objectives simultaneously

seeks

to

fulfill

both

individual

and

6. Both individuals and organizations share desire for efficiency, that is, they try to
achieve maximum results with minimum inputs

Behavioral Science Approach

5

The Behavioral Science Approach is actually an extension of the Human Relations

Approach. It gave value to attitudes, behavior and performance of people and
groups within the organisations. The advocates of the behavioral science approach
consider that humans are much more complex than the economic man description
of the classical approach and the social man description of the human relations
approach. This approach focuses on the nature of work, and the degree to which it
will satisfy the human need to show skills and expertise.
The main propositions of behavioural science approach can be smmarised as under.
1. An organisation is a socio-technical system
2. Interpersonal or group behaviour of people in the organisation is influenced by a wide
range of factors.
3. The goal;s of the organisation are to be harmanised with an understanding of the
human needs
4. Multitude oof attitudes, perceptions and values are prevalent amongst employees
and these characterisethierbehaviour and influence thier performance
5. As a result some degree of conflict is inevitable in the organisation and this need not
be viewed undesirable

The behavioural approach recognises the quality of leadership as a determining

factor in management success. It focuses on group relationship and recognises the
role of individual psychology and group behaviour in organisational effectiveness. It
is thus an improved version of human relations approach.
Abraham Maslow, Fredrick Herzberg, Douglas McGregor, Victor Vroom, James March,
Herbert Simon, Chestar Barnard, etc., made significant contributions towards the
behavioural science approach.
Contributions of the Behavioral Approach

Improved usage of teams to achieve organizational goals.

Emphasis on training and development of staff

Use of innovative reward and incentive techniques.

Furthermore the main focus on modern management theory led to empowering

employees via shared information.

Limitations of the Behavioral Approach to Management

Challenges for managers in difficult situations and the reality that human behavior
is complex. This complicated the problem for managers attempting to use insights
from the behavioral sciences that regularly changed when different behavioral
scientists offered distinct alternatives.
5.
Principles of Management>Henry Mintzbergs 10 Managerial Roles
Management expert Professor Henry Mintzberg has argued that a managers work can be
boiled down to ten common roles. According to Mintzberg, these roles, or expectations for a

managers behavior, fall into three categories: informational (managing by information),

interpersonal (managing through people), and decisional (managing through action). The
details are as follows:
Category A. Informational
Role 1. Monitor
Activity: Seek and acquire work-related information
Example: Scan/read trade press, periodicals, and reports, attend seminars andtraining;
maintain personal contacts
Role 2. Disseminator
Activity: Communicate/ disseminate information to others within the organization
Example: Send memos and reports; inform staffers and subordinates of decisions
Role 3. Spokesperson
Activity: Communicate/transmit information to outsiders
Example: Pass on memos, reports and informational materials; participate
inconferences/meetings and report progress
Category B: Interpersonal
Role 4. Figurehead
Activity: Perform social and legal duties, act as symbolic leader
Example: Greet visitors, sign legal documents, attend ribbon cutting ceremonies,host
receptions, etc.
Role 5. Leader
Activity: Direct and motivate subordinates, select and train employees
Example: Includes almost all interactions with subordinates
Role 6. Liaison
Activity: Establish and maintain contacts within and outside the organization
Example: Business correspondence, participation in meetings with representatives of other
divisions or organizations.
Category C: Decisional
Role 7. Entrepreneur
Activity: Identify new ideas and initiate improvement projects
Example: Implement innovations; Plan for the future
Role 8. Disturbance Handler
Activity: Deals with disputes or problems and takes corrective action
Example: Settle conflicts between subordinates; Choose strategic alternatives; Overcome
crisis situations
Role 9. Resource Allocator
Activity: Decide where to apply resources
Example: Draft and approve of plans, schedules, budgets; Set priorities
Role 10. Negotiator
Activity: Defends business interests
Example: Participates in and directs negotiations within team, department, and organization