BUILDING SERVICES,

TECHNOLOGY AND DESIGN

HVAC

Levent TOSUN
Ethem ÖZBAKIR

Sixth edition
THERMAL COMFORT

age : young / old (+temperature)

gender : male / female (+temperature)
climate conditions : Turkey / Russia
income level : higher (+temperature)
clothing : thick / thin (+temperature)
activity type : gymnasium / resting (+temperature)
health : ill (+temperature)
food : amount & calorific value
individual differences :

MAIN PARAMETERS OF “ENVIRONMENTAL COMFORT”

temperature (“thermal comfort”) : °C

relative humidity : %

air quality (particle, undesired gasses, odour)

air movement : m/s

The aim in design is to satisfy the majority.

The standards for environmental comfort gives particular values for

general application.

1
HEAT TRANSFER
Heat will flow in solid, fluid or gas or between them until the
temperature of each is equal.

“Conduction” is the direct transmission of heat through the material.

Depends mainly on density.

Metals have high conductivity than wood.

Conductivity , “Ȝ”, is the amount of heat that passes

through 1 m2 of material of 1 m thickness for 1 degree
C difference in temperature of both sides.

“Convection” is the transmission of heat in fluids and gases by

circulation.

When a liquid or gas is heated it tends to rise and

displaces the colder liquid or gas around it.

(Greater the movement, greater the speed of transfer.)

2
“Radiation” is the transference of heat from one body of radiant
energy through space to another.

How the heat of sun reaches to earth?

All bodies emit radiant energy with different wavelengths.

Sun short wavelength passes through glass.

Electric fire long wavelength does not pass through glass.

Generally white or bright surfaces have high reflection.

Dark matt surfaces have high absorption. .

Heat losses from the body :

In order to preserve the normal temperature of the body, heat losses

must be balanced by heat gains.

3
 THERMAL HEAT LOSSES AND GAINS

The fabric (construction material) of the building is vital to the

success of the thermal environment inside (occupants).

THERMAL INSULATION

Aim is to save energy by decreasing heat losses and heat gains.

There are mainly two types of thermal insulation in buildings :

* Insulation of heating / cooling pipes & equipments

* Insulation of building fabric: Reduces heat flow through the

structure.

4
IMPORTANCE OF THERMAL INSULATION IN BUILDINGS
Why do we wear more and thick clothes in winter?
Decrease heat transfer : keep body temperature.

“A well insulated barn is worth the half of the feed”

An old German saying

Most of the food eaten by a living creature are utilized to preserve the
normal temperature of the body.

If the food is not enough to maintain the normal temperature of the

body, then the animal starts to use / dissolve its fat stores beneath
the skin in winter. This results in decrease in weight.

Thus, in order to get same weight of animals from two different

barns, one has to feed more in an un insulated barn.

5
Conclusion :
Insulation in buildings more investment cost in construction less
investment cost in heating installation less operation cost (energy, food, etc.)

No insulation in buildings less investment cost in construction high

investment cost in heating installation high operation cost

A classical problem of economics.

After 1974 Energy Crises strict rules added to Building Regulations.

TS 825 Binalarda Isı Yalıtım Kuralları

(Thermal Insulation in Buildings)

5 December 2008
Ministry of Public Works
(Regulation for Energy Performance in Buildings)

REGULATION FOR THERMAL INSULATION

Thermal insulation should be done for the indicated surfaces :

6
¦Heating energy requirement
1-12 months

= ¦Heat loss - ¦Heat gain ( inner heat gain + solar heat gain)
1-12 months 1-12 months

Maximum annual heating energy requirement limit :

If h (height between floors) ! 2.6 m : ..... kWh/m³

If h (height between floors) d 2.6 m : ...... kWh/m²

Turkey has 4 climate regions :

1st region : Hottest outdoor temperature (Adana, Antalya...)

2nd region : Moderate outdoor temperature (østanbul, Samsun...)

3rd region : Cold outdoor temperature (Ankara, Konya...)

4th region : Coldest outdoor temperature (Erzurum, Kars...)

7
* Condensation should be checked

(transformation of water vapour from gas phase to liquid phase).

Condensation :

increases the thermal conductivity of the material,

destroys the construction material.

* Heat bridges should be avoided : concrete columns, beams,

floors should be insulated.

Duties of the disciplines at design stage :

* Architect : Prepares cross section of the building
(1/20 scale).

Decide upon the type and thickness of the

materials.

* Mechanical Engineer : Prepares Thermal Insulation Project .

Calculates U values of each material,

overall heat loss of the building & check
with the limitations give in the Regulation.

If they are not fulfilled, then inform the

architect and request to change the type
and/or the thickness of the material or
decrease window / door area.

8
HEAT LOSS CALCULATIONS
Why do we calculate heat loss of a building?
The “heat loss calculation” is the first step for selecting and
designing the “heating system”.
Normally, the heat loss is calculated for the winter design
temperatures, usually occurring at night.

“Heat gains” from internal sources such as ;

* people
* lights
* chimneys
* machines
* solar gain
* neighbour rooms
are neglected in calculations.
If the temperature difference between two neighbour rooms is equal
or less than 3 ºC, then heat loss between these two rooms might be
neglected.

TS 2164 Principles for the Preparation of the Projects of the Central

Heating Systems
(Adapted from DIN 4701)

MMO (Chamber of the Mechanical Engineers) publication no: 352

Kalorifer Tesisatı

“Heat loss” of a room (in a unit time / hour) is composed of;

1. Heat losses through the fabric of the room:

“Transmission” heat loss : QT

2. Heat required to warm the air which is ventilating inside the room.
“Infiltration” heat required : QI

Qh = QT + QI

9
STEPS TO CALCULATE HEAT LOSS

* Find the “winter outdoor design conditions (temperature)” of the city

For example: Ankara -12º C, Antalya +3º C

* Determine the “region characteristics” of the city, either “windy” or

“normal”
For example : Ankara : windy, øzmir : normal

* Decide on the “function of the building” (dwelling, office etc.) in order

to determine “service period”.

* Assign design temperatures to each heated and unheated rooms

Ex : Bathroom, shower + WC : 24º C

Living room, bedroom, kitchen,

Office room, library, WC : 20º C

Hall, entrance, corridor : 15 - 20º C

Stairs : 10 ºC

Store (unheated) : : 6-10 ºC

Roof (unheated) : Depends upon climate : - 9 ºC (for Ankara)

Ground : Depends upon climate : 6 ºC (for Ankara)

10
Take the “thermal transmittance coefficients” of the construction
materials from the “thermal insulation project”. Find and /or
calculate the thermal transmittance coefficients of the other
construction materials by using below formula and tables.

1
U=
1 dn 1
+ ™ +
Di Ȝn Do

U : Thermal transmittance coefficient (W/ m2 °K)

Di : Surface coefficient of heat transfer – inner (W/ m2 °K)

d : Thickness of the material (m)

Ȝ : Thermal conductivity of the material (W/ m °K)

Do : Surface coefficient of heat transfer – outer (W/ m2 °K)

* Calculate QT by using below formula;

QT = ¦ A x U x ǻT

A : Area (m2 )

ǻT : Temperature difference (Tinside -Toutside) (° K)

11
* Example;

ZLQGRZ

Elevation

Correction factors:

* Assign correction factor for “service period” : ZD

I. Heating stops 8 hr / day. (Ex : dwellings) +7 %

II. Heating stops 10 hr / day. (Ex : office) +15 %
III. Heating stops 14 hr / day. (Ex : schools) +20 - 30 %

* Assign correction factor for “direction” of the room : ZU

N, NE, NW +5 %
E, W r0 %
S, SE, SW -5 %

* Sum up ZD + ZU correction factors and multiply with QT to find

“Transmission heat loss after correction”

12
Calculate Ql by using below formula :

* Sum up “Transmission heat loss after correction” and “Infiltration

heat loss” to find out “total heat loss” of the room.

* Go to next room Finish all rooms of the floor

* Go to other floor Finish all floors

13
14
15
29
16
EFFECTS OF ARCHITECTURE ON HEAT LOSS CALCULATIONS

THE HEAT LOSS IS HIGH IF THE... EFFECTING FACTOR

* thickness of material is less U

* insulation is less U

* metal frames are used (rather wood/plastic) U

* single glass is used (rather double glass) U, a

* area of the material is more A

* inside temperature is high ǻT

* outdoor temperature is low ǻT

* heating stops more zD

* room faces north zU

* length of window opening is more I

* region is windy (rather normal) H

* height of the building is more H

* building is not in a dense area H

* flat is at the top floor H, A

* flat is at the ground floor A

* room has windows at the corner Zw

17
HEATING SYSTEMS

Building heat loss = 6 Heat loss of each room

Aim of the “heating system” is to provide the necessary heat to

compensate the total heat loss of the building.
In ancient times, fire place+ air ducts inside the walls and floors were used

In early 19 th century, buildings were heated with a fire place in the living
room. lf you were cold, you moved closer to the fire.

Disadvantages of fire places or stoves:

Heating systems were developed during the last 100 years.

18
Heating system principle diagram:

CLASSIFICATION OF HEATING SYSTEMS

1. According to source of heating systems:

a) Solid : wood, coal (coke, lignite)

b) Oil : fuel oil, diesel

c) Gas : natural gas, LPG

d) Electricity

e) Solar

f) Geothermal

19
2. According to serving area:

a) Independent / local heating : single flat or house

b) Central heating :

c) District / town heating :

3. According to heating media:

a) Hydronic / pipe heating

I. Water heating:

“Water heating" consists of the circulation of hot water

from a central heater through pipes to heat emitters
(radiators, etc.) and back to the heater.

* Hot water heating : Low temperature : flow 90 °C (max),

return 70 °C
most common
* Panel heating : Low temperature : flow 50 °C (max),
return 40 °C

* High temperature heating : Above100 °C

The water is in a closed circuit and is subjected to

pressure by gas, so that its temperature may be raised
above 100 °C (boiling point) to avoid steam.

20
ll. Steam heating:

When sufficient heat is supplied to water to cause it to boil and

vaporize, the resulting vapor is called “steam”.

As the boiling point of water in a container is reached, bubbles

of water vapor or steam are formed in the bottom and rise to the
surface where they escape.

Steam is a good media to the transfer heat, especially for long

distances. However attention to the maintenance and operation
is very important.

Therefore use whenever it is necessary: Hospitals (sterilization)

Hotels (laundries, kitchens)

* Sub atmospheric : 0.2 – 1.1 bar, min 65 °C

* Low pressure : max 0.5 bar, max 110 °C

* High pressure : max 2 bar, max 130 °C

21
 b) Air heating:
Ducted systems

c) Combined:
Hydronic / pipe + air heating

FACTORS EFFECTING SELECTION OF A HEATING SYSTEM

Factors Examples s

1. Climate One can not use split type equipment

efficiently if outdoor temperature is below 0oC

2. Fuel available lf there is no natural gas network, one can not

select a boiler using natural gas

3. Desired comfort level One may prefer air heating system, instead of
hydronic / pipe system
One may prefer automatic control systems

22
4. Economy One may prefer coal burning systems
(investment and operating costs) if low investment cost is required

5. Environment One may prefer natural gas burning

systems if air pollution problem is
important

6. Architectural limitations One may prefer natural gas burning

systems if there is no room for fuel
storage

Headers

23
24
25
26
27
Characteristic of boilers :
Written on the labels of the boilers.

a. Heating capacity : kcal/h or kW

• Total heat given by heat emitters x a coefficient to compensate

heat loss through distribution circuit (5/15%)

Selected from the standards or catalogues of manufacturing

firms.

b. Construction pressure : bar (= 10 mWG)

Depends upon the height of the building

Taller the building, higher the construction pressure

BURNERS
Types of the burners according to fuel :

1. Solid : coal

a. Manpower

Requires great amount of manpower (-)

Low combustion efficiency (-)
Difficult to control heat (-)
Requires no electricity (+)
Low investment cost (+)

28
b. If the requirement is high, use automatic coal
grinding and feeding system which called “stocker”

Requires less man power (+)

High combustion efficiency (+)
Easy to control heat (+)
Requires electricity (-)
High investment cost (-)

29
2. Liquid : Fuel oil, diesel

Pump + fan, electric motor

Placed in front of the boiler

3. Gas : Natural gas, LPG

Fan, electric motor (no pump)

Characteristics of burners :

Written on the labels of the burners

Fuel consumption per hour : kg/h (for liquids)
m3/h (for gasses)

30
31
32
33
CIRCULATION PUMPS
To circulate water inside the distribution circuits (pipes).
Types of circulation pumps :

1. In-line type :
Used for small or medium distribution circuits
No noise (+)
No vibration (+)
Less electric consumption (+) (

2. End - suction type

Used for large distribution circuits.

34
CHIMNEYS

"Chimney“ is a structure, usually vertical, containing a passage or

flue by which the smoke, gasses etc. of a fire or furnace are carried
off and by means of which a draft is created.

A : lnside area of the cross section of the chimney (cm2)

c : Constant for the type of the fuel

(coal: 0.03, fuel-oil : 0.02, naturalgas: 0.012)

Qk : Heating capacity of the boiler (kcal/h)

h : Height of the chimney (m)

(Vertical distance from boiler bottom to the top of the
chimney)

35
 Since "A“ is not known exactly at architectural drawing phase:

1. Provide enough area nearby chimneys, such that they may be

enlarged if it is necessary after the heating system calculations.

2. Put a note near chimneys saying :

"Real dimensions of the chimneys should be taken from the
heating projects"

Materials used at chimneys :

a. Brick+ fire resistant plaster

b. Concrete+ insulation+ protection material (e.g.brick+ fire

resistant plaster)

c. Outside cover material (brick, steel sheet etc.) + insulation +

stainless steel

PIPES

Must common pipes used for distribution:

1. Steel (not galvanized) :

Connection by threaded fittings, flanges or welding

2. Plastics:
PPRC (Polypropylene Random Copolymer): Used at panel heating
PE-X (Polyethylene cross link): Used at panel heating & hot water
heating

3. Cupper :

Parts of a distribution piping:

Mains
Risers / columns
Branches
Air vent

36
Installation of pipes

Horizontal:

37
 Vertical:

Embedded inside the floor : Plastic pipe with a case.

38
Expansion of pipes:

Pipes expand due to the increase in temperature of the heating media.

Expansion is important especially for long linear pipes.

Methods to absorb expansion of pipes:

1. Providing “expansion loops“ in piping design.

2. Using "expansion joints"

39
INSULATION

Aim of "insulation" is to decrease the amount of heat loss through the

material: Pipes, boilers, hot water storage tanks, expansion tanks,
headers etc.

Be aware of the thickness of the insulation Provide enough space

around the pipes

VALVES

"Valve“ is an equipment to turn off or adjust the volume of the flow.

40
EXPANSION TANKS / VESSELS

Safety equipment.

"Expansion tank" is used to overcome excess pressure caused by

expansion of water due to temperature increase.

Types of expansion tanks :

1. Open:
Access to atmosphere.
Placed at the highest point of the distribution system (at the roof) .

2. Closed:

Trapped gas inside the tank: Air, Nitrogen

Placed at the mechanical room, near boiler.

41
AIR VENTILATION PIPES & VALVES

Aim is to extract the air trapped in the distribution system.

Connect all risers and mount to an expansion tank or to an air vessel

42
 Air vent valves:

MEASURING DEVICES & AUTOMATIC CONTROLS

To measure and control: Temperature, pressure, time.

• Thermometer : Measuring temperature.

• Manometer : Measuring pressure.
• Thermostat : Setting the temperature level.
On/off control of a contactor.

43
 Fan coil thermostat Boiler thermostat

Thermostatic
radiator valve

44
HEAT EMITTERS
"Heat emitters“ are the elements to provide heat to the
closed spaces to compensate heat losses.

Some common types of heat emitters are summarised

below.

1. Pipe heaters :
a. Naked / Straight pipes :

* Cheap
* Low heat transfer
* Easy to install

Example : Greenhouse

45
b. Finned pipes / Gilled tubes :

Heat transfer area is increased by fins

Finned pipes could give 10 times more heat than
naked pipes

2. Natural convection heaters :

a. Cabinet type convectors :
ER
UV
hot air ET LO
U TL
AI RO
ER S
A MP IPE
D D P
NE
FI N

ET
B IN
CA

)
AIR
hot water / steam UR
N
ET
(R
cold water / condensate ET
INL
A IR

cold air

46
For good heat transfer efficiency high water
temperatures are used [So heating capacity is not
preferred to be arranged by valve (amount of water flow)
or by the inlet water temperature]

Damper is used to control the capacity

Stack effect helps to the transfer of heat.

b. Skirting type convectors :

* Good distribution of heat

* Requires less space
(in place of skirting board)
ET
UTL
O

ET
INL

47
 c. Under floor convectors / Trench heaters :

d. Radiators

Most commonly used heat emitters in heating systems.

The name is misleading. Gives heat by convection

(only 20-3O % by radiation).

TS2192 Layout of Heating Systems

TS 1499 Positioning of Heating Radiators

TS369 Radiator-cast iron

48
Material :

* Cast iron * Pressed steel * Aluminium

Types:

* Column
Large surface area increases convection heat transfer.

* Hospital pattern
Smooth plain surfaces reduce dust traps.

* Panel
From pressed steel or from pressed aluminium.

49
50
 COMPARISION OF RADIATOR TYPES

Ranking: 1: Best 2: Medium 3: Worse

For the capacity of the radiators manufacturer’s values

are used.

51
 Positioning of the radiators:

1. The best position is under a window, so that the

heat emitted mixes with the incoming cold air from
the window and this prevents cold air passing
along the floor, which would cause discomfort to
the occupants of the room.

Air circulation Air circulation

Cold air Cold air

Cold

Hot foot Cold foot

52
2. Radiators should be placed close to the outside
doors if any.

3. Return pipes of long radiators should be arranged

so that the hot water should circulate in the
radiator in full (for more than 30 sections or 2 m
length).

P
AM
CL

SLO
PE
1%

G03
40 T G02
KE
AC
BR

100 mm

FIXING RADIATOR PARTIAL RISER DIAGRAM

53
4. They should not be placed in niches. lf necessary,
than efficiency factors should be taken into care.
(See attached sheet TS 2164 / 2).

54
55
5. Increase the amount of hanged radiators by 10%.

Colour of the radiators:

Since radiator gives heat mostly by convection ;

* At low temperature radiator colour is not

important.

* Type of paint is important. Metallic paint

(aluminium, bronze etc.) decreases radiation
heat transfer by 50% (10% in total capacity).

So non metallic paints should be used.

3. Forced Convection Heaters:

a. Fan convectors:

56
Large space heating is possible.

More control is possible:

* Time switch * Damper

* Thermostat * Variable fan speed

Fresh air inlet (from outside) is possible.

Air direction can be arranged.

Filter can be used to collect particles in the air.

May be used (also) for cooling [fan coil] .

(Then drain tray is required).

b. Unit Heaters:

Axial type overhead unit heater

57
Used for large space heating (factories, garages,
warehouses).

Steam or high temperature hot water may be used as

heating media.

More control possibilities are available.

4. Panel Heating:
a. Radiant panels:

Provide radiant heat at lower temperature.

Lower temperature gradient between floor & ceiling.
Height 3-5 m above floor level.
58
b. Embedded pipe panels:

TYPICAL CROSS - SECTION

TEMPERATURE GRADIENT OF A ROOM

59
 DIFFERENT PIPING LAYOUTS

Continuous pipe is embedded inside the building fabric

[usually in floor (walls, ceiling)] .

Temperature of flow water : 50 °C (maximum 60 °C).

Temperature of return water : 40 °C.

Embedded steel, cupper or plastic pipes

(common nowadays).

Large area is required.

First big example in Turkey : Kocatepe mosque.

60
Advantages:

1. The heating elements are hidden freedom of

interior design and no clashes,

2. Hot floor temperature: useful where people sit on the

floor (ex: kindergarten class rooms, mosques,
churches, sport buildings),

3. More evenly distributed heat,

4. Less hot or cold air drafts,

5. Don't make walls and curtains dirty.

Disadvantages:

1. Don't respond to rapid changes of outdoor

temperature,

2. Long thermal lag between the time the controls act

and the result,

3. Repair of a leak is very difficult / expensive,

4. Cold bathrooms / hot corridors,

5. Particles may rise if the floor temperature is high,

6. Might create health problem due to widening of foot

and leg veins.
61
HEATING SYSTEMS and BUILDING ARCHITECTURE

Mechanical Rooms:

* Mechanical Rooms, of the medium and high heating

capacity buildings should have two doors; one
opening to the "outside“, one to the "inside“ of the
building. lf there is a car parking area in the building
the door opening to the car parking can be accepted
as "outside“ door,

* The doors of the Mechanical Rooms should be opened

to the outside, not to the inside of the room ,

* The doors of the Mechanical Room should have 90

minutes fire resistance,

* The height of the Mechanical Room should be

designed at least 100 cm higher than the highest
equipment of the boiler so that the repair of the
mentioned equipment is possible (minimum
clean height 300 cm),

* Mechanical Rooms should be separated from

adjacent rooms by 120 minutes fire resistant wall
(Fire Regulation) and by another wall with 5 cm
air gap in between for fire and noise protection
(Municipality of Ankara),

* Mechanical Rooms should have a second ceiling

or at least 32 cm. thick ribbed ceiling with bricks
for fire and noise protection.
(Municipality of Ankara).
62
Chimneys:

* Boilers ,preferably, be connected to independent

chimneys.

* Chimneys should not be at the outside walls of the

building because of draft problems (unless
technical necessities),

* If chimney will be constructed by brick, the type

should be “solid” and inside and outside of the
chimney must be covered with plaster,

* Chimneys should be straight,

* Chimney tops should be at least 600 cm away

from the high neighbor building and 100 cm higher
than the highest part of the roof, in order to have
proper draft,

* At the bottom part of the chimney a steel sheet

cover should be provided for cleaning,

* The horizontal flue ducts should not be longer than

1/4 th. of the chimney height,

* The flue ducts must be connected to the chimney

as straight as possible avoiding sharp corners.

63
Ventilation :

* An air intake which is approximately 50 % of the

cross -section of the (smoke) chimney should be
provided to the Mechanical Room at the ground
level. This will provide enough oxygen for
combustion,

In order to satisfy this condition , the Mechanical

Rooms should be located adjacent to outside walls,
not at the middle of the building,

* An air discharge which is 25 % of the cross-section

of the smoke chimney should be provided to the
Mechanical Rooms at the ceiling level This will
clean the gases and smoke which will accumulate,

* lf the fuel is natural gas, besides "air intake" at the

ground level, "air discharge“ grills should be
provided at the ceiling level.

64
Boilers :

* Boilers should be placed at least 150 cm. away

from chimney walls for ease of maintenance,

* There should be enough distance in front of the

boiler for cleaning the pipes inside,

This distance should be at least 100 cm. more

than the length of the boiler,

* The sides of the boilers should be at least 70 cm

away from the walls or from the equipment which
are mounted to the walls,

The distance between two boilers should be at

least 40 cm.

65
Fuel Tanks :

* lf fuel tanks are placed in Mechanical Rooms they

should be at least 40 cm away from walls or other
equipment for easy maintenance,

* ln Mechanical Rooms boiler and fuel storage tank

should be separated by an inflammable wall.

Others :

* On architectural drawings boiler, hot water

heater, water storage tank, water pressurizing
system are required to be shown schematically,

* The Mechanical Rooms should have floor drain to

collect spilled water. lf the Mechanical Rooms are
below the depth of the sewage network, sump
and pump should be provided,

* Pipes should be installed with slope and air

vents, such that there should be no air pockets
inside.

66
SYMBOLS USED IN HEATING SYSTEMS

67
 CONTENTS OF A PROJECT OF A HEATING SYSTEM

Drawings Scale e
Site plan 1/200, 1/500 (if it is a large building)

Floor plans 1/50, 1/100 (if it is a large building)

(Basement, Ground,
Normal, Roof)
Riser diagram 1/50, 1/100 (if it is a tall building)
Details 1/20, 1/10
(Not required for municipally approved projects)

Report : Selection of heating system, design parameters,

calculations for heat loss, heat emitters, boiler,
burner, chimney, expansion tank, circulation
pump, etc.

Floor plans : All horizontal dimensions (pipe, radiator,

boiler ,etc.) are real.

Riser diagram : All vertical dimensions are real.

This is not a cross section, but a diagram !

68
AN EXAMPLE OF A HEATING SYSTEM PROJECT

GROUND PLAN

BASEMENT PLAN

69
 ROOF PLAN

RISER DIAGRAM

70
VENTILATION

"Ventilation“ is the process of supplying or

removing conditioned or unconditioned air to or from
any enclosed space.

TS 3419 Principles for the Preparation of the Projects

of Ventilation and Air-Conditioning Installation.

DIN norms
ASHRAE publications.
(American Society of Heating, Refrigerating and
Air- Conditioning Engineers)

The purpose of the ventilation is :

to remove;
* odor, carbon dioxide
* water vapor
* dust, fumes, smoke
* excess heat

and

to provide fresh air (oxygen)

71
Equipment and symbols used in
mechanical ventilation :
1. Fan :
a. Propeller fan: Has two or more blades fixed at an
angle to the hub.

72
Air flow in the same direction.

Axial fan : blades rotating inside a cylindrical case.

73
 b. Centrifugal fan:

Impeller revolves inside a casing shaped like a

scroll .There is a 90° change in air flow direction.

General characteristics of fans : View of centrifugal fan

* capacity (flow rate) : m3/h or L/s
* pressure : mmWG or Pa

2. Air duct:

a. Supply

b. Return

Shape : circular, rectangular, square

74
3. Supply outlets:
a. Grille:

A covering for any opening through which air

passes.
Vertical or horizontal bars.
Adjustable or fixed bars.
Single or double deflections.

b. Register:

A covering for any opening through which air

passes and has a built-in damper for controlling
the flow rate of air passing through it.

c. Diffuser:
A square, oval, circular or semicircular facing
device that covers the supply air opening of a
room.

75
4. Return air inlets:

5. Damper:
To adjust the volume of the air flow.

76
 6. Filter :

To collect particules.

Types of ventilation:

1. Natural ventilation:
Factors effecting natural ventilation:

a. Wind pressure
“Positive pressure

77
b. Stack effect
Warm air in the building is rising and displaced by
colder air

c. Combination of wind pressure and stack effect.

2. Mechanical ventilation :

2.1. Natural inlet and mechanical extract/exhaust.

e g. Bathrooms and toilets (small).

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2.2. Mechanical inlet and natural extract.

Usually air is heated before it is forced.

e.g. Factories.

2.3. Mechanical inlet and mechanical extract.

Best controlled air system.
e.g. Cinemas, restaurants, sport centers.

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 Ventilation criteria :

1. Fresh air :
-smoking allowed room : ~30m3/h,person
-non –smoking room : ~20 m3/h,person

2. Exhaust air :
-kitchen : 73 m3/h, m2
-toilet : 36 m3/h, m2

3. Air exchange rate :

-office : 5 changes / h
-laundry : 25 changes / h
-classroom : 3 changes / h

Pressure zoning of mechanical ventilation:

1. Positive :
Wsupply > Wreturn
To prevent air infiltrating from adjacent dirty room.
e.g.Dining room.
2. Negative:
Wsupply < Wreturn
To prevent dirty air of the room to in filter to
adjacent room. e.g. Kitchen, bathroom.

3. No difference :
Wsupply = Wreturn
e.g.Office, movie theater.
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Materials used for air duct works :

1. Galvanized sheet steel : most common

2. Stainless sheet steel
3. Aluminium sheet steel
4. PVC : For small systems ( e.g. toilet exhausts )
5. Fibber glass
6. Prefabricated glass wool

AN EXAMPLE OF A VENTILATION PROJECT

PLAN
81
CROSS SECTION A-A

ISOMETRIC DIAGRAM

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AIR-CONDITIONING

"A/C is the simultaneous control of the temperature,

humidity, motion and purity of the atmosphere in a
confined space.

"Humidity" :The amount of water vapour within a given

space.
First in 1907 : Control of humidity in textile industry.
Usage area :
1. Necessities :Industries( textile, candy), special art
galleries, museums, computer rooms.
2. Comfort air conditioning :
- to increase worker efficiency and morale in
offices,
- to draw more customers to shops,
- to feel more comfort in residences.

Concepts of ventilation x heating x cooling x A/C:

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1. Fresh air and mixing plenum with filter
2. Pre cooling battery
3. Pre heating battery
4. Humidification plenum
5. Final cooling battery
6. Final heating battery
7. Ventilator plenum
8. Aspirator plenum
9. Exhaust plenum
VIEW of an AHU (Air Handling Unit)

HEATING & COOLING MAIN RISER DIAGRAM

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WINDOW TYPE A/C

SPLIT TYPE A/C UNIT

85
VRV A/C SYSTEM

86
TERMS OF PSYCHROMETRICS

“Psychrometrics“ deals with measuring and

determining the properties (temperature, humidity) of
air.

Dry-bulb temperature : The temperature of air as

measured by a conventional thermometer (DB). : ºC

Wet-bulb temperature : The temperature of air as

measured by a conventional thermometer with a wet
cloth covering the glass bulb (WB). : ºC

In dry air, the moisture of the cloth evaporates, draws

heat out of the thermometer and produce a big drop
in wet-bulb temperature. This is an index of low
relative humidity. At high relative humidity drop in the
wet bulb temperature is small.

Relative humidity : The actual amount of moisture in

the air in relation to the maximum moisture the air can
hold (RH). : %

Grains of moisture : The unit of measurement used to

determine the amount of moisture in the air. : gr/kg

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Dew point temperature : The temperature at which
moisture condenses on a surface (DP). : ºC

The moisture collecting on the exterior of an

uncovered cold water pipe indicates that the pipe
surface temperature is below the dew point of the
surrounding mixture.

This phenomenon, usually called “sweating”, would

more correctly be called “condensing”.

Enthalpy : The total heat in the mixture at saturation:

kJ/kg.

PSYCHROMETRIC CHART

“Psychrometric chart” is the graphical summary of

the qualities of the mixtures of air and water vapour.

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Superimpose all these charts to get complete
Psychometric Chart

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SOME A/C PROCESSES
I. Winter application:
(1) : Outdoor temp: -5 ºC
(2) : Indoor temp : 20 ºC
(3) : Mixed air temp : 9.5 ºC
(4) : Preheating coil outlet temp : 16.5 ºC
(5) : Reheating coil inlet temp : 11 ºC
(6) : Reheating coil outlet temp : 30 ºC
(7) : Supply air temp : 28 ºC
Process: (3) ĺ (4) Preheating
(4) ĺ (5) Humidifying
(5) ĺ (6) Reheating

II. Summer application:

(1) : Outdoor temp : 33 ºC DB, 24 ºC WB

(2) : Indoor temp : 25 ºC DB, 18 ºC WB
(3) : Mixed air temp : 27.5 ºC DB, 20 ºC WB
(4) : Cooling coil outlet temp : 17 ºC DB, 14 ºC WB
(5) : Supply air temp : 18 ºC DB, 14.5 ºC WB
Process: (3) ĺ (4) Cooling

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COMFORT CONDITIONS

Temperature, humidity and air motion are of nearly

equal importance in inducing “comfort”.

When indoor air is very dry, evaporation of

perspiration is increased with resulting cooling of the
skin. Therefore a higher temperature is necessary for
comfort in winter.

Undesired drying of the mucous membranes and

nervous tension may result.

On the other hand, high humidity on hot days

prevents free evaporation of perspiration, and the
body and clothing become damp and uncomfortable.

Air movement, prevents stagnation and stratification

in winter heating, and increases loss of heat from the
body through evaporation and convection and
stimulates the nervous system in summer.

Different combinations of temperature, humidity and

air motion, yielding the same sensation of warmth or
cold has been tested upon a number of people and a
“comfort chart” has been prepared.

An arbitrary index called “effective temperature” (ET)

has been introduced.

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 COMFORT DIAGRAM
(ET) Effective
temperature

Summer comfort zone

Winter comfort zone

21 22.5 23.5 26.5

Dry-bulb temperature

21 ºC (DB) with 70 % RH gives same comfort as

22.5 ºC (DB) with 30 % RH.

* Older people require higher effective temperature

than younger in winter.

* Women require higher effective temperature

than younger in winter.

* Increasing the stay time in a room, requires lower

effective temperature in summer.

e.g. For customers, staying in a supermarket about

1 hour, 26 ºC effective temperature may be
comfortable.

But for workers, staying in the same space

about 4 hours, 26 ºC effective temperature may
be uncomfortable.
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HEAT GAIN / COOLING LOAD CALCULATIONS

Out door conditions: DB temperature, WB temperature

Latitude

Daily temperature
City Latitude DB(ºC) WB(ºC) difference (ºC) Rh(%)

Ankara ~ 40º 34 20 15 27
øzmir ~ 38º 37 24 12.8 34
Antalya ~ 36º 39 28 11.4 44

Indoor design condition : ~ 8 - 10ºC below outdoor DB

temperature (Satisfy comfort
diagram for summer)

Types of heat gain: * Sensible

* Latent
“Sensible heat” is any heat that raises the temperature
but not the moisture content of a substance. It is
called “sensible heat” because it can be detected by
the senses.

When sensible heat is added to the air its temperature

increases.

“Latent heat” is the amount of heat needed to change

liquid phase to vapour phase.

When latent heat is added to the air its moisture

content increases.

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COMPONENTS OF SENSIBLE HEAT GAIN :

1. Heat transmitted through walls, roofs, floors,

partitions, ceilings and glass, owing to difference
between outdoor and indoor air temperatures,
2. Heat of solar radiation striking upon the exterior
surfaces of walls, roofs and glass, absorbed by
them and conducted through to the interior,
3. Heat carried in by infiltrating or ventilating outside
air,
4. Heat given off-by occupants,
5. Heat given off-by lights, cooking, motors , fans and
industrial process within the conditioned space.

COMPONENTS OF LATENT HEAT GAIN :

1. Heat carried in by infiltrating or ventilating outside

air,

2. Heat given off by occupants,

3. Heat given off by cooking or industrial processes

within the conditioned space.

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SOME ASPECTS OF HEAT GAIN :

* Time lag : Some time may elapse between the entry

of heat into a wall and its emergence from the other
side.

This delay is due to the storage of heat and its

subsequent release by the structure.

* Different directions / exposures of a building have

different solar energy. Most critical direction is
“west”.

* Determination of critical day and hour for solar

radiation is important.

* Shading of window decreases the amount of heat

gain.

* Double glass window decreases the amount of heat

gain.

* Insulated construction materials decreases the

amount of heat gain.

* Low emission glass window decreases the amount

of heat gain.

* Light color walls decreases the amount of heat

gain.

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