File Organization and Indexing

The data of a RDB is ultimately stored in disk files

Disk space management:
Should Operating System services be used ?
Should RDBMS manage the disk space by itself ?
2nd option is preferred as RDBMS requires complete
control over when a block or page in main memory buffer
is written to the disk.
This is important for recovering data when system
crash occurs

Prof P Sreenivasa Kumar

Department of CS&E, IITM

Structure of Disks
Disk
several platters stacked on
a rotating spindle
one read / write head per surface
for fast access
platter has several tracks
~10,000 per inch
each track - several sectors
each sector - blocks
unit of data transfer - block
cylinder i - track i on all platters

Speed:
7000 to
10000 rpm

Platters

track

Read/write head

}
Prof P Sreenivasa Kumar
Department of CS&E, IITM

sector

Data Transfer from Disk

Address of a block: Surface No, Cylinder No, Block No
Data transfer:
Move the r/w head to the appropriate track
time needed - seek time ~ 12 to 14 ms
Wait for the appropriate block to come under r/w head
time needed - rotational delay - ~3 to 4ms (avg)
Access time: Seek time + rotational delay
Blocks on the same cylinder - roughly close to each other
- access time-wise
- cylinder i, cylinder (i + 1), cylinder (i + 2) etc.

Prof P Sreenivasa Kumar

Department of CS&E, IITM

Data Records and Files

Fixed length record type: each field is of fixed length
in a file of these type of records, the record number can be
used to locate a specific record
the number of records, the length of each field are available
in file header
Variable length record type:
arise due to missing fields, repeating fields, variable length
fields
special separator symbols are used to indicate the field
boundaries and record boundaries
the number of records, the separator symbols used are
recorded in the file header
Prof P Sreenivasa Kumar
Department of CS&E, IITM

Packing Records into Blocks

Record length much less than block size
The usual case
Blocking factor b = B/r
B - block size (bytes)
r - record length (bytes)
- maximum no. of records that can be stored in a block
Record length greater than block size
spanned organization is used
Record
1

File blocks:
sequence of blocks containing all the records of the file
Prof P Sreenivasa Kumar
Department of CS&E, IITM

Mapping File Blocks onto the Disk Blocks

Contiguous allocation
Consecutive file blocks are stored in consecutive disk blocks
Pros: File scanning can be done fast using double buffering
Cons: Expanding the file by including a new block in the middle
of the sequence - difficult
Linked allocation
each file block is assigned to some disk block
each disk block has a pointer to next block of the sequence
file expansion is easy; but scanning is slow
Mixed allocation

Prof P Sreenivasa Kumar

Department of CS&E, IITM

Operations on Files
Insertion of a new record: may involve searching for appropriate
location for the new record
Deletion of a record: locating a record may involve search;
delete the record may involve movement of other records
Update a record field/fields: equivalent to delete and insert
Search for a record: given value of a key field / non-key field
Range search: given range values for a key / non-key field
How successfully we can carry out these operations
depends on the organization of the file and the availability
of indexes
Prof P Sreenivasa Kumar
Department of CS&E, IITM

Primary File Organization

The logical policy / method used for placing records into file blocks
Example: Student file - organized to have students records sorted
in increasing order of the rollNo values
Goal: To ensure that operations performed frequently on the file
execute fast
conflicting demands may be there
example: on student file, access based on rollNo and also
access based on name may both be frequent
we choose to make rollNo access fast
For making name access fast, additional access structures
are needed.
- more details later
Prof P Sreenivasa Kumar
Department of CS&E, IITM

Different File Organization Methods

We will discuss Heap files, Sorted files and Hashed files
Heap file:
Records are appended to the file as they are inserted
Simplest organization
Insertion - Read the last file block, append the record and
write back the block - easy
Locating a record given values for any attribute
requires scanning the entire file very costly
Heap files are often used only along with other access structures.

Prof P Sreenivasa Kumar

Department of CS&E, IITM

Sorted files / Sequential files (1/2)

Ordering field: The field whose values are used for sorting the
records in the data file
Ordering key field: An ordering field that is also a key
Sorted file / Sequential file:
Data file whose records are arranged such that the values of the
ordering field are in ascending order
Locating a record given the value X of the ordering field:
Binary search can be performed
Address of the nth file block can be obtained from
the file header
O(log N) disk accesses to get the required block- efficient
Range search is also efficient
Prof P Sreenivasa Kumar
Department of CS&E, IITM

10

Sorted files / Sequential files (2/2)

Inserting a new record:
Ordering gets affected
costly as all blocks following the block in which insertion is
performed may have to be modified
Hence not done directly in the file
all inserted records are kept in an auxiliary file
periodically file is reorganized - auxiliary file and main file
are merged
locating record
carried out first on auxiliary file and then the main file.
Deleting a record
deletion markers are used.
Prof P Sreenivasa Kumar
Department of CS&E, IITM

11

Hashed Files
Very useful file organization, if quick access to the data record is
needed given the value of a single attribute.
Hashing field: The attribute on which quick access is needed and
on which hashing is performed
Data file: organized as a buckets with numbers 0,1, , (M 1)
(bucket - a block or a few consecutive blocks)
Hash function h: maps the values from the domain of the hashing
attribute to bucket numbers

Prof P Sreenivasa Kumar

Department of CS&E, IITM

12

Inserting Records into a Hashed File

Insertion: for the given record R,
apply h on the value of hashing
attribute to get the bucket number r.
If there is space in bucket r,
place R there else place R in the
overflow chain of bucket r.

Overflow
chain

The overflow chains of all the

buckets are maintained in the
overflow buckets.
M-1

Overflow
buckets
Main buckets

Prof P Sreenivasa Kumar

Department of CS&E, IITM

13

Deleting Records from a Hashed File

0

Deletion: Locate the record R to be

deleted by applying h.
Remove R from its bucket/overflow
chain. If possible, bring a record from
the overflow chain into the bucket
Search: Given the hash filed value
k, compute r = h(k). Get the bucket
r and search for the record. If not
found, search the overflow chain
of bucket r.

Overflow
chain

M-1

Overflow
buckets
Main buckets

Prof P Sreenivasa Kumar

Department of CS&E, IITM

14

Performance of Static Hashing

Static hashing:
The hashing method discussed so far
The number of main buckets is fixed
Locating a record given the value of the hashing attribute
most often one block access
Capacity of the hash file C = r * M records
(r - no. of records per bucket, M - no. of main buckets)
Disadvantage with static hashing:
If actual records in the file is much less than C
wastage of disk space
If actual records in the file is much more than C
long overflow chains degraded performance
Prof P Sreenivasa Kumar
Department of CS&E, IITM

15

Hashing for Dynamic File Organization

Dynamic files
files where record insertions and deletion take place frequently
the file keeps growing and also shrinking
Hashing for dynamic file organization
Bucket numbers are integers
The binary representation of bucket numbers
Exploited cleverly to devise dynamic hashing schemes
Two schemes
Extendible hashing
Linear hashing

Prof P Sreenivasa Kumar

Department of CS&E, IITM

16

Extendible Hashing (1/2)

The k-bit sequence corresponding to a record R:
Apply hashing function to the value of the hashing field of R
to get the bucket number r
Convert r into its binary representation to get the bit sequence
Take the trailing k bits

Prof P Sreenivasa Kumar

Department of CS&E, IITM

17

Extendible Hashing (2/2)

Local depth
2

The # of
trailing
bits used in
the directory

Global depth d=3

000
001
010
011
100
101
110
111
Directory

The number of bits in the

common suffix of bit
sequences corresponding to
the records in the bucket

3
2

All records with 2-bit

Sequence 01

3
3

All records with 3-bit

Sequence 111

Locating a record
Match the d-bit sequence with an entry in the directory and go to
the corresponding bucket to find the record
Prof P Sreenivasa Kumar
Department of CS&E, IITM

18

Insertion in Extendible Hashing Scheme (1/2)

2 - bit sequence for the record to be inserted: 00
b0
full
00
01
10
11

b1

b2

b0
1
00
01
10
11

d=2

d=2

b3
b1
b2
all local
depth = 2

b0 Full:

Bucket b0 is split
All records whose 2-bit sequence is 10 are
sent to a new bucket b3. Others are retained in b0
Directory is modified.
b0 Not full: New record is placed in b0. No changes in the directory.
Prof P Sreenivasa Kumar
Department of CS&E, IITM

19

Insertion in Extendible Hashing Scheme (2/2)

2 - bit sequence for the record to be inserted: 10
b0

00
01
10
11
d=2

000
001
010
011
100
101
110
111

b1

full

b3
b2
all local
depth = 2

d=3

b0

b1

b3

b4

b2

b3 not full: new record placed in b3. No changes.

b3 full : b3 is split, directory is doubled, all records with 3-bit
sequence 110 sent to b4. Others in b3.
In general, if the local depth of the bucket to be split is equal to the
global depth, directory is doubled
Prof P Sreenivasa Kumar
Department of CS&E, IITM

20

Deletion in Extendible Hashing Scheme

b0

00
01
10
11
d=2

000
001
010
011
100
101
110
111

b1
b3
b2
all local
depth = 2

d=3

b0

b1

b3

b4

b2

Matching pair of data buckets:

k-bit sequences have a common k-1 bit suffix, e.g, b3 & b4
Due to deletions, if a pair of matching data buckets
-- become less than half full try to merge them into one bucket
If the local depth of all buckets is one less than the global depth
-- reduce the directory to half its size
Prof P Sreenivasa Kumar
Department of CS&E, IITM

21

Extendible Hashing Example

Bucket capacity 2
Insert 45,22

Initial buckets = 1
0

Global
depth

Insert 12

45
22
1

1
0
1

Local depth

22
12
1

45

101101

22

10110

12

1100

11

1011

Bucket overflows
local depth = global depth
Directory doubles and split image
is created

45

Insert 11

1
1
0
1

22
12
1
45
11
Prof P Sreenivasa Kumar
Department of CS&E, IITM

22

Insert 15

1
22
12
2

2
45

00
01
10
11

Overflow occurs.
Global depth = local depth
Directory doubles and split occurs

2
11
15

Insert 10

2
12
2
2
00
01
10
11

45
2
10
22

45

101101

22

10110

12

1100

11

1011

15

1111

10

1010

Overflows occurs.
Since local depth < global depth
Split image is created
Directory is not doubled

2
11
15
Prof P Sreenivasa Kumar
Department of CS&E, IITM

23

Linear Hashing
Does not require a separate directory structure
Uses a family of hash functions h0, h1, h2,.
the range of hi is double the range of hi-1
hi(x) = x mod 2iM
M - the initial no. of buckets
(Assume that the hashing field is an integer)
Initial hash functions
h0(x) = x mod M
h1(x) = x mod 2M

Prof P Sreenivasa Kumar

Department of CS&E, IITM

24

Insertion (1/3)
Initially the structure has M main buckets
( 0 ,, M-1 ) and a few overflow buckets

0
Overflow
buckets
1

To insert a record with hash field value x,

place the record in bucket ho(x)

When the first overflow in any bucket occurs:

Say, overflow occurred in bucket s
M-1
Insert the record in the overflow chain of bucket s
Create a new bucket M
M
Split the bucket 0 by using h1
Some records stay in bucket 0 and
some go to bucket M.
Prof P Sreenivasa Kumar
Department of CS&E, IITM

.
.

Split image
of bucket 0

25

Insertion (2/3)
0

On first overflow,
irrespective of where it occurs, bucket 0 is split
1
On subsequent overflows
buckets 1, 2, 3, are split in that order
(This why the scheme is called linear hashing) 2
N: the next bucket to be split
After M overflows,
M-1
all the original M buckets are split.
We switch to hash functions h1, h2
and set N = 0.
M
ho
h1

h1
h2

hi
hi+1

Prof P Sreenivasa Kumar

Department of CS&E, IITM

.
.
.

Split
images

M+1
.
.

26

Nature of Hash Functions

hi(x) = x mod 2iM. Let M' = 2iM
Note that if hi(x) = k then x = M'r + k, k < M'
and hi+1(x) = (M'r + k) mod 2M' = k or M' + k
Since,
r even (M'2s + k) mod 2M' = k
r odd ( M'(2s + 1) + k ) mod 2M' = M' + k
M' the current number of original buckets.

Prof P Sreenivasa Kumar

Department of CS&E, IITM

27

Insertion (3/3)
Say the hash functions in use are hi, hi+1
To insert record with hash field value x,
Compute hi(x)
if hi(x) < N, the original bucket is already split
place the record in bucket hi+1(x)
else place the record in bucket hi(x)

Prof P Sreenivasa Kumar

Department of CS&E, IITM

28

Linear Hashing Example

Initial Buckets = 1 Bucket capacity = 2 records
Hash functions
h0 = x mod 1
h1 = x mod 2

Split pointer
0

Insert 12, 11
N

Insert 14
0

12
11

B0 overflows
Bucket pointed by
N is split
Hash functions are
changed

Prof P Sreenivasa Kumar

Department of CS&E, IITM

12
14

11

h0 = x mod 2
h1 = x mod 4

29

Insert 13
N
0

12
14

12

11
13

14

N 0

12

9
13

14
10

11

h0 = x mod 2
h1 = x mod 4

Insert 9
N

B1 overflows
B0 is split using h1
and split image
is created

11
13

Insert 10
0

12

Insert 18
N
1

11
13

14
10

h1 is
applied here

overflow at B2
split B1
h0 = x mod 4
h1 = x mod 8

Prof P Sreenivasa Kumar

Department of CS&E, IITM

18

30

Index Structures
Index: A disk data structure
enables efficient retrieval of a record
given the value (s) of certain attributes
indexing attributes
Primary Index:
Index built on ordering key field of a file
Clustering Index:
Index built on ordering non-key field of a file
Secondary Index:
Index built on any non-ordering field of a file
Prof P Sreenivasa Kumar
Department of CS&E, IITM

31

Primary Index
Can be built on ordered / sorted files
Index attribute ordering key field (OKF)
Index Entry:

value of OKF for

the first record of
a block Bj

disk address
of Bj

101
104
.
.
.
.

101
121
129
.
.
.
.

Index file: ordered file (sorted on OKF)

240
size-no. of blocks in the data file
Index file blocking factor BFi = B/(V +P)
(B-block size, V-OKF size, P-block pointer size)
- generally more than data file blocking factor
No of Index file blocks bi = b/BFi
Ordering key
(b - no. of data file blocks)
(RollNo)

Prof P Sreenivasa Kumar

Department of CS&E, IITM

121
123

.
.
.
.

129
130

.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.

240
244
.

.
.
.

Data
file
32

Record Access Using Primary Index

Given Ordering key field (OKF) value: x
Carry out binary search on the index file
m value of OKF for the first record in the middle block k of
the index file
x < m: do binary search on blocks 0 (k 1) of index file
x m: if there is an index entry in block k with OKF value x,
use the corresponding block pointer,
get the data file block and
search for the data record with OKF value x
else do binary search on blocks k +1,, bi of index file
Maximum block accesses required: log2 bi

Prof P Sreenivasa Kumar

Department of CS&E, IITM

33

An Example
Data file:
No. of blocks b = 9500
Block size B = 4KB
OKF length V = 15 bytes
Block pointer length p = 6 bytes
Index file
No. of records ri = 9500
Size of entry V + P = 21 bytes
Blocking factor BFi = 4096/21 = 195
No. of blocks bi = ri/BFi = 49
Max No. of block accesses for getting record
using the primary index
Max No. of block accesses for getting record
without using primary index
Prof P Sreenivasa Kumar
Department of CS&E, IITM

1 + log2 bi = 7
log2b = 14
34

Making the Index Multi-level

Index file itself an ordered file
another level of index can be built
Multilevel Index
Successive levels of indices are built till the last level has one block
height no. of levels
block accesses: height + 1
(no binary search required)

9500
entries
49 entries
.
.
.
.

For the example data file:

Second level
No of block accesses required with index
1 block
multi-level primary index: 3
without any index: 14
Prof P Sreenivasa Kumar
Department of CS&E, IITM

.
.
.
.
.
.

First level
index
49 blocks

data file
9500 blocks

35

Range Search, Insertion and Deletion

Range search on the ordering key field:
Get records with OKF value between x1 and x2 (inclusive)
Use the index to locate the record with OKF value x1 and read
succeeding records till OKF value exceeds x2.
Very efficient
Insertion: Data file keep 25% of space in each block free
-- to take care of future insertions
index doesn't get changed
-- or use overflow chains for blocks that overflow
Deletion: Handle using deletion markers so that index doesnt get
affected
Basically, avoid changes to index
Prof P Sreenivasa Kumar
Department of CS&E, IITM

36

Clustering Index
Built on ordered files where ordering field is not a key
Index attribute: ordering field (OF)
Index entry:

Distinct value Vi address of the first

of the OF
block that has a record with OF value Vi

Index file: Ordered file (sorted on OF)

size no. of distinct values of OF

Prof P Sreenivasa Kumar

Department of CS&E, IITM

37

Secondary Index
Built on any non-ordering field (NOF) of a data file.
Case I: NOF is also a key (Secondary key)
value of the NOF Vi pointer to the record with Vi as the NOF value

Case II: NOF is not a key: two options

(1)

value of the NOF Vi pointer(s) to the record(s) with Vi as the NOF value

(2)

value of the NOF Vi pointer to a block that has pointer(s) to the record(s)
with Vi as the NOF value

Remarks:
(1) index entry variable length record
(2) index entry fixed length One more level of indirection
Prof P Sreenivasa Kumar
Department of CS&E, IITM

38

Secondary Index (key)

Can be built on ordered and also other type of files
Index attribute: non-ordering key field
Index entry: value of the NOF Vi pointer to the record with Vi as the NOF value
Index file: ordered file (sorted on NOF values)
No. of entries same as the no. of records in the data file
Index file blocking factor Bfi = B/(V+Pr)
(B: block size, V: length of the NOF,
Pr: length of a record pointer)
Index file blocks = r/Bfi
(r no. of records in the data file)
Prof P Sreenivasa Kumar
Department of CS&E, IITM

39

An Example
Data file:
No. of records r = 90,000
Block size B = 4KB
Record length R = 100 bytes BF = 4096/100 = 40,
b = 90000/40 = 2250
NOF length V = 15 bytes
length of a record pointer Pr = 7 bytes
Index file :
No. of records ri = 90,000
record length = V + Pr = 22 bytes
BFi = 4096/22 = 186
No. of blocks bi = 90000/186 = 484
Max no. of block accesses to get a record
using the secondary index
1 + log2bi = 10
Avg no. of block accesses to get a record
without using the secondary index
b/2 = 1125
A very significant improvement
Prof P Sreenivasa Kumar
Department of CS&E, IITM

40

Multi-level Secondary Indexes

Secondary indexes can also be converted to multi-level indexes
First level index
as many entries as there are records in the data file
First level index is an ordered file
so, in the second level index, the number of entries will be
equal to the number of blocks in the first level index
rather than the number of records
Similarly in other higher levels

Prof P Sreenivasa Kumar

Department of CS&E, IITM

41

Making the Secondary Index Multi-level

Multilevel Index
Successive levels of indices are built
till the last level has one block
height no. of levels
block accesses: height + 1

data file
90000
records
90000
entries

3 entries 484 entries

1 block

For the example data file:

No of block accesses required:
multi-level index: 4
single level index: 10

.
.
.
.

Second level
index
First level
3 blocks
index
484 blocks

Prof P Sreenivasa Kumar

Department of CS&E, IITM

.
.
.
.
.
.

2250
blocks

42

Index Sequential Access Method (ISAM) Files

ISAM files
Ordered files with a multilevel primary/clustering index
Insertions:
Handled using overflow chains at data file blocks
Deletions:
Handled using deletion markers
Most suitable for files that are relatively static
If the files are dynamic, we need to go for dynamic multi-level
index structures based on B+- trees
Prof P Sreenivasa Kumar
Department of CS&E, IITM

43

B+- trees
Balanced search trees
all leaves are at the same level
Leaf node entries point to the actual data records
all leaf nodes are linked up as a list
Internal node entries carry only index information
In B-trees, internal nodes carry data records also
The fan-out in B-trees is less
Makes sure that blocks are always at least half filled
Supports both random and sequential access of records
Prof P Sreenivasa Kumar
Department of CS&E, IITM

44

Order
Order (m) of an Internal Node
Order of an internal node is the maximum number of tree
pointers held in it.
Maximum of (m-1) keys can be present in an internal node
Order (mleaf) of a Leaf Node
Order of a leaf node is the maximum number of record
pointers held in it. It is equal to the number of keys in a
leaf node.

Prof P Sreenivasa Kumar

Department of CS&E, IITM

45

Internal Nodes
An internal node of a B+- tree of order m:
m
It contains at least 2 pointers, except when it is the root node
It contains at most m pointers.
If it has P1, P2, , Pj pointers with
K1 < K2 < K3 < Kj-1 as keys, where

m
2

j m, then

P1 points to the subtree with records having key value x K1

Pi (1 < i < j) points to the subtree with records having
key value x such that Ki-1 < x Ki
Pj points to records with key value x > Kj-1
Prof P Sreenivasa Kumar
Department of CS&E, IITM

46

Internal Node Structure

m
2

j m
P1 K 1 P2 K 2

x K1

Ki-1 Pi

Ki

Ki-1 < x Ki

Example

x 2

12

Kj-1 Pj

Kj-1 < x

2 < x 5 5 < x 12
Prof P Sreenivasa Kumar
Department of CS&E, IITM

x > 12

47

Leaf Node Structure

Structure of leaf node of B+- of order mleaf :
It contains one block pointer P to point to next leaf node
At least m leaf record pointers and m leaf key values
2
2
At most mleaf record pointers and key values
If a node has keys K1 < K2 < < Kj with Pr1, Pr2 Prj as record
pointers and P as block pointer, then
Pri points to record with Ki as the search field value, 1 i j
P points to next leaf block

K1 Pr1 K2 Pr2

K j Pj

Prof P Sreenivasa Kumar

Department of CS&E, IITM

48

Order Calculation
Block size: B, Size of Indexing field: V
Size of block pointer: P, Size of record pointer: Pr
Order of Internal node (m):
As there can be at most m block pointers and (m-1) keys
(m*P) + ((m-1) * V) B
m can be calculated by solving the above equation.
Order of leaf node:
As there can be at most mleaf record pointers and keys
with one block pointer in a leaf node,
mleaf can be calculated by solving
(mleaf * (Pr + V)) + P B
Prof P Sreenivasa Kumar
Department of CS&E, IITM

49

Example Order Calculation

Given B = 512 bytes V = 8 bytes
P = 6 bytes Pr = 7 bytes. Then
Internal node order m = ?
m * P + ((m-1) *V) B
m * 6 + ((m-1) *8) 512
14m 520
m 37
Leaf order mleaf = ?
mleaf (Pr + V) + P 512
mleaf (7 + 8) + 6 512
15mleaf 506
mleaf 33
Prof P Sreenivasa Kumar
Department of CS&E, IITM

50

Example B+- tree

m = 3 mleaf = 2

Prof P Sreenivasa Kumar

Department of CS&E, IITM

12 15 ^

51

Insertion into B+- trees

1. Every node is inserted at leaf level
If leaf node overflows, then
Node is split at j = (mleaf + 1)
2

First j entries are kept in original node

Entities from j+1 are moved to new node
jth key value is replicated in the parent of the leaf.
If Internal node overflows
Node is split at j = (m + 1)
2

Values and pointers up to Pj are kept in original node

jth key value is moved to parent of the internal node
Pj+1 to the rest of entries are moved to new node.
Prof P Sreenivasa Kumar
Department of CS&E, IITM

52

Example of Insertions
m = 3 mleaf = 2
Insert 20, 11

14

Insert 14

- ^

1
11

20 ^

Overflow. leaf is split

at j = (m leaf + 1) = 2
2
14 is replicated to upper level

Insert 25
Inserted at
leaf level

11

14

11

14

- ^
20

14

Prof P Sreenivasa Kumar

Department of CS&E, IITM

- ^

Insert 30
Overflow.
25 ^
split at 25.
25 is moved
up

20

14

11

14

25

20

25

30

53

Insert 12

Overflow at leaf level.

- Split at leaf level,
- Triggers overflow at internal node
- Split occurs at internal node

14

12

11

12

- ^

14

25

20

25

Internal node split

at j = m
2
split at 14 and 14 is
moved up

- ^

30

Prof P Sreenivasa Kumar

Department of CS&E, IITM

54

Insert 22
14

12
11 12

Insert 23, 24
12

11

12

- ^

22 25

14

20

14

25

22

30

20 22

24
22

- ^
14

- ^

25

23

24

Prof P Sreenivasa Kumar

Department of CS&E, IITM

25

30

55

Deletion in B+- trees

Delete the entry from the leaf node
Delete the entry if it is present in Internal node and replace with
the entry to its left in that position.
If underflow occurs after deletion
Distribute the entries from left sibling
if not possible Distribute the entries from right sibling
if not possible Merge the node with left and right sibling

Prof P Sreenivasa Kumar

Department of CS&E, IITM

56

Example
14

22

12

11

12

24

14

20 22

25

23

24

25

30

Delete 20
14

12

Removed entry
from leaf here

22

12

11

24

14

22

25

23

24

Prof P Sreenivasa Kumar

Department of CS&E, IITM

25

30

57

Delete 22
14

24
23

12
14

11 12

23

25

24

25

Entry 22 is removed
from leaf and
internal node
Entries from right
sibling are
distributed to left
30

Delete 24
14
23 25

12

11

12

14

23

25

Prof P Sreenivasa Kumar

Department of CS&E, IITM

30

58

Delete 14
12
23 25

11

11

12

23

25

30

Delete 12
Level drop has occurred

23 25
11

23

25

30

Prof P Sreenivasa Kumar

Department of CS&E, IITM

59

Advantages of B+- trees:

1) Any record can be fetched in equal number of disk accesses.
2) Range queries can be performed easily as leaves are linked up
3) Height of the tree is less as only keys are used for indexing
4) Supports both random and sequential access.

Disadvantages of B+- trees:

Insert and delete operations are complicated
Root node becomes a hotspot
Prof P Sreenivasa Kumar
Department of CS&E, IITM

60