GAUSS'S LAW ‘This child acaures an electric charge by touching the charged metal sphere. © The charged hairs on the chic's head repel and stand out. Ifthe chid stands Inside a large, charged metal sphere, wil her hair stand on end? ‘may involve nothing more than using the right tools. In physics, an impor tant tool for simplifying problems is the symmetry properties of systems, ‘Many physical systems have symmetry; for example, a cylindrical body doesn't look any different after you've rotated it around its axis, and a charged metal sphere looks just the same after you've turned it about any axis through its center. ‘Gauss’s law is part of the key to using symmetry considerations to simplify clectrie-feld calculations. For example, the field ofa straight-line or plane-sheet charge distribution, which we derived in Section 21.5 using some fairly strenuous integrations, can be obtained in a few lines with the help of Gauss’s law, But ‘Gauss law is more than just a way to make certain calculations easier. Indeed, it is a fundamental statement about the relationship between electric charges and clectri fields. Among other things, Gauss’s law can help us understand how elec: tric charge distributes itself over conducting bodies, Here's what Gauss's law is all bout, Given any general distribution of charge, wwe surround it with an imaginary surface that encloses the charge. Then we look at the electric field at various points on this imaginary surface. Gauss’s law is @ ‘relationship between the field at aif the points on the surface and the total charge. ‘enclosed within the surface. This may sound like a rather indirect way of express ing things, but it tums out to be a tremendously useful relationship. Above and beyond its use as a calculational tool, Gauss’s law can help us gain deeper insights into electric fields. We will make use of these insights repeatedly in the next several chapters as we pursue our study of electromagnetism, O ften, there are both an easy way and a hard way to do a job; the easy way 22.1 Charge and Electric Flux In Chapter 21 we asked the question, “Given a charge distribution, what is the electri field produced by that distribution at a point P2" We saw that the answer ‘could be found by representing the distribution as an assembly of point charges, LEARNING GOALS By studying this chapter you wit ‘+ How you can determine the amount by harge within a closed sur ‘examining the lace fed on ths surface, ‘+ What is meant by sects Mux, ana how to caleuate + How Gause's aw relates the elctic ‘tux through a closed suriace to the charge enciosed by tne sutace ‘+ How to use Gauss's law to caleuste the ote fed ue toa symmetre carged conductor, The discussion of Gauss law in this section is based on and inspired by the innovative ideas of Ruth W. Chabay and Brice A. Sherwood in Electric and ‘Magnetic Ineractions (Job Wiley & Sons, 1994), 725726 CHAPTER 22 Gouss's Low Masteringp $ ingpHysies Atveyses 1.7: Bec Fux 22.1. How can you measure the c ide box without opening it? (@) A box containing an unknown amount of chaige (©) Using atest charge ouside she box 1 probe the amount of charge aside the box E XK ttics cach of which produces an eecre eld given by Bq, (21.7). The oa eld at P is then the vetr sum ofthe fields due tal the point charges But there san allemative relationship between charge distributions and clee- ti feds To discover thi lationship, fet stand the question of Chapter 21 on itshead and ask, "Il the electric ld patem i own na given region, what can te determine about the charge disbution in hat region?” Here's an example. Consider the box shown in Fig. 2.Ia, which may or may not contain elect charg, Well imagine tha the box is made ofa material tht has no effect on any let fields; of the sume breed asthe massless rope and the fctiontessinene. Bete stil let the box represent an imaginary surface that tay t may not enclose some charge. We'll refer tothe box a8 a Because i completely encloses a volume. How ean you determine how much any) electric charge les within the box? ‘Knowing tha a charge distribution produces an clete field and that an clee- tic eld exerts a force ona test charge, you move atest charge yp around the vicinity ofthe box. By measuring the force F experienced by te lest charge at ifr posions, you make a three dimensional map of the elcte eld E = Fay ouside the box. Inthe case shown in Fig. 2.15, the map tums out to be the’ same as that ofthe cleetrie field predced by a postive point charge (Fig. 21.28), From the details ofthe map, you can find the exact value of the point charge inside the box "To determine the contents of the box, we actully need to measure E AVA) Tn Fig. 22.2 there is a single postive pent charge inside the box. and in Fig. 22.26 there are two such charges. The Red patterns onthe surfaces of the boxes ae differnt in deta, but in each case the electric field point ou ofthe box. Figures 22.2¢ and 2224 show cass with one and Wo neg- trie point charges, respectively, inside the box. Again, the detail of are fer Gat forthe wo eases, but he elect ed points inv cach box Electric Flux and Enclosed Charge In Section 21.4 we mentioned the analogy between lected vectors andthe velocity vetos of ud in motion, This analogy can be helpful, even though an let field does not actually “ow:" Using this analogy in Figs. 22.24 and 22.26, in which the electric field vectors point out ofthe surface, we sty that there is an outward else Mk. (The word "lx" comes from Latin word meaning “ow") In Figs, 22.2 and 22.24 the vectors point into the surface, and the elect fx is nad igure 222 suggests a simple relationship: Posie charge inside the box goes with an oulvard eesre Mux through the bors surface, and negative charge inside goes wih an inward elect Hx. What happens if tere is ero charge 22.2 The clecrc field onthe surface of boxes containing (2) a single positive point charge, (b) wo positive point charges, (© asingle negative point charg, or (d) two negative point charges. (@) Positive charge inside box, (6) Positive charges inside box, (©) Negative charge inside box, _ (4) Negasive charps inside box, corward fun outward hee inward fax inward faxinside the box? In Fig, 22.38 the box is empty and = 0 everywhere, so there is ro electric fux into or out ofthe box. In Fig. 22.3b, one positive and one negative point charge of equal magnitude are enclosed within the box, so the net charge inside the box is zero. There is an electric field, but it “flows into” the box on half of its surface and “flows out of” the box on the other half. Hence there is inlo oF out ofthe box. ‘The box is again empty in Fig 22.3c. However, there is charge present outside the box; the box has been placed with one end parallel to a uniformly charged infinite sheet, which produces a uniform clectric field perpendicular tothe sheet (as we learned in Example 21.11 of Section 21.5). On one end of the box, E pints into the box; on the opposite end, & points out of the box; and onthe sides, E is parallel to the surface and so points neither into nor out of the box. As in Fig. 22.3 the inward electric fux on one part of the box exactly compensates for the outward electric flux on the other part So inal of the cases shown in Fig. 22.3 there is no ner electric flux through the surface of the box, and no net charge is cenclosed in the box. Figures 22.2 and 22.3 demonstrate a connection between the sign (positive, negative, of 7er0) of the net charge enclosed by a closed surface and the sense (outward, inward, oF none) of the net electric flux through the surface. There is also a conneetion between the ofthe net charge inside the closed sur- face and the of E over the surface. In both Figs. 22.4a ‘and 22.4b there isa single point charge inside the box, but in Fig. 22.40 the mag- nitude of the charge is twice as great, and so E is everywhere twice as great in ‘magnitude as in Fig 22.42. If we keep in mind the fluid-Row analogy, this means that the net outward electric ux is also twice as great in Fig. 22.4b as in Fi 2.da. This suggests that This conclusion is independent of the size ofthe box. In Fig. 22.4c the point charge “ris enclosed by box with twice the linear dimensions ofthe box in Fig, 224a, The magnitude of te electric eld of a point charge decreases with distance according to 1/r2, so the average magnitude of E on cach face of the large borin Fig. 22.4c is just ofthe average magnitude onthe coresponding face in Fig. 2.4, But each face of the lage box has enacly four times the area ofthe corresponding face of the small box. Hence the outward electric Mux isthe Same forthe two boxes if we define electric fsx a follows: For eah face of the box, take the product of the average perpendicular component of and the area ofthat face; then add up the results from all faces of the box. With this definition the net electric Mux due toa single point charge inside the box is independent of the size ofthe box and depends only onthe net charge inside the box. 22.1. Charge and Electric Fixx 71 22.3. Thyee cases in which there is zero ne charge inside a box and no net electric flux through the surface ofthe box. (2) An empty box with E = 0. (b) A box containing one positive and one equal-magnitude negative point charge. (c) An empty box immersed in & uniform eletic Feld. (@)Nochurge inside box, (B) Zero net charge inside box, (©)No charge ise box, ero ux inward ux eanels outward ux. inward ux ances outward fax, Fe Uniformly charged sheet728 CHAPTER 22 Gouss's Low 22.4 (2) Abox enclosing a positive point charge +g. (b) Doubling the charge causes the magnitude of Eto double, and it dou- bles the electric lux through the surface, (© Whe charge stays the same but the dimensions ofthe box are doubled, the flux stays the same. The magnitude of # on the surface decreases by a factor of area through which £ “flows” in ‘factor of 4 (@) A box containing a charge () oabing the enclosed charge oubles the hx (© Doubling he box dimensions does nt change the Hx ‘To summarize, forthe special cases of a closed surface inthe shape of a rectan- gular box and charge distributions made up of point charges or infinite charged sheets, we have found: 1, Whether there is a net outward or inward electric flux through a closed sur- face depends on the sign of the enclosed charge. 2. Charges outside the surface do not give a net electric flux through the sur- face. 3. The net electric flux is directly proportional to the net amount of charge enclosed within the surface but is otherwise independent of the size of the closed surface. ‘These observations are a qualitative statement of Gauss's law, Do these observations hold true for other kinds of charge distributions and for closed surfaces of arbitrary shape? The answer to these questions will prove to be yes. But to explain why this is so, we need a precise mathematical statement of ‘what we mean by electric lux, We develop this in the next section, Test Your Understanding of Section 22.1 Ialathedinenion of (> the box ini. 22 are incened by afar of, wht eect wi ischage OJ have onthe cc ux though he ox? ¢) Te x willbe 3° = 9 umes, trevor) sib ne rr) ete been he felbe} a geal (ten willbe J)" = as rea (0) nt enough informations siven deo \ 22.2 Calculating Electric Flux In the preceding section we introduced the concept of electric flux. We used this, to give a rough qualitative statement of Gauss's law: The net electric flux through a closed surface is directly proportional to the net charge inside that surface. To bee able to make full use of this law, we need to know how to calculate electric flux. To do this, let's again make use of the analogy between an clectric ficld E and the field of velocity vectors ¥ in a flowing fluid. (Again, keep in mind that this is only an analogy; an electri field is not a flow.) Flux: Fluid-Flow Analogy Figure 22.5 shows a Suid flowing steadily from left to right, Let's examine the volume flow rate dV Gn, say, cubic meters per second) through the wire reetan- gle with area A. When the aca is porpencicular to the low velocity 6 (Fig. 22.58) and the low velocity is the same at all points inthe fluid, the volume flow rate Vat isthe area A multiplied by the flow speed 0 vy dt " ‘When the rectangle is tilted at an angle ¢ (Fig. 2.5b) so that its face isnot per- pendicular to 1, the area that counts is the silhouette area that we see when we look in the direction of 8. This area, which is outlined in red and labeled A, in Fig. 22.5b, i the project ofthe area A onto a surface perpendicular to 6. Two sides of the projected rectangle have the same length as the original one, but the other two are foreshortened by a factor of cos b, so the projected area A, is equal to Acos¢. Then the volume flow rate through A is aw dr Aco If 6 = 90°, dV/dr = 0; the wire rectangle is edge-on to the flow, and no fluid passes through the rectangle.Aso, veosd is the component of the vector & perpendicular othe plane of te area A. Calling this component v,. we can rewste the volume flow rte as w Beua Wie can expres the volume flow rate more compactly by using the concept of (tor aed a vector quantity with magnitude A and a direction perpendicular to the plane ofthe arca we are deserbing. The vector area A describes both the size ofan area and its orentaton in space In tems ofA, we ean wrt the volume How rat of fig through the rectangle in Fig, 22.56 as sealer (0 product Wg at Flux of a Uniform Electric Field Using the analogy between elect field and uid flow, we now define elect flux inthe same way as we have just defined the volume flow rate ofa fluid; we simply replace the fluid velocity & by the electic field E. The symbol that we use for elecri flux is by (the capital Greek letter phi the subscript Fis a reminder that this is Consider first a Nat area A perpendicular to a uniform leet field & (Fig. 2.6a). We define the electric flux through this area tobe the product ofthe field magnitude E and the area A be Roughly speaking, we can picture pin terms ofthe fed lines passing through ‘A Increasing the area means that more lines of E passthrough the area, increas ing the flax; a stronger ficld means more closely spaced lines of E and therefore ‘more lines per unit area, so again the flux increases. If the ara Ais flat but not perpendicular to the fel& B, then fewer field lines passthrough it In this ease the are that count isthe shouette area that we sce ‘when looking inthe direction of This is the area A, in Fig. 22.6b and is equal to Acos¢ (compare to Fig. 22.58), We generalize our definition of elecric fox fora uniform electri field to FA p= EAcosd (electric fax fr uniform Ea surface) (201 Since Ecos¢ is the component of E perpendicular to the area, we can rewrite Eq, 22.1) as b= EA (electric flux for uniform E, flat surface) 2 2} In terms of the vector area A perpendicular tothe area, we can write the elec- tric x asthe scalar product of # and A Oe BA Equations (22.1), (22.2), and (22.3) express te electric flux for afar surface and 3 unfrm cee eld in desert but eulent was. Ee SL. fo det flux is 1 N-m'/C. Note that ifthe area is edge-on to the field, and A are per- pendicular and the ux is zero (Fig. 22.60). ‘We can represent the direction of a vector area by using a unit vector fi per- pendicular to the area; ft stands for “aérmal.” Then (clectric flux for uniform E, flat surface) (22.3) A=aa ‘A surface has two sides, so there are two possible directions for ft and A. We ‘ust always specify which direction we choose. In Section 22.1 we related the charge inside a closed surface to the electric flux through the surface. With a closed surface we will always choose the direction of fi to be ourward, and we e241 222 Calculating Electric Fux 729 22.5 The volume flow rte of uid ‘through the wire rectangle (a) i vA when the area of the rectangle is perpendicular to B and b) is vA cosd when te rectangle is tilled at an angle @. (@) A wire rectangle ina fis C= (©) The wire rectangle tied by an angle & ‘Application Flux Through a Basking ‘Shark's Mouth nike aggressive carnierous sharks such as (great whe, e backing shark feeds pase r planitan inthe waar Ue panes through Sh share li tsi To mr on ‘ce ty organisms requres 3 huge fur of ‘tr tiraugh baseg share rvmense ‘rout, whieh ean be up la mete cross ‘Te wot fhe proc of the sharks peed trough the water andthe arc oft ‘outh—oan be up ta 05 m7 (SOD ltrs par ‘cond, or amos: 5 % 19° gallons per hor). Ina eemlor way th Rx of eoczre Fold through {3 urface depanda onthe magriide of te “ia ana te ares of the surtace (os wel ase ‘ol eriottion othe Fld tn euro)730 CHAPTER 22 Gouss's Law 22.6 A fat surface in a niform electri fle, Te elects fax through he srfse equals the salar prodctof the lected # and the area vector (@) surface is face-o to electri i + Band are pale the wale between E Electric flux through () Surice iste rom a fae-o9 (9) Surface is edge-on to elected tentatio by an angle and A age perpendicular (he angle + The angle betwoen Band A is between B and is = 90°) + The fx be = BA = HA cos will speak of the flux out ofa closed surface, Thus what we called “atta €16S> ‘tric flux” Section 22.1 corresponds to a positive value of dg, and what we lled “inward electric flux” corresponds to a negative value of Pp. Flux of a Nonuniform Electric Field What happens ifthe electric field isnt uniform but vais from point to point over th area A? Or what i Ais par ofa curved surfs? Then we divide A into tuany al eleieafs dA, each of which has aunt veetoe& perpenicaa oi anda vecor aca dA = f dA. We calculate the lec fax through each clement and integrate the results o obtain hell ux oe J Ecos dA / Eda / Bak ee Om xa cl his igre ang Fhe component over he eo the surface integral of = dA. In specific problems, one form ofthe integral is sometimes more convenient than another. Example 223 atthe end of this section iastrates the use of Eq, 22.5). Inq, (25) the electri fux J, dA is equal to the VERGE WA ofthe per- pendicular component of the electric field, multiplied by the area ofthe surface. ‘This is the same definition of electric lux that we were led to in Section 22.1, now expressed more mathematically In the nent section we will se the connec. tion between the total electc flux through any closed surface, no matter what is shape, and the amount of charge enclosed within that surface Adisk of rads 0.10 mis orientes with ts normal unit westor# 22.7 The elecc x though a ik depends on he angle 2 30° toa uniform electric field of mageitude 20 % 10°N/C._ between is normal and he electric eld F (Fig. 22.7). (Since this isn’t a closed surface ‘or “outside.” That's why we have to specify the dtection of f it has ao “inside” 010m in the figure.) (a) What is the electric flux through the disk? (b) What is the flux through the disk if is turned so that fis perpendicular to #7 (¢) What is the ux through the disk i is parallel to £?Eo IDENTIFY and SET UP: This problem is about a Mat surface in a uniform electric eld, so we can apply the ideas ofthis section. We calculate the electric fux using Eq, (22.1) EXECUTE: (8) The area is A = (0.10)? = 0314 m? and the angle between Band A = Ai is 4 = 30° so from Eg. 22.1), by = EAcos = (2.0 x 10° N/C)(0.0314 m2) (cos 30°) 4 Nemec (b) The normal to the sk is now perpendicular B so 90", cos 6 = O.and te = 0 222 Colculating Electric Fix 781 (©) The nommal tothe disk is paralil 0 B, so 4 = 0 and 2.0 x 10° N/C)(0.0314 m?)(1) 3 Nom? /C EVALUATE: Asa check on our results, note that our answer to part () is smaller than that to part @), which isin turn smaller than that ‘to part ().Isall this ait should be? El i flux through ‘An imaginary cubical surface of side Lis in region of uniform ‘lecti Held B, Find the electri Hux through eack face ofthe cube ‘and the total lux through the cube when (a) iis oriented with 1Wo ofits faces perpendicular to B (Fig. 22.8a) and (b) the cube is tured by an angle (about a vertical axis (Fig. 22.86). En IDENTIFY and SET UP: Since Bis uniform and each of the six faces ofthe cube is Ma, we find the Mux ‘, through each face using Eqs. (22.3) and (22.4, The total flux trough the eube isthe ‘sum of the sx individual foxes. EXECUTE: (a) Figure 2.8a shows dhe unit vectors fy through fis for ‘each face; each unit vector points ounward from the cube’s closed, ‘surface, The angle berweon F and fy is 180°, the angle between F 22.8 Electric flux of a uniform field E through a cubical box of, Side L in two orientations. and fi is 0°, and the angle between # and each of the other four ‘unit vectors is 90°, Each fae ofthe cube has area L2, so the fluxes ‘through the faces are p= B + yA = El? cos 180° = -EL? pq — Bofigh = BL?e0s0" = +E? py = Oey = Ops = bpp = EL7c0sH = 0 “The fux is negative on face 1, where Eis directed into the cube, and positive on face 2, where B is directed out of the cube. The {otal fux through the cube is Bp = Vp = Dea = Op5 + Vey > Dey + Vey (b) The old B is dicted into fos 1 and 3, s0 the fuses through them are negatives is directed out of faces 2 ands the sxes through them are positive, We find EI? + FL? +0+0+0~ E008 6 EL2cos(180" ~ 8) +EL cost EL?cos(90° + 6) = —EL?sin 6 A= EL2cos(90° — 8) = +EL?sin ys = Pgs = EL?cos90" = 0 The tal ux Be = Pes + ea + Ora + Pee + es + Pes through the surface of he cube again 210 EVALUATE: We came to the same conclusion in our discussion of Fig. 22.3c: There is zero net flux of @ uniform electric field through ‘closed surface that contains no electric charg. FEREEIEED ttectric flux through a sphere |A point charge q= +30 uC is surounded by an imaginary sphere of radius r = 0.20m centered om the charge (Fig. 22.9) Find the resulting electie lux trough the sphere IDENTIFY and SET UP: The surface is not lal and the electric field {snot uniform, soto caeulate the electric flux (our argt variable) swe mustuse he general definition, Ha, (2.8) We use Ha, (2.8)10 Calculate the elec fax (our target Variable). Because the spere is eemered on the pont charge at any point on te spherical sur face, Eis dzected out of the sphere pempendvae to the surface ‘The postive devon for both and E, is outward, x0 E, andthe fx through a surface element dA is E44 ~ E dA This teal simplifies the integral in Ba. 25) Continued732 CHAPTER 22 Gouss's Low 22.9 Elecric flux though a sphere centered on a point charge. area of the spherical surface: A ~ 4r?. Hence the total ux ‘through the sphere is t aa yk erat é ~y g 30% 0c : + ee © eas 107 eae IP Nem , We would have obtained the same flux witha sphere of radius “ a a ey EXECUTE: We must evaluate the integral 20 mor 20m, We cam to essentially the stme conclusion in our discussion of Fig. 2.4 in Section 2.1, where we considered recta gular closed surfaces of two diferent sizes enclosing a point charge Eq, (22.5), y= There we found that the flux of was independent ofthe sizeof the JE dA, Avany point on the sphere of radius r the eect fed has surface; the same result holds true for a spherical surface. Indeed, Hence E the same magnitade E = 4/4 anbetaken ouside he fx though ony suf enciosng singe point cages inde the integral, which becomes >, = Ed = EA, where A is the pendentof the shape or sizeof the surface, as we'll soon see 22.10 Carl Friedrich Gauss helped fevcop sve branches of maha, inane geomet. tal ma Sis, and number theory, The “bell uve” tite mse an-ofthean ivesigatons of the car's magnet andeleulted the Oro teh sera o Be diced ‘Test Your Understanding of Section 22.2 Rank the following sur 7 lar surface with vector area A = (60m?) in uniform elec fed E = (40 N/C\p. Gi) a at circular surface with vector area = (30 mj in a uifoam ele eld E = (40N/C)ji + (2.0 N/Chj i) at square surface with vector area A= (3.0.2?) + (1.0m°\j ina uniform electric held E = (AON/C)i ~ (2ON/CV Gv) a Nat oval surface with vector area = (3.0.m?)i ~ (7.0 n°} in a uniform electic field B = (40N/C)i ~ (ON/CY. ' 22.3 Gauss’s Law GGT IAW is an altemative to Coulomb's law. While completely equivalent to Coulomb's law, Gauss's law provides a different way to express the relationship between electric charge and electric field It was formulated by Carl Friedrich Gauss (1777-1855), one of the greatest mathematicians of alltime (Fig. 22.10) Point Charge Inside a Spherical Surface Gauss’s law states thatthe total electric flux through any closed surface (a surface enclosing a definite volume) is proportional to the total (net) electric charge inside the surface. In Section 22.1 we observed this relationship qualitatively for certain special cases; now we'll develop it more rigorously. We'll start with the field of a single positive point charge g. The field lines radiate out equally in all directions. We place this charge at the center of an imaginary spherical surface with radius R. The magnitude £ of the electric field at every point on the surface is given by La Fre ‘At each point onthe surface, is perpendicular to the surface, and its magnitude isthe same at every point, just a in Example 22. (Setion 22.2). The total elec tric flux is the product of the field magnitude E and the total area A = 42rR? of the sphere: % o sen? ph Lee 220) time’) ire The fe is independent of the ras Rof the sphere depends only on the ccharge q enclosed by the sphere.‘We cam also interpret this sulin terms of field lines, Figure 22.11 shows two spheres with radi Rand 2R centered on the point charge q Every fil line that passes through the smaller sphere also pases through the larger sphere, so the total fax through each sphere i the same. ‘Whats tue of the entre sphere is also rue of any portion oft surface. In Fig. 22.1 an atea dA is outlined on the sphere of radius R and then projected conto the sphere of radius 2 by drawing lites fom the centr through points on the boundary of dA, The area projected on the larger sphere is clany 4 dA, But since the electric field due to a point charge is inversely proportional to r?, the fet magninde is as great on the sphere of radius 2 as on the sphere of radius BR. Hence the electe flux is the same for both areas and is independent of the radius ofthe sphere. Point Charge Inside a Nonspherical Surface ‘This projection technique shows us how to extend this discussion to nonspherical surfaces. Instead of a second sphere, let us surround the sphere of radius K by a surface of irregular shape, asin Fig, 22.12, Consider a small element of area dA fn the iregular surface; we note that this area is larger than the corresponding clement on a spherical surface at the same distance from q. Ifa normal to dA rakes an angle d with a radial line from g, two sides ofthe area projected onto the spherical surface are foreshortened by a factor cos¢ (Fig. 22.12b). The other two sides are unchanged. Thus th electric ux through the spherical surface ele- rent is equal tothe flux E dAcos through the corresponding irregular surface clement ‘We can divide the entire iregular surface into elements dA, compute the elec- tric flux E dA cos for each, and sum the results by integrating, as in Eq. (22.5) Each of the area elements projects onto a corresponding spherical surface ele- rent, Thus the fora electric flux through the irregular surface, given by any of the forms of Eq, (22.5), must be the same as the total ux through a sphere, ich Eg, (22.6) shows is equal to q/€o, Thus, forthe iregular surface, be fea-* (con * Equation (22.7) holds for a surface of any shape or size, provided only that itis @ (Gosed surface enclosing the charge q. The circle on the integral sign reminds us that the integrals always taken over a closed surface, ‘The area elements dA and the corresponding unit vectors f always point out of the volume enclosed by the surface, The elec Aux is then positive in areas © The projection of the aren element onto the spherical surface isdhcos 6. 22.3 Gouss's Law 783 22.41 Projection ofan element of area 4A of a sphere of radius R onto aconcentic ‘phere of radius 2R. The projection mult- plies each linear dimension by 2, so the area element onthe larger sphere is 4d, “The same numberof fie lines and he same sux pas through both ofthese area elements. 22.12 Calculating the electric Mux {rough a nonspherical surface734 CHAPTER 22 Gouss's Low 22.413 A point charge outside a closed ‘surface that encloses no charge. Iran lect field line from the external charge enters the surface atone point, it must leave at another. E Fit ine fering surface Samm Feld ine leaving surface where the electc field poins out ofthe surface and negative where it points inward. Also, E, i postive at points where & pints out ofthe surface and nega- tive at points where points into the surface. Ifthe point charge in Fig. 22.12 is negative, the E field is directed radially inward: the angle @ is then greater than 90°, its cosine is negative, and the integral in Eq, (2.7) is negative, But since ¢ is also negative, Eq, (2.7) sill holds For a closed surface enclosing no charge, = fia ‘This isthe mathematical statement chat when a region contains no charge, any) ‘field Lines caused by charges outside the region that enter on one side must leave again on the other side, (In Section 22.1 we came to the same conclusion by con- sidering the special case of a rectangular box in a uniform field) Figure 22.13 itustrates this point. ®, General Farm of Gauss’s Law [Now comes the final step in obtaining the general form of Gauss's law. Suppose the surface encloses not just one point charge q but several charges qi, dy jy.» The total (resultant) electric field at any point i the vector sum ofthe E fields of the individual charges. Let Qcga be te ftal charge enclosed bythe sur face: Qeg = 41 + 42 + 3 + o> Also let be the total field a the position ofthe surface area element dA, and let, be its component perpendicular tothe plane of that element that i, parallel to dd). Then we can write an equation like Eq. (22.7) for each charge and its corresponding field and add the results. When wwe do, we obtain the general statement of Gauss's la be = f Bedi = 2 Gauss tan) eee © ‘The total electric flux through a closed surface is equal to the total (net) electric ‘charge inside the surface, divided by. (GAUTIOMY coussian surfaces are imaginary Remember that the closed surface in Gs’ ow isnt ee ed te ny ata ste ron he face. We often reer toa closed surface used in Gauss law as 1 Using the definition of Qone and the various ways to express electric flux given in Eq. (25), we can express Gauss’ law in the following equivalent forms: 5 Sat (inne n= feswsous= fan fitvat— Sat (stam ay As in Eq, (22.5), the various forms of the integral all express the same thing, the total electric flux through the Gaussian surface, indifferent terms. One form is sometimes more convenient than another. ‘As an example, Fig. 22.14a shows a spherical Gaussian surface of radius around a positive point charge +g. The electric field points out ofthe Gaussian sur- face, so at every point on the surtace Eis in the same direction as d, @ ~ 0, and E; is equal tothe field magnitude E = q/4egr?. Since E isthe same at all points(@) Gaussian surface around positive charge: _(B) Gaussian surface around negative charge Positive outward) ux negative (award) Hux a aa E € on the surface, we can tke it outside the integral in Bq. (22), Then the remaining imtegrlis dA = A = 4zrr® the area of the sphere, Hence Eq, (22.9) becomes 4 4a 4@ a4 ®, E\ dA aA dA ane t * f f (Ge) rer? fi rer? eo The enclosed charge Qene1 is just the charge +g, so this agrees with Gauss’s law. Ifthe Gaussian surface encloses a negative point charge asin Fig. 22.14b, then points into the surface at each point in the direction opposite dd, Then ¢ = 180° and E, is equal to the negative of the field magnitude: Ey = — alitmegr? = —/4reqr?, Equation (22.9) then becomes te firer= f(t) = Et faa = tert airegr 4rregr Sree «0 Qenci = — 4. In Eqs. (22.8) and (22.9), Qepc is always the algebraic sum of all the positive and negative charges enclosed by the Gaussian surface, and B is the total field at Eqs. (22.8) and (22.9) are correct even when there are charges outside the surface that contribute to the electric field at the surface, When Qenei = 0, the total flux positive flux and others may have negative flux (see Fig. 22.3b). though evaluating the integral in Eq. (22.8) is a hopeless task. Sometimes it is, Ren eeeM) Electric flux and enclosed charge Figure 22.15 shows the field produced by two point charges +¢ TOUTE and ~4 (an clectric dipole). Find the eleerie flux through each of the closed surfaces A, B, C, and D. 22.3 Gouss's Law 735, 22.14 Spherical Gaussian surfaces ‘around (2) a positive point charge and () a negative point charge. Gauss’ law, Eq, (22.8), says thatthe total electric fax through a R, respectively. In either e8s, the point at which we want to calculate lies on the (Gaussian surface EXECUTE: The spherical symmetry means that the direction of the lect field must be radial; thats because thee is no preferred slirection parallel to the surface, so B can have no component par~ allel to the surface. There is also no preferred orientation of the sphere, so the field magnitude E can depend only on the distanee ‘rom the center and must have the same value at all points on the Gaussian surface For r > R the entire conductor is within the Gaussian surface, so the enclosed charge is g. The area of the Gaussian surface is, 4rer?, and Eis uniform over the surface and perpendicular toi a ‘etch point, The flux integral $F, dA is then just E(4r?), and Eq. (22.8) gives Continued738 CHAPTER 22 Gouss's Low (dre?) = 4 and (outside a charged La e TF conducting sphere) te ‘This expression isthe same as that for & point charge: outside the charged sphere, its field is the same as though the eatie charge were concentrated at is center, Just outside the surface of the sphere, where r= R, 4 Fras gi (ihe srtace ofa charged conducting sphere) (GRIDTIORIY Fux can be positive or negative Remember that we Ihave chosen the charge q to be positive. Ifthe charg is negative, the elecrie field is radially inward instead of radially outward, and the electric lux through the Gaussian surface is negative. The clectic-field magnitudes ouside and at the surface of the sphere are given by the same expressions as above, except that 9 denares the magnitude (absolute Value) of the eharge. | For r < R we again have E(42r2) = Ogaa/éq, But now our Gaussian surface (which lies entirely within the conductor) ‘encloses no charge, $0 Qeaa = 0. The electric feld inside the con- ‘ductors therefore zero. EVALUATE: We already knew that E = 0 inside a solid conductor (whether spherical or not) when the charges are at rest. Figure 22.18 shows £ as a function of the distance y from the conter of the sphere. Note that in the limit as & —>0, the sphere becomes point ‘charge; there is then only an “outside,” and te field is everywhere given by E = q/drregr®. Thus we have deduced Coulomb's law from Gauss's law. (In Section 22.3 we deduced Gauss law from Coulomb's law; the two laws are equivalent.) ‘We can also use this method fora conducting spherical shell (a spherical conductor with a concentric spherical hole inside) if ‘there is no charge inside the hole. We use aspherical Gaussian sur- face with radius r less than the radius ofthe hole. If there were & field inside the hole, it would have to be radial and spherically symmetric as before, so E = Qeaa/47¢9r*, But now there is no ‘enclosed charge, SO Qega = 0 and E = O inside the hole. ‘Can you use this same technique to find the electric field in the ‘region between a charged sphere and a concentric hollow conduet- ing sphere that surrounds i? Electric charge is distributed uniformly along an infinitely long, ‘hin wire. The charge per unit length is A (assumed postive). Find the electric field using Gauss law: IMEMTFY and ET UF: We oondn Example 21.10 Seton 2.5 thatthe el of aun caged. ifitewit al ea Ais potivean fly ward fA nga, and the fit magitude depends nyo he rat ditance om te wre eps at vs nda Ganon mac of ‘asad Stuy eng ota ih he wie a Sots papenlr tote weg. 2219) EXECUTE: ‘The fux through the lat ends of our Gaussian surface is zero because the radial electric field is parallel to these ends, and so B-fi~ 0. On the cylindrical part of our surface we have Bf = E_ = E-everywhere, (If A were negative, we would have 22.19 A coaxial cylindsical Gaussian surface is used to ind the electric field outside an infinitely long, charged wire e Gaussian sy ste Bf = £, = ~Eeverywhere) The are ofthe evince urace js rl, so the fax through ian hence the otal x though the Gaussian suraco—is EA = arf. The total encosed charge 48 Ong = Alan 0 from Gauss ow, Ha. 22.8), p= erie = (Geld of an infinite line of charge) and ‘We found this same result in Example 21.10 with much more cfr. If Ais negative, Bis directed radially inward, and in the above expression for E we must interpret A a the absolute value of the charge per unit length. EVALUATE: We saw in Example 21.10 thatthe entire charge on the wire contributes tothe field at any point, and yet we consider only that part of the charge Qonui = AL within the Gaussian surface ‘when we apply Gauss's law There's nothing inconsistent here it lakes the entire charge to give the field the properties that allow us to calculate @p so easly, and Gauss’ law always applies to the enclosed charge ony. Ifthe wiee is shor, the symmetry of the inti nite wire is lost, and & is not uniform over @ coaxial, cylindrical Gaussian surface. Gauss law then cannot be used to find g; We 1st slve the problem the hard way, as in Example 21.10, ‘We can use the Gaussian surface in Fig, 22.19 to show that the field outside a long, uniformly charged cylinder is the same as though all the charge were concentrated on line along its axis (see Problem 22.42), We ean also calculate the electric ld in the space between a charged cylinder and a coaxial hollow conducting cylinder surrounding i (ee Problem 22.39)22.4 Applications of Gauss's Law 739) FEREEIEZEN iets of an infinite plane sheet of charge Use Gauss’ law to find the electric field eaused by atin, flat, int- nite sheet witha uniform positive surface charge density a. IDENTIFY and SET UP: tn Example 21.11 (Section 21.5) we found thatthe fed of a uniformly charged infinite sheets norma othe shoo, and that its magnitude is ndependent ofthe distance from the sheet. Ta take advantage of these symmetry properties, we use @ «lindvical Gaussian surface with ends of area A and with its axis perpendicular to the sheet of charge (Fig. 22.20) 22.20 A cylindrical Gaussian surface is used to find the eld of an infinite plane sect of charge. Gaussian + * surface ENECUTE: The fox though the eylindrical part of our Gaussian surface is zero because Efi ~ 0 everywhere. The Bux through cach flat end of the surface is +BA because B= = E. = E everywhere, so the total fux through both ends—and Renee the total Oux ¢y trough the Gaussian surlace—is ~2EA. The total enclosed charge is Gens = 0A, and 0 from Gaus’ a 2a = 4 ang J (eld ofan ifnt sos of charge) {In Example 21.11 we found this same result using a. moch more ‘complex calculation. Io is negative, Bis directed toward the sheet, the Mux through the Gaussian surface in Fig. 22.20 is negative, and ein the expres- sion E = a/2e9 denotes the magnitude (absolute value) of the charge density EVALUATE: Again we see that, given favorable symmetry, we can deduce electric felés using Gauss’s law much more easily than using Coulomb's law, “Two large plane parallel conducting plates are given charges of ‘equal magnitude and opposite sign; the surface charge densities are “ter and er, Find the electric fel in the region between the plates AIT IDENTIFY and SET UP: Figure 22.218 shows the fickd. Because ‘opposite charges atract, most ofthe charge socumilates at the oppos- ing faces ofthe plats. small amount of charge resides on the oer ‘surfaces of the plats, and thee is some spreading of “fringing” of 22.21 Elect field berwoen oppositely charged parallel plats. ©) Realise drawing Between the two plats the elec fet, is neti uniform, pining from the postive pate toward the negative one ssitely charged parallel conduc 9 plates the field atthe edges. But if the plates are very latge in comparison to the distance between them, the amount of charge on the outer surfaces is negligibly small, and the ftinging can be neglected ‘except near the edges. In this case we can assume that the fleld is, “uniform in te imeror region berween te plates a in Fig. 22.216, and that the charges are distributed uniformly over the opposing ‘surfaces. To exploit this symmetry, we ean use the shaded Gauss- ian surfaces Sj, S, 5 and Sq. These surfaces are cylinders with flat ends of area A; one end ofeach surface lies within a pate (©) Ksealized model 1 2 Ey —~ £6 — ‘|< Inthe ideaiod case swe ignoe"Tonging” [ the plate edges and C tri he eld Rete ‘he plates as uniform, Cylindrical Gaussian surfaces (en from the side) Continued740 CHAPTER 22 Gouss's Law EXECUTE: The left-hand end of surface $; is within the postive plate I. Since the Geld is zero within the volume of aay solid con: ‘ductor under eletrosatic conditions, there is no clectic Aux ‘through this end. The electric field between the plates is perpen cclar to the right-hand end, so on that end, Eis equsl to E and the ‘Dux is EA; ths is postive, since B is directed out of the Gaussian surface. There is no flux through the side walls of the eylinder, since these walls are parallel to E: So the total flox integel in Gauss’ law is BA. The net charge enclosed by the cylinder is 6, so Eq, (228) yields EA = oA/ep; we then have © caste pos sag condsing ss) ‘The field is uniform and perpendicular othe plates, and its magai- tude is independent ofthe distance from either plate, The Gaussian surface S, yields the same result, Surfaces $; and $; yield F = O10 the left of plate 1 and to the right of plate 2, respectively. We leave these calculations to you (see Exerese 22.29). EVALURTE: We cbse the same ress in Example 21.11 by wsing the principe of superposition of electri eld. The fs due to the ‘woshet of charge one on cach lt) are and Ey om Exam ie 227, bath of hese have mage ep Theol etic eld any point i the vector sim E = B+ E>. At point and cin Fig 22218, By a Es pot in opposite directions, an thei am x zero. At point b, By and By ae in he sume diction their sum has ‘magnitude E = ep as as we fund above sing Gat’ Field of Positive electric charge Q is distributed uniormly shroughout the vol sume of an insulating sphere with radius R Find the magnitude ofthe clectric field at a point Pa distance r from the center ofthe sphere. IDENTIFY and SET UP: As in Example 225, the system i spheri- cally symmetric. Hence we can use the conclusions ofthat exam ple about the direction and magnitude of B. To make use ofthe spiral symmetry, we choose as our Gaussian surface a sphere with radius r, concentric with the charge distribution EXECUTE: From symmetry, the direction of Bis ail at every point on the Gaussian surface, so E, — andthe field magnitude 2 isthe sme at evry point on the surface. Hence the toa electric {lux trough the Gaussian surface i the product of and the total ‘area of the surface A = 4arr?—that is, ®y = 4arr7E. ‘The amount of charge enclosed within the Gaussian surface depends on r.To find E inside the sphere, we chooser < R. The volume charge desiyp isthe charge Q divided bythe volume of the entre charged sphere of radius R Q 4a) “The volume Ving enclosed by the Gaussian surface is $7, so the total charge Qcna enclosed by that surface is oes ens = AM (aaler) “Then Gauss law, Bg. (22.8), becomes ° ae 1 or dro RP (field inside a uniformly charged sphere) ‘The field magnitude is proportional to the distance r ofthe field point from the center ofthe sphere (sce the graph of B versus rin Fig. 2222). ‘Tofind E outside the sphere, we tke r > R, This surface encloses the entre charged sphere, so Qeyi = Q, and Gavss' law gives nr 12 (field outside 8 uniformly charged sphere) Tro? 22.22 The magnitude of the electric fel ofa uniformly ‘charged insulating sphere. Compare this with the ild for con ‘duting sphere (see Fig. 22.18) ‘The feldousie any spherically symmetric charged boy varies sb L/r*, as though the entire charge were concentrated at the center. “his is raphe in Fig 2.2. ihe charge is mepatve, 2 is rail inward andi the expres sions fr E we interpret a the abeolte value of the charge. EVALUATE: Notice that if we set r ~ R in ether expression for E, wwe get the same result £ = Q/4meuR forthe magnitude ofthe field atte surface ofthe sphere. This is becasse the magnitude E isacontinuous function of By contrast, forthe charged conduct ing sphere of Example 225 the electic-ield magnitude is discontinuous tr = RG jumps fom E = 0 just inside he sphere tw £ = O/4reyR? just outside the sphere) In general, the elecic field B is discontinuous in magnitude, direction, or both wherever there is shee of carge, such as atthe surface ofa charged con- ducting sphere (Example 225), a! the surface ofan infrte charged sheet (Example 22.7), oF atthe surface ofa charged conducting plate (Example 22.8). ‘The approach used here can be applied io any spherically sym- mesic dstibution of charge, evn if it isnot radially uniform, ait wvas here, Such charge distributions occur within many stoms and tome nuclei, so Gauss’ law is useful in atomic and nuclear ysis.{A thin-walled, hollow sphere of radius 0.250 m has an unknown charge distributed uniformly over its surface. At a distance of (0.300 m from the center ofthe sphere, the electric fel points rc ally inward and has magnitude 1.80 10° N/C. How much charge is onthe sphere? IDENTIFY and SET UP: The charge distibusion is spherically sym- ‘messi. As in Examples 22.5 and 22.9, it follows thatthe clectic field is radial everywhere and its magnitude isa function only of ‘the radial distance r fom the center of the sphere. We use a spheri- ‘cal Gaussian surface that i concentric with the charge distibution and has radius r = 0.300 m, Our target variable is Qo = 4. EXECUTE: The charge distribution i the same a if the charge were ‘on the surface of a 0.250-m radius conducting sphere. Hence we ‘can borrow the results of Example 22.5. We note thatthe electric 22.5 Charges on Conductors 741 field ere is itected toward the sphere, so that g must be negative Funhermore, the electric field is erected into the Gaussian sur face,so that 2, = ~Band = $8, dA = ~E(4nr?) ‘By Gauss lav, the fux i equal to the charge g om the sphere {all of whic is enclosed by the Gavssian surface) divided by «o Solving for g, we find B{4meor?) (1.80 x 10° N/C)(4) X (8.854 x 107 C?/N-m?)(0.300 m)? = =180 x 10° C= =1.80 ne 4 EVALUATE: To determine the charge, we had to know the electric field at aff points on the Gaussian surface so that we could caleu- late the fox integral. This was possible here because the charge distribution is highly symmetric. Ifthe charg distribution is ireg- ular o lacks symmetry, Gauss law is not very useful for ealeual- ing the charge distribution from the field or vice versa Test Your Understanding of Section 22.4 You place a known amount of ‘charge Q on the iregolarly shaped conductor shown in Fig. 22.17. Ifyou know the size and shape of the conductor, can you use Gauss law to calculate the electri field at an arbitrary position outside the conductor? ' ‘Application Charge Distribution Inside a Nerve Cell “Tha intron of = hurnsn nave cal coraine bth postive potassium ona (x) and nega- ‘holy charged proven mucus ("Pate "som ona enn Row auto the el eho the tet mamrare, but the muh larger pata Imolsedea cannot The rebuke hat the n= For ofthe eal hn @ nt nogaveexurge, he Fad outside the col has poi charge that bolnces th] The fu within the cel is 22.5 Charges on Conductors ‘We have leamed that in an electrostatic situation (in which there is no net motion of charge) the electric field at every point within a conductor is zero and that any «excess charge on a solid conductor is located entirely on its surface (Fig, 22.23, But what if thre is a cavity inside the conductor (Fig. 22.236)? If there is no charge within the cavity, we can use @ Gaussian surface such as A (which les completely within the material of the conductor) to show thatthe ner charge on the surface ofthe cavity must be zero, bocause E = everywhere on the Gaussian surface. In fact, we can prove in this situation that there can’t be any charge anywhere on the cavity surface. We will postpone detailed proof of this statement until Chapter 23. ‘Suppose we place a small body with a charge q inside acavity within a conduc- tor Fig, 22.23c). The conductor is uncharged and is insulated from the charge 4. Again £ = 0 everywhere on surface A, so according to Gauss's law the total ccharge inside this surface must be zero, Therefore there must be a charge —39 di teibuted on the surface of the cavity, drawn thereby the charge q inside the cavity ‘The foral charge on the conductor must remain zero, soa charge +g must appear uid on tho rer surtaen of he eal membrane, ich ie an neon Ti rus fo matter whet the shape ofthe co 22.23 Finding the electe field within a charged conductor. (@) Solid conductor with charge ge (©) he same conductor with a intemal cavity {© An isolated chart g paca in the cavity * te Acvirry fo 84 Foro rem atl rns on te Gasian surface, the surface ofthe cavity must have a ‘orl charge —4) Gaussian > / “The charge gv cn on the surfs of surface A Because B= O at al points within the condoctr, tp conductor. The station is eectrostatic othe elected at al points on the Gaussian B= O within the conductor surface mast be Zero