BA7021

SECURITY ANALYSIS AND PORTFOLIO MANAGEMENT

A Course Material on
SECURITY ANALYSIS AND PORTFOLIO MANAGEMENT

By
Mrs.V.THANGAMANI
ASSISTANT PROFESSOR
DEPARTMENT OF MANAGEMENT SCIENCES
SASURIE COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING
VIJAYAMANGALAM

638 056

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QUALITY CERTIFICATE

This is to certify that the e-course material

Subject Code : BA7021
Subject

: Security Analysis and Portfolio Management

Class

: II Year MBA

Being prepared by me and it meets the knowledge requirement of the university curriculum.

Signature of the Author

Name
: V.THANGAMANI
Designation: Assistant Professor

This is to certify that the course material being prepared by Mrs.V.THANGAMANI is of adequate
quality. He has referred more than five books amount them minimum one is from abroad author.

Signature of HD
Name: S.Arun Kumar
SEAL

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CONTENTS
TOPICS

CHAPTER

PAGE
NO

INVESTMENT SETTING
1.1 Financial meaning of investment
1

1.2 Economic meaning of Investment

1.3 Characteristics and objectives of Investment
1.4 Types of Investment
1.5 Investment alternatives
1.6 Choice and Evaluation
1.7 Risk and return concepts.
SECURITIES MARKETS

7-25

2.1 Financial Market

2.2 Types of financial markets

2.3 Participants in financial Market

2.4 Regulatory Environment
2.5 Methods of floating new issues,
2.6 Book building
2.7 Role & Regulation of primary market
2.8 Stock exchanges in India BSE, OTCEI , NSE, ISE
2.9 Regulations of stock exchanges
2.10 Trading system in stock exchanges
2.11 SEBI
FUNDAMENTAL ANALYSIS

26-64

3.1 Fundamental Analysis

3.2 Economic Analysis

3.3 Economic forecasting

3.4 stock Investment Decisions
3.5 Forecasting Techniques
3.6 Industry Analysis
3.7 Industry classification
3.8 Industry life cycle
3.9 Company Analysis
3.10Measuring Earnings
3.11 Forecasting Earnings
3.12 Applied Valuation Techniques
3.13 Graham and Dodds investor ratios.

65-81

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TECHNICAL ANALYSIS
4.1 Fundamental Analysis Vs Technical Analysis

4.2 Charting methods

4.3 Market Indicators.
4.4 Trend , Trend Reversals
4.5 Patterns
4.6 Moving Average & Exponential Moving Average
4.7 Oscillators
4.8 Market Indicators
4.9 Efficient Market Theory
PORTFOLIO MANAGEMENT
5.1 Portfolio Analysis
5.2 Portfolio Selection
5.3 CAPM
5.4 Portfolio Revision
5.5 Portfolio Evaluation
5.6 Mutual Funds
Question Bank
University Question Papers

BA7021

SECURITY ANALYSIS AND PORTFOLIO MANAGEMENT

82-87

88-100

101-107
108-114

LT P C
3003

OBJECTIVES :
Enables student to

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Understand the nuances of stock market operations

Understand the techniques involved in deciding upon purchase or sale of securities

OUTCOME
Become a good investment analyst
UNIT I
INVESTMENT SETTING
8
Financial and economic meaning of Investment Characteristics and objectives of Investment
Types of Investment
Investment alternatives
Choice and Evaluation
Risk and return
concepts.
UNIT II
SECURITIES MARKETS
10
Financial Market - Segments
Types - - Participants in financial Market
Regulatory
Environment, Primary Market Methods of floating new issues, Book building Role of primary
market Regulation of primary market, Stock exchanges in India BSE, OTCEI , NSE, ISE, and
Regulations of stock exchanges Trading system in stock exchanges SEBI.
UNIT III
FUNDAMENTAL ANALYSIS
9
Economic Analysis
Economic forecasting and stock Investment Decisions
Forecasting
techniques. Industry Analysis : Industry classification, Industry life cycle
Company Analysis
Measuring Earnings Forecasting Earnings Applied Valuation Techniques Graham and Dodds
investor ratios.
UNIT IV
TECHNICAL ANALYSIS
9
Fundamental Analysis Vs Technical Analysis
Charting methods
Market Indicators. Trend
Trend reversals Patterns - Moving Average Exponential moving Average Oscillators Market
Indicators Efficient Market theory.
UNIT V
PORTFOLIO MANAGEMENT
Portfolio analysis Portfolio Selection Capital Asset Pricing model
Portfolio Evaluation Mutual Funds.

9
Portfolio

Revision

TOTAL: 45 PERIODS
TEXTBOOKS
1.
Donald E.Fischer & Ronald J.Jordan, Security Analysis & Portfolio Management, PHI
Learning., New Delhi, 8th edition, 2011.
2.
Prasannachandra, Investment analysis and Portfolio Management, Tata McGraw Hill, 2011.
REFERENCES
th
1.
Reilly & Brown, Investment Analysis and Portfolio Management, Cengage Learning, 9
edition, 2011.
2.
S. Kevin , Securities Analysis and Portfolio Management , PHI Learning , 2012.
3.
Bodi, Kane, Markus, Mohanty, Investments, 8th edition, Tata McGraw Hill, 2011.
4.
V.A.Avadhan, Securities Analysis and Portfolio Management, Himalaya Publishing House,
2011.
5.
V.K.Bhalla, Investment Management, S.Chand & Company Ltd., 2012.

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Unit 1: Investment Setting

Financial and economic meaning of Investment

Types of Investment

Characteristics and objectives of Investment

Investment alternatives

Choice and Evaluation

Risk and return

concepts.

1.1.Introduction:

Investment is putting money into something with the expectation of profit. The word
originates in the Latin "vestis", meaning garment, and refers to the act of putting
things (money or other claims to resources) into others' pockets.

The term "investment" is used differently in economics and in finance. Economists

refer to a real investment (such as a machine or a house), while financial economists
refer to a financial asset, such as money that is put into a bank or the market, which
may then be used to buy a real asset.

1.2.Financial meaning of investment:

Financial investment involves of funds in various assets, such as stock, Bond, Real
Estate, Mortgages etc.

Investment is the employment of funds with the aim of achieving additional income
or growth in value.

It involves the commitment of resources which have been saved or put away from
current consumption in the hope some benefits will accrue in future. Investment
involves long term commitment of funds and waiting for a reward in the future.

From the point of view people who invest their finds, they are the supplier of
Capital and in their view investment is a commitment of a person s funds to derive
future income in the form of interest, dividend, rent, premiums, pension benefits or
the appreciation of the value of their principle capital.

To the financial investor it is not important whether money is invested for a

productive use or for the purchase of secondhand instruments such as existing shares
and stocks listed on the stock exchange.
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Most investments are considered to be transfers of financial assets from one person to
another.

1.3.Economic meaning of investment:

Economic investment means the net additions to the capital stock of the society which
consists of goods and services that are used in the production of other goods and
services. Addition to the capital stock means an increase in building, plants,
equipment and inventories over the amount of goods and services that existed.

The financial and economic meanings are related to each other because investment is
a part of the savings of individuals which flow into the capital market either directly
or through institutions, divided in new and secondhand capital financing. Investors
as suppliers and investors as users of long-term funds find a meeting place in the
market.

1.4.Basic Investment Objectives

Investment triangle three compromising objectives

Any investment decision will be influenced by three objectives

security, liquidity and yield. A

best investment decision will be one, which has the best possible compromise between these
three objectives.

Security
Liquidity
Yield

Security:
Central to any investment objective, we have to basically ensure the safety of the
principal. One can afford to lose the returns at any given point of time but s/he can ill
afford to lose the very principal itself. By identifying the importance of security, we will
be able to identify and select the instrument that meets this criterion. For example, when
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compared with corporate bonds, we can vouch safe the safety of return of investment in
treasury bonds as we have more faith in governments than in corporations. Hence,
treasury bonds are highly secured instruments. The safest investments are usually found
in the money market and include such securities as Treasury bills (T-bills), certificates of
deposit (CD), commercial paper or bankers' acceptance slips; or in the fixed income
(bond) market in the form of municipal and other government bonds, and in corporate
bonds

Liquidity:
Because we may have to convert our investment back to cash or funds to meet our
unexpected demands and needs, our investment should be highly liquid. They should be
en cashable at short notice, without loss and without any difficulty. If they cannot come
to our rescue, we may have to borrow or raise funds externally at high cost and at
unfavorable terms and conditions. Such liquidity can be possible only in the case of
investment, which has always-ready market and willing buyers and sellers. Such
instruments of investment are called highly liquid investment.

Yield:
Yield is best described as the net return out of any investment. Hence given the level or
kind of security and liquidity of the investment, the appropriate yield should encourage
the investor to go for the investment. If the yield is low compared to the expectation of
the investor, s/he may prefer to avoid such investment and keep the funds in the bank
account or in worst case, in cash form in lockers. Hence yield is the attraction for any
investment and normally deciding the right yield is the key to any investment.

Relationship:

There is a tradeoff between risk (security) and return (yield) on the one hand and liquidity
and return (yield) on the other.

Normally, higher the risk any investment carries, the greater will be the yield, to
compensate the possible loss. That is why, fly by night operators, offer sky high returns
to their investors and naturally our gullible investors get carried away by such returns and
ultimately lose their investment. Highly secured investment does not carry high coupon,
as it is safe and secured.
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When the investment is illiquid, (i.e. one cannot get out of such investment at will and
without any loss) the returns will be higher, as no normal investor would prefer such
investment.

These three points

security, liquidity and yield in any investment

make an excellent

triangle in our investment decision-making. Ideally, with given three points of any
triangle, one can say the center of the triangle is fixed. In our investment decision too,
this center the best meeting point for S, L and Y

is important for our consideration.

However, if any one or two of these three points are disturbed

yield in any investment

security, liquidity and

the center of the triangle would be disturbed and one may have

to revisit the investment decision

either to continue the investment or exit the

investment.

All these points

security, liquidity and yield

are highly dynamic in any market and

they are always subject to change and hence our investor has to periodically watch his/her
investment and make appropriate decisions at the right time.

If our investor fails to monitor her / his investment, in the worst circumstances, s/he may lose
the very investment.

Thus, we will return to our original statement - A best investment decision will be one,
which has the best possible compromise between these three objectives

security,

liquidity and yield.

1.5.Secondary Objectives:

Tax Minimization:

An investor may pursue certain investments in order to adopt tax minimization as part of his
or her investment strategy. A highly-paid executive, for example, may want to seek
investments with favorable tax treatment in order to lessen his or her overall income tax

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burden. Making contributions to an IRA or other tax-sheltered retirement plan, such as a

401(k), can be an effective tax minimization strategy.

Marketability / Liquidity:

Many of the investments we have discussed are reasonably illiquid, which means they cannot
be immediately sold and easily converted into cash. Achieving a degree of liquidity,
however, requires the sacrifice of a certain level of income or potential for capital gains.
Common stock is often considered the most liquid of investments, since it can usually be sold
within a day or two of the decision to sell. Bonds can also be fairly marketable, but some
bonds are highly illiquid, or non-tradable, possessing a fixed term. Similarly, money market
instruments may only be redeemable at the precise date at which the fixed term ends. If an
investor seeks liquidity, money market assets and non-tradable bonds aren't likely to be held
in

his

or

her

portfolio.

1.6. CHARACTERISTICS OF GOOD INVESTMENT

a. Objective fulfillment

An investment should fulfill the objective of the savers. Every individual has a definite
objective in making an investment. When the investment objective is contrasted with the
uncertainty involved with investments, the fulfillment of the objectives through the
chosen investment avenue could become complex.

b. Safety

The first and foremost concern of any ordinary investor is that his investment should be
safe. That is he should get back the principal at the end of the maturity period of the
investment. There is no absolute safety in any investment, except probably with
investment in government securities or such instruments where the repayment of interest
and principal is guaranteed by the government.

c. Return

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The return from any investment is expectedly consistent with the extent of risk assumed
by the investor. Risk and return go together. Higher the risk, higher the chances of getting
higher return. An investment in a low risk - high safety investment such as investment in
government securities will obviously get the investor only low returns.

d. Liquidity

Given a choice, investors would prefer a liquid investment than a higher return
investment. Because the investment climate and market conditions may change or
investor may be confronted by an urgent unforeseen commitment for which he might
need funds, and if he can dispose of his investment without suffering unduly in terms of
loss of returns, he would prefer the liquid investment.

e. Hedge against inflation

The purchasing power of money deteriorates heavily in a country which is not efficient or
not well endowed, in relation to another country. Investors, who save for the long term,
look for hedge against inflation so that their investments are not unduly eroded; rather
they look for a capital gain which neutralizes the erosion in purchasing power and still
gives a return.

f. Concealabilty

If not from the taxman, investors would like to keep their investments rather confidential
from their own kith and kin so that the investments made for their old age/ uncertain
future does not become a hunting ground for their own lives. Safeguarding of financial
instruments representing the investments may be easier than investment made in real
estate. Moreover, the real estate may be prone to encroachment and other such hazards.

h. Tax shield

Investment decisions are highly influenced by the tax system in the country. Investors
look for front-end tax incentives while making an investment and also rear-end tax reliefs
while reaping the benefit of their investments. As against tax incentives and reliefs, if
investors were to pay taxes on the income earned from investments, they look for higher
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return in such investments so that their after tax income is comparable to the pre-tax
equivalent level with some other income which is free of tax, but is more risky.
1.7. Different types of investors:

Conservative investors often invest in cash. THIS means that they put their money
in interest bearing savings accounts, money market accounts, mutual funds, US Treasury
bills, and Certificates of Deposit. These are very safe investments that grow over a long
period of time. These are also low risk investments.

Moderate investors often invest in cash and bonds, and may dabble in the stock market.
Moderate investing may be low or moderate risks. Moderate investors often also invest in
real estate, providing that it is low risk real estate.

Aggressive investors commonly do most of THEIR investing in the stock market, which
is higher risk. They also tend to invest in business ventures as well as higher risk real
estate. For instance, if an aggressive investor puts his or her money into an older
apartment building, then invests more money renovating the property, they are running a
risk. They expect to be able to rent the apartments out for more money than the
apartments are currently worth or to sell the entire property for a profit on their initial
investments. In some cases, this works out just fine, and in other cases, it doesn't. It's a
risk.

1.8. Types of investment: or various investment alternatives /avenues

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Non-marketable Financial Assets:

A good portion of financial assets is represented by non-marketable financial assets. A
distinguishing feature of these assets is that they represent personal transactions between the
investor and the issuer. For example, when you open a savings bank account at a bank you deal
with the bank personally. In contrast when you buy equity shares in the stock market you do not
know who the seller is and you do not care. These can be classified into the following broad
categories:

Post office deposits

Company deposits

Provident fund deposits

Bank deposits
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Equity Shares:

Equities are a type of security that represents the ownership in a company. Equities are
traded (bought and sold) in stock markets. Alternatively, they can be purchased via the
Initial Public Offering (IPO) route, i.e. directly from the company. Investing in equities is
a good long-term investment option as the returns on equities over a long time horizon
are generally higher than most other investment avenues. However, along with the
possibility of greater returns comes greater risk. Equity shares are classified into the
following broad categories by stock market analysts:

Blue chip shares

Growth shares

Income shares

Cyclical shares

Speculative shares

Bonds:
Bond is a debt instrument issued for a period of more than one year with the purpose of
raising capital by borrowing.
It is certificates acknowledging the money lend by a bondholder to the company. It states it
maturity date, interest rate, and par value.
The Federal

government,

states, cities, corporations,

and

many

other

types

of institutions sell bonds. When an investor buys a bond, he/she becomes a creditor of the issuer.
However, the buyer does not gain any kind of ownership rights to the issuer, unlike in the case
of equities. On the hand, a bond holder has a greater claim on an issuer's income than
a shareholder in the case of financial distress (this is true for all creditors). The yield from a bond
is made up of three components: coupon interest, capital gains and interest on interest (if a bond
pays no coupon interest, the only yield will be capital gains). A bond might be sold at above
or below par (the amount paid out at maturity), but the market price will approach par value as
the bond approaches maturity. A riskier bond has to provide a higher payout to compensate for
that additional risk. Some bonds are tax-exempt, and these are typically issued by municipal,

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county or state governments, whose interest payments are not subject to federal income tax, and
sometimes also state or local income tax.
Bonds may be classified into the following categories:

Government securities

Government of India relief bonds

Government agency securities

PSU bonds

Debentures of private sector companies

Preference shares

Money Market Instruments:

Debt instruments which have a maturity of less than one year at the time of issue are called
money market instruments. The important money market instruments are:

Treasury bills

Commercial paper

Certificates of deposits

Mutual Funds:
Instead of directly buying equity shares and/or fixed income instruments, you can participate in
various schemes floated by mutual funds which, in turn, invest in equity shares and fixed income
securities.
A mutual fund is made up of money that is pooled together by a large number of investors who
give their money to a fund manager to invest in a large portfolio of stocks and / or bonds
Mutual fund is a kind of trust that manages the pool of money collected from various investors
and it is managed by a team of professional fund managers (usually called an Asset Management
Company) for a small fee. The investments by the Mutual Funds are made in equities, bonds,
debentures, call money etc., depending on the terms of each scheme floated by the Fund. The
current value of such investments is now a day is calculated almost on daily basis and the same is
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reflected in the Net Asset Value (NAV) declared by the funds from time to time. This NAV
keeps on changing with the changes in the equity and bond market. Therefore, the investments
in Mutual Funds is not risk free, but a good managed Fund can give you regular and higher
returns than when you can get from fixed deposits of a bank etc.
There are three broad types of mutual fund schemes:

Equity schemes

Debt schemes

Balanced schemes

Life Insurance:
In a broad sense, life insurance may be viewed as an investment. Life insurance is a contract
between

the policy

holder and

the insurer,

where

the

insurer

promises

to

pay

designated beneficiary a sum of money (the "benefits") upon the death of the insured person.
Depending on the contract, other events such as terminal illness or critical illness may also
trigger payment. In return, the policy holder agrees to pay a stipulated amount (the "premium") at
regular intervals or in lump sums. The important types of insurance policies in India are:

Endowment assurance policy

Money back policy

Whole life policy

Term assurance policy

Real Estate:
For the bulk of the investors the most important asset in their portfolio is a residential house. In
addition to a residential house, the more affluent investors are likely to be interested in the
following

Agricultural land

Semi-urban land

types

of

real

estate:

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Time share in a holiday resort

Precious Objects:
Precious objects are items that are generally small in size but highly valuable in monetary terms.
Some important precious objects are:
Gold and silver
Precious stones
Art objects
Financial Derivative:
A financial derivative is an instrument whose value is derived from the value of an underlying
asset. It may be viewed as a side bet on the asset. The most important financial derivatives from
the point of view of investors are:

Options

Futures

Non-financial Instruments
Real estate

With the ever-increasing cost of land, real estate has come up as a profitable investment
proposition.

Gold

The 'yellow metal' is a preferred investment option, particularly when markets are
volatile. Today, beyond physical gold, a number of products which derive their value
from the price of gold are available for investment. These include gold futures and gold
exchange traded funds.

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1.9. Investment Risk and Return Characteristics

The chart below provides some examples of common types of investments classified according
to their potential return and investment risk.
Potential
Return

Investment Risk
(Volatility)

Examples of Common Investments

High

High

Moderate

Low

Moderate

Low

Aggressive growth funds

Emerging markets mutual funds
Foreign company stocks
Global, international, sector, and precious metal
mutual funds
Penny stocks
Small cap stocks and funds
Variable annuities invested in aggressive growth
sub-accounts

Convertible bonds
High-yield (junk) bond funds
Large-cap stocks and funds
S&P 500 & Wilshire 5000 stock index funds
Variable annuities invested in large-cap stock subaccounts

Fixed annuities
Government agency securities (e.g., Ginnie Maes)
High quality short- and intermediate-term municipal
and corporate bonds and bond funds
Money market mutual funds
Treasury bills and notes
U.S. savings bonds (Series I and EE)
Variable annuities invested in high-quality bond
sub-accounts

Investment Risk Pyramid

After deciding on how much risk is acceptable in your portfolio by acknowledging your time
horizon and bankroll, you can use the risk pyramid approach for balancing your assets.

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This pyramid can be thought of as an asset allocation tool that investors can use to diversify their
portfolio investments according to the risk profile of each security. The pyramid, representing
the investor's portfolio, has three distinct tiers:
Base of the Pyramid The foundation of the pyramid represents the strongest portion,
which supports everything above it. This area should be comprised of investments that
are low in risk and have foreseeable returns. It is the largest area and composes the
bulk of your assets.
Middle Portion This area should be made up of medium-risk investments that offer a
stable return while still allowing for capital appreciation. Although more risky than the
assets creating the base, these investments should still be relatively safe.
Summit Reserved specifically for high-risk investments, this is the smallest area of
the pyramid (portfolio) and should be made up of money you can lose without any
serious repercussions. Furthermore, money in the summit should be fairly disposable
so that you don't have to sell prematurely in instances where there are capital losses.

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1.10 TYPES OF RISKS:

Personal Risks
This category of risk deals with the personal level of investing. The investor is likely to have
more control over this type of risk compared to others.
Timing risk is the risk of buying the right security at the wrong time. It also refers to selling the
right security at the wrong time. For example, there is the chance that a few days after you sell a
stock it will go up several dollars in value. There is no surefire way to time the market.
Tenure risk is the risk of losing money while holding onto a security. During the period of
holding, markets may go down, inflation may worsen, or a company may go bankrupt. There is
always the possibility of loss on the company-wide level, too.
Company Risks
There are two common risks on the company-wide level. The first, financial risk is the danger
that a corporation will not be able to repay its debts. This has a great affect on its bonds, which
finance the company's assets. The more assets financed by debts (i.e., bonds and money market
instruments), the greater the risk. Studying financial risk involves looking at a company's
management, its leadership style, and its credit history.
Management risk is the risk that a company's management may run the company so poorly that
it is unable to grow in value or pay dividends to its shareholders. This greatly affects the value of
its stock and the attractiveness of all the securities it issues to investors.
Market Risks
Fluctuation in the market as a whole may be caused by the following risks:
Market risk is the chance that the entire market will decline, thus affecting the prices and values
of securities. Market risk, in turn, is influenced by outside factors such as embargoes and interest
rate changes. See Political risk below.
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Liquidity risk is the risk that an investment, when converted to cash, will experience loss in its
value. When you want to sell the stock you are currently holding, there is nobody there
to buy your stock, meaning that there is no volume in that stock.
Interest rate risk is the risk that interest rates will rise, resulting in a current investment's loss of
value. A bondholder, for example, may hold a bond earning 6% interest and then see rates on
that type of bond climb to 7%.
Inflation risk is the danger that the dollars one invests will buy less in the future because prices
of consumer goods rise. When the rate of inflation rises, investments have less purchasing
power. This is especially true with investments that earn fixed rates of return. As long as they are
held at constant rates, they are threatened by inflation. Inflation risk is tied to interest rate risk,
because interest rates often rise to compensate for inflation. Return of investment (ROI) is less
than

the

market

inflation

rate.

e.g. Return of investment (ROI) : 5%; Market Inflation rate (IR) : 8.5%
Exchange rate risk is the chance that a nation's currency will lose value when exchanged for
foreign currencies.
Reinvestment risk is the danger that reinvested money will fetch returns lower than those
earned before reinvestment. Individuals with dividend-reinvestment plans are a group subject to
this risk. Bondholders are another.
National And International Risks
National and world events can profoundly affect investment markets.
Economic risk is the danger that the economy as a whole will perform poorly. When the whole
economy experiences a downturn, it affects stock prices, the job market, and the prices of
consumer products.
Industry risk is the chance that a specific industry will perform poorly. When problems plague
one industry, they affect the individual businesses involved as well as the securities issued by

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those businesses. They may also cross over into other industries. For example, after a national
downturn in auto sales, the steel industry may suffer financially.
Tax risk is the danger that rising taxes will make investing less attractive. In general, nations
with relatively low tax rates, such as the United States, are popular places for entrepreneurial
activities. Businesses that are taxed heavily have less money available for research, expansion,
and even dividend payments. Taxes are also levied on capital gains, dividends and interest.
Investors continually seek investments that provide the greatest net after-tax returns.
Political risk is the danger that government legislation will have an adverse affect on
investment. This can be in the form of high taxes, prohibitive licensing, or the appointment of
individuals whose policies interfere with investment growth. Political risks include wars,
changes in government leadership, and politically motivated embargoes.
Investors and speculators:
Investors:
The investors buy the securities with a view to invest their savings in profitable income earning
securities. They generally retain the securities for a considerable length of time. They are assured
of a profit in cash. They are also called genuine investors.
Speculators:
The speculators buy securities with a hope to sell them at a profit in future. They do not retain
their holdings for a longer period. They buy the securities with the object of selling them and not
to retain them. They are interested only in price differentials. They are not genuine investors.
Differences between investors and speculators:
S.No
1

Investors
An investors

Speculators

is interested in A speculators is interested in

safety of his investment

appreciation of capital and earning

profits quickly

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2

Seeks

income

from

his Seeks

investment
3

Makes

profit

from

sale

and

purchase of securities

payment

and

takes He neither delivers nor takes the

delivery of the securities on delivery of the securities on sale or

purchasing. Receives payment purchase.
and delivers the securities on
sales.
5

Retains

holding

for

longer Tries to sell the securities quickly

period i.e. commitment is for ie his commitment is for shorter

longer period of time

period.

Risk is low

Risk is high

Stable income

Earnings of profit is uncertain

His income depends on the

The profit earned by him depends

earnings of the enterprise

on the fluctuation/change in the

market price of securities.

Speculation:
Speculation refers to the buying and selling of securities in the hope of making a profit from
expected change in the price of securities. Those who engage in such activity are known as
speculators.
A speculator may buy securities in expectation of rise in price. If his expectation comes true, he
sells the securities for a higher price and makes a profit. Similarly a speculator may expect a
price to fall and sell securities at the current high price to buy again when prices decline. He will
make a profit if prices decline as expected. The benefits of speculation are:
1. It leads to smooth change and prevents wide fluctuations in security prices at different
times and places
2. Speculative activity and the resulting effect in the prices of securities provided a guidance
to the public about the market situation.
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Differences between speculation and gambling:

S.No
1

Speculation

Gambling

It is based on knowledge and It is based on chance of events

foresight

happening.

It is a lawful activity

It is an illegal activity

It performs economic functions

It has no benefits to offer to the

economy

Speculators bears the risk of Gamblers bear the risk of loss on the
loss on the basis of logical basis
reasoning

of

blind

and

reckless

expectation.

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UNIT

II

SECURITIES MARKETS
Financial Market

- Segments

Environment, Primary Market

market

Types - - Participants in financial Market

Methods of floating new issues, Book building

Regulation of primary market, Stock exchanges in India

Regulatory

Role of primary

BSE, OTCEI , NSE, ISE, and

Regulations of stock exchanges Trading system in stock exchanges SEBI.

2.1 FINANCIAL MARKETS

In economics, a financial market is a mechanism that allows people to buy and sell
(trade) financial securities (such as stocks and bonds), commodities (such as precious
metals or agricultural goods), and other fungible items of value at low transaction
costs and at prices that reflect the efficient-market hypothesis. Financial markets can
be domestic or they can be international.

In finance, financial markets facilitate:

The raising of capital (in the capital markets)

The transfer of risk (in the derivatives markets)

International trade (in the currency markets)

- And are used to match those who want capital to those who have it.

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2.2 TYPES OF FINANCIAL MARKETS

The

financial

markets

can

be

divided

into

different

subtypes:

Financial
Market

Capital Market

Money Market

Foreign
Exchange
Market

Government
securitites
Market

Derivatives
Market

Insurance
Market

Commodity
Market

(A) Capital Market:

The capital market deals in long term funds (shares and debentures). Companies raise
their capital through the issue of shares and debentures.

Capital markets which consist of:

Capital
Market
Stock
Market

Bond
Market

Stock markets, which provide financing through the issuance of shares or

common stock, and enable the subsequent trading thereof.
Bond markets, which provide financing through the issuance of bonds, and
enable the subsequent trading thereof.
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Another classification of capital market is as follows:

Capital
Market
Primary
Market

Secondary
Market

Primary Market:

Primary market refers to the sale of shares, directly by the company at the time of
promotion and the investors directly buy the shares from the company through
application.

Newly formed (issued) securities are bought or sold in primary markets.

The share price will be mostly at par.

Secondary Market:

Secondary markets allow investors to sell securities that they hold or buy existing
securities.

Here sale and purchase of securities will take place through the recognized stock
exchanges.

Only authorized persons are allowed to deal in the securities in the secondary market,
who are known as brokers.

Only listed securities will be traded in the stock exchanges.

(B) Money markets:

Money market deals in short term funds which provide short term debt financing and
investment.

In fact there is no fixed place as money market.

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The term money market refers to a collective name given to all the institutions which are
dealing in short term funds.

Money market provides working capital.

Organised
Indian Money
Market
Unorganised

Unorganised
Money
Market

Indigenous
Bankers

Money
Lenders

Promissory
Note

Hundies

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Organised Money Market

Trade Bills or
Commercial Bills

Finance Bills

Treasury Bills

Foreign Bills

(C) Commodity Market & Derivative market& Insurance Market:

Commodity markets, which facilitate the trading of commodities

Derivatives markets, which provide instruments for the management of financial risk.
o

Futures markets, which provide standardized forward contracts for trading

products at some future date; see also forward market.

Insurance markets, which facilitate the redistribution of various risks.

(D) Foreign exchange markets

Foreign exchange markets, which facilitate the trading of foreign exchange. Foreign
exchange is bought and sold and the different forms of foreign currency are dealt. In
India, foreign exchange is held by Reserve bank of India which is the exchange control

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authority. We have then Foreign Exchange Regulation Act which is now renamed as
Foreign Exchange Management Act (FEMA) to deal with Foreign exchange.
Authorised
Dealers
Foreign banks

Foreign
Exchange
market

RBI
Importers
Exporters&
Money Changers

(E) Government Securities Market:

It can be divided as follows:
Government
securities Market

Treasury
Bills
Bonds

When government is in need of funds to meet its budgetary deficits, it goes for the issue
of treasury bills and bonds.
Treasury bills and bonds:
Treasury bills are issued for raising short term funds and mainly to meet revenue
expenditure. Bonds are issued for raising long term loans and these are repayable over a
period of 15 or 20 years. Normally they are subscribed by financial institutions as these

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securities carry attractive interest rates and they can be sold easily in the market. It is for
this reason; they are called as liquid assets.
The main functions of financial market are:
1) To facilitate creation and allocation of credit and liquidity.
2) To serve as intermediaries for mobilization of savings
3) To assist process of balanced economic growth;
4) To provide financial convenience
Financial market functions:
Financial markets serve six basic functions. These functions are briefly listed below:

Borrowing and Lending: Financial markets permit the transfer of funds (purchasing
power) from one agent to another for either investment or consumption purposes.

Price Determination: Financial markets provide vehicles by which prices are set both for
newly issued financial assets and for the existing stock of financial assets.

Information Aggregation and Coordination: Financial markets act as collectors and

aggregators of information about financial asset values and the flow of funds from
lenders to borrowers.

Risk Sharing: Financial markets allow a transfer of risk from those who undertake
investments to those who provide funds for those investments.

Liquidity: Financial markets provide the holders of financial assets with a chance to resell
or liquidate these assets.

Efficiency: Financial markets reduce transaction costs and information costs.

2.3 PARTICIPANTS IN FINANCIAL MARKET:

In the financial markets, there is a flow of funds from one group of parties (funds-surplus units)
known as investors to another group (funds-deficit units) which require funds. However, often
these groups do not have direct link. The link is provided by market intermediaries such as
brokers, mutual funds, leasing and finance companies, etc. In all, there is a very large number of
players and participants in the financial market.
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Brokers:
A broker is a commissioned agent of a buyer (or seller) who facilitates trade by locating a seller
(or buyer) to complete the desired transaction. A broker does not take a position in the assets he
or she trades -- that is, the broker does not maintain inventories in these assets. The profits of
brokers are determined by the commissions they charge to the users of their services (the buyers,
the sellers, or both). Examples of brokers include real estate brokers and stock brokers.
Diagrammatic Illustration of a Stock Broker:

Payment ----------------- Payment

------------>|
|------------->
Stock
|
|
Stock
Buyer
| Stock Broker |
Seller
<-------------|<----------------|<------------Stock | (Passed Thru) | Stock
Shares ----------------- Shares

Dealers:
Like brokers, dealers facilitate trade by matching buyers with sellers of assets; they do not
engage in asset transformation. Unlike brokers, however, a dealer can and does "take positions"
(i.e., maintain inventories) in the assets he or she trades that permit the dealer to sell out of
inventory rather than always having to locate sellers to match every offer to buy. Also, unlike
brokers, dealers do not receive sales commissions. Rather, dealers make profits by buying assets
at relatively low prices and reselling them at relatively high prices (buy low - sell high). The
price at which a dealer offers to sell an asset (the "asked price") minus the price at which a dealer
offers to buy an asset (the "bid price") is called the bid-ask spread and represents the dealer's
profit margin on the asset exchange. Real-world examples of dealers include car dealers, dealers
in U.S. government bonds, and NASDAQ stock dealers.
Diagrammatic Illustration of a Bond Dealer:
Payment ----------------- Payment
------------>|
|------------->
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Bond
| Dealer
|
Bond
Buyer
|
|
Seller
<-------------| Bond Inventory |<------------Bonds |
| Bonds
-----------------

Investment Banks:
An investment bank assists in the initial sale of newly issued securities (i.e., in IPOs = Initial
Public Offerings) by engaging in a number of different activities:

Advice: Advising corporations on whether they should issue bonds or stock, and, for bond
issues, on the particular types of payment schedules these securities should offer;

Underwriting: Guaranteeing corporations a price on the securities they offer, either

individually or by having several different investment banks form a syndicate to
underwrite the issue jointly;

Sales Assistance: Assisting in the sale of these securities to the public.

Some of the best-known U.S. investments banking firms are Morgan Stanley, Merrill Lynch, Salomon
Brothers, First Boston Corporation, and Goldman Sachs.

Financial Intermediaries:
Unlike brokers, dealers, and investment banks, financial intermediaries are financial institutions
that engage in financial asset transformation. That is, financial intermediaries purchase one kind
of financial asset from borrowers -- generally some kind of long-term loan contract whose terms
are adapted to the specific circumstances of the borrower (e.g., a mortgage) -- and sell a different
kind of financial asset to savers, generally some kind of relatively liquid claim against the
financial intermediary (e.g., a deposit account). In addition, unlike brokers and dealers, financial
intermediaries typically hold financial assets as part of an investment portfolio rather than as an
inventory for resale. In addition to making profits on their investment portfolios, financial
intermediaries make profits by charging relatively high interest rates to borrowers and paying
relatively low interest rates to savers.

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Types of financial intermediaries include: Depository Institutions (commercial banks, savings

and loan associations, mutual savings banks, credit unions);Contractual Savings Institutions (life
insurance companies, fire and casualty insurance companies, pension funds, government
retirement funds); and Investment Intermediaries (finance companies, stock and bond mutual
funds, money market mutual funds).
Diagrammatic Example of a Financial Intermediary: A Commercial Bank
Lending by B

Borrowing by B

Deposited
------- Funds
------funds
------|
|<............. |
| <............. |
|
| F |.............> | B | ..............> | H |
------- Loan
------deposit
------Contracts
accounts
Loan contracts
issued by F to B
are liabilities of F
and assets of B

Deposit accounts
issued by B to H
are liabilities of B
and assets of H

NOTE: F=Firms, B=Commercial Bank, and H=Households

These can be grouped as follows :

The individuals: These are net savers and purchase the securities issued by corporates.
Individuals provide funds by subscribing to these security or by making other investments.
The Firms or corporates: The corporates are net borrowers. They require funds for different
projects from time to time. They offer different types of securities to suit the risk preferences of
investors Sometimes, the corporates invest excess funds, as individuals do. The funds raised by
issue of securities are invested in real assets like plant and machinery. The income generated by
these real assets is distributed as interest or dividends to the investors who own the securities.
Government: Government may borrow funds to take care of the budget deficit or as a measure
of controlling the liquidity, etc. Government may require funds for long terms (which are raised
by issue of Government loans) or for short-terms (for maintaining liquidity) in the money
market. Government makes initial investments in public sector enterprises by subscribing to the

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shares, however, these investments (shares) may be sold to public through the process of
disinvestments.
Regulators: Financial system is regulated by different government agencies. The relationships
among other participants, the trading mechanism and the overall flow of funds are managed,
supervised and controlled by these statutory agencies. In India, two basic agencies regulating the
financial market are the Reserve Bank of India (RBI ) and Securities and Exchange Board of
India (SEBI). Reserve Bank of India, being the Central Bank, has the primary responsibility of
maintaining liquidity in the money market It undertakes the sale and purchase of T-Bills on
behalf of the Government of India. SEBI has a primary responsibility of regulating and
supervising the capital market. It has issued a number of Guidelines and Rules for the control
and supervision of capital market and investors protection. Besides, there is an array of
legislations and government departments also to regulate the operations in the financial system.
Market Intermediaries: There are a number of market intermediaries known as financial
intermediaries or merchant bankers, operating in financial system. These are also known as
investment managers or investment bankers. The objective of these intermediaries is to smoothen
the process of investment and to establish a link between the investors and the users of funds.
Corporations and Governments do not market their securities directly to the investors. Instead,
they hire the services of the market intermediaries to represent them to the investors. Investors,
particularly small investors, find it difficult to make direct investment. A small investor desiring
to invest may not find a willing and desirable borrower. He may not be able to diversify across
borrowers to reduce risk. He may not be equipped to assess and monitor the credit risk of
borrowers. Market intermediaries help investors to select investments by providing investment
consultancy, market analysis and credit rating of investment instruments. In order to operate in
secondary market, the investors have to transact through share brokers. Mutual funds and
investment companies pool the funds(savings) of investors and invest the corpus in different
investment alternatives. Some of the market intermediaries are:

Lead Managers

Bankers to the Issue

Registrar and Share Transfer Agents

Depositories

Clearing Corporations
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Share brokers

Credit Rating Agencies

Underwriters

Custodians

Portfolio Managers

Mutual Funds

Investment Companies

SECURITY ANALYSIS AND PORTFOLIO MANAGEMENT

These market intermediaries provide different types of financial services to the investors. They
provide expertise to the securities issuers. They are constantly operating in the financial market.
Small investors in particular and other investors too, rely on them. It is in their (market
intermediaries) own interest to behave rationally, maintain integrity and to protect and maintain
reputation, otherwise the investors would not be trusting them next time. In principle, these
intermediaries bring efficiency to corporate fund raising by developing expertise in pricing new
issues and marketing them to the investors.
2.4 REGULATORY ENVIRONMENT:
Financial system is regulated by different government agencies. The relationships among other
participants, the trading mechanism and the overall flow of funds are managed, supervised and
controlled by these statutory agencies. In India, two basic agencies regulating the financial
market are the Reserve Bank of India (RBI ) and Securities and Exchange Board of India
(SEBI). Reserve Bank of India, being the Central Bank, has the primary responsibility of
maintaining liquidity in the money market It undertakes the sale and purchase of T-Bills on
behalf of the Government of India. SEBI has a primary responsibility of regulating and
supervising the capital market. It has issued a number of Guidelines and Rules for the control
and supervision of capital market and investors protection. Besides, there is an array of
legislations and government departments also to regulate the operations in the financial system.
2.5 METHODS OF FLOATING NEW ISSUES:
Methods of Marketing Securities
Following are the various methods being adopted by corporate entities for marketing the
securities in the New Issue Market:
1. Pure Prospectus Method
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2. Offer for Sale Method
3. Private Placement Method
4. Initial public Offers (IPOs) Method
5. Rights Issue Method
6. Bonus Issue Method
7. Book-building Method
8. Stock Option Method and
9. Bought-out Deals Method

Pure prospectus Method

Meaning
The method whereby a corporate enterprise mops up capital funds from the general public by
means of an issue of a prospectus is called Pure Prospectus Method . It is the most popular
method of making public issue of securities by corporate enterprises.
Features
Exclusive subscription: Under this method, the new issues of a company are offered for
exclusive subscription of the general public.
Issue Price: Direct officer is made by the issuing company to the general public to subscribe to
the securities as a stated price.
Underwriting: Public issue through the pure prospectus method is usually underwritten. This
is to safeguard the interest of the issuer in the event of an unsatisfactory response from the
public.
Prospectus: A document that contains information relating to the various aspects of the issuing
company, besides other details of the issue is called a Prospectus . The document is circulated
to the public. The general details include the company s name and address of its registered
office, the names and addresses of the company s promoters, manager, managing director,
directors, company secretary, legal adviser, auditors, bankers, brokers, etc.
Advantages
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The pure prospectus method offers the following advantages to the issuer and the investors alike:
Benefits to investors: The pure prospectus method of marketing the securities serves as an
excellent mode of disclosure of all the information pertaining to the issue. Besides, it also
facilitates satisfactory compliance with the legal requirements of transparency, etc.
Benefits to issuers: The pure prospectus method is the most popular method among the larger
issuers. In addition, it provides for wide diffusion of ownership of securities contributing to
reduction in the concentration of economic and social power.
Drawbacks
The raising of capital through the pure prospectus method is fraught with a number of drawbacks
as specified below:
High issue costs: A major drawback of this method is that it is an expensive mode of raising
funds from the capital market. Costs of various hues are incurred in mobilizing capital.
Time Consuming: The issue of securities through prospectus takes more time, as its requires
the due compliance with various formalities before an issue could take place.
Offer for Sale Method
Meaning
Where the marketing of securities takes place through intermediaries, such as issue houses,
stockholders and others, it is a case of Offer for sale Method .
Features
Under this method, the sale of securities takes place in two stages. Accordingly, in the first
stage, the issuer company makes an en-block sale of securities to intermediaries such as the issue
houses and share brokers of an agreed price. Under the second stage, the securities are re-sold to
ultimate investors at a market-related price.

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The issue is also underwritten to ensure total subscription of the issue. The biggest advantage of
this method is that it saves the issuing company the hassles involved in selling the shares to the
public directly through prospectus.

Private Placement Method

Meaning
A method of marketing of securities whereby the issuer makes the offer of sale of individuals
and institutions privately without the issue of a prospectus is known as Private Placement
Method.
Features
Under this method, securities are offered directly to large buyers with the help of share brokers.
This method works in a manner similar to the Offer for Sale Method whereby securities are
first sold to intermediaries such as issues houses, etc.
Advantages
Private placement of securities offers the following advantages:
1. Less expensive as various types of costs associated with the issue are borne by the issue
houses and other intermediaries.
2. Placement of securities suits the requirements of small companies.
3. The method is also resorted to when the stock market is dull and the public response to
the issue is doubtful.
Disadvantages
The major weaknesses of the private placement of securities are as follows:
1. Concentration of securities in a few hands.
2. Creating artificial scarcity for the securities thus jacking up the prices temporarily and
misleading general public.
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3. Depriving the common investors of an opportunity to subscribe to the issue, thus

affecting their confidence levels.
Initial Public Offer (IPO) Method
The public issue made by a corporate entity for the first time in its life is called Initial public
Offer (IPO), Under this method of marketing, securities are issue to successful applicants on the
basis of the orders placed by them, through their brokers.
When a company whose stock is not publicly traded wants to offer that stock to the general
public, it takes the form of Initial public offer . The job of selling the stock is entrusted to a
popular intermediary, the underwriter. The underwriters charge a fee for their services.
Stocks are issued to the underwriter after the issue of prospectus which provides details of
financial and business information as regards the issuer.
The issuer and the underwriting syndicate jointly determine the price of a new issue. IPO stock
at the release price is usually not available to most of the public. Good relationship between, the
broker and the investor is a pre-requisite for the stock being acquired.
Full disclosure of all material information in connection with the offering of new securities must
be made as part of the new offerings. A statement and preliminary prospectus (also known as a
red herring) containing the following information is to be filled with the Registrar of Companies:
1. A description of the issuer s business.
2. The names and addresses of the Key company officers, with salary and a 5 year business
history on each.
3. The amount of ownership of the key officers
4. Any legal proceedings that the company is involved in
The essential steps involved in this method of marketing of securities are as follows:
1. Order: Broker receives order from the client and places orders on behalf of the client
with the issuer.
2. Share Allocation: The issuer finalizes share allocation and informs the broker regarding
the same.
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3. The Client: The broker advises the successful clients of the share allocation. Clients
then submit the application forms for shares and make payment to the issuer through the
broker.
4. Primary issue account: The issuer opens a separate escrow account (primary issue
account) for the primary market issue. The clearing house of the exchange debits the
primary issue account of the broker and credits the issuer s account.
5. Certificates: Certificates are then delivered to investors. Otherwise depository account
may be credited.
Rights issue Method
Where the shares of an existing company are offered to its existing shareholders. It takes the
form of rights issue. Under this method, the existing company issues shares to its existing
shareholder sin proportion in the number of shares already held by them.
The relevant guidelines issued by the SEBI in this regard are as follows:
1. Shall be issued only by listed companies.
2. Announcement regarding rights issue once made, shall not be withdrawn and where
withdrawn, no security shall be eligible for listing upto 12 months.
3. Underwriting as to rights issue is optional and appointment of Registrar is compulsory.
4. Appointment of category I Merchant Bankers holding a certificate of registration issued
by SEBI shall be compulsory.
5. Rights share shall be issued only in respect of fully paid share.
6. Letter of Offer shall contain disclosures as per SEBI requirements.
7. Issue shall be kept open for a minimum period of 30 days and for a maximum period of
60 days.
8. A No complaints Certificate is to be filed by the Legal Merchant Banker with the SEBI
after 21 days from the date of issue of the document.
9. Obligatory for a company where increase in subscribed capital is necessary after two
years of its formation of after one year of its first issue of shares, whichever is earlier
(this requirement may be dispensed with by a special resolution).

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Advantages
Rights issue offers the following advantages
1. Economy: Rights issue constitutes the most economical method of raising fresh capital,
as it involves no underwriting and brokerage costs.
2. Easy:

The issue management procedures connected with the rights issue are easier as

only a limited number of applications are to be handled.

3. Advantage to shareholders: Issue of rights shares does not involve any dilution of
ownership of existing shareholders.
Drawbacks
The method suffers from the following limitations:
1. Restrictive: The facility of rights issue is available only to existing companies and not to
new companies.
2. Against society:

the issue of rights shares runs counter to the overall societal

consideration of diffusion of share ownership for promoting dispersal of wealth and

economic power.
Bonus Issues Method
Where the accumulated reserves and surplus of profits of a company are converted into paid up
capital, it takes the form of issue of bonus shares. It merely implied capitalization of existing
reserves and surplus of a company.
Issue under Section 205 (3) of the companies Act, such shares is governed by the guidelines
issued by the SEBI (applicable of listed companies only) as follows:
SEBI Guidelines
Following are the guidelines pertaining to the issue of bonus shares by a listed corporate
enterprise:
1. Reservation: In respect of FCDs and PCDs, bonus shares must be reserved in proportion
to such convertible part of FCDs and PCDs. The shares so reserved may be issued at the
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time of conversion(s) of such debentures on the same terms on which the bonus issues
were made.
2. Reserves: the bonus issue shall be made out of free reserves built out of the genuine
profits or share premium collected in cash only.
3. Dividend mode: the declaration of bonus issue, in lieu of dividend, is not made.
4. Fully paid: The bonus issue is not made unless the partly paid shares, if any are made
fully paid-up.
5. No default: The Company has not defaulted in payment of interest or principal in
respect of fixed deposits and interest on existing debentures or principal on redemption
thereof and has sufficient reason to believe that it has not defaulted in respect of the
payment of statutory dues of the employees such as contribution to provident fund,
gratuity, bonus, etc.
6. Implementation: A company that announces its bonus issue after the approval of the
Board of Directors must implement the proposal within a period of 6 months from the
date of such approval and shall not have the option of changing the decision.
7. The articles: The articles of Association of the company shall contain a provision for
capitalization of reserves, etc. if there is no such provision in the articles, the company
shall pass a resolution at is general body meeting making provision in the Articles of
Association for capitalization.
8. Resolution: consequent to the issue of bonus shares if the subscribed and paid-up capital
exceeds the authorized share capital, the company at its general body meeting for
increasing the authorized capital shall pass a resolution.
Book-building Method
A method of marketing the shares of a company whereby the quantum and the price of the
securities to be issued will be decided on the basis of the bids received from the prospective
shareholders by the lead merchant bankers is known as book-building method .
The option of book-building is available to all body corporate, which are otherwise eligible to
make an issue of capital of the public. The initial minimum size of issue through book-building
route was fixed at Rs.100 crores.

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The book-building process involves the following steps:

1. Appointment of book-runners: the first step in the book-building is the appointment
by the issuer company, of the book-runner, chosen from one of the lead merchant
bankers. The book-runner in the forms a syndicate for the book building. A syndicate
member should be a member of National Stock Exchange (NSE) or Over-the-Counter
Exchange of India (OTCEI).

Offers of bids are to be made by investors to the

syndicate members, who register the demands of investors.

2. Drafting prospectus: The draft prospectus containing all the information except the
information regarding the price at which the securities are offered is to be filed with
SEBI as per the prevailing SEBI guidelines. The offer of securities through this process
must separately be disclosed in the prospectus, under the caption placement portion
category .
3. Circulating draft prospectus: A copy of the draft prospectus filed with SEBI is to be
circulated by the book-runner to the prospective institutional buyers who are eligible for
firm allotment and also to the intermediaries who are eligible to act as underwriters.
4. Maintain offer records: The book-runner maintain a record to the offers received.
Details such as the name and the number of securities ordered together with the price at
which each institutional buyer or underwriter is willing to subscribed to securities under
the placement portion must find place in the record. SEBI has the right to inspect such
records.
5. Intimation about aggregate orders: The underwriters and the institutional investors
shall give intimation on the aggregate of the offers received to the book-runner.
6. Bid analysis: The bid analysis is carried out by the book-runner immediately after the
closure of the bid offer date. An appropriate final price is arrived at after a careful
evaluation of demands at various prices and the quantity.
7. Mandatory underwriting: Where it has been decided to make offers of shares to
public under the category of Net offer of the Public , it is incumbent that the entire
portion offered to the public is fully underwritten.
8. Filling with ROC: A copy of the prospectus as certified by the SEBI shall be filed with
the Registrar of Companies within two days of the receipt of the acknowledgement card
from the SEBI.
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9. Bank accounts: The issuer company has to open two separate accounts for collection of
application money, one for the private placement portion and the other for the public
subscription.
10. Collection of completed applications: The book-runner collects from the institutional
buyers and the underwriters the application forms along with the application money to
the extent of the securities proposed to be allotted to them or subscribed by them.
11. Allotment of securities: Allotment for the private placement portion may be made on
the second day from the closure of the issue. The issuer company, however, has the
option to choose one date for both the placement portion and the public portion.
12. Payment schedule and listing: The book-runner may require the underwriters to the
net offer to the public to pay in advance all moneys required to be paid in respect of
their underwriting commitment by the eleventh day of the closure of the issue.
13. Under-subscription: In the case of under-subscription in the net offer to the public
category, any spillover to the extent of under subscription is to be permitted from the
placement portion category subject to the condition that preference is given to the
individual investors.
Advantages of book-building
Book building process is of immense use in the following ways:
1. Reduction in the duration between allotment and listing
2. Reliable allotment procedure
3. Quick listing in stock exchanges possible
4. No price manipulation as the price is determined on the basis of the bids received.
Stock Option or employees Stock Option Scheme (ESOP)
A method of marketing the securities of a company whereby its employees are encouraged to
take up shares and subscribe to it is known as stock option . It is a voluntary scheme on the part
of the company to encourage employees participation in the company. The scheme also offers
an incentive to the employees to stay in the company.
SEBI Guidelines
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Company whose securities are listed on any stock exchange can introduce the scheme of
employees stock option. The offer can be made subject to the conditions specified below:
1. Issue at discount: Issue of stock options at a discount to the market price would be
regarded as another form of employee compensation and would be treated as such in the
financial statements of the company regardless the quantum of discount on the exercise
price of the option.
2. Approval: The issue of ESOP s is subject to the approval by the shareholders through a
special resolution.
3. Maximum limit: There would be no restriction on the maximum number of shares to be
issued to a single employee.
4. Minimum period:

A minimum period of one year between grant of options and its

vesting has been prescribed. After one year, the company would determine the period
during which the option can be exercised.
5. Superintendence: The operation of the ESOP Scheme would have to be under the
superintendence and direction of a Compensation Committee of the Board of Directors in
which there would be a majority of independent directors.
6. Eligibility: ESOP scheme is open to all permanent employees and to the directors of the
company but not to promoters and large shareholders.
7. Director s report: The Director s report shall make a disclosure of the following:

a. Total number of shares as approved the shareholders

b. The pricing formula adopted
c. Details as to options grated, options vested, options exercised and options forfeited,
extinguishments or modification of options, money realized by exercise of options,
total number of options in force, employee-wise details of options granted to senior
managerial personnel and to any other employee who received a grant in anyone year
of options amounting to 5 percent or more of options granted during that year.
d. Fully diluted EPS computed in accordance with the IAS
8. IPO:

SEBI s stipulations prohibiting initial public offerings by companies having

outstanding options should not apply to ESOP.

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Stock Option Norms for Software Companies

The relevant guidelines issued by the SEBI as regards employees stock option for software
companies are as follows:
1. Minimum issue: A minimum issue of 10 percent of its paid-up capital can be made by a
software company which has already floated American Depository Receipts (ADRs) and
Global Depository Receipts (GDRs) or a company which is proposing to float these is
entitled to issue ADR/GDR linked stock options to its employees.
2. Mode of Issue: Listed stock options can be issued in foreign currency convertible bonds
and ordinary shares (through depository receipt mechanism) to the employees of
subsidiaries of Info Tech Companies.
3. Permanent employees: Indian IT companies can issue ADR/GDR linked stock options
to permanent employees, including Indian and overseas directors, of their subsidiary
companies incorporated in India or outside.
4. Pricing: The pricing provisions of SEBI s preferential allotment guidelines would not
cover the scheme. The purpose is to be enable the companies to issue stock options to its
employees at a discount to the market price which serves as another form of
compensation.
5. Approval: Shareholders approval through a special resolution is necessary for issuing
the ESOPs. A minimum period of one year between grant of option and its vesting has
been prescribed. After one year, the company would determine the period in which
option can be exercised.
Bought-out Deals
Meaning
A method for marketing of securities of a body corporate whereby the promoters of an unlisted
company make an outright sale of a chunk of equity shares to a single sponsor or the lead
sponsor is known as bought-out deals .
Features

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1. Parties: There are three parties involved in the bought-out deals. They are promoters of
the company sponsors and co-sponsors who are generally merchant bankers and
investors.
2. Outright Sale: Under this arrangement, there is an outright sale of a chunk of equity
shares to a single sponsor or the lead sponsor.
3. Syndicate: Sponsor forms a syndicate with other merchant bankers for meeting the
resource requirements and for distributing the risk.
4. Sale price: The sale price is finalized through negotiations between the issuing company
and the purchaser, the sale being influenced by such factors as project evaluation,
promoters image and reputation, current market sentiments, prospects of off-loading
these shares at a future date, etc.
5. Listing: The investor-sponsor make a profit, when at a future date, the shares get listed
and higher prices prevail. Listing generally takes place at a time when the company is
performing well in terms of higher profits and larger cash generations from projects.
6. OTCEI: Sale of these share at Over-the-Counter Exchange of India (OTCEI) or at a
recognized stock exchanges, the time of listing these securities and off-loading them
simultaneously are being generally decided in advance.

2.6 BOOK BUILDING PROCESS

BookBuilding is basically a capital issuance process used in Initial Public Offer (IPO) which aids price
and demand discovery. It is a process used for marketing a public offer of equity shares of a company. It
is a mechanism where, during the period for which the book for the IPO is open, bids are collected from
investors at various prices, which are above or equal to the floor price. The process aims at tapping both
wholesale and retail investors. The offer/issue price is then determined after the bid closing date based on
certain evaluation criteria.

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The Process:
The Issuer who is planning an IPO nominates a lead merchant banker as a 'book runner'.
The Issuer specifies the number of securities to be issued and the price band for orders.
The Issuer also appoints syndicate members with whom orders can be placed by the
investors.

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Investors place their order with a syndicate member who inputs the orders into the
'electronic book'. This process is called 'bidding' and is similar to open auction.
A Book should remain open for a minimum of 5 days.
Bids cannot be entered less than the floor price.
Bids can be revised by the bidder before the issue closes.
On the close of the book building period the 'book runner evaluates the bids on the basis
of the evaluation criteria which may include

Price Aggression

Investor quality

Earliness of bids, etc.

The book runner the company concludes the final price at which it is willing to issue the
stock and allocation of securities.
Generally, the numbers of shares are fixed; the issue size gets frozen based on the price
per share discovered through the book building process.
Allocation of securities is made to the successful bidders.
Book Building is a good concept and represents a capital market which is in the process
of maturing.
Book-building is all about letting the company know the price at which you are willing to
buy the stock and getting an allotment at a price that a majority of the investors are willing to
pay. The price discovery is made depending on the demand for the stock.
2.6 Regulations of primary Market
Entry Barriers for unlisted companies modified as dividend payment in immediately
preceding 3 years
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A listed company required to meet entry form if post issue net worth is higher than pre
issue net worth
Full payment before making a public/ rights issue
The promoter s contribution for public issues made uniform at 20% irrespective of the
issue size
Written consent from shareholders for promoter s contribution
Appointment of Registrar

Promoters and their background -Promotors details

The SEBI rules and regulations 1993 have been amended for the relationship between
issuer and Registrar
SEBI allowed debt instruments to the stock exchanges
Only body corporate to be allowed to function as Merchant bankers- only on entity
NBFCs such as Accepting deposits, leasing, bill discounting etc., will not be allowed to
be undertaken by a Merchant banker.
2.8 STOCK EXCHANGES IN INDIA:
It is an organized market for the purchase and sale of industrial and financial security. It is also
known as Secondary market or stock market
FUNCTIONS OF STOCK EXCHANGES
1. Ensure Liquidity of Capital
The stock exchanges provide a place where shares and stocks are converted in to
cash.
2. Continuous Market for securities:
The stock exchanges provide a ready market for securities.
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3. Evaluation of securities:
The investors can evaluate the worth of their holdings from the prices quoted at different
exchanges for those securities.
4. Mobilizing surplus savings:
Ready market-The investors do not have any difficulty in investing their savings
by purchasing shares, bonds etc., from the exchanges.
5. Helpful in raising New capital:
The new concerns raise the capital for the first time and existing concerns
increase their capital
6. Safety in Dealings:
Rules governed by Securities contract(Regulation ) Act, 1956
7. Listing of Securities:
Listed securities can purchase in market
8. Platform for public debt:
Stock exchanges for organized markets of government securities
9. Clearing House of Business Information:
The listed companies must provide financial statements, annual reports etc.,

Stock Exchanges in India

1. Bombay stock Exchange (BSE)

It is the oldest stock exchange in Asia

It has established as The Native share and stock Brokers in 1875

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Features of BSE
Largest stock Exchange in Asia
Fifth largest stock market in the world
More than 6, 000 Indian companies are listed in BSE
It used BOLT ( BSE online Trading system) as the stock trading system in the world
OTCEI
It started in oct 1990
It uses the model as NASDAQ ( National association of security Dealers automated
Quotations)
Features of OTCEI
Ringless Trading: Screen based trading
National network: wide network and grater liquidity
Totally computerized: Transparent and quick market
Exclusive List of companies: Exclude other stock exchange companies
Two ways of making a public offer:
Direct offer : offer shares directly to public
Indirect offer: offer shares indirectly to public ie., to sponsors
Fast Transfers: fast settlement called counter receipt
Trading Mechanism: Export and Import Shares. The parties are Investor, counter, settler
registered custodian, company and bank
Objectives of OTCEI
To provide a nation wide investor base to small companies
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To encourage public issues

To enable small companies to raise capital at low cost
To offer quick settlement and transparent facilities
To provide a single trading platform for investors
Benefits of OTCEI
To Investors:
Easy Accessibility
Improved Liquidity
Transparency
Immediate transfer of shares
Speedy settlement of Trades
Benefits for Issuing companies:
Low cost of Issuing shares
Beneficial for small companies
Benefit on account of the image Market maker
NSE(National Stock Exchange)
NSE was promoted by IDBI, ICICI, IFCI, GIC, LIC, State bank of India, SBI capital
markets limited, SHCIL and IL & FS as a joint stock company under the companies Act 1956.
Features of NSE
India s largest exchange
Equity capital : 25 crores

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Head quarters in Mumbai and back office in Chennai

It is a joint stock company and tax paying company
Strict in disclosure and listing norms
Advantages of NSE
Wider accessibility
Screen based trading
Non disclosure of trading members identity
Transparent of transactions
Matching of orders
Effective settlement of corporate benefit
Trading in dematerialized form
SGL ( subsidiary General Ledger) facility in debt market
ISE ( Inter connected Stock Exchange)

It is a national level stock exchange, providing trading, clearing, settlement, risk

management and surveillance support to its trading members.

Aims to address small companies

Features of ISE

Accountability

Integrity

Innovation

Knowledge

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ISE

It has 841 trading members

It has floated ISS ( Interconnected Securities & services limited)
Trading members of ISE can access NSE & BSE by registering themselves as sub
brokers of ISS
Features of ISE
Accountability
Integrity
Innovation
Knowledge
Functions of ISE
Create a single integrated national level solution by high cost services
Create markets for listed companies and small capital companies in particular
Optimally utilizing the existing infrastructure
Provide clear settlements
Advantages of ISE
Moderate fees
Easy compliance
Improved visibility
Infrastructure
IPO distribution system- Primary market

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Additional facility
Investor Protection
Website
Relationship between NSE & OTCEI
Ringless No trading floor
Screen based trading- computerized
Transparency-can check the exact price

2.9 TRADING SYSTEM IN STOCK EXCHANGES

Finding a broker
Opening an account with broker
Placing the order
Making the contact
Preparing contact note
Settlement of transaction
1. Finding a broker
The shares are brought through a stock broker who is a licensed member of a recognised stock
exchange.
Services
1. Provide in formations: capital structures, earnings, dividend policies and
prospects

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2. Supply investment Literature: Education to investors, providing financial
periodicals, prospectus and reports of companies
3. Availability of competent Representatives:

appointing sufficient incharges

2. Opening an account with the broker:

The broker opens an account in the name of the protectiveness client only if the broker is
satisfied about the creditworthiness of the investors and his intention to trade in the market.
3. Placing the orders
a. Market orders- urgent desire
b. Limit orders: Maximum or minimum price at which the investors is willing to buy or
sell shares
c. Stop loss orders: conditional market order
to stop loss

d. Cancel order: Execute immediately

e. Discretionary order: Execution for the best
f. Open order: No time or limit for the execution
g. Fixed price order: client specifies the price at which the shares are to be purchased

h. Other orders
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Day orders: Unless registration

Good Till cancelled(GTC) Order: Order remains open until executed or

cancelled.

Not held order: Gives discretion to the floor brokers

Participate but do not Initiate (PNI): The floor brokers is instructed to participate in
trading but not to become aggressive

All or None Order (AON): The order wants to be executed by customer

Fill or kill order(FOK): Complete execution
Immediate or cancel(IOC): Part of the order which is not executed will be cancelled
3. Making the contract : Announcement by slip in a box
4. Preparing Contact note: Parties will record all details in contract
5. Settlement of Transaction: Settlement by the payment of buyers
Contracts:
1. Ready Delivery contracts: Immediate delivery of contacts and cash payment
2. Forward Delivery contacts: carrying over the transactions to the next settlement day

Settlements:
1. Fixed settlement:
It starts on a particular day and ends after five days
2. Rolling settlement:
fifth working day settlement
Trading on margin
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It refers to the use of borrowed funds to supplement the investor's own money. Investors will
do Partial money settlement by own and part from broker
Advantages
It provides more profit with less investment
Increases buying power
Suitable for experienced traders
Short selling:
It s the practice of selling borrowed securities.
Advantages
Profit and price decline
It became as highly conservative investment strategy

2.10 SEBI

SECURITIES EXCHANGE BOARD OF INDIA

In 1988, SEBI was established by the government of India through an

executive resolution.

In May 1992, SEBI was granted legal status. SEBI is a body corporate
having a separate legal existence and perpetual succession.

Objectives
1. To regulate the activities of stock exchange.
2. To protect the rights of investors and ensuring safety to their investment.

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3. To prevent fraudulent and malpractices by having balance between self regulation of business
and its statutory regulations.
4. To regulate and develop a code of conduct for intermediaries such as brokers, underwriters,
etc.
Management of the Board
Chairman
Two members from central government dealing with finance and Law
One member from Reserve bank of India
Two other members from central government
Functions of SEBI:
a. Protective functions
(i)

It Checks Price Rigging

(ii)

It Prohibits Insider trading

(iii)

SEBI prohibits fraudulent and Unfair Trade Practices

(iv)

SEBI undertakes steps to educate investors

(v)

SEBI promotes fair practices and code of conduct

b. Developmental functions
(i) SEBI promotes training of intermediaries of the securities market.
(ii) SEBI has permitted internet trading through registered stock brokers.
(iii) SEBI has made underwriting optional to reduce the cost of issue.
(iv) Even initial public offer of primary market is permitted through stock exchange
c. Regulatory functions
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i) SEBI has framed rules and regulations and a code of conduct to regulate the intermediaries
such as merchant bankers, brokers, underwriters, etc.
(ii) SEBI registers and regulates the working of stock brokers, sub-brokers, share transfer agents,
trustees, merchant bankers and all those who are associated with stock exchange in any manner.
(iii) SEBI registers and regulates the working of mutual funds etc.
(iv) SEBI regulates takeover of the companies.
(v) SEBI conducts inquiries and audit of stock exchanges.
Powers of SEBI
Power to seek information
Powers of Inspection
Powers of civil court Exercisable by SEBI
Powers of SEBI where an enquiry or investigation is ordered
Power to issue directions
Power of search and seizure
Power to order cease and desist
Power to SEBI under SCRA Service members Civil Relief Act

Role of SEBI in regulating the capital market

Reasons
Market index act as a barometer for market behavior
Market index is used to benchmark portfolio performance
Market index is used in derivative instruments like index futures and index options
Market index can be used for passive fund management as in case of index funds.
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Roles
To make rules for controlling stock exchanges
To provide License to dealers and brokers
To stop fraud in capital market
To control the merger, acquisition and takeover of the companies
To audit the performance of stock market
To make new rules on carry forward transactions
To create relationship with ICAI(Institute of Chartered Accountants of. India )
Introduction of derivative contracts on volatility index
To require report of portfolio Management activities
To educate the investors
To integrate the securities Market
To diversify the trading products

Role of SEBI in secondary market

Providing a centralized redressal mechanism

Establishing the separate investment awareness division
Displaying the names of defaulting companies on the SEBI website
Providing helpline facility for investor assistance

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Unit 3
FUNDAMENTAL ANALYSIS

3.1 FUNDAMENTAL ANALYSIS:

Fundamental analysis is used to determine the intrinsic value of the share by examining the
underlying forces that affect the well being of the economy, Industry groups and companies.
Fundamental analysis is to first analyze the economy, then the Industry and finally individual
companies. This is called as top down approach.
The actual value of a security, as opposed to its market price or book value is called
intrinsic
value.
The
intrinsic value includes
other variables such
as brand
name, trademarks, and copyrights that are often difficult to calculate and sometimes not
accurately reflected in the market price. One way to look at it is that the market
capitalization is the price (i.e. what investors are willing to pay for the company and
intrinsic value is the value (i.e. what the company is really worth).

The top down approach of fundamental analysis

At the economy level, fundamental analysis focus on economic data (such as GDP,
Foreign exchange and Inflation etc.) to assess the present and future growth of the
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economy.

At the industry level, fundamental analysis examines the supply and demand forces for
the products offered.

At the company level, fundamental analysis examines the financial data (such as
balance sheet, income statement and cash flow statement etc.), management, business
concept and competition.

3.2 ECONOMIC ANALYSIS:

Economic analysis occupies the first place in the financial analysis top down approach. When the
economy is having sustainable growth, then the industry group (Sectors) and companies will get
benefit and grow faster. The analysis of macroeconomic environment is essential to understand
the behavior of the stock prices. The commonly analysed macro economic factors are as follows.
Gross domestic product (GDP): GDP indicates the rate of growth of the economy. GDP
represents the value of all the goods and services produced by a country in one year. The
higher the growth rate is more favourable to the share market.
Savings and investment: The economic growth results in substantial amount of domestic
savings. Stock market is a channel through which the savings of the investors are made
available to the industries. The savings and investment pattern of the public affect stock
market.
Inflation: Along with the growth of GDP, if the inflation rate also increases, then the real
rate of growth would be very little. The decreasing inflation is good for corporate sector.
Interest rates: The interest rate affects the cost of financing to the firms. A decrease in
interest rate implies lower cost of finance for firms and more profitability.
Budget: Budget is the annual financial statement of the government, which deals with
expected revenues and expenditures. A deficit budget may lead to high rate of inflation and
adversely affect the cost of production. Surplus budget may result in deflation. Hence,
balanced budget is highly favourable to the stock market.
The tax structure: The tax structure which provides incentives for savings and investments.
The balance of payment: The balance of payment is the systematic record of all money
transfer between India and the rest of the world. The difference between receipts and
payments may be surplus or deficit. If the deficit increases, the rupee may depreciate against
other currencies. This would affect the industries, which are dealing with foreign exchange.
Monsoon and agriculture: India is primarily an agricultural country. The importance of
agricultural in Indian economy is evident. Agriculture is directly and indirectly linked with
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the industries. For example, Sugar, Textile and Food processing industries depend upon
agriculture for raw material. Fertilizer and Tractor industries are supplying input to the
agriculture. A good monsoon leads better harvesting; this in turn improves the performance
of Indian economy.
Infrastructure: Infrastructure facilities are essential for growth of Industrial and agricultural
sector. Infrastructure facilities include transport, energy, banking and communication. In
India even though Infrastructure facilities have been developed, still they are not adequate.
Demographic factors: The demographic data provides details about the population by age,
occupation, literacy and geographic location. This is needed to forecast the demand for the
consumer goods.
Political stability: A stable political system would also be necessary for a good performance
of the economy. Political uncertainties and adverse change in government policy affect the
industrial growth.
3.3 ECONOMIC FORECASTING:
The common techniques used are analysis of key economic indicators, diffusion index,
surveys and econometric model building. These techniques help him to decide the right time to
incest and the type of security he has to purchase i.e. stocks or bonds or some combination of
stocks and bonds.
ECONOMIC INDICATORS
The economic indicators are statistics about the economy that indicate the present status,
progress or slow down of the economy. They are capital investment, business profits, money
supply, GNP, interest rate, unemployment rate, etc. The economic indicators are grouped into
leading, coincidental and lagging indicators. The indicators are selected on the following criteria

Economic significance
Statistical adequacy
Timing
Conformity

The leading indicators:

The leading indicators indicate what is going to happen in the economy. It helps the investor to
predict the path of the economy. The popular leading indicators are the fiscal policy, monetary
policy, productivity, rainfall, capital investment and the stock indices. The fiscal policy shows
what the government aims at and the fiscal deficit or surplus has an effect on the economy.

The coincidental indicators:

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The coincidental indicators indicate what the economy is. The coincidental indicators are gross
national product, industrial production, interest rates and reserve funds. GDP is the aggregate
amount of goods and services produced in the national economy. The gap between the budgeted
GDP and the actual GDP attained indicates the present situation. If there is a large gap between
the actual growth and potential growth, the economy is slowing down. Low corporate profits and
industrial production show that the economy is hit by recession.
The lagging indicators:
The changes that are occurring in the leading and coincidental indicators are reflected in the
lagging indicators. Lagging indicators are identified as unemployment rate, consumer price index
and flow of foreign funds. These leading, coincidental and lagging indicators provide an insight
into the economy s current and future position.
DIFFUSION INDEX
Diffusion index is a composite or consensus index. The diffusion index consists of leading,
coincidental and lagging indicators. This type of index has been constructed by the National
Bureau of Economic Research in USA. But the diffusion index is complex in nature to calculate
and the irregular movements that occur in individual indicators cannot be completely eliminated.
ECONOMETRIC MODEL BUILDING
For model building several economic variables are taken into consideration. The assumptions
underlying the analysis are specified. The relationship between the independent and dependent
variables is given mathematically. While using the model, the analyst has to think clearly all the
inter-relationship between the variables. When these inter-relationships are specified, he can
forecast not only the direction but also the magnitude. But his prediction depends on his
understanding of economic theory and the assumptions on which the model had been built. The
models mostly use simultaneous equations.
Factors affecting Economic Forecasting
GDP ( Gross Domestic Product)
Inflation
Interest rates
Government revenue, expenditure and deficits
Exchange rates
Infrastructure
Monsoon
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Economic and political stability

3.4 STOCK INVESTMENT DECISION
Look for a stable company : financially strong
Look for a company that can grow and prosper: Profit and success
Look for a company that has good management and corporate structure: Right people in
right direction
3.5 FORECASTING TECHNIQUES
1. Anticipatory surveys:
a. Expet Opinion

Delphi Technique:

A systematic forecasting method that

a group of experts on a subject

involves structured interaction

among

b. Cross-Impact Analysis:
Analysis of high importance and high probability
c. Multiple scenario: building of pictures of alternative futures.
2.Trend Analysis method: based on time series
a. Trend Extrapolation: analyze and fit time series data( Linear quadratic or s shaped
growth curves)
b. Trend correlation: It also know as barometric or indicator approach.
Leading Indicators: To know the economic direction in advance eg., rainfall
Coincidental Indicators: Economic factors reaching approximately at the same time as the
economy
eg., GNP, Interest rates
Lagging Indicators: Economic factors reaching their peaks or troughs after the economy
has already reached its own.
eg., Unemployment and inventory debtors.
3. Diffusion Indexes : It is an indicator of spread of an expansion.
a. Composite or consensus Index: It combines several indictors into one single measure .
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Eg: Diffusion Index:

No of members in the set in the same direction

Total no of members in the set

b. Component Evaluation Index: It measures the breadth of the movement within a particular
series.
4. Monetary Indicators: Deals with money supply, corporate profits, interest rates and stock
prices sprinkle observed.
5. Econometric Model: It explains past economic activity by deriving mathematical equation.
Eg., Disposable Income Inventories.
6. Opportunistic model:
a. Hypothesis of total demand: Deals with environmental decisions as war or peace
b. Test of consistency and comparison: Measure the internal consistency and comparing
with other projections.

3.6 INDUSTRY OR SECTOR ANALYSIS

The second step in the fundamental analysis of securities is Industry analysis. An industry or
sector is a group of firms that have similar technological structure of production and produce
similar products. These industries are classified according to their reactions to the different
phases of the business cycle. They are classified into growth, cyclical, defensive and cyclical
growth industry. A market assessment tool designed to provide a business with an idea of
the complexity of a particular industry. Industry analysis involves reviewing the economic,
political and market factors that influence the way the industry develops. Major factors can
include the power wielded by suppliers and buyers, the condition of competitors and the
likelihood of new market entrants. The industry analysis should take into account the following
factors.

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Characteristics of the industry: When the demand for industrial products is seasonal, their
problems may spoil the growth prospects. If it is consumer product, the scale of production
and width of the market will determine the selling and advertisement cost. The nature of
industry is also an important factor for determining the scale of operation and profitability.
Demand and market: If the industry is to have good prospects of profitability, the demand
for the product should not be controlled by the government.
Government policy: The government policy is announced in the Industrial policy resolution
and subsequent announcements by the government from time to time. The government
policy with regard to granting of clearances, installed capacity, price, distribution of the
product and reservation of the products for small industry etc are also factors to be
considered for industrial analysis.
Labour and other industrial problems: The industry has to use labour of different
categories and expertise. The productivity of labour as much as the capital efficiency would
determine the progress of the industry. If there is a labour problem that industry should be
neglected by the investor. Similarly when the industries have the problems of marketing,
investors have to be careful when investing in such companies.
Management: In case of new industries, investors have to carefully assess the project
reports and the assessment of financial institutions in this regard. The capabilities of
management will depend upon tax planning, innovation of technology, modernisation etc. A
good management will also insure that their shares are well distributed and liquidity of
shares is assured.
Future prospects: It is essential to have an overall picture of the industry and to study their
problems and prospects. After a study of the past, the future prospects of the industry are to
be assessed.
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When the economy expands, the performance of the industries will be better. Similarly when the
economy contracts reverse will happen in the Industry. Each Industry is different from the other.
Cement Industry is entirely different from Software Industry or Textile Industry in its products
and process.
3.7 INDUSTRY CLASSIFICATION
1. Classification by reporting Agencies

Under Reserve bank of India-industries- 32 groups

Under SEBI- 10 groups
Under Economic times-10 groups
Under financial express- 19 groups

2.Classification by Business cycle

a. Cyclic industries : Related to business cycle and changes
b. Defensive industries: Products of having relatively inelastic demand eg., food processing
industry
c. Cyclical growth industries: Based on technical and economical changes eg., Airlines
industry
3. Industry groups:
a. Small size units: Small scale industries with a capital of 30 Lac will be listed in OTCEI
b. Medium size units: Industry with a capital of 5 crores will be listed in the regional stock
exchanges like cochin, Coimbatore etc.,
c. Large scale units: Industry with a capital of 10 crores will be listed in BSE & NSE.
4. Input based Classification
Chemical based products
Agro based products
Forest based products
Metal based products
Marine based products
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3.8 INDUSTRY LIFE CYCLE

1. Pioneering/ Introduction stage: Introduction of new product
2. Expansion/ Growth stage: overcoming the problem to improve financially and
competitively
3. Stagnation/ Maturity stage: stagnation to have a new life cycle
4. Decay/ Decline stage: decline death signals and implement proactively

Industry forecasting Methods

1. Market profile: no of establishments, geographical locations, value if sales etc.,
2. Cumulative methods: based on statistical measurements.
a. Surveys: Carried by researchers, consultants
b. Correlation and regression analysis: Demand measurements
3. Time series:
a. Trend(T): Result of basic development in population, capital formation and technology
b. Cycle(C ): Helps in intermediate range forecasting( wave like movement of sales)
c. Seasons( S): Sales movement within a year
d. Erratic Events: Unpredictable events as strikes, riots, floods etc.,

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3.9 COMPANY OR CORPORATE ANALYSIS

Company analysis is a study of variables that influence the future of a firm both qualitatively and
quantitatively. It is a method of assessing the competitive position of a firm, its earning and
profitability, the efficiency with which it operates its financial position and its future with respect
to earning of its shareholders.
The fundamental nature of the analysis is that each share of a company has an intrinsic value
which is dependent on the company's financial performance. If the market value of a share is
lower than intrinsic value as evaluated by fundamental analysis, then the share is supposed to be
undervalued. The basic approach is analysed through the financial statements of an organisation.
The company or corporate analysis is to be carried out to get answer for the following two
questions.
1
2

How has the company performed in comparison with the similar company in the same
Industry?
How has the company performed in comparison to the early years?

Before making investment decision, the business plan of the company, management, annual
report, financial statements, cash flow and ratios are to be examined for better returns.

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3.10 Measuring Earnings:

a. Internal Information: Relating to enterprise
b. External Information: Out side the company
Financial Indicators:Analyze the financial position of the company.
Tools:
a. Income statement
It gives past records of the firm that forms a base for making predictions of the firm.
b. Balance sheet
It shows the assets and liabilities of a firm along with shareholder s equity
c. Statement of Cash flows
It shows how a company's cash balance changed from one year to the next
d. Ratio Analysis
It makes intra firm and inter firm comparisons.

1. Profitability Ratios:
a. Return on Investment:
Earnings before interest and taxes
___________________________
Total Assets
b. Leverage Ratios:
Debt Equity Ratio=Total Debt
____________
Equity
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c. ROE Analysis
ROE= PBT * PAT* NS* TA
___ ____ ___ ___
NS

PBT

TA

NW

Non Financial Indicators:

1. Business of the company
2. Top Management
3. Product range
4.

Diversification

5. Foreign collaboration
6.

Availability of cost of inputs

7. Research and development

8. Governmental regulations
9. Pattern of shareholding and listing
3.11 Forecasting Earnings
1. Identification of variables:
a. Operations and Earnings
Operating cycle of a firm starts with cash converted into inventory
ROI= EBIT
____
Investment
b. Financing& Earnings
Debt financing: Provide leverage to common share holders
Equity financing: Equal shares
2. Selecting a Forecasting method:
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a. Traditional method
Earnings model: Analysis EAt & EBT
Market share: Consists of tracking historical record and net income
Projected Financial statements: Projection of earnings
b. Modern methods:

Regression analysis

It s the measure of the average relationship between two or more variable in terms of the
original units of the data
Correlation analysis
Its to reduce the range of uncertainty of our prediction

Trend analysis

It refers to collecting information and attempting to spot a pattern

Decision trees
It used to forecast earnings as security values.

3.12 APPLIED VALUATION TECHNIQUES:

Although the raw data of the Financial Statement has some useful information, much more can
be understood about the value of a stock by applying a variety of tools to the financial data.
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.

Earnings per Share EPS

Price to Earnings Ratio P/E
Projected Earnings Growth PEG
Price to Sales P/S
Price to Book P/B
Dividend Payout Ratio
Dividend Yield
Book Value per share
Return on Equity

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1. Earnings per Share

The overall earnings of a company is not in itself a useful indicator of a stock's worth. Low
earnings coupled with low outstanding shares can be more valuable than high earnings with a
high number of outstanding shares. Earnings per share is much more useful information than
earnings by itself. Earnings per share (EPS) is calculated by dividing the net earnings by the
number of outstanding shares.
EPS = Net Earnings / Outstanding Shares
For example: ABC company had net earnings of $1 million and 100,000 outstanding shares for
an EPS of 10 (1,000,000 / 100,000 = 10). This information is useful for comparing two
companies in a certain industry but should not be the deciding factor when choosing stocks.
2.Price to Earnings Ratio
The Price to Earnings Ratio (P/E) shows the relationship between stock price and company
earnings. It is calculated by dividing the share price by the Earnings per Share.
P/E = Stock Price / EPS
In our example above of ABC company the EPS is 10 so if it has a price per share of $50 the
P/E is 5 (50 / 10 = 5). The P/E tells you how many investors are willing to pay for that particular
company's earnings. P/E's can be read in a variety of ways. A high P/E could mean that the
company is overpriced or it could mean that investors expect the company to continue to grow
and generate profits. A low P/E could mean that investors are wary of the company or it could
indicate a company that most investors have overlooked.
Either way, further analysis is needed to determine the true value of a particular stock.
3.

Projected Earnings Growth Rate-PEG Ratio

A ratio used to determine a stock's value while taking into account earnings growth. The
calculation is as follows:

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PEG is a widely used indicator of a stock's potential value. It is favoured by many over the
price/earnings ratio because it also accounts for growth. Similar to the P/E ratio, a lower PEG
means that the stock is more undervalued.
4. Price to Sales Ratio
When a company has no earnings, there are other tools available to help investors judge its
worth. New companies in particular often have no earnings, but that does not mean they are bad
investments. The Price to Sales ratio (P/S) is a useful tool for judging new companies. It is
calculated by dividing the market cap (stock price times number of outstanding shares) by total
revenues. An alternate method is to divide current share price by sales per share. P/S indicates
the value the market places on sales. The lower the P/S the better the value.

5.Price to Book Ratio

Book value is determined by subtracting liabilities from assets. The value of a growing company
will always be more than book value because of the potential for future revenue. The price to
book ratio (P/B) is the value the market places on the book value of the company. It is calculated
by dividing the current price per share by the book value per share (book value / number of
outstanding shares). It is also known as the "price-equity ratio".
P/B = Share Price / Book Value per Share

6. Dividend Yield
Some investors are looking for stocks that can maximize dividend income. Dividend yield is
useful for determining the percentage return a company pays in the form of dividends. It is
calculated by dividing the annual dividend per share by the stock's price per share. Usually it is
the older, well-established companies that pay a higher percentage, and these companies also
usually have a more consistent dividend history than younger companies. Dividend yield is
calculated as follows:

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7. Dividend payout ratio

Dividend payout ratio is the fraction of net income a firm pays to its stockholders in dividends:

The part of the earnings not paid to investors is left for investment to provide for future earnings
growth. Investors seeking high current income and limited capital growth prefer companies with
high Dividend payout ratio. However investors seeking capital growth may prefer lower payout
ratio because capital gains are taxed at a lower rate. High growth firms in early life generally
have low or zero payout ratios. As they mature, they tend to return more of the earnings back to
investors. Note that dividend payout ratio is calculated as EPS/DPS.
Calculated as:

The payout ratio provides an idea of how well earnings support the dividend payments. More
mature companies tend to have a higher payout ratio. In the U.K. there is a similar ratio, which is
known as dividend cover. It is calculated as earnings per share divided by dividends per share.
8. Return on Equity
Return on equity (ROE) is a measure of how much, in earnings a company generates in a time
period compared to its shareholders' equity. It is typically calculated on a full-year basis (either
the last fiscal year or the last four quarters).
Expanded Definition
When capital is tied up in a business, the owners of the capital want to see a good return on that
capital. Looking at profit by itself is meaningless. I mean, if a company earns $1 million in net

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income, that's okay. But its great if the capital invested to earn that is only $2.5 million (40%
return) and terrible if the capital invested is $25 million (4% return).
Return on investment measures how profitable the company is for the owner of the investment.
In this case, return on equity measures how profitable the company is for the equity owners,
a.k.a. the shareholders.

The "average" is taken over the time period being calculated and is equal to "the sum of the
beginning equity balance and the ending equity balance, divided by two."
9.Book Value per Share
A measure used by owners of common shares in a firm to determine the level of safety
associated with each individual share after all debts are paid accordingly.

Should the company decide to dissolve, the book value per common indicates the dollar value
remaining for common shareholders after all assets are liquidated and all debtors are paid. In
simple terms it would be the amount of money that a holder of a common share would get if a
company were to liquidate.

3.13 Grahm and Dodds Investor ratios:

Eg.,
Earnings per share=
Earnings available for the common shares
_______________________________________
Weighted average common shares outstanding

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UNIT

IV

TECHNICAL ANALYSIS
Fundamental Analysis Vs Technical Analysis Charting methods Market Indicators. Trend
Trend reversals Patterns - Moving Average Exponential moving Average Oscillators
Market Indicators Efficient Market theory.

4.1 TECHNICAL ANALYSIS:

Technical analysis involves a study of market generated data like prices and volumes to
determine the future direction of price movement. Martin J.Pring explains as The technical
approach to investing is essentially a reflection of the idea that prices move in trends which are
determined by the changing attitudes of investors toward a variety of economic, monetary,
political and psychological forces. The art of technical analysis-for it is an art-is to identify trend
changes at an early stage and to maintain an investment posture until the weight of the evidence
indicates that the trend has been reversed.
Basic assumption
The basic premises underlying technical analysis are as follows.
1. The market and / or an individual stock act like a barometer rather than a thermometer. Events
are usually discounted in advance with movements as the likely result of informed buyers and
sellers at work.
2. Before a stock experiences a mark-up phase, whether it is minor or major, a period of
accumulation usually will take place. Accumulation or distribution activity can occur within
natural trading trends. The ability to analyse accumulation or distribution within net natural
price patterns will be, therefore, a most essential pre-requisite.
3. The third assumption is an observation that deals with the scope and extends of market
movements in relation to each other.
4.2 DIFFERENCES BETWEEN TECHNICAL ANALYSIS AND FUNDAMENTAL
ANALYSIS
The key differences between technical analysis and fundamental analysis are as follows:
1. Technical analysis mainly seeks to predict short term price movements, whereas fundamental
analysis tries to establish long term values.
2. The focus of technical analysis is mainly on internal market data, particularly price and
volume data. The focus of fundamental analysis is on fundamental factors relating to the
economy, the industry, and the firm.
3. Technical analysis appeals mostly to short-term traders, whereas fundamental analysis appeals
primarily to long-term investors.

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4.3 CHARTING - A TECHNICAL TOOL

Technical analysts, while defining their own theory about stock price behavior and criticizing the
fundamental school, do feel that there is some merit in the fundamental analysis also. But
according to them, the method is very tedious and it takes a rather long time for the common
man to evaluate stocks through this method. They consider their own techniques and charts as
superior to fundamental analysis. Some of their theories, techniques and methods of
stock prices are given below:
Concepts Underlying Chart Analysis
The basic concepts underlying chart analysis are: (a) persistence of trends; (b) relationship
between volume and trend; and (c) resistance and support levels.
Trends: The key belief of the chartists is that stock prices tend to move in fairly persistent
trends. Stock price behavior is characterized by inertia: the price movement continues along a
certain path (up, down or sideways) until it meets an opposing force, arising out of an altered
supply-demand relationship.
Relationship between volume and trends: Chartists believe that generally volume and trend go
hand in hand. When a major upturn begins the volume of trading increases as the price advances
and decreases as the price declines. In a major down turn, the opposite happens; the volume of
trading increases as the price declines and decreases as the price rallies.
Support and Resistance levels: Chartists assume that it is difficult for the price of a share to rise
above a certain level called the resistance level and fall below a certain level called a support
level. Why? The explanation for the first claim goes as follows. If investors find that prices fall
after their purchases, they continue to hang on to their shares in the hope of a recovery. And
when the price rebounds to the level of their purchase price, they tend to sell and heave sigh of
relief as they break even.
4.11 EFFICIENT MARKET THEORY
The efficient market hypothesis is a central idea of a modern finance that has profound
implications. An understanding of the efficient market hypothesis will help to ask the right
questions and save from a lot of confusion that dominates popular thinking in finance. An
efficient market is one in which the market price of a security is an unbiased estimate of its
intrinsic value. Note that market efficiency does not imply that the market price equals intrinsic
value at every point in time.
A corollary is that investors will also be less likely to discover great bargains and thereby earn
extraordinary high rates of return. The requirements for a securities market to be efficient market
are;
(1) Prices must be efficient so that new inventions and better products will cause a firm s
securities prices to rise and motivate investors to supply capital to the firm (i.e., buy its stock);
(2) Information must be discussed freely and quickly across the nations so all investors can react
to new information;
(3) Transactions costs such as sales commissions on securities are ignored;
(4) Taxes are assumed to have no noticeable effect on investment policy;
(5) Every investor is allowed to borrow or lend at the same rate; and, finally,
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(6) Investors must be rational and able to recognize efficient assets and that they will want to
invest money where it is needed most (i.e., in the assets with relatively high returns).
Forms of Efficient Market Hypothesis
Eugene Fama suggested that it is useful to distinguish three levels of market efficiency. They are
1) Weak-form efficiency - Prices reflect all information found in the record of past and volumes;
2) Semi-strong form efficiency - Prices reflect not only all information found in the record of
past prices and volumes but also all other publicly available information;
3) Strongform efficiency - Prices reflect all available information, public as well as private.
Weak form of EMH
The week form of market holds that present stock market prices reflect all known information
with respect to past stock prices, trends, and volumes. This form of theory is just the opposite of
the technical analysis because according to it, the sequence of prices occurring historically does
not have any value for predicting the future stocks prices. The technical analysts rely completely
on charts and past behavior of prices of stocks.
Three types of tests have been commonly employed to empirically verify the weak-form efficient
market hypothesis: (a) serial correlation tests; (b) runs tests; and (c) filter rules tests.
Serial Correlation Test: Serial Correlation is said to measure the association of a series of
numbers which are separated by some constant time period. One way to test for randomness in
stock price changes is to look at their serial correlations. Is the price change in one period
correlated with the price change in some other period? If such auto-correlations are negligible,
the price changes are considered to be serially independent. Numerous serial correlation studies,
employing different stocks, different time-lags, and different time-periods, have been conducted
to detect serial correlations
Run Test: Ren Test was also made by Fama to find out it price changes were likely to be
followed by further price changes of the same sign. Run Test ignored the absolute values of
numbers in the series and took into the research only the positive and negative signs. Given a
series of stock price changes, each price (+) id it represents an increase or a minus (-) if it
represents a decrease. A run occurs when there is not difference between the sign of two
changes. When the sign of change differs, the run ends and a new run begin. To test a series of
price changes for independence, the number of runs in that series is compared to see whether it is
statistically different from the number of runs in a purely random series of the same size. Many
studies have been carried out, employing the runs test of independence. They did not detect any
significant relationship between the returns of security in one period and the returns in prior
periods and made a conclusion that the security prices followed a random walk.
Filter Rules Test: The use of charts is essentially a technique for filtering out the important
information from the unimportant. Alexander and Fama and Blume took the idea that price and
volume data are supposed to tell the entire story we need to know to identify the important action
in stock prices. They applied filter rules to see how well price changes pick up both trends and
reverses which chartists claim their charts do. If a stock moves up X per cent, buy it and hold it
long; if it then reverses itself by the same percentage, sell it and take a short position in it.
Semi-Strong Form of EMH
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The semi strong form of the efficient market hypothesis centers on how rapidly and efficiently
market prices adjust to new publicly available information. In this state, the market reflects even
those forms of information which may be concerning the announcement of a firm s most recent
earnings forecast and adjustments which will have taken place in the prices of security. The
investor in the semi-strong form of the market will find it impossible to earn a return on the
portfolio which is based on the publicly available information in excess of the return which may
be said to be commensurate with the portfolio risk. Many empirical studies have been made on
the semi-strong form of the efficient market hypothesis to study the reaction of security prices to
various types of information around the announcement time of the information. Two studies
commonly employed to test semi-strong form efficient market are event study and portfolio
study.
Event Study examines the market reactions to and the excess market returns around a specific
information event like acquisition announcement or stock split. The key steps involved in an
event study are as follows:
1. Identify the event to be studied and pinpoint the date on which the event was announced.
2. Collect returns data around the announcement date. In this context two issues have to be
resolved: What should be the period for calculating returns weekly, daily, or some other
interval? For how many periods should returns be calculated before and after the announcement
date?
3. Calculate the excess returns, by period, around the announcement date for each firm in the
sample. The excess return is calculated by making adjustment for market performance and risk.
4. Compute the average and the standard error of excess returns across all firms
5. Assess whether the excess returns around the announcement date are different from zero. To
determine whether the excess returns around the announcement date are different from zero,
estimate the T statistic for each day. The results of event studies are mixed. Most event studies
support the semi-strong from efficient market hypothesis. Several event studies, however, have
cast their shadow over the validity of the semi strong form efficient markets theory.
Portfolio study: In a portfolio study, a portfolio of stocks having the observable characteristic
(low price earnings ratio or whatever) is created and tracked over time see whether it earns
superior risk-adjusted returns. Steps involved in a portfolio study are as follows:
1. Define the variable (characteristic) on which firms will be classified. The proposed investment
strategy spells out the relevant variable. The variable must be observable, but not necessarily
numerical.
2. Classify firms into portfolios based upon the magnitude of the variable. Collect data on the
variable for every firm in the defined universe at the beginning of the period and use that
information for classifying firms into different portfolios.
3. Compute the returns for each portfolio on the returns for each firm in each portfolio for the
testing period and calculate the return for each portfolio, assuming that the stocks included in the
portfolio are equally weighted.
4. Calculate the excess returns for each portfolio. The calculation of excess returns earned by a
portfolio calls for estimating the portfolio beta and determining the excess returns
5. Assess whether the average excess returns are different across the portfolios. Several statistical
tests are available to test whether the average excess returns differ across these portfolios. Some
of these tests are parametric and some nonparametric. Many portfolio studies suggest that it is
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not possible to earn superior riskadjusted returns by trading on some observable characteristics.
However, several portfolio studies have documented inefficiencies and anomalies.
Strong-Form of EMH
The strong-form efficient market hypothesis holds that all available information, public or
private, is reflected in the stock prices. The strong form is concerned with whether or not certain
individuals or groups of individuals possess inside information which can be used to make above
average profits. If the strong form of the efficient capital market hypothesis holds, then and day
is as good as any other day to buy any stock. This the most extreme form of the efficient market
hypothesis. Most of the research work has indicated that the efficient market hypothesis in the
strongest form does not hold good.
Market Efficiency and Anomalies
Anomalies are situations that appear to violate the traditional view of market efficiency,
suggesting that it may be possible for careful investors to earn abnormal returns. Some stock
market anomalies are Low Price-Earnings Ratio: Stock that are selling at price earnings ratios
that are low relative to the market Low Price-Sales Ratio: Stocks that have price-to-sales ratios
that are lower competed with other stocks in the same industry or with the overall market. Low
Price-to Book value Ratio: Stocks whose stock prices are less that their respective book values
High Divident Yield: Stocks that pay high dividends relative to their respective share prices
Small companies: Stock of companies whose market capitalization is less than 100 million
Neglected Stocks: Stocks followed by only a few analysts and/or stocks with low percentages of
institutional ownership Stocks with High Relative Strength: Stocks whose prices have risen
faster relative to the overall market January Effect: Stock do better during January than during
any other month of the year Day of the Week:
Stock of poorer during Monday than during
other days of the week Most of these anomalies appear to revolve around four themes:
1. Markets tend to overreact to news, both good and bad.
2. Value investing is contrarians in nature and is beneficial because markets overreact.
3. The market consistently ignores certain stocks, especially small stocks.
Let s examine what anomalies mean for investors and the concept of market efficiency.
Financial Market Overreaction: One of the most intriguing issues to emerge in the past few
years is the notion of market overreaction to new information (both positive and negative). Many
practitioners have insisted for years that markets to overreact. Recent statistical evidence for both
the market as a whole and individual security has shown errors in security prices that are
systematic and therefore predictable. Overreactions are sometimes called reversals. Stocks that
perform poorly in period suddenly reverse direction and start performing well in a subsequent
period, and vice versa. Several studies have found that stock returns over longer time horizons
(in excess of one year) display significant negative serial correlation.
Profiting from Reversals: Market overreactions or reversals suggest several possible
investment strategies to produce abnormal profits. Some possibilities include buying last year s
worst performing stocks, avoiding stocks with high P/E rations, or buying on bad news. At the
risk of oversimplifying, any investment strategy based on market overreaction represents a
contrarian approach to invest, buying what appears to be out of favour with most investors.
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Calendar-Based Anomalies: Are there better times to own stocks than others? Should you
avoid stocks on certain days? The evidence seems to suggest that several calendar-based
anomalies exist. The two best known, and widely documented, are the weekend effect and the
January effect.
Weekend Effect: Studies of daily returns began with the goal of testing whether the markets
operate on calendar time or trading time. In other words, are returns for Mondays (i.e., returns
over Friday-to-Monday periods) different from the other day of the week returns? The answer to
the question turned out to be yes, the trend was called the weekend effect. Monday returns were
substantially lower than other daily returns. One study found that Mondays produced a mean
return of almost-35 percent. By contrast, the mean annualized returns on Wednesdays was more
than +25 per cent.
The January Effect: Stock returns appear to exhibit seasonal return patterns as well. In other
words, returns are systematically higher in some months than in others. Initial studies found that
returns were higher in January for all stocks (thus this anomaly was dubbed the January effect)
whereas later studies found the January effect was more pronounced for small stocks than for
large ones. One widely accepted explanation for the January effect is tax-loss selling by the
investors at the end of December. Because this selling pressure depresses prices at the end of the
year, it would be reasonable to expect a bounce-back in prices during January. Small stocks, the
argument goes, are more susceptible to the January effect because their prices are more volatile,
and institutional investors (many of whom are tax-exempt) are less likely to invest in shares of
small companies.
Calendar-Based Trading Strategies: Both seasonal and day-of-the-week affects are
inconsistent with market efficiency because both suggest that historical information can generate
abnormal profits. As will all anomalies, however, a more important issue is whether seasonal
and/ or day-of-the-week effects can create profit opportunities for investors.
Small-Firm Effect: Generally the stocks of small companies substantially outperform stocks of
large companies. Of course, history has also shown that small stocks have exhibited more yearto-year variation than large stocks. However, even after correcting for differences in risk, some
studies suggest that investors can earn abnormal profits by investing in shares of small
companies, exploiting the small-firm effect. Two explanations for the small-firm effect seem
plausible to us. The first is that analysts have applied the wrong risk measures to evaluate returns
from small stocks. Small stocks may well be riskier than these traditional risk measures indicate.
Performance of Investment Professionals: Investment professionals such as mutual fund
managers seem to have a difficult time beating the overall market. In a particular year, some
professionals will beat the market, whereas others will not. The key question is whether some
professionals can consistently outperform the market. Some evidence suggests that the answer to
this question may be yes.

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UNIT

PORTFOLIO MANAGEMENT
Portfolio analysis Portfolio Selection Capital Asset Pricing model
Portfolio Evaluation

Portfolio

Revision

Mutual Funds.

5.1 PORTFOLIO ANALYSIS

Security analysis related to the analysis of individual securities within the framework of return
and risk. Whereas, Portfolio analysis makes an analysis of securities in the combined form.
The portfolio analysis considers the determination of future risk and return in holding various
blends of individual securities. Portfolio expected return is a weighted average of the expected
return of individual securities but portfolio variance can be something less than a weighted
average of security variances.
Returns
The expected return of a portfolio depends on the expected return of each of the security
contained in the portfolio. It also seems logical that the amounts invested in each security should
be important. Indeed, this is the case. The example of a portfolio with three securities shown in
Table-1A illustrates this point. The expected holding period value-relative for the portfolio is
clearly:
Rs.23, 100
------------ = 1.155
Rs.20, 000
giving an expected holding period return of 15.50%.
Risk
The probability of loss is the essence of risk. A useful measure of risk takes into account both the
probability of various possible bad outcomes and their associated magnitudes. Instead of
measuring the probability of a number of different possible outcomes, the measure of risk should
somehow estimate the extent to which the actual outcome is likely to diverge from the expected.
Two measures used for this purpose are the mean absolute deviation and the standard deviation.
5.2 Efficient Frontier and Portfolio Selection
The portfolio is selected by the introduction of a borrowing and lending line making the efficient
frontier a straight line. Illustration 7 shows a risk-free security of 6% with a standard deviation of
6.90. The graph represents a portfolio return and risk and the best portfolio is the corner portfolio
of 9 . The corner which is beyond 9 and to its left, i.e. from 10 to 17 can be introduced to
a greater efficiency and made efficient by selecting 9 with an addition of the fact of leading.
The choice of portfolio which are on the right side of 9 i.e.from 1 to 8 are seen to show
borrowing and are in some way dominated by 9 . 9 is the stage in which the maximum benefit
can be derived after using the formula
(Rp Rt /bp).
risk. In the selection of a portfolio, both negative and positive betas should be considered. While
assessing a portfolio on beta, the negative beta should be preferred to positive beta. The presence
of negative beta in a portfolio if efficient. Also, there is reduced or eliminated amount of risk
when the negative betas are present.
Although betas help in selecting stock, care should be taken to select the
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stock with the beta approach because selection of portfolio with beta is followed
only when the following assumptions are considered:
(a) The market movement in positives and negatives directions haves to be carefully analyzed
and
(b) The past historical considerations of beta must be analyzed for future
prediction of beta.
(a) the sensitivity of the security to inflation;
(b) economics events as Market Index causes systematic change and
(c) Risk and return with portfolio.
The fundamental factors are the following:
(a) the earning of a firm;
(b) the movements of the market;
(c) continuous valuation of stock;
(d) survey of stock, whether it represents large or small firms, old and
established and new firms;
(e) growth of firms historically and
(f) The capital structure of the firm.
5.3.CAPITAL ASSET PRICING MODEL (CAPM)
The capital asset pricing model (CAPM) is used in finance to determine a theoretically
appropriate rate of return of an asset, if that asset is to be added to an already well-diversified
portfolio, given that asset's non-diversifiable risk. The CAPM formula takes into account the
asset's sensitivity to non-diversifiable risk (also known as systematic risk or market risk),
referred to as beta () in the financial industry, as well as the expected return of the market and
the expected return of a theoretical risk-free asset. The model was introduced by Jack Treynor,
William Sharpe, John Lintner and Jan Mossin independently, building on the earlier work of
Harry Markowitz on diversification and modern portfolio theory.
Formula
The CAPM is a model for pricing an individual security or a portfolio. The security market line
(SML) and its relation to expected return and systematic risk (beta) show how the market must
price individual securities in relation to their security risk class. It enables to calculate the
reward-to-risk ratio for any security in relation to the overall market s. Therefore, when the
expected rate of return for any security is deflated by its beta coefficient, the reward-to-risk ratio
for any individual security in the market is equal to the market reward-to-risk
ratio, thus:
Individual security s = Market s securities (portfolio)
Reward-to-risk ratio Reward-to-risk ratio
,
The market reward-to-risk ratio is effectively the market risk premium and by
rearranging the above equation and solving for E(Ri), the Capital Asset Pricing
Model (CAPM) is obtained.
Where:
is the expected return on the capital asset
is the risk-free rate of interest
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(the beta coefficient) the sensitivity of the asset returns to

market returns, or also ,
is the expected return of the market
is sometimes known as the market premium or risk
premium (the difference between the expected market rate of return and the
risk-free rate of return).
Asset pricing
Once the expected return, E(Ri)-, is calculated using CAPM, the future
cash flows of the asset can be discounted to their present value using this rate
(E(Ri)-), to establish the correct price for the asset.
In theory, therefore, an asset is correctly priced when its observed price
is the same as its value calculated using the CAPM derived discount rate. If the
observed price is higher than the valuation, then the asset is overvalued
Asset-specific required return
The CAPM returns the asset-appropriate required return or discount rate - i.e. the rate at which
future cash flows produced by the asset should be discounted given that asset's relative risk.
Betas exceeding one signify more than average "risk"; betas below one indicate lower than
average. Thus a more risky stock will have a higher beta and will be discounted at a higher rate;
less sensitive stocks will have lower betas and be discounted at a lower rate.
5.5.PERFORMANCE EVALUATION
In order to determine the risk-adjusted returns of investment portfolios,
several eminent authors have worked since 1960s to develop composite
performance indices to evaluate a portfolio by comparing alternative portfolios
within a particular risk class. The most important and widely used measures of
performance are:
The Treynor Measure
The Sharpe Measure
Jenson Model
Fama Model
The Treynor Measure
Developed by Jack Treynor, this performance measure evaluates funds on the basis of Treynor's
Index. This Index is a ratio of return generated by the fund over and above risk free rate of return
(generally taken to be the return on securities backed by the government, as there is no credit risk
associated),b during a given period and systematic risk associated with it (beta). Symbolically,
it can be represented as:
Treynor's Index (Ti) = (Ri - Rf)/Bi.
Where, Ri represents return on fund, Rf is risk free rate of return and Bi
is beta of the fund.
The Sharpe Measure
In this model, performance of a fund is evaluated on the basis of Sharpe Ratio, which is a ratio of
returns generated by the fund over and above risk free rate of return and the total risk associated
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with it. According to Sharpe, it is the total risk of the fund that the investors are concerned about.
So, the model evaluates funds on the basis of reward per unit of total risk. Symbolically, it can
be written as:
Sharpe Index (Si) = (Ri - Rf)/Si
Where, Si is standard deviation of the fund.
While a high and positive Sharpe Ratio shows a superior risk-adjusted performance of a fund, a
low and negative Sharpe Ratio is an indication of unfavorable performance.
Comparison of Sharpe and Treynor
Sharpe and Treynor measures are similar in a way, since they both divide the risk premium by a
numerical risk measure. The total risk is appropriate when we are evaluating the risk return
relationship for well-diversified portfolios. On the other hand, the systematic risk is the relevant
measure of risk when we are evaluating less than fully diversified portfolios or individual stocks.
Jenson Model
Jenson's model proposes another risk adjusted performance measure.
This measure was developed by Michael Jenson and is sometimes referred to as
the Differential Return Method. This measure involves evaluation of the returns
that the fund has generated vs. the returns actually expected out of the fund
given the level of its systematic risk. The surplus between the two returns is
called Alpha, which measures the performance of a fund compared with the
actual returns over the period. Required return of a fund at a given level of risk
(Bi) can be calculated as:
Ri = Rf + Bi (Rm - Rf)
Where, Rm is average market return during the given period.
Fama Model
The Eugene Fama model is an extension of Jenson model. This model compares the
performance, measured in terms of returns, of a fund with the required return commensurate with
the total risk associated with it. The difference between these two is taken as a measure of the
performance of the fund and is called net selectivity.
Required return can be calculated as:
Ri = Rf + Si/Sm*(Rm - Rf)
Where, Sm is standard deviation of market returns. The net selectivity is
then calculated by subtracting this required return from the actual return of the
fund.

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5.6 MUTUAL FUNDS:

A mutual fund is a professionally managed type of collective investment that pools money from
many investors to buy stocks, bonds, short-term money market instruments, and/or other
securities.
Overview
In the United States, a mutual fund is registered with the Securities and Exchange
Commission (SEC) and is overseen by a board of directors (if organized as a corporation)
or board of trustees (if organized as a trust). The board is charged with ensuring that the fund is
managed in the best interests of the fund's investors and with hiring the fund manager and other
service providers to the fund. The fund manager, also known as the fund sponsor or fund
management company, trades (buys and sells) the fund's investments in accordance with the
fund's investment objective. A fund manager must be a registered investment advisor. Funds that
are managed by the same fund manager and that have the same brand name are known as a "fund
family" or "fund complex".
The Investment Company Act of 1940 (the 1940 Act) established three types of registered
investment companies or RICs in the United States: open-end funds, unit investment
trusts (UITs); and closed-end funds. Recently, exchange-traded funds (ETFs), which are openend funds or unit investment trusts that trade on an exchange, have gained in popularity. While
the term "mutual fund" may refer to all three types of registered investment companies, it is more
commonly used to refer exclusively to the open-end type.
Hedge funds are not considered a type of mutual fund. While they are another type of
commingled investment scheme, they are not governed by the Investment Company Act of
1940 and are not required to register with the Securities and Exchange Commission (though
many hedge fund managers now must register as investment advisors).
Mutual funds are not taxed on their income as long as they comply with certain requirements
established in the Internal Revenue Code. Specifically, they must diversify their investments,
limit ownership of voting securities, distribute most of their income to their investors annually,
and earn most of the income by investing in securities and currencies.[2] Mutual funds pass
taxable income on to their investors. The type of income they earn is unchanged as it passes
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through to the shareholders. For example, mutual fund distributions of dividend income are
reported as dividend income by the investor. There is an exception: net losses incurred by a
mutual fund are not distributed or passed through to fund investors.
Outside of the United States, mutual fund is used as a generic term for various types of collective
investment vehicles available to the general public, such as unit trusts, open-ended investment
companies (OEICs, pronounced "oyks"), unitized insurance funds, UCITS (Undertakings for
Collective Investment in Transferable Securities, pronounced "YOU-sits") and SICAVs (socit
d'investissement capital variable, pronounced "SEE-cavs").
Advantages of mutual funds
Mutual funds have advantages compared to direct investing in individual securities.These
include:

Increased diversification

Daily liquidity

Professional investment management

Ability to participate in investments that may be available only to larger investors

Service and convenience

Government oversight

Ease of comparison

Disadvantages of mutual funds

Mutual funds have disadvantages as well, which include[

Fees

Less control over timing of recognition of gains

Less predictable income

No opportunity to customize

Leading mutual fund complexes

At the end of 2009, the top 10 mutual fund complexes in the United States were:[14]
1. Fidelity Investments
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2. Vanguard Group
3. Capital Research & Management (American Funds)
4. JP Morgan Chase & Co.
5. BlackRock Funds
6. PIMCO Funds
7. Franklin Templeton Investments
8. Federated Investors
9. Bank of New York Mellon
10.Goldman Sachs & Co.
Types of mutual funds
There are three basic types of registered investment companies defined in the Investment
Company Act of 1940: open-end funds, unit investment trusts (UITs); and closed-end
funds. exchange-traded funds (ETFs)are open-end funds or unit investment trusts that trade on an
exchange.
Open-end funds
Open-end mutual funds must be willing to buy back their shares from their investors at the end
of every business day at the net asset value computed that day. Most open-end funds also sell
shares to the public every business day; these shares are also priced at net asset value. A
professional investment manager oversees the portfolio, buying and selling securities as
appropriate. The total investment in the fund will vary based on share purchases, redemptions
and fluctuation in market valuation.Closed-end funds
Closed-end funds [15] generally issue shares to the public only once, when they are created
through an initial public offering. Their shares are then listed for trading on a stock exchange.
Investors who no longer wish to invest in the fund cannot sell their shares back to the fund (as
they can with an open-end fund). Instead, they must sell their shares to another investor in the
market; the price they receive may be significantly different from net asset value. It may be at a
"premium" to net asset value (meaning that it is higher than net asset value) or, more commonly,
at a "discount" to net asset value (meaning that it is lower than net asset value). A professional
investment manager oversees the portfolio, buying and selling securities as appropriate.
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Unit investment trusts

Unit investment trusts or UITs issue shares to the public only once, when they are created.
Investors can redeem shares directly with the fund (as with an open-end fund) or they may also
be able to sell their shares in the market. Unit investment trusts do not have a professional
investment manager. Their portfolio of securities is established at the creation of the UIT and
does not change. UITs generally have a limited life span, established at creation.
Exchange-traded funds
A relatively recent innovation, the exchange-traded fund or ETF is often structured as an openend investment company, though ETFs may also be structured as unit investment trusts,
partnerships, investments trust, grantor trusts or bonds (as an exchange-traded note). ETFs
combine characteristics of both closed-end funds and open-end funds. Like closed-end funds,
ETFs are traded throughout the day on a stock exchange at a price determined by the market.
However, as with open-end funds, investors normally receive a price that is close to net asset
value. To keep the market price close to net asset value, ETFs issue and redeem large blocks of
their shares with institutional investors.
Money market funds
Money market funds invest in money market instruments, which are fixed income securities with
a very short time to maturity and high credit quality. Investors often use money market funds as a
substitute for bank savings accounts, though money market funds are not government insured,
unlike bank savings accounts.
Money market funds strive to maintain a $1.00 per share net asset value, meaning that investors
earn interest income from the fund but do not experience capital gains or losses. If a fund fails to
maintain that $1.00 per share because its securities have declined in value, it is said to "break the
buck". Only two money market funds have ever broken the buck: Community Banker's U.S.
Government Money Market Fund in 1994 and the Reserve Primary Fund in 2008.
At the end of 2009, money market funds accounted for 30% of the assets in all U.S. mutual funds
Bond funds
Bond funds invest in fixed income securities. Bond funds can be subclassified according to the
specific types of bonds owned (such as high-yield or junk bonds, investment-grade corporate
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bonds, government bonds or municipal bonds) or by the maturity of the bonds held (short-,
intermediate- or long-term). Bond funds may invest in primarily U.S. securities (domestic or
U.S. funds), in both U.S. and foreign securities (global or world funds), or primarily foreign
securities (international funds).
At the end of 2009, bond funds accounted for 20% of the assets in all U.S. mutual funds.[18]
Stock or equity funds
Stock or equity funds invest in common stocks. Stock funds may invest in primarily U.S.
securities (domestic or U.S. funds), in both U.S. and foreign securities (global or world funds), or
primarily foreign securities (international funds). They may focus on a specific industry or
sector.
A stock fund may be subclassified along two dimensions: (1) market capitalization and (2)
investment style (i.e., growth vs. blend/core vs. value). The two dimensions are oftened
displayed in a grid known as a "style box."
Market capitalization or market cap is the value of a company's stock and equals the number of
shares outstanding times the market price of the stock. Market capitalizations are divided into the
following categories:

Micro cap

Small cap

Mid cap

Large cap

While the specific definitions of each category vary with market conditions, large cap stocks
generally have market capitalizations of at least $10 billion, small cap stocks have market
capitalizations below $2 billion, and micro cap stocks have market capitalizations below $300
million. Funds are also classified in these categories based on the market caps of the stocks that it
holds.
Stock funds are also subclassified according to their investment style: growth, value or blend (or
core). Growth funds seek to invest in stocks of fast-growing companies. Value funds seek to

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invest in stocks that appear cheaply priced. Blend funds are not biased toward either growth or
value.
At the end of 2009, stock funds accounted for 45% of the assets in all U.S. mutual funds.[19]
Hybrid funds
Hybrid funds invest in both bonds and stocks or in convertible securities. Balanced funds, asset
allocation funds, target date or target risk funds and lifecycle or lifestyle funds are all types of
hybrid funds.
Hybrid funds may be structured as funds of funds, meaning that they invest by buying shares in
other mutual funds that invest in securities. Most fund of funds invest in affiliated funds
(meaning mutual funds managed by the same fund sponsor), although some invest in unaffiliated
funds (meaning those managed by other fund sponsors) or in a combination of the two.
At the end of 2009, hybrid funds accounted for 6% of the assets in all U.S. mutual funds.[20]
Index (passively-managed) versus actively-managed
An index fund or passively-managed fund seeks to match the performance of a market index,
such as the S&P 500 index, while an actively managed fund seeks to outperform a relevant index
through superior security selection.
Mutual fund expenses
Investors in mutual funds pay fees. These fall into four categories: distribution charges (sales
loads and 12b-1 fees), the management fee, other fund expenses, shareholder transaction fees and
securities transaction fees. Some of these expenses reduce the value of an investor's account;
others are paid by the fund and reduce net asset value. Recurring expenses are included in a
fund's expense ratio.
Distribution charges
Distribution charges pay for marketing and distribution of the fund's shares to investors.
Front-end load or sales charge
A front-end load or sales charge is a commission paid to a broker by a mutual fund when shares
are purchased. It is expressed as a percentage of the total amount invested (including the front96
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end load), known as the "public offering price." The front-end load often declines as the amount
invested increases, through breakpoints. Front-end loads are deducted from an investor's account
and reduce the amount invested.
Back-end load
Some funds have a back-end load, which is paid by the investor when shares are redeemed
depending on how long they are held. The back-end loads may decline the longer the investor
holds shares. Back-end loads with this structure are called contingent deferred sales charges (or
CDSCs). Like front-end loads, back-end loads are deducted from an investor's account.
12b-1 fees
A mutual fund may charge an annual fee, known as a 12b-1 fee, for marketing and distribution
services. This fee is computed as a percentage of a fund's assets, subject to a maximum of 1% of
assets. The 12b-1 fee is included in the expense ratio.
No-load funds
A no-load fund does not charge a front-end load under any circumstances, does not charge a
back-end load under any circumstances and does not charge a 12b-1 fee greater than 0.25% of
fund assets.
Share classes
A single mutual fund may give investors a choice of different combinations of front-end loads,
back-end loads and 12b-1 fees, by offering several different types of shares, known as share
classes. All of the shares classes invest in the same portfolio of securities, but each has different
expenses and, therefore, a different net asset value and different performance results. Some of
these share classes may be available only to certain types of investors.
Typical share classes for funds sold through brokers or other intermediaries are:

Class A shares usually charge a front-end sales load together with a small 12b-1 fee.

Class B shares don't have a front-end sales load. Instead they, have a high contingent deferred
sales charge, or CDSC that declines gradually over several years, combined with a high 12b1 fee. Class B shares usually convert automatically to Class A shares after they have been

held for a certain period.

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Class C shares have a high 12b-1 fee and a modest contingent deferred sales charge that is
discontinued after one or two years. Class C shares usually do not convert to another class.
They are often called "level load" shares.

Class I are subject to very high minimum investment requirements and are, therefore, known
as "institutional" shares. They are no-load shares.

Class R are for use in retirement plans such as 401(k) plans. They do not charge loads, but do
charge a small 12b-1 fee.

No-load funds often have two classes of shares:

Class I shares do not charge a 12b-1 fee.

Class N shares charge a 12b-1 fee of no more than 0.25% of fund assets.

Neither class of shares charges a front-end or back-end load.

Management fee
The management fee is paid to the fund manager or sponsor who organizes the fund, provides
the portfolio management or investment advisory services and normally lends its brand name to
the fund. The fund manager may also provide other administrative services. The management fee
often has breakpoints, which means that it declines as assets (in either the specific fund or in the
fund family as a whole) increase. The management fee is paid by the fund and is included in the
expense ratio.
Other fund expenses
A mutual fund pays for other services including:

Board of directors' (or board of trustees') fees and expenses

Custody fee: paid to a bank for holding the fund's portfolio in safekeeping

Fund accounting fee: for computing the net asset value daily

Professional services: legal and accounting fees

Registration fees: when making filings with regulatory agencies

Shareholder communications: printing and mailing required documents to shareholders

Transfer agent services: keeping shareholder records and responding to customer inquiries

These expenses are included in the expense ratio.

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Shareholder transaction fees

Shareholders may be required to pay fees for certain transactions. For example, a fund may
charge a flat fee for maintaining an individual retirement account for an investor. Some funds
charge redemption fees when an investor sells fund shares shortly after buying them (usually
defined as within 30, 60 or 90 days of purchase); redemption fees are computed as a percentage
of the sale amount. Shareholder transaction fees are not part of the expense ratio.
Securities transaction fees
A mutual fund pays any expenses related to buying or selling the securities in its portfolio. These
expenses may include brokerage commissions. Securities transaction fees increase the cost basis
of the investments. They do not flow through the income statement and are not included in the
expense ratio. The amount of securities transaction fees paid by a fund is normally positively
correlated with its trading volume or "turnover".
Expense ratio
The expense ratio allows investors to compare expenses across funds. The expense ratio equals
the 12b-1 fee plus the management fee plus the other fund expenses divided by average net
assets. The expense ratio is sometimes referred to as the "total expense ratio" or TER.
Controversy
Critics of the fund industry argue that fund expenses are too high. They believe that the market
for mutual funds is not competitive and that there are many hidden fees, so that it is difficult for
investors to reduce the fees that they pay.
Many researchers have suggested that the most effective way for investors to raise the returns
they earn from mutual funds is to reduce the fees that they pay. They suggest that investors look
for no-load funds with low expense ratios.
Definitions
Definitions of key terms.
Net asset value or NAV
A fund's net asset value or NAV equals the current market value of a fund's holdings minus the
fund's liabilities (sometimes referred to as "net assets"). It is usually expressed as a per-share
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amount, computed by dividing by the number of fund shares outstanding. Funds must compute
their net asset value every day the New York Stock Exchange is open.
Valuing the securities held in a fund's portfolio is often the most difficult part of calculating net
asset value. The fund's board of directors (or board of trustees) oversees security valuation.
Average annual total return
The SEC requires that mutual funds report the average annual compounded rates of return for 1year, 5-year and 10-year periods using the following formula:[21]
P(1+T)n = ERV
Where:
P = a hypothetical initial payment of $1,000.
T = average annual total return.
n = number of years.
ERV = ending redeemable value of a hypothetical $1,000 payment made at the
beginning of the 1-, 5-, or 10-year periods at the end of the 1-, 5-, or 10-year
periods (or fractional portion).

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BA 7201 SECURITY ANALYSIS AND PORTFOLIO

Unit 1
PART A
1. What are the three components of an investors required rate of return on an investment?
2. What is Gambling? Differentiate an investor from speculator
3. What are the two major types of information necessary for security analysis?
4. What are the features of preference shares?
5. Distinguish between real and financial assets
6. How is expected return calculated?
7. Define systematic risk and unsystematic risk.
8. What do you mean by hybrid security?
9. Distinguish between investing and speculation.
10. Why do so many types of equity securities exist?
11. A stock was purchased in the beginning of the year for Rs.1110, the expected dividend
for the year was Rs.10.the stock was sold for Rs.1108 at the end of the year. Compute the
holding period return.
12. What do you mean by pre-emptive rights?
13. Define investment. How it is different from gambling?
14. What are the objectives of investment?
15. Describe different types of risk.
16. What is risk free rate of return?
17. Define security as per Security Contract regulation act.
18. Explain the features of equity shares.
19. Differentiate bonds and debentures.
20. Explain features of preference shares.
PART B
1. (i)Explain the steps in portfolio / investment management.
(ii)Explain the concept of Systematic Risk? Why is it call Systematic Risk
2. (i)Explain the different types of investment alternatives available for a common
investor with moderate risk taking capabilities?
(ii)Explain the Characteristics of Investment. Elucidate if there will be a tradeoff between
Risk and Return in Investments.
3. As an investment advisor what features would you suggest to be included in the investment
bunch of a client explain the features briefly.
4. Security analysis requires as first step the sources of information on the basis of which
analysis is made. What are different types of information used for security analysis?
5. Discuss the different kinds of long term investment opportunities available for corporate
investors with their pros and cons.
6. Explain with example how investment opportunities should be evaluated on the basis of riskreturn trade off.
7.(i) Why do people invest? Explain the characteristics and objectives of investment based on
type of Investors.
(ii) What factor should an Investor consider while making investment

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decisions? 8. The returns on securities A and B are given below.

security
Probability
security A
B
0.5
4
0
0.4
2
3
0.1
0
3
Give the security of your preference. The Security has to be selected on the basis of
return and risk.
9. (i)Without adequate information the investor cannot carry out his investment programme.
Elucidate
(ii)What are the main Advantages and disadvantages to a company by raising finance
through issuing the ordinary shares?
10. (i)Explain the portfolio return and portfolio risks.
(ii)Distinguish between Investing and Speculating. Is it Possible to incorporate Investment
and Speculation within the same security? Explain with Examples.

Unit 2
PART A
1. Name any four market indices in Indian stock market.
2. What is reverse book building?
3. Explain the current settlement system in NSE.
4. What do you mean by underwriting? What is preferential allotment?
5. What is demutualization of stock exchanges?
6. What is risk free asset?
7. Explain the rolling settlement in trading of securities.
8. What is oversubscription?
9. What is the importance of IPO grading? What decisions are taken before going in for IPO?
10. Who is depository participant?
11. What are the possible disadvantages of limits orders?
12. Define stop order what is meant by Capital Market
13. Is trading on margin a good idea?
14. Define book building.
15. What is OCTEI and how it is different from other stock exchanges?
16. Differentiate primary market from secondary market. Describe functions of primary market.
18. What is insider trading? What is an odd lot?
19. What are the parties involved in issue of shares in stock market?
20. What is demat account? Name the depositories available in India.
PART B
1. Discuss the trading system in stock exchanges. Mention some of the recent reforms
in the trading system.
2
(i) Discuss the SEBIs Guidelines to the share trading.
(ii)Explain the structure of Indian Financial Market. Discuss the major reforms in the India
Capital Market.
3. (i)Who are the key players involved in the new issues market.

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4.
5.
6.
7.

8.
9.
10.

SECURITY ANALYSIS AND PORTFOLIO MANAGEMENT

(ii)Discuss the various ways in which an initial public offer can be made.
(i)What are the objectives and functions of SEBI?
(ii)What are the salient features of NSE & BSE?
(i)Write a note on book building process used to float new issues.
(ii)Discuss the major indices and how it helps investors?
(i)Discuss the role of SEBI in regulating stock exchanges in India.
(ii)What are the SEBI guidelines on pricing of the security? Explain
(i)Explain the different methods of floating new issues in the market.
(ii)Discuss the Efficiency of Automated Vis--vis floor trading system in the secondary
Capital Market.
(i)What is the role and development of OCTEI in the Indian capital market?
(ii)Explain the mechanics of stock trading
(i) Elaborate the different stock valuation models.
(ii)Discuss the role of Private placements in raising resources in the primary capital Market
(i) What are the steps taken by SEBI to protect the investors in the secondary market?
(ii)Explain the factors which are taken into account when an investor decides to invest in
the primary market

Unit 3
PART A
1. What is industry life cycle analysis?
2. What are Graham and Dodds investor ratios?
3. What do you understand by fundamental approach to security analysis?
4. Define multiplier. What is Market Equilibrium?
5. How is weighted value index computed?
6. Define the industry life cycle stages.
7. What is the importance of P/E ratio?
8. What is Value vs. Growth investing?
9. What is opportunistic building model? What is Economic Forecasting?
10. Distinguish between historical return and expected return.
11. List the significance of ROI in company analysis.
12. State the ratios listed by Graham and Dodd for value investing.
13. What is the quality of growth stocks? Give an example for growth stock.
14. What do you mean by leading and lagging indicators of the economy? Give 2 Examples
15. What are the mechanisms adopted by RBI to check liquidity?
16. What is fiscal policy? Define GNP
17. What is competitive advantage?
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18. What is the use of ratio analysis? How will you calculate intrinsic value of a share?
19. What is balance of payment?
20. Classify industry according to business cycle.
PART B
1. (i) Explain the salient features you will take into account while doing fundamental analysis.
(ii)What are the macro economic factors would you consider before making investment
decision
2. (i)Explain some of the key ratios that you will be considering before investing in a
stock. Can you depend only on these ratios for making the decision?
(ii)Discuss at what stage in the industrial cycle you would like to discover an industry.
Justify your decision
3. Industry life cycle exhibits the status of the industry and gives the clue to entry and
exit for investors. Elucidate.
4. (i) How does ratio analysis reflect the financial health of a company.
(ii) What economic factors would you be most interested in forecasting if you were an
analyst investigating major consumer durable - goods sales for next year.
5. (i) Elucidate how company analysis is performed in Fundamental analysis.
(ii)Discuss industry analysis using the relative valuation approach.
6. (i)Discuss Graham and Dodds applied valuation techniques.
(ii)Discuss the contention that differences in the preference of various firms within the
industries limit the usefulness of industry analysis.
7. (i)Why would you expect a relationship between economic activity and stock price
movements?
(ii)Describe two commonly used ways of decomposing ROE into its underlying determinant.
8. (i)Distinguish between technical and fundamental analysis.
(ii)Fundamental analysis provides an analytical framework for rational investment decision
making. Explain
9.(i) Present a detailed account on the Markowitzs risk diversification.
(ii) Consider an industry of your choice and make an industry analysis explaining various
steps
involved.
10.(i) Discuss the key tools in company analysis.
(ii) Explain the concept of Industry Life Cycle. Describe the different stages in the Industry
Life Cycle

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Unit 4
PART A
1. Differentiate fundamental analysis from technical analysis.
2. Explain the importance of Oscillators in technical analysis.
3. Explain the three types of trends in stock prices
4. What do you infer from the moving average theory of technical analysis?
5. How is PE ratio used to interpret growth opportunities?
6. Define Moving Averages. What are Line Charts?
7. How is moving average computed?
8. What is technical analysis?
9. Define RSI and its usage.
10. What are the two major market indicators considered as a barometer of Indian capital
market?
11. How do the leverage policies affect the company performances?
12. What do you mean by security market line? Define Efficient frontier ?
13. Explain Random Walk Hypothesis. What are the various levels of market Efficiency?
14. What patterns helps us identify the trend reversal?
15. What do you mean by support level?
16. What do you mean by resistance level?
17. What oscillators indicate?
18. What is odd lot trading?
19. What is short sale? What is trend reversal?
20.What is Beta? Is it a better measure of risk than the standard deviation?
PART B
1. What are the important points that you will be taking into account while doing Technical
analysis? 2.(i) Is Technical analysis a substitute for fundamental analysis? Discuss.
(ii)Discuss about the technical analysis as a tool for security selection.
3. What are the premises of technical analysis? What are the difference between technical
and fundamental analysis?
4. (i)Explain efficient market theory.
(ii)Describe the Dow Theory and its 3 components. Which component is most important?
5. How would you use ROC to predict the stock price movement. Kindly elucidate with example.
6. (i)Chart patterns are helpful in predicting the stock price movement comment.
(ii)Critically examine the Elliot wave Principle of stock market prediction.
7. Explain the concept of EMH and discuss its implication for investment policy as it
applies to fundamental and technical analysis.
8. (i) Discuss why most technicians follow several technical rules and attempt to derive a
consensus.
(ii)Briefly discuss the problems related to the fundamental analysis that are considered
advantages for technical analysis.
9. (i) What does the EMH imply for the use of technical and fundamental analysis?
(ii)Explain the Weak form of the efficient market hypothesis. Describe the empirical test
used for testing the weak form efficiency
10. Moving averages not only smoothens the data, but also predict the market . Discuss

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Unit 5
PART A
1. Explain CAPM.
2. How are the portfolios evaluated?
3. What is an index fund?
4. What is the difference between SML AND CML.?
5. How is Beta computed using CAPM?
6. What do you mean by term AMC?
7. What do you mean by diversification?
8. Explain the constraints in the formation of objectives.
9. What is superfluous diversification?
10. State Jensen measure.
11. List out the ways in which Beta can be calculated.
12. Define NAV. What are formula plans?
13. What do you mean by risk aversion?
14. What is a open ended fund and closed ended fund?
15. What is entry and exit load in mutual fund?
16. What is gilt edged fund?
17. State Treynors index.
18. What are the criteria for evaluation of portfolio?
19. Explain portfolio revision. What is portfolio selection?
20. What is CML? Define its role.
PART B
1. (i)From the given data, evaluate the portfolios using Sharpe, Treynor and Jensens model.
Portfolio
Portfolio A
Portfolio B C
Return
20%
25%
18%
Beta
1.5
1.6
1.4
Std.
Deviation
5%
6%
4%
Market return 12%
Risk free rate 7%
(ii)The following three portfolios provide the particulars given below .
Portfolio average annual return, standard deviation ,correlation coefficient
A
18
27 0.8
B
14
18
0.6
C
15
8
0.9
MARKET
13
12
RISK free rate of interest 9%
i. rank these portfolios using sharpes and treynors methods
ii. Compare both the indices
2.Many people advocate mutual funds for small investors. They suggest the best strategy for
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small investors invest in suitable mutual funds scheme and hold them. What do you think of
this advice?
3. What are the basic assumptions of CAPM. What are the advantages of adopting CAPM model
in the portfolio management. How can securities be evaluated with the help of the CAPM
theory?
4. (i)Discuss the process of portfolio construction.
(ii)Explain the different stages involved in portfolio management.
5.(i)Enumerate the various measures used for portfolio evaluation and explain how it is
interpreted.
(ii)What are the prominent mutual fund schemes available in India? Explain its features
6. (i)Should you care about how well a mutual fund is diversified? Why or Why not?
(ii)Discuss the growth of the mutual funds in India.
7. (i)Distinguish between CAPM and Arbitrage pricing theory.
(ii)Explain about portfolio revision.
8. Explain the steps in portfolio constructions as per traditional approaches.

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M.B.A. DEGREE EXAMINATION, NOVEMBER/DECEMBER 2010

Elective
BA 9257
SECURITY ANALYSIS AND PORTFOLIO MANAGEMENT
(Regulation 2009)
Time : Three hours Maximum : 100 Marks
Answer ALL questions
PART A
(10 2 = 20 Marks)]
1. What are the three components of an investor s required rate of return on an investment?
2. Differentiate an investor from speculator.
3. What is reverse book building?
4. Explain the current settlement system in NSE.
5. What is industry life cycle analysis?
6. What are Graham and Dodd s investor ratios?
7. Differentiate fundamental analysis from technical analysis.
8. Explain the importance of Oscillators in technical analysis.
9. Explain CAPM.
10. How are the portfolios evaluated?

PART B

(5 16 = 80 Marks)

11. (a) Explain the steps in portfolio / investment management.

Or
(b) Explain the different types of investment alternatives available for a
common investor.
12. (a) Discuss the trading system in stock exchanges. Mention some of the
recent reforms in the trading system.
Or
(b) Discuss the SEBI s Guidelines to the share trading.
13. (a) Explain the salient features you will take into account while doing
fundamental analysis.
Or
(b) Explain some of the key ratios that you will be considering before
investing in a stock. Can you depend only on these ratios for making the
decision?
14. (a) What are the important points that you will be taking into account while
doing Technical analysis? Is Technical analysis a substitute for
fundamental analysis? Discuss.
Or
(b) Explain efficient market theory.
15. (a) Explain the various facets of CAPM in detail.
Or
(b) From the given data, evaluate the portfolios using Sharpe, Treynor and
Jensen s model.
Portfolio A Portfolio B Portfolio C
Return 20% 25% 18%
Beta 1.5 1.6 1.4
Std. Deviation 5% 6% 4%
Market return 12%
Risk free rate 7%

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DEPARTMENT OF MANAGEMENT SCIENCES