Principles of Management and

Organisational Behaviour

MBA First Year

Paper No. 1

School of Distance Education

Bharathiar University, Coimbatore - 641 046

Author: P G Aquinas
Copyright 2007, Bharathiar University
All Rights Reserved
Produced and Printed
by
EXCEL BOOKS PRIVATE LIMITED
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Coimbatore-641046

CONTENTS

Page No.
UNIT -I
Lesson 1

Management Science: Theory and Practice

Lesson 2

Management and Society

33

Lesson 3

Functions of Management

43
UNIT -II

Lesson 4

Organising

61

Lesson 5

Human Factors and Motivation

91

Lesson 6

Leadership and Group Decision Making

103

Lesson 7

Communication

119
UNIT -III

Lesson 8

The Process of Controlling

147

Lesson 9

Control Techniques & Global controlling

155

Lesson 10

Directing

161
UNIT-IV

Lesson 11

Organisation Behaviour

171

Lesson 12

Personality

186

Lesson 13

Emotions and Emotional Intelligence

202

Lesson 14

Attitudes, Values and Work Ethics

208

Lesson 15

Perception and Learning

226
UNIT-V

Lesson 16

Stress

255

Lesson 17

Foundation of Group Behaviour

274

Lesson 18

Organisational Change

292

Lesson 19

Organisational Development

305

Lesson 20

Organisational Culture

326

PRINCIPLES OF MANAGEMENT AND ORGANISATIONAL BEHAVIOUR

Number of Credit Hours: 3

Subject Description: This course presents the principles of management, emphasizing managerial functions and behavioural concepts
and its practical applications in the organsation.
Goals: To enable the students to learn the basic functions, principles, concepts of management and behavioural aspects in the
organization.
Objectives: On successful completion of the course the students should have:

1.

understood the principles and functions of management.

2.

learnt the scientific decision making process and problem solving techniques.

3.

learnt modern management process.

4.

learnt behavioural aspects of an individual in the organization.

UNIT I

Management : Science, Theory and Practice - The Evolution of Management Thought and the Patterns of Management Analysis Management and Society : Social Responsibility and Ethics - Global and Comparative Management - The Basis of Global Management
- Functions of Management-The Nature and Purpose of Planning - Objectives - Strategies, Policies and Planning Premises - Decision
Making - Global Planning.
UNIT II
The Nature of Organizing - Organizational Structure : Departmentation - Line/Staff Authority and Decentralization - Effective
Organizing and Organizational Culture - Global Organizing. Co-ordination functions in Organisation - Human Factors and Motivation
- Leadership - Committees and group Decision Making - Communication - Global Leading.
UNIT III
The System and Process of Controlling - Control Techniques and Information Technology - Global Controlling and Global Challenges
- Direction Function - Significance.
UNIT IV
Organisational Behaviour : History - evoluation, Challenges & opportunities, contributing disciplines, management functions and
relevance to Organisation Behaviour. Organizational Behaviour responses to Global and Cultural diversity.
Personality - Determinants, structure, behaviour, assessment, psycho-analytical social learning, job-fit, trait theories.
Emotions and Emotional Intelligence as a managerial tool. Attitudes - relationship with behaviour, sources, types, consistancy, work
attitudes, values - importance, sources, types, ethics and types of management ethics. Perception - Process, Selection, Organisation
Errors, Managerial implications of perception.Learning - classical, operant and social cognitive approaches. Implications of learning
on managerial performance.
UNIT V
Stress - Nature, sources, Effects, influence of personality, managing stress- Conflict - Management, Levels, Sources, bases, conflict
resolution strategies, negotiation. Foundations of group behaviour : team decision making. Issues in Managing teams.
Organisational change - Managing planned change. Resistance to change - Approaches to managing organisational change - Organisational
Development - values - interventions, change management- Organisational culture - Dynamics, role and types of culture and corporate
culture.

UNIT-I

LESSON

1
MANAGEMENT SCIENCE: THEORY AND
PRACTICE
CONTENTS
1.0 Aims and Objectives
1.1 Introduction
1.2 Definition of Management
1.3 Characteristics of Management
1.4 Scope of Management
1.4.1 Subject-matter of Management
1.4.2 Functional Areas of Management
1.4.3 Management is an Inter-disciplinary Approach
1.4.4 Principles of Management
1.4.5 Management is an Agent of Change
1.4.6 The Essentials of Management
1.5 Is Management a Science or an Art?
1.5.1 What is "Science"?
1.5.2 What is "Art"?
1.5.3 Management is both a Science as well as an Art
1.6 Professionalisation of Management
1.7 Evolution of Management Thought
1.7.1 Pre-scientific Management Period
1.7.2 Classical Theory
1.7.3 Neoclassical Theory
1.7.4 Modern Theory (System Approach)
1.8 Let us Sum up
1.9 Lesson-end Activity
1.10 Keywords
1.11 Questions for Discussion
1.12 Suggested Readings

1.0 AIMS AND OBJECTIVES

This lesson is intended to introduce the students and management about fundamental of
management and evolution of management thought. After studying this lesson you will
be able to:

Principles of Management and

Organisational Behaviour

(i)

explain the meaning and characteristics of management.

(ii)

describe scope of management.

(iii) know the nature of management, i.e., is it a science or an art.

(iv) describe management as a profession.
(v)

understand evolution of management thought.

1.1 INTRODUCTION
Management is a vital aspect of the economic life of man, which is an organised group
activity. A central directing and controlling agency is indispensable for a business concern.
The productive resources material, labour, capital etc. are entrusted to the organising
skill, administrative ability and enterprising initiative of the management. Thus, management
provides leadership to a business enterprise. Without able managers and effective
managerial leadership the resources of production remain merely resources and never
become production. Under competitive economy and ever-changing environment the
quality and performance of managers determine both the survival as well as success of
any business enterprise. Management occupies such an important place in the modern
world that the welfare of the people and the destiny of the country are very much
influenced by it.

1.2 DEFINITION OF MANAGEMENT

Management may be defined in many different ways. Many eminent authors on the subject
have defined the term "management", some of these definitions are reproduced below:
According to Lawrence A Appley - "Management is the development of people and not
the direction of things".
According to Joseph Massie - "Management is defined as the process by which a cooperative group directs action towards common goals".
In the words of George R Terry - "Management is a distinct process consisting of planning,
organising, actuating and controlling performed to determine and accomplish the objectives
by the use of people and resources".
According to James L Lundy - "Management is principally the task of planning, coordinating, motivating and controlling the efforts of others towards a specific objective".
In the words of Henry Fayol - "To manage is to forecast and to plan, to organise, to
command, to co-ordinate and to control".
According to Peter F Drucker - "Management is a multi-purpose organ that manages a
business and manages managers and manages worker and work".
In the words of J.N. Schulze - "Management is the force which leads, guides and directs
an organisation in the accomplishment of a pre-determined object".
In the words of Koontz and O'Donnel - "Management is defined as the creation and
maintenance of an internal environment in an enterprise where individuals working together
in groups can perform efficiently and effectively towards the attainment of group goals".
According to Ordway Tead - "Management is the process and agency which directs and
guides the operations of an organisation in realising of established aims".
According to Stanley Vance - "Management is simply the process of decision-making
and control over the actions of human beings for the express purpose of attaining predetermined goals".
8

According to Wheeler - "Business management is a human activity which directs and

controls the organisation and operation of a business enterprise. Management is centred
in the administrators of managers of the firm who integrate men, material and money
into an effective operating limit".

Management Science: Theory

and Practice

In the words of William Spriegel - "Management is that function of an enterprise which

concerns itself with the direction and control of the various activities to attain the business
objectives".
In the words of S. George - "Management consists of getting things done through others.
Manager is one who accomplishes the objectives by directing the efforts of others".
In the words of Keith and Gubellini - "Management is the force that integrates men and
physical plant into an effective operating unit".
According to Newman, Summer and Warren - "The job of management is to make
cooperative endeavour to function properly. A manager is one who gets things done by
working with people and other resources".
According to John F M - "Management may be defined as the art of securing maximum
results with a minimum of effort so as to secure maximum results with a minimum of
effort so as to secure maximum prosperity and happiness for both employer and employee
and give the public the best possible service".
In the words of Kimball and Kimball - "Management embraces all duties and functions that
pertain to the initiation of an enterprise, its financing, the establishment of all major policies,
the provision of all necessary equipment, the outlining of the general form of organisation
under which the enterprise is to operate and the selection of the principal officers. The
group of officials in primary control of an enterprise is referred to as management".
In the words of E.F.L. Brech - "Management is a social process entailing responsibility
for the effective and economical planning and regulation of the operations of an enterprise,
in fulfilment of a given purpose or task, such responsibility involving: (a) judgement and
decision in determining plans and in using data to control performance, and progress
against plans; and (b) the guidance, integration, motivation and supervision of the personnel
composing the enterprise and carrying out its operations".
According to E. Peterson and E.G Plowman - Management is "a technique by means of
which the purpose and objectives of a particular human group are determined, classified
and effectuated".
According to Mary Cushing Niles - "Good management or scientific management achieves
a social objective with the best use of human and material energy and time and with
satisfaction for the participants and the public".
From the definitions quoted above, it is clear the "management" is a technique of extracting
work from others in an integrated and co-ordinated manner for realising the specific
objectives through productive use of material resources. Mobilising the physical, human
and financial resources and planning their utilisation for business operations in such a
manner as to reach the defined goals can be referred to as "management". If the views
of the various authorities are combined, management could be defined as "a distinct
ongoing process of allocating inputs of an organisation (human and economic resources)
by typical managerial functions (planning, organising, directing and controlling) for the
purpose of achieving stated objectives namely output of goods and services desired by
its customers (environment). In the process, work is preformed with and through personnel
of the organisation in an ever-changing business environment".
Management is a universal process in all organised social and economic activities. It is
not merely restricted to factory, shop or office. It is an operative force in all complex
organisations trying to achieve some stated objectives. Management is necessary for a
business firm, government enterprises, education and health services, military organisations,
trade associations and so on.

Principles of Management and

Organisational Behaviour

1.3 CHARACTERISTICS OF MANAGEMENT

An analysis of the various definitions of management indicates that management has
certain characteristics. The following are the salient characteristics of management.

10

1.

Management aims at reaping rich results in economic terms: Manager's primary

task is to secure the productive performance through planning, direction and control.
It is expected of the management to bring into being the desired results. Rational
utilisation of available resources to maximise the profit is the economic function of
a manager. Professional manager can prove his administrative talent only by
economising the resources and enhancing profit. According to Kimball "management is the art of applying the economic principles that underlie the control
of men and materials in the enterprise under consideration".

2.

Management also implies skill and experience in getting things done through
people: Management involves doing the job through people. The economic function
of earning profitable return cannot be performed without enlisting co-operation and
securing positive response from "people". Getting the suitable type of people to
execute the operations is the significant aspect of management. In the words of
Koontz and O'Donnell - "Management is the art of getting things done through
people in formally organised groups".

3.

Management is a process: Management is a process, function or activity. This

process continues till the objectives set by administration are actually achieved.
"Management is a social process involving co-ordination of human and material
resources through the functions of planning, organising, staffing, leading and
controlling in order to accomplish stated objectives".

4.

Management is a universal activity: Management is not applicable to business

undertakings only. It is applicable to political, social, religious and educational
institutions also. Management is necessary when group effort is required.

5.

Management is a Science as well as an Art: Management is an art because

there are definite principles of management. It is also a science because by the
application of these principles predetermined objectives can be achieved.

6.

Management is a Profession: Management is gradually becoming a profession

because there are established principles of management which are being applied in
practice, and it involves specialised training and is governed by ethical code arising
out of its social obligations.

7.

Management is an endeavour to achieve pre-determined objectives:

Management is concerned with directing and controlling of the various activities of
the organisation to attain the pre-determined objectives. Every managerial activity
has certain objectives. In fact, management deals particularly with the actual directing
of human efforts.

8.

Management is a group activity: Management comes into existence only when

there is an group activity towards a common objective. Management is always
concerned with group efforts and not individual efforts. To achieve the goals of an
organisation management plans, organises, co-ordinates, directs and controls the
group effort.

9.

Management is a system of authority: Authority means power to make others

act in a predetermined manner. Management formalises a standard set of rules
and procedure to be followed by the subordinates and ensures their compliance
with the rules and regulations. Since management is a process of directing men to
perform a task, authority to extract the work from others is implied in the very
concept of management.

10. Management involves decision-making: Management implies making decisions

regarding the organisation and operation of business in its different dimensions. The
success or failure of an organisation can be judged by the quality of decisions taken
by the managers. Therefore, decisions are the key to the performance of a manager.
11.

Management Science: Theory

and Practice

Management implies good leadership: A manager must have the ability to lead
and get the desired course of action from the subordinates. According to R. C.
Davis - "management is the function of executive leadership everywhere".
Management of the high order implies the capacity of managers to influence the
behaviour of their subordinates.

12. Management is dynamic and not static: The principles of management are
dynamic and not static. It has to adopt itself according to social changes.
13. Management draws ideas and concepts from various disciplines: Management
is an interdisciplinary study. It draws ideas and concepts from various disciplines
like economics, statistics, mathematics, psychology, sociology, anthropology etc.
14. Management is Goal Oriented: Management is a purposeful activity. It is
concerned with the achievement of pre-determined objectives of an organisation.
15. Different Levels of Management: Management is needed at different levels of
an organisation namely top level, middle level and lower level.
16. Need of organisation: There is the need of an organisation for the success of
management. Management uses the organisation for achieving pre-determined
objectives.
17. Management need not be owners: It is not necessary that managers are owners
of the enterprise. In joint stock companies, management and owners (capital) are
different entities.
18. Management is intangible: It cannot be seen with the eyes. It is evidenced only by
the quality of the organisation and the results i.e., profits, increased productivity etc.

1.4 SCOPE OF MANAGEMENT

It is very difficult to precisely state the scope of management. However, management
includes the following aspects:-

1.4.1 Subject-matter of Management

Management is considered as a continuing activity made up of basic management
functions like planning, organizing, staffing, directing and controlling. These components
form the subject-matter of management.

1.4.2 Functional Areas of Management

Management covers the following functional areas:l

Financial Management: Financial management includes forecasting, cost control,

management accounting, budgetary control, statistical control, financial planning etc.

Human Resource Management: Personnel / Human Resource Management

covers the various aspects relating to the employees of the organisation such as
recruitment, training, transfers, promotions, retirement, terminations, remuneration,
labour welfare and social security, industrial relations etc.

Marketing Management: Marketing management deals with marketing of goods,

sales promotion, advertisement and publicity, channels of distribution, market
research etc.
11

Principles of Management and

Organisational Behaviour

Production Management: Production Management includes production planning,

quality control and inspection, production techniques etc.

Material Management: Material management includes purchase of materials,

issue of materials, storage of materials, maintenance of records, materials control
etc.

Purchasing Management: Purchasing management includes inviting tenders for

raw materials, placing orders, entering into contracts etc.

Maintenance Management: Maintenance Management relates to the proper care

and maintenance of the buildings, plant and machinery etc.

Office Management: Office management is concerned with office layout, office

staffing and equipment of the office.

1.4.3 Management is an Inter-Disciplinary Approach

Though management is regarded as a separate discipline, for the correct application of
the management principles, study of commerce, economics, sociology, psychology, and
mathematics is very essential. The science of management draws ideas and concepts
from a number of disciplines making it a multi-disciplinary subject.

1.4.4 Principles of Management

The principles of management are of universal application. These principles are applicable
to any group activity undertaken for the achievement of some common goals.

1.4.5 Management is an Agent of Change

The techniques of management can be improved by proper research and development.

1.4.6 The Essentials of Management

The essentials of management include scientific method, human relations and quantitative
techniques.

1.5 IS MANAGEMENT A SCIENCE OR AN ART?

A question often arises whether management is a science or art. It is said that "management
is the oldest of arts and the youngest of sciences". This explains the changing nature of
management but does not exactly answer what management is? To have an exact answer
to the question it is necessary to know the meanings of the terms "Science" and "Art".

1.5.1 What is "Science"?

Science may be described- "as a systematic body of knowledge pertaining to an area of
study and contains some general truths explaining past events or phenomena".
The above definition contains three important characteristics of science. They are
1.

It is a systematized body of knowledge and uses scientific methods for observation

2.

Its principles are evolved on the basis of continued observation and experiment and

3.

Its principles are exact and have universal applicability without any limitation.

Judging from the above characteristics of science, it may be observed that1.

12

Management is a systematized body of knowledge and its principles have evolved

on the basis of observation.

2.

The kind of experimentation (as in natural sciences) cannot be accompanied in the

area of management since management deals with the human element.

3.

In management, it is not possible to define, analyse and measure phenomena by

repeating the same conditions over and over again to obtain a proof.

Management Science: Theory

and Practice

The above observation puts a limitation on management as a science. Management like

other social sciences can be called as "inexact science".

1.5.2 What is "Art"?

'Art' refers to "the way of doing specific things; it indicates how an objective is to be
achieved." Management like any other operational activity has to be an art. Most of the
managerial acts have to be cultivated as arts of attaining mastery to secure action and
results.
The above definition contains three important characteristics of art. They are1.

Art is the application of science. It is putting principle into practice.

2.

After knowing a particular art, practice is needed to reach the level of perfection.

3.

It is undertaken for accomplishing an end through deliberate efforts.

Judging from the above characteristics of art, it may be observed that1.

Management while performing the activities of getting things done by others is

required to apply the knowledge of certain underlying principles which are necessary
for every art.

2.

Management gets perfection in the art of managing only through continuous practice.

3.

Management implies capacity to apply accurately the knowledge to solve the

problems, to face the situation and to realise the objectives fully and timely.

The above observation makes management an art and that to a fine art.

1.5.3 Management is both a Science as well as an Art

Management is both a science as well as an art. The science of management provides
certain general principles which can guide the managers in their professional effort. The
art of management consists in tackling every situation in an effective manner. As a
matter of fact, neither science should be over-emphasised nor art should be discounted;
the science and the art of management go together and are both mutually interdependent
and complimentary.
Management is thus a science as well as an art. It can be said that-"the art of management
is as old as human history, but the science of management is an event of the recent past."

1.6 PROFESSIONALISATION OF MANAGEMENT

There has been a growing trend towards professionalisation of management.
Professionalisation imparts a certain social responsibility and dignity to management. A
professional cannot be controlled or directed by the client. He has professional knowledge
and judgment which he uses to make his decision. Thus, professionalisation makes business
more efficient, dynamic and socially responsible. The growth of management education
in India has contributed to professionalisation in the business field.
The company form of business organization which has split ownership from management
and the gaining popularity of the company form of business organization have increased
the need for professional managers.

13

Principles of Management and

Organisational Behaviour

Is management a profession? To answer this question, first of all we should understand

what a profession is. Many authorities on the subject have attempted to define a profession.
According to Abraham Flexner, A profession is 1.

A body of specialized knowledge and recognized educational process of acquiring it.

2.

A standard of qualifications governing admission to the profession.

3.

A standard of conduct governing the relationship of the practitioners with clients,

colleagues and the public.

4.

An acceptance of the social responsibility inherent in an occupation and the public

interest.

5.

An association or society devoted to the advancement of the social obligations as

distinct from the economic interests of the group.

According to Lewis Allen, " a professional manager is one who specializes in the work
of planning, organizing, leading and controlling the efforts of others and does so through
a systematic use of classified knowledge, a common vocabulary and principles, who
subscribes to the standards of practice and code of ethics established by a recognized
body".
According to Peter Drucker, "Professional management is a function, a discipline, a task
to be done; and managers are the professionals who practice this discipline, carry out the
functions and discharge these tasks. It is no longer relevant whether the manager is also
an owner; if he is it is incidental to his main function, which is to be a manager.
The World Council of Management has recommended the following criteria for
professionalisation. They are 1.

Members of a profession subordinate self-interest to the client interest and the

official interest.

2.

A profession is based on a systematic body of knowledge that is held to common

and lends to application.

3.

Membership of a profession should depend on the observance of certain rules of

conduct or behaviour.

A critical evaluation of the above definitions show that professionalisation of business

management shows that -

14

1.

There exists a systematic body of knowledge on management. A professional should

have formally acquired the specialized knowledge and skill for management.
Management is taught as a discipline in various educational institutes, throughout
the world.

2.

Membership of a profession should depend on the observance of certain rules of

conduct and behaviour. The decisions and actions of a professional are guided by
certain ethical considerations.

3.

A profession is based on a systematic body of knowledge that is held in common

and lends itself to application. Thus, a profession should have no ideological bias in
the discharge of his functions.

A close scrutiny of management shows that management unlike law or medicine is not a
full-fledged profession. The reasons are 1.

It is not obligatory to possess specific qualifications for being appointed as a manager.

2.

There is no single association to regulate the educational and training standards of

managers.

3.

Uniform professional standards have not been set up for the practicing managers.

Management Science: Theory

and Practice

Thus, from the above mentioned discussion we can understand that management fulfils
certain criteria to call it a profession. Whereas, it fails to meet certain other criteria.
Therefore, we can conclude that management is not a full-fledged profession but it is
advancing towards professionalisation.
Check Your Progress 1

1.

Define Management?

2.

Explain the characteristic features of management.

3.

What is the scope of management?

4.

Why is management considered a science as well as an art?

5.

What do you mean by Professionalisation of management?

1.7 EVOLUTION OF MANAGEMENT THOUGHT

The origin of management can be traced back to the days when man started living in
groups. History reveals that strong men organized the masses into groups according to
their intelligence, physical and mental capabilities. Evidence of the use of the wellrecognized principles of management is to be found in the organization of public life in
ancient Greece, the organization of the Roman Catholic Church and the organization of
military forces. Thus management in some form or the other has been practiced in the
various parts of the world since the dawn of civilization. With the on set of Industrial
Revolution, however, the position underwent a radical change. The structure of industry
became extremely complex. At this stage, the development of a formal theory of
management became absolutely necessary. It was against this background that the
pioneers of modern management thought laid the foundations of modern management
theory and practice.
Evolution of management thought may be divided into four stages
1.

Pre-scientific management period.

2.

Classical Theory
(a)

Scientific Management of Taylor

(b)

Administrative Management of Fayol

(c)

Bureaucratic Model of Max Weber

3.

Neo-classical Theory or Behaviour Approach

4.

Modern Theory or Systems Approach

15

Principles of Management and

Organisational Behaviour

Fig 1.1 explains the evolution of management thought.

EVOLUTION OF MANAGEMENT THOUGHT

PRE-SCIENTIFIC
MANAGEMENT
PERIOD
Contributions made by
Roman
Catholic
Church
Military
Organizations
Writers like
Charles
Babbage,
James Watt
etc.

CLASSICAL THEORY
Scientific
Management
Administrative
Management
Theory
Bureaucratic
Model

NEOCLASSICAL
THEORY
Hawthrone
Experiment

MODERN
THEORY
Systems
Approach
Contingency
Approach

Figure 1.1: Evolution of Management Thought.

1.7.1 Pre-scientific Management Period

The advent of industrial revolution in the middle of the 18th century had its impact on
management. Industrial revolution brought about a complete change in the methods of
production, tools and equipments, organization of labour and methods of raising capital.
Employees went to their work instead of receiving it, and so, the factory system, as it is
known today, become a dominant feature of the economy. Under this system, land and
buildings, hired labour, and capital are made available to the entrepreneur, who strives to
combine these factors in the efficient achievement of a particular goal. All these changes,
in turn, brought about changes in the field of management. Traditional, conventional or
customary ideas of management were slowly given up and management came to be based
on scientific principles. In the words of L. F. Urwick - "Modern management has thrown
open a new branch of human knowledge, a fresh universe of discourse". During the period
following the industrial revolution, certain pioneers tried to challenge the traditional character
of management by introducing new ideas and character of management by introducing
new ideas and approaches. The notable contributors of this period are:
(A) Professor Charles Babbage (UK 1729 -1871): He was a Professor of
Mathematics at Cambridge University. Prof Babbage found that manufacturers
made little use of science and mathematics, and that they (manufacturers) relied
upon opinions instead of investigations and accurate knowledge. He felt that the
methods of science and mathematics could be applied to the solution of methods in
the place of guess work for the solution of business problems. He advocated the
use of accurate observations, measurement and precise knowledge for taking
business decisions. He urged the management of an enterprise, on the basis of
accurate data obtained through rigid investigation, the desirability of finding out the
number of times each operation is repeated each hour, the dividing of work into
mental and physical efforts, the determining of the precise cost for every process
and the paying of a bonus to the workers in proportion to his own efficiency and the
success of enterprise.
(B) James Watt Junior (UK 1796 - 1848) and Mathew Robinson Boulton
(1770 - 1842): James Watt Junior and Mathew Robinson Boulton contributed to
the development of management thought by following certain management
techniques in their engineering factory at Soho in Birmingham. They are:16

Production Planning

Standardization of Components

Maintenance

Planned machine layout

Provision of welfare for personnel

Scheme for executive development

Marketing Research and forecasting

Elaborate statistical records

Management Science: Theory

and Practice

(C) Robert Owens (UK 1771 - 1858): Robert Owens, the promoter of co-operative
and trade union movement in England, emphasized the recognition of human element
in industry. He firmly believed that workers' performance in industry was influenced
by the working conditions and treatment of workers. He introduced new ideas of
human relations - shorter working hours, housing facilities, training of workers in
hygiene, education of their children, provision of canteen etc. Robert Owen, managed
a group of textile mills in Lanark, Scotland, where he used his ideas of human
relations. Though his approach was paternalistic, he came to be regarded as the
father of Personnel Management.
(D) Henry Robinson Towne (USA 1844 -1924): H.R Towne was the president of
the famous lock manufacturing company "Yale and Town". He urged the combination
of engineers and economists as industrial managers. This combination of qualities,
together with at least some skill as an accountant, is essential to the successful
management of industrial workers. He favoured organized exchange of experience
among managers and pleaded for an organized effort to pool the great fund of
accumulated knowledge in the art of workshop management.
(E) Seebohm Rowntree (UK 1871- 1954): Rowntree created a public opinion on the
need of labour welfare scheme and improvement in industrial relations. The Industrial
Welfare Society, The Management Research Groups and the Oxford Lecture
Conferences in the U.K owed their origin and progress to the interest and zeal of
Rowntree.

1.7.2 Classical Theory

Prof. Charles Babbage, James Watt Junior and Mathew Robinson Boulton, Robert Owen,
Henry Robinson Towne and Rowntree were, no doubt, pioneers of management thought.
But, the impact of their contributions on the industry as a whole was meagre. The real
beginning of the science of management did not occur until the last decade of the 19th
century. During this period, stalwarts like F.W. Taylor, H.L. Gantt, Emerson, Frank and
Lillian Gilberth etc., laid the foundation of management, which in due course, came to be
known as scientific management. This epoch in the history of management will be
remembered as an era in which traditional ways of managing were challenged, past
management experience was scientifically systematized and principles of management
were distilled and propagated. The contributions of the pioneers of this age have had a
profound impact in furthering the management know-how and enriching the store of
management principles.
F.W. Taylor and Henry Fayol are generally regarded as the founders of scientific
management and administrative management and both provided the bases for science
and art of management.

17

Principles of Management and

Organisational Behaviour

Features of Management in the Classical Period:

1.

It was closely associated with the industrial revolution and the rise of large-scale
enterprise.

2.

Classical organization and management theory is based on contributions from a

number of sources. They are scientific management, Administrative management
theory, bureaucratic model, and micro-economics and public administration.

3.

Management thought focussed on job content division of labour, standardization,

simplification and specialization and scientific approach towards organization.
A.

Taylor's Scientific Management: Started as an apprentice machinist in

Philadelphia, USA. He rose to be the chief engineer at the Midvale
Engineering Works and later on served with the Bethlehem Works where
he experimented with his ideas and made the contribution to the management
theory for which he is so well known. Frederick Winslow Taylor well-known
as the founder of scientific management was the first to recognize and
emphasis the need for adopting a scientific approach to the task of managing
an enterprise. He tried to diagnose the causes of low efficiency in industry
and came to the conclusion that much of waste and inefficiency is due to the
lack of order and system in the methods of management. He found that the
management was usually ignorant of the amount of work that could be done
by a worker in a day as also the best method of doing the job. As a result, it
remained largely at the mercy of the workers who deliberately shirked work.
He therefore, suggested that those responsible for management should adopt
a scientific approach in their work, and make use of "scientific method" for
achieving higher efficiency. The scientific method consists essentially of
(a) Observation
(b) Measurement
(c) Experimentation and
(d) Inference.

He advocated a thorough planning of the job by the management and emphasized the
necessity of perfect understanding and co-operation between the management and the
workers both for the enlargement of profits and the use of scientific investigation and
knowledge in industrial work. He summed up his approach in these words:
l

Science, not rule of thumb

Harmony, not discord

Co-operation, not individualism

Maximum output, in place of restricted output

The development of each man to his greatest efficiency and prosperity.

Elements of Scientific Management: The techniques which Taylor regarded as its

essential elements or features may be classified as under:
1. Scientific Task and Rate-setting, work improvement, etc.
2. Planning the Task.
3. Vocational Selection and Training
4. Standardization (of working conditions, material equipment etc.)
5. Specialization

18

6.

Mental Revolution.

1.

Scientific Task and Rate-Setting (work study): Work study may be defined as
the systematic, objective and critical examination of all the factors governing the
operational efficiency of any specified activity in order to effect improvement.
Work study includes.

(a)

Methods Study: The management should try to ensure that the plant is laid
out in the best manner and is equipped with the best tools and machinery. The
possibilities of eliminating or combining certain operations may be studied.

(b)

Motion Study: It is a study of the movement, of an operator (or even of a

machine) in performing an operation with the purpose of eliminating useless
motions.

(c)

Time Study (work measurement): The basic purpose of time study is to

determine the proper time for performing the operation. Such study may be
conducted after the motion study.

Management Science: Theory

and Practice

Both time study and motion study help in determining the best method of
doing a job and the standard time allowed for it.
(d)

Fatigue Study: If, a standard task is set without providing for measures to
eliminate fatigue, it may either be beyond the workers or the workers may
over strain themselves to attain it. It is necessary, therefore, to regulate the
working hours and provide for rest pauses at scientifically determined intervals.

(e)

Rate-setting: Taylor recommended the differential piece wage system, under

which workers performing the standard task within prescribed time are paid
a much higher rate per unit than inefficient workers who are not able to come
up to the standard set.

2.

Planning the Task: Having set the task which an average worker must strive to
perform to get wages at the higher piece-rate, necessary steps have to be taken to
plan the production thoroughly so that there is no bottlenecks and the work goes on
systematically.

3.

Selection and Training: Scientific Management requires a radical change in the

methods and procedures of selecting workers. It is therefore necessary to entrust
the task of selection to a central personnel department. The procedure of selection
will also have to be systematised. Proper attention has also to be devoted to the
training of the workers in the correct methods of work.

4.

Standardization: Standardization may be introduced in respect of the following.

5.

(a)

Tools and equipment: By standardization is meant the process of bringing

about uniformity. The management must select and store standard tools and
implements which will be nearly the best or the best of their kind.

(b)

Speed: There is usually an optimum speed for every machine. If it is exceeded,

it is likely to result in damage to machinery.

(c)

Conditions of Work: To attain standard performance, the maintenance of

standard conditions of ventilation, heating, cooling, humidity, floor space, safety
etc., is very essential.

(d)

Materials: The efficiency of a worker depends on the quality of materials

and the method of handling materials.

Specialization: Scientific management will not be complete without the introduction

of specialization. Under this plan, the two functions of 'planning' and 'doing' are
separated in the organization of the plant. The `functional foremen' are specialists
who join their heads to give thought to the planning of the performance of operations
in the workshop. Taylor suggested eight functional foremen under his scheme of
functional foremanship.
(a)

The Route Clerk: To lay down the sequence of operations and instruct the
workers concerned about it.
19

Principles of Management and

Organisational Behaviour

6.

(b)

The Instruction Card Clerk: To prepare detailed instructions regarding

different aspects of work.

(c)

The Time and Cost Clerk: To send all information relating to their pay to the
workers and to secure proper returns of work from them.

(d)

The Shop Disciplinarian: To deal with cases of breach of discipline and

absenteeism.

(e)

The Gang Boss: To assemble and set up tools and machines and to teach the
workers to make all their personal motions in the quickest and best way.

(f)

The Speed Boss: To ensure that machines are run at their best speeds and
proper tools are used by the workers.

(g)

The Repair Boss: To ensure that each worker keeps his machine in good
order and maintains cleanliness around him and his machines.

(h)

The Inspector: To show to the worker how to do the work.

Mental Revolution: At present, industry is divided into two groups management

and labour. The major problem between these two groups is the division of surplus.
The management wants the maximum possible share of the surplus as profit; the
workers want, as large share in the form of wages. Taylor has in mind the enormous
gain that arises from higher productivity. Such gains can be shared both by the
management and workers in the form of increased profits and increased wages.

Benefits of Scientific Management: Taylor's ideas, research and recommendations

brought into focus technological, human and organizational issues in industrial management.
Benefits of Taylor's scientific management included wider scope for specialization,
accurate planning, timely delivery, standardized methods, better quality, lesser costs,
minimum wastage of materials, time and energy and cordial relations between
management and workers. According to Gilbreths, the main benefits of scientific
management are "conservation and savings, making an adequate use of every one's
energy of any type that is expended". The benefits of scientific management are:(a)

Replacement of traditional rule of thumb method by scientific techniques.

(b)

Proper selection and training of workers.

(c)

Incentive wages to the workers for higher production.

(d)

Elimination of wastes and rationalization of system of control.

(e)

Standardization of tools, equipment, materials and work methods.

(f)

Detailed instructions and constant guidance of the workers.

(g)

Establishment of harmonious relationship between the workers.

(h)

Better utilization of various resources.

(i)

Satisfaction of the needs of the customers by providing higher quality products at

lower prices.

Criticism
1.

20

Worker's Criticism:
(a)

Speeding up of workers: Scientific Management is only a device to speed

up the workers without much regard for their health and well-being.

(b)

Loss of individual worker's initiative: Scientific Management reduces workers

to automatic machine by taking away from them the function of thinking.

(c)

Problem of monotony: By separating the function of planning and thinking

from that of doing, Scientific Management reduces work to mere routine.

2.

(d)

Reduction of Employment: Scientific Management creates unemployment

and hits the workers hard.

(e)

Weakening of Trade Unions: Under Scientific Management, the important

issues of wages and working conditions are decided by the management
through scientific investigation and the trade unions may have little say in the
matter.

(f)

Exploitation of workers: Scientific Management improves productivity

through the agency of workers and yet they are given a very small share of
the benefit of such improvement.

Management Science: Theory

and Practice

Employer's Criticism:
(a)

Heavy Investment: It requires too heavy an investment. The employer has

to meet the extra cost of the planning department though the foreman in this
department do not work in the workshop and directly contribute towards
higher production.

(b)

Loss due to re-organization: The introduction of Scientific Management

requires a virtual reorganization of the whole set-up of the industrial unit.
Work may have to be suspended to complete such re-organization.

(c)

Unsuitable for small scale firms: various measures like the establishment
of a separate personnel department and the conducting of time and motion
studies are too expensive for a small or modest size industrial unit.

Is Taylorism Really Dead?

Fred Taylor took a lot of flack during his heyday. Unions were suspicious of him, employers
were skeptical of his claims and the government thought he needed to be investigated.
Taylor's philosophy permeated his whole life. Sudhin Kakar, in his study, Frederick Taylor: A
Study in Personality and Innovation (Cambridge: MIT Press, 1970), notes that he did such
strange things as experiment with his legs on cross-country walks to discover the step that
would cover the greatest distance with the least expenditure of energy; as a young man,
before going to a dance, he would conscientiously and systematically list the attractive and
unattractive girls with the object of dividing his time equally between them; and he often
incurred the wrath of his playmates when he was more concerned that the playing field for
sports be scientifically measured than he was with actually playing the game.
Taylor's "one best way" philosophy has often been misunderstood; though he believed
that in terms of physical motions there should be "one best way", he also recognized that
the equipment needed to perform the "one best way" would vary from person to person.
His famous example of equipping a large man and a small man with shovels of different sizes
to match the equipment with the person.
While it is fashionable today to blast Taylor as being insensitive to human needs and
treating people like machines, it is painfully obvious that his influence is probably as great
now as it ever was. Though Taylor is criticized for treating people only as economic beings,
surveys show that dollar motivation is still strong, particularly in manufacturing organizations.
If one includes managerial personnel who are on some type of bonus or profit-sharing
scheme, then we probably have more people today on economic incentive systems than
ever before.
Source: Jerry L Gray and Frederick A Starke "ORGANIZATIONAL BEHAVIOUR - concepts and applications"- Charles E
Merrill Publishing Company Columbus (Third Edition) Page 9.

Contributions of Scientific Management: Chief among these are:

1.

Emphasis on rational thinking on the part of management.

21

Principles of Management and

Organisational Behaviour

2.

Focus on the need for better methods of industrial work through systematic study
and research.

3.

Emphasis on planning and control of production.

4.

Development of Cost Accounting.

5.

Development of incentive plans of wage payment based on systematic study of work.

6.

Focus on need for a separate Personnel Department.

7.

Focus on the problem of fatigue and rest in industrial work.

Taylor was the pioneer in introducing scientific reasoning to the discipline of management.
Many of the objections raised were later remedied by the other contributors to scientific
management like Henry L Gantt, Frank and Lillian Gilbreth and Harrington Emerson.
Frank (USA, 1867 - 1924) and Lillian (U.S.A, 1878 - 1912): The ideas of Taylor
were also strongly supported and developed by the famous husband and wife team of
Frank and Lillian Gilbreth. They became interested in wasted motions in work. After
meeting Taylor, they combined their ideas with Taylor's to put scientific management
into effect. They made pioneering effort in the field of motion study and laid the entire
foundation of our modern applications of job simplification, meaningful work standards
and incentive wage plans. Mrs. Gilbreth had a unique background in psychology and
management and the couple could embark on a quest for better work methods. Frank
Gilbreth is regarded as the father of motion study. He is responsible for inculcating in the
minds of managers the questioning frame of mind and the search for a better way of
doing things.
Gilbreth's contributions to management thought are quite considerable. His main
contributions are:
(a)

The one best way of doing a job is the way which involves the fewest motions
performed in an accessible area and in the most comfortable position. The best
way can be found out by the elimination of inefficient and wasteful motions involved
in the work.

(b)

He emphasized that training should be given to workers from the very beginning so
that they may achieve competence as early as possible.

(c)

He suggested that each worker should be considered to occupy three positions - (i)
the job he held before promotion to his present position, (ii) his present position, and
(iii) the next higher position. The part of a worker's time should be spent in teaching
the man below him and learning from the man above him. This would help him
qualify for promotion and help to provide a successor to his current job.

(d)

Frank and Lillian Gilberth also gave a thought to the welfare of the individuals who
work for the organization.

(e)

Gilbreth also devised methods for avoiding wasteful and unproductive movements.
He laid down how workers should stand, how his hands should move and so on.

Henry Lawrence Gantt (USA, 1861 - 1819): H.L Gantt was born in 1861. He graduated
from John Hopkins College. For some time, he worked as a draftsman in an iron foundry.
In 1884, he qualified as a mechanical engineer at Stevens Institute. In 1887, he joined the
Midvale Steel Company. Soon, he became an assistant to F.W Taylor. He worked with
Taylor from 1887 - 1919 at Midvale Steel Company. He did much consulting work on
scientific selection of workers and the development of incentive bonus systems. He
emphasized the need for developing a mutuality of interest between management and
labour. Gantt made four important contributions to the concepts of management:
1.
22

Gantt chart to compare actual to planned performance. Gantt chart was a daily
chart which graphically presented the process of work by showing machine

operations, man hour performance, deliveries, effected and the work in arrears.
This chart was intended to facilitate day-to-day production planning.
2.

Task-and-bonus plan for remunerating workers indicating a more humanitarian

approach. This plan was aimed at providing extra wages for extra work besides
guarantee of minimum wages. Under this system of wage payment, if a worker
completes the work laid out for him, he is paid a definite bonus in addition to his
daily minimum wages. On the other hand, if a worker does not complete his work,
he is paid only his daily minimum wages. There was a provision for giving bonus to
supervisors, if workers under him were able to earn such bonus by extra work.

3.

Psychology of employee relations indicating management responsibility to teach

and train workers. In his paper "Training Workmen in Habits of Industry and
Cooperation", Gantt pleaded for a policy of preaching and teaching workmen to do
their work in the process evolved through pre-thinking of management.

4.

Gantt laid great emphasis on leadership. He considered management as leadership

function. He laid stress on the importance of acceptable leadership as the primary
element in the success of any business.

Management Science: Theory

and Practice

Gantt's contributions were more in the nature of refinements rather than fundamental
concepts. They made scientific management more humanized and meaningful to devotees
of Taylor.
Harrington Emerson (USA, 1853 - 1931): Emerson was an American Engineer. He
devoted his attention to efficiency in industry. He was the first to use the term 'efficiency
engineering' to describe his brand of consulting. He called his philosophy "The Gospel of
Efficiency". According to him, "efficiency means that the right thing is done in the right
manner, by the right man, at the right place, in the right time".
Emerson laid down the following principles of efficiency to be observed by management:(1)

Ideals

(2)

Common Sense

(3)

Competent Counsel

(4)

Discipline

(5)

Fair Deal

(6)

Proper Records

(7)

Dispatching

(8)

Standards and Schedules

(9)

Standard Conditions

(10) Standardized Operations

(11) Standard practice instructions and
(12) Efficiency Reward.
B.

Administrative Management Theory: Henry Fayol was the most important

exponent of this theory. The pyramidal form, scalar principle, unity of command,
exception principle, span of control and departmentalisation are some of the
important concepts set forth by Fayol and his followers like Mooney and
Reiley, Simon, Urwick, Gullick etc.

Henry Fayol (France, 1841 - 1925): Henry Fayol was born in 1941 at Constantinople in
France. He graduated as a mining engineer in 1860 from the National School of Mining.
After his graduation, he joined a French Coal Mining Company as an Engineer. After a
couple of years, he was promoted as manager. He was appointed as General Manager of

23

Principles of Management and

Organisational Behaviour

his company in 1888. At that time, the company suffered heavy losses and was nearly
bankrupt. Henry Fayol succeeded in converting his company from near bankruptcy to a
strong financial position and a record of profits and dividends over a long period.
Concept of Management: Henry Fayol is considered the father of modern theory of
general and industrial management. He divided general and industrial management into
six groups:
1.

Technical activities - Production, manufacture, adaptation.

2.

Commercial activities - buying, selling and exchange.

3.

Financial activities - search for and optimum use of capital.

4.

Security activities - protection of property and persons.

5.

Accounting activities - stock-taking, balance sheet, cost, and statistics.

6.

Managerial activities - planning, organization, command, co- ordination and control.

These six functions had to be performed to operate successfully any kind of business.
He, however, pointed out that the last function i.e., ability to manage, was the most
important for upper levels of managers.
The process of management as an ongoing managerial cycle involving planning, organizing,
directing, co-ordination, and controlling, is actually based on the analysis of general
management by Fayol. Hence, it is said that Fayol established the pattern of management
thought and practice. Even today, management process has general recognition.
Fayol's Principles of Management: The principles of management are given below:

24

1.

Division of work: Division of work or specialization alone can give maximum

productivity and efficiency. Both technical and managerial activities can be performed
in the best manner only through division of labour and specialization.

2.

Authority and Responsibility: The right to give order is called authority. The
obligation to accomplish is called responsibility. Authority and Responsibility are
the two sides of the management coin. They exist together. They are complementary
and mutually interdependent.

3.

Discipline: The objectives, rules and regulations, the policies and procedures must
be honoured by each member of an organization. There must be clear and fair
agreement on the rules and objectives, on the policies and procedures. There must
be penalties (punishment) for non-obedience or indiscipline. No organization can
work smoothly without discipline - preferably voluntary discipline.

4.

Unity of Command: In order to avoid any possible confusion and conflict, each
member of an organization must received orders and instructions only from one
superior (boss).

5.

Unity of Direction: All members of an organization must work together to

accomplish common objectives.

6.

Emphasis on Subordination of Personal Interest to General or Common

Interest: This is also called principle of co-operation. Each shall work for all and
all for each. General or common interest must be supreme in any joint enterprise.

7.

Remuneration: Fair pay with non-financial rewards can act as the best incentive
or motivator for good performance. Exploitation of employees in any manner must
be eliminated. Sound scheme of remuneration includes adequate financial and nonfinancial incentives.

8.

Centralization: There must be a good balance between centralization and

decentralization of authority and power. Extreme centralization and decentralization
must be avoided.

9.

Scalar Chain: The unity of command brings about a chain or hierarchy of command
linking all members of the organization from the top to the bottom. Scalar denotes steps.

Management Science: Theory

and Practice

10. Order: Fayol suggested that there is a place for everything. Order or system alone
can create a sound organization and efficient management.
11.

Equity: An organization consists of a group of people involved in joint effort. Hence,

equity (i.e., justice) must be there. Without equity, we cannot have sustained and
adequate joint collaboration.

12. Stability of Tenure: A person needs time to adjust himself with the new work and
demonstrate efficiency in due course. Hence, employees and managers must have
job security. Security of income and employment is a pre-requisite of sound
organization and management.
13. Esprit of Co-operation: Esprit de corps is the foundation of a sound organization.
Union is strength. But unity demands co-operation. Pride, loyalty and sense of
belonging are responsible for good performance.
14. Initiative: Creative thinking and capacity to take initiative can give us sound
managerial planning and execution of predetermined plans.
C.

Bureaucratic Model: Max Weber, a German Sociologist developed the

bureaucratic model. His model of bureaucracy include
(i)

Hierarchy of authority.

(ii)

Division of labour based upon functional specialization.

(iii) A system of rules.

(iv) Impersonality of interpersonal relationships.
(v)

A system of work procedures.

(vi) Placement of employees based upon technical competence.

(vii) Legal authority and power.
Bureaucracy provides a rigid model of an organization. It does not account for important
human elements. The features of Bureaucracy are:1.

Rigidity, impersonality and higher cost of controls.

2.

Anxiety due to pressure of conformity to rules and procedure.

3.

Dependence on superior.

4.

Tendency to forget ultimate goals of the organization.

Bureaucratic Model is preferred where change is not anticipated or where rate of change
can be predicated. It is followed in government departments and in large business
organizations.

1.7.3 Neoclassical Theory

Neo-classical Theory is built on the base of classical theory. It modified, improved and
extended the classical theory. Classical theory concentrated on job content and
management of physical resources whereas, neoclassical theory gave greater emphasis
to individual and group relationship in the workplace. The neo- classical theory pointed
out the role of psychology and sociology in the understanding of individual and group
behaviour in an organization.
George Elton Mayo (Australia, 1880 - 1949): Elton Mayo was born in Australia. He
was educated in Logic and Philosophy at St. Peter's College, Adelaide. He led a team of
researchers from Harvard University, which carried out investigation in human problems

25

Principles of Management and

Organisational Behaviour

at the Hawthorne Plant of Western Electrical Company at Chicago. They conducted

some experiments (known as Hawthorne Experiments) and investigated informal
groupings, informal relationships, patterns of communication, patterns of informal leadership
etc. Elton Mayo is generally recognized as the father of Human Relations School. Other
prominent contributors to this school include Roethlisberger, Dickson, Dewey, Lewin
etc.
Hawthorne Experiment: In 1927, a group of researchers led by Elton Mayo and Fritz
Roethlisberger of the Harvard Business School were invited to join in the studies at the
Hawthorne Works of Western Electric Company, Chicago. The experiment lasted up to
1932. The Hawthorne Experiments brought out that the productivity of the employees is
not the function of only physical conditions of work and money wages paid to them.
Productivity of employees depends heavily upon the satisfaction of the employees in
their work situation. Mayo's idea was that logical factors were far less important than
emotional factors in determining productivity efficiency. Furthermore, of all the human
factors influencing employee behaviour, the most powerful were those emanating from
the worker's participation in social groups. Thus, Mayo concluded that work arrangements
in addition to meeting the objective requirements of production must at the same time
satisfy the employee's subjective requirement of social satisfaction at his work place.
The Hawthorne experiment consists of four parts. These parts are briefly described below:-

26

1.

Illumination Experiment.

2.

Relay Assembly Test Room Experiment.

3.

Interviewing Programme.

4.

Bank Wiring Test Room Experiment.

1.

Illumination Experiment: This experiment was conducted to establish relationship

between output and illumination. When the intensity of light was increased, the
output also increased. The output showed an upward trend even when the illumination
was gradually brought down to the normal level. Therefore, it was concluded that
there is no consistent relationship between output of workers and illumination in the
factory. There must be some other factor which affected productivity.

2.

Relay Assembly Test Room Experiment: This phase aimed at knowing not only
the impact of illumination on production but also other factors like length of the
working day, rest hours, and other physical conditions. In this experiment, a small
homogeneous work-group of six girls was constituted. These girls were friendly to
each other and were asked to work in a very informal atmosphere under the
supervision of a researcher. Productivity and morale increased considerably during
the period of the experiment. Productivity went on increasing and stabilized at a
high level even when all the improvements were taken away and the pre-test
conditions were reintroduced. The researchers concluded that socio-psychological
factors such as feeling of being important, recognition, attention, participation,
cohesive work-group, and non-directive supervision held the key for higher
productivity.

3.

Mass Interview Programme: The objective of this programme was to make a

systematic study of the employees' attitudes which would reveal the meaning which
their "working situation" has for them. The researchers interviewed a large number
of workers with regard to their opinions on work, working conditions and supervision.
Initially, a direct approach was used whereby interviews asked questions considered
important by managers and researchers. The researchers observed that the replies
of the workmen were guarded. Therefore, this approach was replaced by an indirect
technique, where the interviewer simply listened to what the workmen had to say.
The findings confirmed the importance of social factors at work in the total work
environment.

4.

Bank Wiring Test Room Experiment: This experiment was conducted by

Roethlisberger and Dickson with a view to develope a new method of observation
and obtaining more exact information about social groups within a company and
also finding out the causes which restrict output. The experiment was conducted to
study a group of workers under conditions which were as close as possible to
normal. This group comprised of 14 workers. After the experiment, the production
records of this group were compared with their earlier production records. It was
observed that the group evolved its own production norms for each individual worker,
which was made lower than those set by the management. Because of this, workers
would produce only that much, thereby defeating the incentive system. Those
workers who tried to produce more than the group norms were isolated, harassed
or punished by the group. The findings of the study are:(i)

Each individual was restricting output.

(ii)

The group had its own "unofficial" standards of performance.

Management Science: Theory

and Practice

(iii) Individual output remained fairly constant over a period of time.

(iv) Informal groups play an important role in the working of an organization.
Contributions of the Hawthorne Experiment: Elton Mayo and his associates conducted
their studies in the Hawthorne plant of the western electrical company, U.S.A., between
1927 and 1930. According to them, behavioural science methods have many areas of
application in management. The important features of the Hawthorne Experiment are:1.

A business organization is basically a social system. It is not just a techno-economic

system.

2.

The employer can be motivated by psychological and social wants because his
behaviour is also influenced by feelings, emotions and attitudes. Thus economic
incentives are not the only method to motivate people.

3.

Management must learn to develop co-operative attitudes and not rely merely on
command.

4.

Participation becomes an important instrument in human relations movement. In

order to achieve participation, effective two-way communication network is essential.

5.

Productivity is linked with employee satisfaction in any business organization.

Therefore management must take greater interest in employee satisfaction.

6.

Group psychology plays an important role in any business organization. We must

therefore rely more on informal group effort.

7.

The neo-classical theory emphasizes that man is a living machine and he is far
more important than the inanimate machine. Hence, the key to higher productivity
lies in employee morale. High morale results in higher output.

Elements of Behavioural Theory: There are three elements of behavioural theory.

1.

The Individual: The neoclassical theory emphasized that individual differences

must be recognised. An individual has feelings, emotions, perception and attitude.
Each person is unique. He brings to the job situation certain attitudes, beliefs and
ways of life, as well as skills. He has certain meaning of his job, his supervision,
working conditions etc. The inner world of the worker is more important than the
external reality in the determination of productivity. Thus human relations at work
determine the rise or fall in productivity. Therefore human relationists advocate the
adoption of multidimensional model of motivation which is based upon economic,
individual and social factors.

2.

Work Groups: Workers are not isolated; they are social beings and should be
treated as such by management. The existence of informal organization is natural.

27

Principles of Management and

Organisational Behaviour

The neo-classical theory describes the vital effects of group psychology and
behaviour on motivation and productivity.
3.

Participative Management: The emergence of participative management is inevitable

when emphasis is laid on individual and work groups. Allowing labour to participate in
decision making primarily to increase productivity was a new form of supervision.
Management now welcomes worker participation in planning job contents and job
operations. Neoclassical theory focuses its attention on workers. Plant layout,
machinery, tool etc., must offer employee convenience and facilities. Therefore,
neoclassical approach is trying to satisfy personal security and social needs of workers.

Human relationists made very significant contribution to management thought by bringing

into limelight human and social factors in organizations. But their concepts were carried
beyond an appropriate limit. There are many other factors which influence productivity
directly. Modern management thought wants equal emphasis on man and machine and we
can evolve appropriate man- machine system to secure both goals productivity and
satisfaction.
Do Happy Cows Give More Milk?
The Human Relations School of thought has been accused of advocating "cow sociology"
as a method of managing people, i.e., since happy cows can give more milk, it follows that
happy people will produce more. But do happy cows give more milk? Or, perhaps more
importantly, how can you tell if cows are happy? In our quest for an answer to these
important questions we asked farmers, dairies, and professors of agriculture; we read journals
(Journal of dairy Science), textbooks on dairy management, and popular farm publications.
We even assigned a graduate student to research the question. But alas, we could not
uncover any scientific evidence proving it to be true (although everyone we spoke to
believed it to be true). In one study, we found, an author noted the importance of
"psychological and stress" factors which affected milk production, but declined to study
them because "they were too difficult to measure". So at least for the present, we must
scientifically conclude that the question is yet unanswered. Nevertheless, we were impressed
by one textbook in dairy science in which the author prescribes several techniques to
maximize milk production:
1. Cows become accustomed to a regular routine; disturbing his routine disturbs them and
causes a decrease in milk production.
2. Attendants should come into close contact with the cows, and it is important that the
best of relations exist between the cows and keepers.
3. The cows should not be afraid of the attendants.
4. Cows should never be hurried.
5. Chasing cows with dogs or driving them on the run should never be allowed.
6. In the barn, attendants must work quietly; loud shouting or quick movements upset
cows and cause them to restrict production.
Now the question is, can these principles be applied to people?
Source: Clarence H Eckles, Dairy Cattle and Milk Production (New York: Macmillan 1956), Page 332 - 33

Limitations of Human Relations Approach:-

28

1.

The human relationists drew conclusions from Hawthorne studies. These conclusions
are based on clinical insight rather than on scientific evidence.

2.

The study tends to overemphasize the psychological aspects at the cost of the
structural and technical aspects.

3.

It is assumed that all organizational problems are amenable to solutions through

human relations. This assumption does not hold good in practice.

4.

The human relationists saw only the human variables as critical and ignored other
variables.

5.

The human relationists overemphasize the group and group decision-making. But
in practice, groups may create problems and collective decision-making may not
be possible.

Management Science: Theory

and Practice

1.7.4 Modern Theory (System Approach)

The systems approach to management indicates the fourth major theory of management
thought called modern theory. Modern theory considers an organization as an adaptive
system which has to adjust to changes in its environment. An organization is now defined
as a structured process in which individuals interact for attaining objectives.
Meaning of "System": The word system is derived from the Greek word meaning to
bring together or to combine. A system is a set of interconnected and inter-related elements
or component parts to achieve certain goals. A system has three significant parts:
1.

Every system is goal-oriented and it must have a purpose or objective to be attained.

2.

In designing the system we must establish the necessary arrangement of

components.

3.

Inputs of information, material and energy are allocated for processing as per plan
so that the outputs can achieve the objective of the system.

PLANS
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.

Objectives
Policies
Procedures
Programme
Schedules
Methods

GOALS AND PLANS

INPUTS
1. Information
2. Energy
3. Raw
Materials

RESOURCES

PROCESS

OUTPUTS

Conversion of
inputs into
outputs MenMachine
System

1. Information
2. Energy
3. Materials
or goods

PRODUCTION SALEABLE PRODUCTS

Note:
1.

Generally there are three basic inputs that enter the processor of the system namely information
(Technology), energy (motive power) and materials to be transformed into goods.

2.

If the output is service, materials are not included in the inputs.

3.

If we have a manufacturing company, output are goods or materials.

4.

If we have a power generating company, output is energy.

Figure 1.2: The Design of a Basic System

Systems Approach Applied to an Organization: When systems approach is applied to

organization, we have the following features of an organization as an open adaptive
system:1.

It is a sub-system of its broader environment.

2.

It is a goal-oriented people with a purpose.

3.

It is a technical subsystem using knowledge, techniques, equipment and facilities.

4.

It is a structural subsystem people working together on interrelated activities.

5.

It is a psychosocial system people in social relationships.

6.

It is co-ordinate by a managerial sub system, creating, planning, organizing, motivating,

communicating and controlling the overall efforts directed towards set goals.

29

Principles of Management and

Organisational Behaviour

Characteristics of Modern Management Thought:

1.

The Systems Approach: An organization as a system has five basic parts (1)

Input

(2)

Process

(3)

Output

(4)

Feedback and

(5)

Environment.

It draws upon the environment for inputs to produce certain desirable outputs. The success
of these outputs can be judged by means of feedback. If necessary, we have to modify
out mix of inputs to produce as per changing demands.
2.

Dynamic: We have a dynamic process of interaction occurring within the structure

of an organization. The equilibrium of an organization and its structure is itself
dynamic or changing.

3.

Multilevel and Multidimensional: Systems approach points out complex multilevel

and multidimensional character. We have both a micro and macro approach. A
company is micro within a business system. It is macro with respect to its own
internal units. Within a company as a system we have:(1)

Production subsystem

(2)

Finance subsystem

(3)

Marketing subsystem

(4)

Personnel subsystem.

All parts or components are interrelated. Both parts as well as the whole are equally
important. At all levels, organizations interact in many ways.

30

4.

Multimotivated: Classical theory assumed a single objective, for instance, profit.

Systems approach recognizes that there may be several motivations behind our
actions and behaviour. Management has to compromise these multiple objectives
eg: - economic objectives and social objectives.

5.

Multidisciplinary: Systems approach integrates and uses with profit ideas emerging
from different schools of thought. Management freely draws concepts and
techniques from many fields of study such as psychology, social psychology,
sociology, ecology, economics, mathematics, etc.

6.

Multivariable: It is assumed that there is no simple cause-effect phenomenon. An

event may be the result of so many factors which themselves are interrelated and
interdependent. Some factors are controllable, some uncontrollable. Intelligent
planning and control are necessary to face these variable factors.

7.

Adaptive: The survival and growth of an organization in a dynamic environment

demands an adaptive system which can continuously adjust to changing conditions.
An organization is an open system adapting itself through the process of feedback.

8.

Probabilistic: Management principles point out only probability and never the
certainty of performance and the consequent results. We have to face so many
variables simultaneously. Our forecasts are mere tendencies. Therefore, intelligent
forecasting and planning can reduce the degree of uncertainty to a considerable
extent.

Contingency Theory: Systems approach emphasizes that all sub- systems of an

organization along with the super system of environment are interconnected and

interrelated. Contingency approach analysis and understands these interrelationship so

that managerial actions can be adjusted to demands of specific situations or circumstances.
Thus the contingency approach enables us to evolve practical answers to problems
demanding solutions. Organization design and managerial actions most appropriate to
specific situations will have to be adopted to achieve the best possible result under the
given situation. There is no one best way (as advocated by Taylor) to organize and
manage. Thus, Contingency Approach to management emphasizes the fact that
management is a highly practice-oriented discipline. It is the basic function of managers
to analyse and understand the environments in which they function before adopting their
techniques, processes and practices. The application of management principles and
practices should therefore be continent upon the existing circumstances.

Management Science: Theory

and Practice

Contingency approach guides the manager to be adaptive to environment. It tells the

manager to be pragmatic and open minded. The contingency approach is an improvement
over the systems approach. It not only examines the relationships between sub-systems
of the organization, but also the relationship between the organization and its environment.
However, the contingency approach suffers from two limitations:1.

It does not recognize the influence of management concepts and techniques on

environment.

2.

Literature on contingency management is yet not adequate.

Check Your Progress 2

1.

Trace the evolution of management thought.

2.

Explain the elements of scientific management thought.

3.

State and explain the 14 principles of management.

4.

What are the elements of behavioural theory?

5.

Explain the characteristics of the systems approach to management.

6.

Explain the contingency theory.

Check Your Progress 3

1.

What do you mean by Organisational Management Analysis (OMA)?

2.

Why are management consultants used by organisations?

1.8 LET US SUM UP

Management occupies such an important place in the modern world that the welfare of
the people and the destiny of the country are very much influenced by it. It is an operative
force in all complex organisations trying to achieve some stated objectives. Management
is necessary for a business firm, government enterprises, education and health services,
military organisations, trade associations and so on. The origin of management can be
traced back to the days when man started living in groups. . During this period, stalwarts
like F.W Taylor, H.L. Gantt, Emerson, Frank and Lillian Gilberth etc., laid the foundation
of management, which in due course, came to be known as scientific management.
Henry Fayol is considered the father of modern theory of general and industrial
management. The 14 principles of management given by fayol are the bases of the
science of management. The neo- classical theory pointed out the role of psychology

31

Principles of Management and

Organisational Behaviour

and sociology in the understanding of individual and group behaviour in an organization.

The systems approach to management indicates the third major theory of management
thought called modern theory. Modern theory considers an organization as an adaptive
system which has to adjust to changes in its environment.

1.9 LESSON END ACTIVITY

Management in some form or other has been practiced in the various part of the world
since the down of civilization. It was against this background that the pioneers of modern
management laid the foundations of modern management theory and practice.
In the context of above statement discuss the evaluation of management thought.

1.10 KEYWORDS
Management
Professionalisation of Management
Scientific Management
Behavioural Theory
Contingency Theory

1.11 QUESTIONS FOR DISCUSSION

1.

Define management and explain its scope.

2.

"Management is the art of getting things done through and with people in formally
organised groups." Explain.

3.

Management is regarded as an art by some, a science and inexact science by

others. The truth seems to be somewhere in between. In the light of this statement,
explain the nature of management.

1.12 SUGGESTED READINGS

A Dassgupta, Indian Business and Management, Dept. of Business Management and
Industrial Administration, University of Delhi 1969.
Appley Lawrence, Management in Action The Art of Getting Things Done Through
People, American Management Association, New York, 1956.
Dale Yoder, Personnel Management and Industrial Relations, Prentice Hall of India
(P) Ltd New Delhi, 1972.
Flippo Edwin B., Personnel Management, McGraw Hill, Kogakusha Ltd, 1980.
George R Terry, Principles of Management, Richard D Irwin Inc., Homewood, Illinois,
1968.
Institute of Personnel Management, Functions of Personnel Department in India,
Calcutta 1973.
Louis A Allen, Management and Organization, McGraw Hill, New York, 1958.
Metcalf H C and L Urwick (Ed), Dynamic Administration the Collected Papers of
Mary Parket Follet, Harper and Row, New York, 1941.
P.G. Aquinas, Organizational Behaviour, Excel Books, New Delhi.
Steiner G "Manpower Planning" William Heinemann Ltd., London (1971).
32

LESSON

2
MANAGEMENT AND SOCIETY

CONTENTS
2.0

Aims and Objectives

2.1

Introduction

2.2

Social Responsibility of Business

2.3

Arguments in favour of Social Responsibility of Business

2.4

2.3.1

Business is a creation of society and therefore it should respond to the

demands of the society

2.3.2

The self-interest of business is best served by meeting the aspirations of society

2.3.3

To improve the public image of business

2.3.4

It is the moral thing to do

Arguments Against Social Responsibility of Business

2.4.1 Responsibility of Government

2.5

2.4.2

Conflicting considerations of private market mechanism and social responsibility

2.4.3

Disregard of Market Mechanism

2.4.4

Arbitrary Power to Businessmen

Obligations of Business towards different segments of the society

2.5.1

Obligations towards owners or shareholders

2.5.2

Obligations towards Customers

2.5.3

Obligations towards Employees

2.5.4

Responsibility towards Suppliers

2.5.5

Obligations towards Government

2.5.6

Obligation towards Society

2.6

Business Ethics

2.7

Types of Business Ethics

2.7.1

Personal Responsibility

2.7.2

Representative or Official Responsibility

2.7.3

Personal Loyalties

2.8

Global and Comparative Management and the Basis of Global Management

2.9

Let us Sum up

2.10 Lesson-end Activities

2.11 Keywords
2.12 Questions for Discussion
2.13 Suggested Readings

Principles of Management and

Organisational Behaviour

2.0 AIMS AND OBJECTIVES

In this lesson we will study the social responsibility of business and business ethics. After
studying this lesson you will be able to:
(i)

describe social responsibility and obligations of business.

(ii)

know meaning and types of business ethics.

(iii) understand issues and global business management.

2.1 INTRODUCTION
Every individual living in the society has obligations towards society. Business men
therefore have an obligation to run the business on those lines which make the business
desirable from the point of view of society. Therefore, their decisions must be influenced
by their obligations towards society. Traditionally, however the term business commonly
referred to commercial activities aimed at making a profit for the owners. Therefore, the
fundamental assumption was that profit maximization was the basic objective of every
firm. Therefore some people argue that a business is an economic unit and therefore it
does not have any responsibility towards society. However, this is not a right approach
because it would be difficult to segregate the economic aspect from other aspects.
Today, businessmen have reaffirmed their belief in the concept of "Social Responsibilities
of Business". David and Blomstorm have observed that business is "a social institution,
performing a social mission and having a broad influence on the way people live and
work together".

2.2 SOCIAL RESPONSIBILITY OF BUSINESS

One of the most revolutionary changes in capitalism over the last 50 years is the
development of a `conscience'. Private business which is the hard core of this economic
system has realized and has been made to realize by several social, economic and political
forces that it has social obligations to fulfil besides ensuring its own existence through
profitable activity. Every individual living in the society has social obligations towards it.
Viewed in this prospective, businessmen who are merely custodians of factors of
production belonging to the society, have also an obligation to pursue those policies, to
make those decisions and to follow those lines of action which are desirable in terms of
the objectives and values of the society. Business managers are also a part of the society.
So their decisions must be influenced by their obligations towards the society.
There is no denying the fact that part of this realization is not genuine and takes the form
of lip service which is necessary to ensure the survival of private enterprises. But it
cannot be denied also that private business does partly realize and recognize the hard
reality that a privately owned firm cannot meet the challenge of socialism and allied
doctrines unless it sets its house in order, changes its outlook and is prepared to play its
legitimate role as an organ of society.
A careful study of the concept of social responsibility reveals that it has two different
facets:

34

1.

Businessmen recognize that since they are managing an economic unit in the society,
they have a broad obligation to the society with regard to matters affecting
employment, availability of goods and inflation.

2.

Social responsibility refers to both socio-economic and socio-human obligations of

the business. It indicates a businessman's obligation to nurture and develop human
values such as motivation, morale, co-operation and self-realization in work.

It may be argued by some people that business is wholly an economic unit and therefore,
its responsibilities are limited only to economic aspect of general public and it must be

judged by its economic performance. If this reasoning is accepted, the businessmen

might be concerned with the economic costs of unemployment, but not with the loss of
human dignity and social disorganization that accompany it. However, this is not right
approach for it is very difficult to separate economic aspects of life from its other values.
They are intermixed with each other. Social responsibility of business is not a new concept.
Leading businessmen of the world have reaffirmed their belief in this concept. It affects
their decisions and actions. They recognize that since they are managing an economic
unit in the society, they have an obligation to the society with regard to their decisions
and actions affecting social welfare.

Management and Society

It will be useful here to go into some of the forces and factors which have formed and
persuaded businessmen to consider their responsibilities and the conditions which were
favourable to the development of businessmen's concern with social responsibilities.
Some of the more important among them are:1.

The threat of public regulation or public ownership.

2.

The pressure of the labour movement.

3.

The development of moral values and social standards applicable to businessmen.

4.

The development of business education and contact with government and its problems.

5.

Recognition of human factors contributing to the long run interests of the business
people.

6.

The development of a professional managerial class with a different motivation

and point of view due to the separation of ownership from management in the
corporate enterprise.

7.

The increased complexity of the decision-making processes in which various points

of view and devise interests are expressed.

8.

The change in public opinion about the role of business in modern society.

These and a number of other social, ethical and economic forces have combined together
to make business a socio-economic activity. Business is no longer a mere occupation; it
is an economic institution operating in social environment an institution that has to
reconcile its short-term and long-range economic interests with the demands of the
society in which it functions. Essentially, it is this which gives rise to the general and
specific social responsibilities of business.

2.3 ARGUMENTS IN FAVOUR OF SOCIAL RESPONSIBILITY

OF BUSINESS
2.3.1 Business is a creation of society and therefore it should respond to
the demands of the society
Business managers are obliged to use its resources for the common good of society
because the business uses resources which belong to the society. It is therefore necessary
that every business enterprise should fulfil its obligations to society.

2.3.2 The self-interest of business is best served by meeting the aspirations

of society
The long-term self-interests of the business are best served when business assumes
social responsibilities. People who have good environment, education and opportunity
make better employees, and customers for the business. Hence there is a growing
realization on the part of the enlightened business managers that it is in their self-interest
to fulfil the aspirations of the society.
35

Principles of Management and

Organisational Behaviour

2.3.3 To improve the public image of business

The business will retain the needed credibility with the public if it performs its social
obligations. Good relations with workers, consumers and suppliers will lead to success of
business.

2.3.4 It is the moral thing to do

The social responsibilities of business managers must be proportionate to their social
power. If the business managers do not assume social responsibility, their social power
will be taken away by the society through government control and regulations and other
measures.

2.4 ARGUMENTS AGAINST SOCIAL RESPONSIBILITY

OF BUSINESS
2.4.1 Responsibility of Government
Welfare schemes are the sole responsibility of the government. Business should not
have any relationship with welfare schemes. It is for the Government to adopt schemes
and measures for the upliftment of the weaker sections of the society.

2.4.2 Conflicting considerations of private market mechanism and social

responsibility
Private market mechanism and social responsibilities are opposite to each other and
therefore a businessman will have to be guided by any one of the two considerations.

2.4.3 Disregard of Market Mechanism

Market mechanism is the appropriate way to allocate scarce resources to alternative
use. The doctrine of social responsibility interferes with the market mechanism and
results in an inappropriate way to allocate scarce resources.

2.4.4 Arbitrary Power to Businessmen

Businessmen will get arbitrary powers in the matter of allocation of resources in the
welfare of society. They should have no right to interfere with governmental responsibility.
Check Your Progress 1

1.

What do you mean by social responsibility of business?

2.

Give your arguments in favour of social responsibility of business.

3.

What are the arguments against social responsibility of business?

2.5 OBLIGATIONS OF BUSINESS TOWARDS DIFFERENT

SEGMENTS OF THE SOCIETY
2.5.1 Obligations towards owners or shareholders
In the case of sole trader ship and partnership concerns, the owners can look after their
interest themselves. Whereas in the case of the company, the directors have the following
responsibilities towards the shareholders:
36

(A) Reasonable Dividend: shareholders are a source of funds for the company. They
expect a high rate of dividend on the money invested by them and also the
maximization of the value of their investment in the company.

Management and Society

(B) Protection of assets: The assets of the company are purchased with shareholders
funds. Therefore the company is responsible to safeguard these assets.
(C) Information: It is the responsibility of the management to keep the shareholders
informed about the financial position as well as the progress of the company.

2.5.2 Obligations towards Customers

Customer's satisfaction is the ultimate aim of all economic activity. Therefore, it is, the
duty of management
(a)

To make goods of the right quality available to the right people at the right time and
place and at reasonable prices.

(b)

The business should not indulge into unfair practices such as black marketing,
hoarding, adulteration etc.

(c)

To provide prompt and courteous service to customers.

(d)

To handle customers grievances carefully.

(e)

To distribute the goods and services properly so that the customers do not face any
difficulty in purchasing them.

(f)

To produce goods which meet the needs of the customer who belong to different
classes, tastes and with different purchasing power.

2.5.3 Obligations towards Employees

Employees should be treated as human beings and their co-operation must be achieved
for the realization of organizational goals. The business should fulfil the following
obligations towards their employees.
(a)

Fair wages: Business should pay reasonable salaries so that their employee's may
lead a good life and satisfy their needs.

(b)

Adequate benefits: Employees should be provided benefits like housing, insurance

cover, medical facilities and retirement benefits.

(c)

Good Working Conditions: Good working conditions are necessary to maintain

the health of the workers. Therefore they must be provided with good working
conditions.

(d)

Opportunity for Growth: Business should give their employees opportunity to

develop their capabilities through training and education.

(e)

Recognition of Worker's Rights: The business should recognize the worker's

right to fair wages, to form trade unions, to collective bargaining etc.

(f)

Co-operation: The business must win the co-operation of the workers by creating
the conditions in which workers are willing to put forward their best efforts towards
the common goals of the business.

2.5.4 Responsibility towards Suppliers

The business must create healthy relations with the supplier. Management should deal
with them judiciously. They should be provided with fair terms and conditions regarding
price, quality, delivery of goods and payment.
37

Principles of Management and

Organisational Behaviour

2.5.5 Obligations towards Government

It is the duty of every business enterprise to manage its affairs according to the laws
affecting it. It should pay taxes and other dues honestly. It should not encourage corruption,
black marketing and other social evils. It should discourage the tendencies of concentration
of economic power and monopoly and should encourage fair trade practices.

2.5.6 Obligation towards Society

Every business owes an obligation to the society at large. The following are the important
obligations of business towards society.
(a)

Socio-Economic Objectives: A business should not indulge in any practice which

is not fair from social point of view. The business should use the factors of production
effectively and efficiently for the satisfaction of the needs of the society.

(b)

Employment Opportunities: It is the responsibility of management to help increase

direct and indirect employment in the area where it is functioning.

(c)

Efficient use of Resources: The resources at the command of business belongs

to the society. Therefore, the business should make the best possible use of the
resources at its disposal for the well being of the society.

(d)

Business Morality: The business should not indulge into anti-social and unfair
trade practices such as adulteration, hoarding and black marketing.

(e)

Improving local environment: Business should take preventive measures against

water and air pollution. It can develop the surrounding area for the well being of
the employees and the general public. A business can also contribute to the
advancement of local amenities.
Check Your Progress 2

1.

State the obligations of business towards shareholders.

2.

Do business have an obligation towards its employees? State your reasons.

3.

What are the obligations business have towards its customers?

2.6 BUSINESS ETHICS

Business is an integral part of the social system; and it influences other elements of
society. The organization of the business, the way the business functions innovations,
new ideas etc., may affect society. Business activities have greatly influenced social
attitudes, values, outlooks, customs traits etc. Thus, it is true that business influences
society. It is also true that society influences business. The type of products to be
manufactured and marketed, the marketing strategies to be employed, and the way the
business should be organized are all influenced by the society. Hence, a business has to
adapt to these uncontrollable external environments.

38

Business, in general, refers to the totality of all enterprises in a country, engaged in

manufacturing, industry, trade, finance, banking etc. In modern societies, business occupies
a dominating place affecting the life of citizens in different ways. Traditionally, the term
business commonly referred to commercial activities aimed at making a profit. The
economic theory made a fundamental assumption that profit maximization was the basic
objective of every firm. According to Milton Friedman, "there is only one social
responsibility of business to use its resources and engage in activities designed to
increase its profits". The old concept of business, confining it to commerce and private
profit, has undergone a radical change. Today, business is regarded as a social institution
forming an integral part of the social system. Therefore, business has to contribute to
man's happiness, his freedom and his mental, moral and spiritual growth.

According to Prof. Harold, "In a time when bribes, illegal pay-off, price conspiracies and
accusations of irresponsibility continue to tarnish the image of American business, the
problem of ethics in the free enterprise system remains a valid and difficult one".

Management and Society

Calkins is of the view that - "It is now recognized that the direction of business is important
to the public welfare, that businessmen perform a social function".
David and Blomstorm remarks that business is "a social institution, performing a social
mission and having a broad influence on the way people live and work together."
Thus the term business refers to the development and processing of economic values in
society. As Rabbi Hillel put it - "If I am not for myself, then who is for me? And if I am
not for others then who am I? Thus, the relations between the individual and his actions
in the society demands that the need of the individual require that he be for others as well
as for himself. According to Davis and Blomstorm, "Our modern view of society is an
ecological one. Ecology is concerned with the mutual relations of human populations or
systems with their environment. It is necessary to take this broad view because the
influence and involvement of business are extensive. Business cannot isolate itself from
the rest of society. Today the whole society is a business's environment".

2.7 TYPES OF BUSINESS ETHICS

Chester Barnard refers to the following types of moralities in a company:
l

Personal responsibility.

Representative or official responsibility.

Personal loyalties.

Corporate responsibilities.

Organizational loyalties.

Economic responsibilities.

Technical morality.

Legal responsibility.

2.7.1 Personal Responsibility

It refers to a man's personal code of ethics. If a man behaves in honesty, he will behave
in a very honest and straight forward manner. According to Walton, "A morally responsible
executive is one who knows the various kinds of value systems that may be employed in
a particular situation and has a rather clear idea of what values hold ascendancy
(precedence or priority) over others in a conflict". This definition of Walton is rather an
over-simplification. A businessman may think he is acting ethically but others may not
consider his behaviour as ethical.

2.7.2 Representative or Official Responsibility

A manager's action often represents the position he holds or the office he occupies
rather than his personal beliefs. This is so because the manager represents the business.
He has to follow the rules and regulations of the business, e.g. a manager may want to
do something but the regulations may forbid him from doing it and therefore his hands
are tied and he may not do it.

2.7.3 Personal Loyalties

Sometimes personal loyalties are so strong that ethical standards may not be applied
when acting towards a particular individual. Personal loyalties include the loyalties of a
subordinate to his superior and superior's loyalty towards his subordinate.

39

Principles of Management and

Organisational Behaviour

(a)

Loyalties of a subordinate to his superior: If a subordinate has strong personal

loyalty towards their superior, they turn a blind eye towards the blunders committed
by their superiors and attempt to defend their omissions and commissions. For
example, if the branch manager of a bank is sanctioning loan without any security
and this act on his part may bring disastrous financial troubles to the organization,
his subordinates who were men of high moral character and who had close
connections with the head office did not inform them of the financial irregularities
because of strong personal loyalty towards their branch manager.

(b)

Superior's loyalty towards his subordinate: If a superior has strong personal

loyalty towards their subordinates, they turn a blind eye towards the mistakes
committed by their subordinates. This is done because the superior does not want
to hurt the feeling of his subordinates because of their close personal contact. For
example, if the subordinates who are close to the manager do not do their work
properly, the manager may not reprimand (rebuke or scold) them for their poor
performance. He may rather defend their poor quality work with his superiors
because of his personal attachment towards his subordinates.

(c)

Corporate Responsibilities: Every individual living in society has a moral obligation

towards it. Corporations are entities which are "artificial persons", therefore they too
have moral responsibilities towards the society. There moral responsibilities are not
necessarily identical with the personal moral codes of the executives who run them.
Every corporation must have moral codes which help it in deciding matters connected
with shareholders, employees, creditors, customers, government and society.

(d)

Organizational Loyalties: Some employees have a deep sense of loyalty to the

organization. Their loyalties to their organization are so strong that they even neglect
their own self interest for the sake of the organization.

(e)

Economic Responsibility: According to Milton Friedman, "there is one and only

one social responsibility of business to use its resources efficiently and engage in
activities designed to increase profits without deception or fraud". Therefore, every
business must contribute to the general welfare of the society by making efficient
and economical use of resource at their command. This type of morality guides
individual action towards economy in the use of resources put at his disposal.

(f)

Technical Morality: In any country, the state of technology plays an important

role in determining what products and services will be produced. Technological
environment influences organizations in terms of investment in technology, consistent
application of technology and the effects of technology. A manager having technical
morality will refuse to compromise with quality. Every organization which is actively
engaged in technological advancement will create more challenging situations for
the organizations because they are not prepared to accept lower standards.

(g)

Legal Responsibility: Legal environment provides the framework within which

the business is to function. The viability of business depends upon the ability with
which a business can meet the challenges arising out of the legal framework.
However, it must be observed here that legal responsibility is more than an intention
to conform to laws, orders etc. It is a belief in the need for effective co-operation
and justice in organized life. It is morality that transcends conformity to law.
Check Your Progress 3

40

1.

What do you mean by business ethics?

2.

List out the types of business ethics.

Conclusion: Business men have an obligation to run the business on those lines which
make the business desirable from the point of view of society. Every individual living in

the society has social obligations towards it. Viewed in this prospective, businessmen
who are merely custodians of factors of production belonging to the society, have also an
obligation to pursue those policies, to make those decisions and to the follow those lines
of action which are desirable in terms of the objectives and values of the society. It may
be argued by some people that business is wholly an economic unit and therefore, its
responsibilities are limited only to economic aspect of general public and it must be
judged by its economic performance. If this reasoning is accepted, the businessmen
might be concerned with the economic costs of unemployment, but not with the loss of
human dignity and social disorganization that accompany it. However, this is not right
approach for it is very difficult to separate economic aspects of life from its other values.

Management and Society

2.8 GLOBAL AND COMPARATIVE MANAGEMENT AND

THE BASIS OF GLOBAL MANAGEMENT
Management for Global Business: For businesses to remain competitive, they must
continually evolve to tap into the global markets and emerging world opportunities. In
this context, global business management can be defined as the fundamental principles
and practice of conducting global business activities, the proper evaluation of international
business opportunities and the optimum allocation of resources so as to attain the individual
business objectives in a global environment. Domestic businesses in an attempt to become
multinational or trans-national corporations face numerous concerns which can be duly
addressed by global business management. In the wake of globalisation and rapidly
integrated world in terms of preferences and culture the organisational and geographical
complexity of global companies are getting even more pronounced. Some of the pivotal
issues of global business management include:
l

International trade: International trade constitutes an integral part of the global

business management due to the increased restrictions imposed by many of the
countries which hamper the movement of goods and services across the world.
Global business management is greatly affected by the supply of materials and
essential commodities to various branches of a global company.

Global human resource management: Global Business Management (GBM) is

enmeshed in the principles of global human resource management which deals
with the issues of factor movements, namely migration from the less developed to
the developed world. International migration is a burning issue around the world.
Global business management has to devise methods of tackling the issue of
international human resource management and the activities of outsourcing activities
to countries where labour is abundant and cheap.

Global investment and global finance: The issue of global investment and finance
are an integral part of the activities of the global organisation. Global finance is a
reflection of global business management with the effective allocation of financial
resources to maximise the assets of the company. GBM is also affected by
movements of capital and currencies between countries and the difference in the
exchange rates between different currencies.

GBM is closely linked with business management strategy and business process
management. Business management strategy is concerned with achieving the operational
goals while Business process management (BPM) is concerned about the control, analysis
and monitoring of the operational business processes.

2.9 LET US SUM UP

Every individual living in the society has obligations towards society. Businessmen therefore
have an obligation to run the business on those lines which make the business desirable
from the point of view of society. Leading businessmen of the world have reaffirmed

41

Principles of Management and

Organisational Behaviour

their belief in this concept. It affects their decisions and actions. They recognize that
since they are managing an economic unit in the society, they have an obligation to the
society with regard to their decisions and actions affecting social welfare. Business has
obligations towards different segments of the society. Business is an integral part of the
social system; and it influences other elements of society. The organization of the business,
the way the business functions innovations, new ideas etc., may affect society. Business
activities have greatly influenced social attitudes, values, outlooks, customs traits etc.
Thus, it is true that business influences society. It is also true that society influences
business. The type of products to be manufactured and marketed, the marketing strategies
to be employed, and the way the business should be organized are all influenced by the
society. Hence, a business has to adapt to these uncontrollable external environments. It
is necessary to take this broad view because the influence and involvement of business
are extensive. Business cannot isolate itself from the rest of society.

2.10 LESSON END ACTIVITY

Explain the pivotal issues of global business management.

2.11 KEYWORDS
Social Responsibility of Business
Obligations of Business
Business Ethics

2.12 QUESTIONS FOR DISCUSSION

1.

What is meant by social responsibility of business? How can a modern business

discharge its social responsibility?

2.

What is meant by business ethics? Why should a business make ethical decisions?

3.

What are the responsibilities that business owes to the consumers, society and
Government?

4.

Explain the different types of business ethics.

2.13 SUGGESTED READINGS

A Dassgupta, Indian Business and Management, Dept. of Business Management and
Industrial Administration University of Delhi 1969.
Appley Lawrence, Management in Action: The Art of Getting Things Done Through
People, American Management Association, New York, 1956.
Charles R. DeCarlo, Systems Design and Nature of Work, US Dept. of Labour Govt
Printing Office, Washington D.C., 1969.
Louis A Allen, Management and Organization, McGraw Hill, New York, 1958.
Metcalf H C and L Urwick (Ed) Dynamic Administration the Collected Papers of
Mary Parket Follet, Harper and Row, New York, 1941.
P.G. Aquinas, Organizational Behaviour, Excel Books, New Delhi.

42

LESSON

3
FUNCTIONS OF MANAGEMENT

CONTENTS
3.0

Aims and Objectives

3.1

Introduction

3.2

Managerial Functions

3.3

Planning

3.4

3.5

3.6

3.7

3.8

3.9

3.3.1

Nature of Planning

3.3.2

Importance of Planning

3.3.3

Advantages of Planning

3.3.4

Disadvantages of Planning

3.3.5

Planning Process

Objectives
3.4.1

Features of Objectives

3.4.2

Advantages of Objectives

3.4.3

Process of Setting Objectives

Strategies
3.5.1

Characteristics of Strategy

3.5.2

Strategy Formulation

3.5.3

Business Strategy

Policies
3.6.1

Essentials of Policy Formulation

3.6.2

Importance of Policies

Decision Making
3.7.1

Characteristics of Decision Making

3.7.2

Types of Decisions

3.7.3

Decision Making Process

3.7.4

Characteristics of Effective Decisions

Global Planning
3.8.1

Why Plan Globally?

3.8.2

Global Strategic Planning Process

3.8.3

Nature of Planning Process

Let us Sum up

3.10 Lesson-end Activities

3.11 Keywords
3.12 Questions for Discussion
3.13 Suggested Readings

Principles of Management and

Organisational Behaviour

3.0 AIMS AND OBJECTIVES

This lesson is intended to introduce the students and management about the different
functions of management. After studying this lesson you will be able to:
(i)

Briefly describe the term-management

(ii)

Discuss various managerial function

(iii) Explain different steps to be followed by a manager while performing controlling

operation
(iv) Differentiate between co-ordination and communication
(v)

Explore the nature of planning in an organisation

(vi) Describe-objectives, policies and decision making concept

(vii) Understand the need of globalisation for an International firm

3.1 INTRODUCTION
Management is an activity consisting of a distinct process which is primarily concerned
with the important task of goal achievement. No business enterprise can achieve its
objectives until and unless all the members of the enterprise make an integrated and
planned effort under the directions of a central coordinating agency. This central
coordinating agency is technically known as 'management' and the methodology of getting
things done is known as 'management process'.
The process of management involves the determination of objectives and putting them
into action. According to McFarland, "Management is the process by which managers
create, direct, maintain and operate purposive organisations through systematic,
coordinated and cooperative human effort".
According to G. R. Terry -"Management is a distinct process consisting of planning,
organising, actuating and controlling, performed to determine and accomplish stated
objectives by the use of human beings and other resources".
INPUTS
1. MEN
2. MACHINERY
3. MATERIALS
4. MONEY
5. MARKET
RESOURCES

Planning

Directing

END
RESULTS

GOALS

OUTPUTS
Organising

BASIC RESOURCES

Controlling

(Process of management)

Stated objectives

Figure 3.1: Process of Management

Under management as a process, management is considered as a continuing activity

made up of basic management functions. The process is on going and continuing. It
assumes a cyclical character.

44

1.

Planning: Denotes the determination of short-to-long-range plans to achieve the

objectives of organisation.

2.

Organising: Indicates the development of sound organisation structure according

to predetermined plans.

3.

Direction: Means stimulating and motivation of personnel of the organisation

according to predetermined plans.

4.

Controlling: Offers assurance that directs action i.e., plan- in-action, is taking
place as per plan.

Functions of Management

We have an ongoing cycle of planning - action - control - replanning. Control function

closes the system loop by providing adequate and accurate feedback of significant
deviations from planned performance in time. Feedback can affect the inputs or any of
the managerial functions or the process so that deviations can be removed and goals can
be accomplished.

3.2 MANAGERIAL FUNCTIONS

A manager is called upon to perform the following managerial functions:
(1)

Planning

(2)

Organising

(3)

Staffing

(4)

Directing

(5)

Motivating

(6)

Controlling

(7)

Co-ordinating and

(8)

Communicating.

The following figure explains the functions of Manager.

Planning

Controlling
Organising

Decision-making
on knowledge of
experience

Directing
Communicating

Motivating

Figure 3.2: Functions of Manager

1.

Planning: When management is reviewed as a process, planning is the first function

performed by a manager. The work of a manager begins with the setting of
objectives of the organisation and goals in each area of the business. This is done
through planning. A plan is a predetermined course of action to accomplish the set
objectives. It is today's projection for tomorrow's activity. Planning includes
objectives, strategies, policies, procedures, programmes, etc. As it involves making
choices, decision-making is the heart of planning.

2.

Organising: Organising includes putting life into the plan by bringing together
personnel, capital, machinery, materials etc., to execute the plans. While, planning
decides what management wants to do, organising provides an effective machine
for achieving the plans.

3.

Staffing: Staffing involves filling the positions needed in the organisation structure
by appointing competent and qualified persons for the job. This needs manpower

45

Principles of Management and

Organisational Behaviour

planning, scientific selection and training of personnel, suitable methods of

remuneration and performance appraisal.
4.

Directing: Direction involves managing managers, managing workers and the work
through the means of motivation, proper leadership, effective communication as
well as co-ordination. A manager must develop the ability to command and direct
others.

5.

Motivating: Motivation is a managerial function to inspire and encourage people

to take required action. Motivation is the key to successful management of any
enterprise. Motivation can set into motion a person to carry out certain activity.

6.

Controlling: Control is the process of measuring actual results with some standard
of performance, finding the reason for deviations of actual from desired result and
taking corrective action when necessary. Thus, controlling enables the realisation
of plans. A manager must adopt the following steps in controlling:
l

Identify potential problems.

Select mode of control.

Evaluate performance in terms of planning.

Spot significant deviations.

Ascertain causes of deviations.

Take remedial measures.

7.

Co-ordination: Co-ordination is concerned with harmonious and unified action

directed toward a common objective. It ensures that all groups and persons work
efficiently, economically and in harmony. Co-ordination requires effective channels
of communication. Person-to-person communication is most effective for coordination.

8.

Communication: It means transfer of information and under-standing from person

to person. Communication also leads to sharing of information, ideas and knowledge.
It enables group to think together and act together.
Check Your Progress 1

1.

Explain the process of management.

2.

What are the functions of a manager?

3.3 PLANNING

46

Planning means looking ahead. It is deciding in advance what is to be done. Planning

includes forecasting. According to Henry Fayol - "purveyance, which is an essential
element of planning, covers not merely looking into the future but making provisions for
it. A plan is then a projected course of action". All planning involves anticipation of the
future course of events and therefore bears an element of uncertainty in respect of its
success. Planning is concerned with the determination of the objectives to be achieved
and course of action to be followed to achieve them. Before any operative action takes
place it is necessary to decide what, where, when and who shall do the things. Decisionmaking is also an important element of planning. Planning determines both long-term and
short-term objectives and also of the individual departments as well as the entire
organisation. According to Fayol - "The plan of action is, at one and the same time, the
result envisaged, the line of action to be followed, the stages to go through, and the
methods to use. It is a kind of future picture wherein proximate events are outlined with
some distinctness...." Planning is a mental process requiring the use of intellectual faculties'
imagination, foresight, sound judgement etc.

Planning is deciding in advance what is to be done. It involves the selection of objectives,

policies, procedures and programmes from among alternatives. A plan is a predetermined
course of action to achieve a specified goal. It is a statement of objectives to be achieved
by certain means in the future. In short, it is a blueprint for action.

Functions of Management

According to Louis A Allen - "Management planning involves the development of forecasts,

objectives, policies, programmes, procedures, schedules and budgets".
According to Theo Haimann - "Planning is deciding in advance what is to be done.
When a manager plans, he projects a course of action, for the future, attempting to
achieve a consistent, co-ordinated structure of operations aimed at the desired results".
According to Koontz O'Donnel - "Planning is an intellectual process, the conscious determination
of courses of action, the basing of decisions on purpose, acts and considered estimates".

3.3.1 Nature of Planning

1.

Planning is goal-oriented: Every plan must contribute in some positive way towards
the accomplishment of group objectives. Planning has no meaning without being
related to goals.

2.

Primacy of Planning: Planning is the first of the managerial functions. It precedes

all other management functions.

3.

Pervasiveness of Planning: Planning is found at all levels of management. Top

management looks after strategic planning. Middle management is in charge of
administrative planning. Lower management has to concentrate on operational
planning.

4.

Efficiency, Economy and Accuracy: Efficiency of plan is measured by its

contribution to the objectives as economically as possible. Planning also focuses on
accurate forecasts.

5.

Co-ordination: Planning co-ordinates the what, who, how, where and why of
planning. Without co-ordination of all activities, we cannot have united efforts.

6.

Limiting Factors: A planner must recognise the limiting factors (money, manpower
etc) and formulate plans in the light of these critical factors.

7.

Flexibility: The process of planning should be adaptable to changing environmental

conditions.

8.

Planning is an intellectual process: The quality of planning will vary according

to the quality of the mind of the manager.

3.3.2 Importance of Planning

As a managerial function planning is important due to the following reasons:1.

To manage by objectives: All the activities of an organisation are designed to

achieve certain specified objectives. However, planning makes the objectives more
concrete by focusing attention on them.

2.

To offset uncertainty and change: Future is always full of uncertainties and

changes. Planning foresees the future and makes the necessary provisions for it.

3.

To secure economy in operation: Planning involves, the selection of most profitable

course of action that would lead to the best result at the minimum costs.

4.

To help in co-ordination: Co-ordination is, indeed, the essence of management,

the planning is the base of it. Without planning it is not possible to co-ordinate the
different activities of an organisation.

5.

To make control effective: The controlling function of management relates to the

comparison of the planned performance with the actual performance. In the absence
of plans, a management will have no standards for controlling other's performance.

47

Principles of Management and

Organisational Behaviour

6.

To increase organisational effectiveness: Mere efficiency in the organisation is

not important; it should also lead to productivity and effectiveness. Planning enables
the manager to measure the organisational effectiveness in the context of the stated
objectives and take further actions in this direction.

3.3.3 Advantages of Planning

l

All efforts are directed towards desired objectives or results. Unproductive work
and waste of resources can be minimised.

Planning enables a company to remain competitive with other rivals in the industry.

Through careful planning, crisis can be anticipated and mistakes or delays avoided.

Planning can point out the need for future change and the enterprise can manage
the change effectively.

Planning enables the systematic and thorough investigation of alternative methods

or alternative solutions to a problem. Thus we can select the best alternative to
solve any business problem.

Planning maximises the utilisation of available resources and ensures optimum

productivity and profits.

Planning provides the ground work for laying down control standards.

Planning enables management to relate the whole enterprise to its complex

environment profitably.

3.3.4 Disadvantages of Planning

l

Environmental factors are uncontrollable and unpredictable to a large extent.

Therefore planning cannot give perfect insurance against uncertainty.

Planning is many times very costly.

Tendency towards inflexibility to change is another limitation of planning.

Planning delays action.

Planning encourages a false sense of security against risk or uncertainty.

3.3.5 Planning Process

The planning process involves the following steps:

48

1.

Analysis of External Environment: The external environment covers

uncontrollable and unpredictable factors such as technology, market, socio-economic
climate, political conditions etc., within which our plans will have to operate.

2.

Analysis of Internal Environment: The internal environment covers relatively

controllable factors such as personnel resources, finance, facilities etc., at the disposal
of the firm. Such an analysis will give an exact idea about the strengths and weakness
of the enterprise.

3.

Determination of Mission: The "mission" should describe the fundamental reason

for the existence of an organisation. It will give firm direction and make out activities
meaningful and interesting.

4.

Determination of Objectives: The organisational objectives must be spelled out in

key areas of operations and should be divided according to various departments
and sections. The objectives must be clearly specified and measurable as far as
possible. Every member of the organisation should be familiar with its objectives.

5.

Forecasting: Forecasting is a systematic attempt to probe into the future by

inference from known facts relating to the past and the present. Intelligent

forecasting is essential for planning. The management should have no stone unturned
in reducing the element of guesswork in preparing forecasts by collecting relevant
data using the scientific techniques of analysis and inference.
6.

Determining Alternative course of Action: It is a common experience of all

thinkers that an action can be performed in several ways, but there is a particular
way which is the most suitable for the organisation. The management should try to
find out these alternatives and examine them carefully in the light of planning
premises.

7.

Evaluating Alternative Courses: Having sought out alternative courses and

examined their strong and weak points, the next step is to evaluate them by weighing
the various factors.

8.

Selecting the Best: The next step - selecting the course of action is the point at
which the plan is adopted. It is the real point of decision-making.

9.

Establishing the sequence of activities: After the best programme is decided

upon, the next task is to work out its details and formulate the steps in full sequences.

Functions of Management

10. Formulation of Action Programmes: There are three important constituents of

an action plan:

11.

The time-limit of performance.

The allocation of tasks to individual employees.

The time-table or schedule of work so that the functional objectives are

achieved within the predetermined period.

Reviewing the planning process: Through feedback mechanism, an attempt is

made to secure that which was originally planned. To do this we have to compare
the actual performance with the plan and then we have to take necessary corrective
action to ensure that actual performance is as per the plan.

3.4 OBJECTIVES
Objectives may be defined as the goals which an organisation tries to achieve. Objectives
are described as the end- points of planning. According to Koontz and O'Donnell, "an
objective is a term commonly used to indicate the end point of a management programme."
Objectives constitute the purpose of the enterprise and without them no intelligent planning
can take place.
Objectives are, therefore, the ends towards which the activities of the enterprise are
aimed. They are present not only the end-point of planning but also the end towards
which organizing, directing and controlling are aimed. Objectives provide direction to
various activities. They also serve as the benchmark of measuring the efficiency and
effectiveness of the enterprise. Objectives make every human activity purposeful. Planning
has no meaning if it is not related to certain objectives.

3.4.1 Features of Objectives

l

The objectives must be predetermined.

A clearly defined objective provides the clear direction for managerial effort.

Objectives must be realistic.

Objectives must be measurable.

Objectives must have social sanction.

All objectives are interconnected and mutually supportive.

49

Principles of Management and

Organisational Behaviour

Objectives may be short-range, medium-range and long-range.

Objectives may be constructed into a hierarchy.

3.4.2 Advantages of Objectives

l

Clear definition of objectives encourages unified planning.

Objectives provide motivation to people in the organisation.

When the work is goal-oriented, unproductive tasks can be avoided.

Objectives provide standards which aid in the control of human efforts in an

organisation.

Objectives serve to identify the organisation and to link it to the groups upon which
its existence depends.

Objectives act as a sound basis for developing administrative controls.

Objectives contribute to the management process: they influence the purpose of

the organisation, policies, personnel, leadership as well as managerial control.

3.4.3 Process of Setting Objectives

Objectives are the keystone of management planning. It is the most important task of
management. Objectives are required to be set in every area which directly and vitally
effects the survival and prosperity of the business. In the setting of objectives, the following
points should be borne in mind.
1.

Objectives are required to be set by management in every area which directly and
vitally affects the survival and prosperity of the business.

2.

The objectives to be set in various areas have to be identified.

3.

While setting the objectives, the past performance must be reviewed, since past
performance indicates what the organisation will be able to accomplish in future.

4.

The objectives should be set in realistic terms i.e., the objectives to be set should be
reasonable and capable of attainment.

5.

Objectives must be consistent with one and other.

6.

Objectives must be set in clear-cut terms.

7.

For the successful accomplishment of the objectives, there should be effective

communication.

3.5 STRATEGIES
The term 'Strategy' has been adapted from war and is being increasingly used in business
to reflect broad overall objectives and policies of an enterprise. Literally speaking, the
term 'Strategy' stands for the war-art of the military general, compelling the enemy to
fight as per out chosen terms and conditions. A strategy is a special kind of plan formulated
in order to meet the challenge of the policies of competitors. This type of plan uses the
competitors' plan as the background. It may also be shaped by the general forces operating
in an industry and the economy.
Edmund P Learned has defined strategies as "the pattern of objectives, purposes or goals
and major policies and plans for achieving these goals, stated in such a way as to define
what business the company is in or is to be and the kind of company it is or is to be".

50

Haynes and Massier have defined strategy as the planning for unpredictable contingencies
about which fragmentary information is available.

According to David I Cleland and William R King, "Strategy is the complex plans for
bringing the organisation from a given posture to a desired position in a further period of
time".

Functions of Management

In the words of Haimann, "Strategy is a policy that has been formulated by the top
management for the purpose of interpreting and shaping the meaning of other policies".
According to C. T. Hardwick and B. F. Landuyt, "The word strategy is used to signify
the general concept and salient aspect of gamesmanship as an administrative course
designed to bring success".
According to Koontz and O' Donnell , "Strategies must often denote a general programme
of action and deployment of emphasis and resources to attain comprehensive objectives".
Strategies are plans made in the light of the plans of the competitors because a modern
business institution operates in a competitive environment. They are a useful framework
for guiding enterprise thinking and action. A perfect strategy can be built only on perfect
knowledge of the plans of others in the industry. This may be done by the management
of a firm putting itself in the place of a rival firm and trying to estimate their plans.

3.5.1 Characteristics of Strategy

(1)

It is the right combination of different factors.

(2)

It relates the business organisation to the environment.

(3)

It is an action to meet a particular challenge, to solve particular problems or to

attain desired objectives.

(4)

Strategy is a means to an end and not an end in itself.

(5)

It is formulated at the top management level.

(6)

It involves assumption of certain calculated risks.

3.5.2 Strategy Formulation

There are three phases in strategy formation
l

Determination of objectives.

Ascertaining the specific areas of strengths and weakness in the total environment.

Preparing the action plan to achieve the objectives in the light of environmental forces.

3.5.3 Business Strategy

Seymour Tiles offers six criteria for evaluating an appropriate strategy.
Internal consistency: The strategy of an organisation must be consistent with its other
strategies, goals, policies and plans.
Consistency with the environment: The strategy must be consistent with the external
environment. The strategy selected should enhance the confidence and capability of the
enterprise to manage and adapt with or give command over the environmental forces.
Realistic Assessment: Strategy needs a realistic assessment of the resources of the
enterprisemen, money and materialsboth existing resources as also the resources,
the enterprise can command.
Acceptable degree of risk: Any major strategy carries with it certain elements of risk
and uncertainty. The amount of risk inherent in a strategy should be within the bearable
capacity of the enterprise.
Appropriate time: Time is the essence of any strategy. A good strategy not only provides
the objectives to be achieved but also indicates when those objectives could be achieved.
Workability: Strategy must be feasible and should produce the desired results.

51

Principles of Management and

Organisational Behaviour

3.6 POLICIES
A policy is a standing plan. Policies are directives providing continuous framework for
executive actions on recurrent managerial problems. A policy assists decision-making
but deviations may be needed, as exceptions and under some extraordinary circumstances.
Policy-making is an important part of the process of planning. Policies may be described
as plans which are meant to serve as broad guides to decision making in a firm. Policies
exist at various levels of the enterpriseCorporate level, divisional level and departmental
level. Policies are valuable because they allow lower levels of management to handle
problems without going to top management for a decision each time.

3.6.1 Essentials of Policy Formulation

The essentials of policy formation may be listed as below:
l

A policy should be definite, positive and clear. It should be understood by everyone

in the organisation.

A policy should be translatable into the practices.

A policy should be flexible and at the same time have a high degree of permanency.

A policy should be formulated to cover all reasonable anticipatable conditions.

A policy should be founded upon facts and sound judgment.

A policy should conform to economic principles, statutes and regulations.

A policy should be a general statement of the established rule.

3.6.2 Importance of Policies

Policies are useful for the following reasons:
1.

They provide guides to thinking and action and provide support to the subordinates.

2.

They delimit the area within which a decision is to be made.

3.

They save time and effort by pre-deciding problems and

4.

They permit delegation of authority to mangers at the lower levels.

Check Your Progress 2

1.

What are the importance of planning?

2.

Explain the steps in the process of planning.

3.

Explain the phases in the formulation of strategies.

4.

What are the essentials of policy formulation?

3.7 DECISION MAKING

The word decision has been derived from the Latin word "decidere" which means "cutting
off". Thus, decision involves cutting off of alternatives between those that are desirable
and those that are not desirable. Decision is a kind of choice of a desirable alternative. A
few definitions of decision making are given below:
In the words of Ray A Killian, "A decision in its simplest form is a selection of alternatives".
Dr. T. G Glover defines decision "as a choice of calculated alternatives based on
judgement".
In the words of George R. Terry, "Decision-making is the selection based on some
criteria from two or more possible alternatives".
52

Felix M. Lopez says that "A decision represents a judgement; a final resolution of a
conflict of needs, means or goals; and a commitment to action made in face of uncertainty,
complexity and even irrationally".

Functions of Management

According to Rustom S. Davar, "Decision-making may be defined as the selection based

on some criteria of one behaviour alternative from two or more possible alternatives. To
decide means to cut off or in practical content to come to a conclusion".
Fremont A. Shull Andrew L Delbecq and Larry L Cummings define decision making as
"a conscious human process involving both individual and social phenomenon based upon
factual and value premises which concludes with a choice of one behavioural activity
from among one or more alternatives with the intention of moving toward some desired
state of affairs".
From the above definitions, we can conclude that, Decision Making involves the process
of establishing goals, tasks and searching for alternatives for a decision problem.

3.7.1 Characteristics of Decision Making

Decision making implies that there are various alternatives and the most desirable
alternative is chosen to solve the problem or to arrive at expected results.
1.

The decision-maker has freedom to choose an alternative.

2.

Decision-making may not be completely rational but may be judgemental and

emotional.

3.

Decision-making is goal-oriented.

4.

Decision-making is a mental or intellectual process because the final decision is

made by the decision-maker.

5.

A decision may be expressed in words or may be implied from behaviour.

6.

Choosing from among the alternative courses of operation implies uncertainty about
the final result of each possible course of operation.

7.

Decision making is rational. It is taken only after a thorough analysis and reasoning
and weighing the consequences of the various alternatives.

3.7.2 Types of Decisions

Programmed and Non-Programmed Decisions: Herbert Simon has grouped
organizational decisions into two categories based on the procedure followed. They are:
Programmed decisions: Programmed decisions are routine and repetitive and are made
within the framework of organizational policies and rules. These policies and rules are
established well in advance to solve recurring problems in the organization. Programmed
decisions have short-run impact. They are, generally, taken at the lower level of management.
Non-Programmed Decisions: Non-programmed decisions are decisions taken to meet
non-repetitive problems. Non-programmed decisions are relevant for solving unique/
unusual problems in which various alternatives cannot be decided in advance. A common
feature of non-programmed decisions is that they are novel and non-recurring and
therefore, readymade solutions are not available. Since these decisions are of high
importance and have long-term consequences, they are made by top level management.
Strategic and Tactical Decisions: Organizational decisions may also be classified as
strategic or tactical.
Strategic Decisions: Basic decisions or strategic decisions are decisions which are of
crucial importance. Strategic decisions a major choice of actions concerning allocation
of resources and contribution to the achievement of organizational objectives. Decisions

53

Principles of Management and

Organisational Behaviour

like plant location, product diversification, entering into new markets, selection of channels
of distribution, capital expenditure etc are examples of basic or strategic decisions.
Tactical Decisions: Routine decisions or tactical decisions are decisions which are
routine and repetitive. They are derived out of strategic decisions. The various features
of a tactical decision are as follows:
l

Tactical decision relates to day-to-day operation of the organization and has to be

taken very frequently.

Tactical decision is mostly a programmed one. Therefore, the decision can be

made within the context of these variables.

The outcome of tactical decision is of short-term nature and affects a narrow part
of the organization.

The authority for making tactical decisions can be delegated to lower level managers
because : first, the impact of tactical decision is narrow and of short-term nature
and Second, by delegating authority for such decisions to lower-level managers,
higher level managers are free to devote more time on strategic decisions.

3.7.3 Decision Making Process

The decision making process is presented in the figure below:
Specific Objectives

Identification of
Problems

Results

Search for
alternatives

Action

Evaluation of
alternatives

Choice of alternatives

Figure 3.3: Decision-making process

Specific Objective: The need for decision making arises in order to achieve certain
specific objectives. The starting point in any analysis of decision making involves the
determination of whether a decision needs to be made.
Problem Identification: A problem is a felt need, a question which needs a solution. In
the words of Joseph L Massie "A good decision is dependent upon the recognition of the
right problem". The objective of problem identification is that if the problem is precisely
and specifically identifies, it will provide a clue in finding a possible solution. A problem
can be identified clearly, if managers go through diagnosis and analysis of the problem.
1.

Diagnosis: Diagnosis is the process of identifying a problem from its signs and
symptoms. A symptom is a condition or set of conditions that indicates the existence
of a problem. Diagnosing the real problem implies knowing the gap between what
is and what ought to be, identifying the reasons for the gap and understanding the
problem in relation to higher objectives of the organization.

2.

Analysis: Diagnosis gives rise to analysis. Analysis of a problem requires:

l

Who would make decision?

What information would be needed?

From where the information is available?

Analysis helps managers to gain an insight into the problem.

3.
54

Search for Alternatives: A problem can be solved in several ways; however, all
the ways cannot be equally satisfying. Therefore, the decision maker must try to

find out the various alternatives available in order to get the most satisfactory result
of a decision. A decision maker can use several sources for identifying alternatives:
l

His own past experiences

Practices followed by others and

Using creative techniques.

4.

Evaluation of Alternatives: After the various alternatives are identified, the next
step is to evaluate them and select the one that will meet the choice criteria. /the
decision maker must check proposed alternatives against limits, and if an alternative
does not meet them, he can discard it. Having narrowed down the alternatives
which require serious consideration, the decision maker will go for evaluating how
each alternative may contribute towards the objective supposed to be achieved by
implementing the decision.

5.

Choice of Alternative: The evaluation of various alternatives presents a clear

picture as to how each one of them contribute to the objectives under question. A
comparison is made among the likely outcomes of various alternatives and the best
one is chosen.

6.

Action: Once the alternative is selected, it is put into action. The actual process of
decision making ends with the choice of an alternative through which the objectives
can be achieved.

7.

Results: When the decision is put into action, it brings certain results. These results
must correspond with objectives, the starting point of decision process, if good
decision has been made and implemented properly. Thus, results provide indication
whether decision making and its implementation is proper.

Functions of Management

3.7.4 Characteristics of Effective Decisions

An effective decision is one which should contain three aspects. These aspects are
given below:
1.

Action Orientation: Decisions are action-oriented and are directed towards relevant
and controllable aspects of the environment. Decisions should ultimately find their
utility in implementation.

2.

Goal Direction: Decision making should be goal-directed to enable the organization

to meet its objectives.

Effective in Implementation: Decision making should take into account all the
possible factors not only in terms of external context but also in internal context so
that a decision can be implemented properly.
Check Your Progress 3

1.

What are the characteristics of Decision-Making?

2.

Explain the types of decisions.

3.

Explain the characteristics of effective decisions.

3.8 GLOBAL PLANNING

Globalisation reflects a business orientation based on the belief that the world is becoming
more homogeneous and that distinctions between national markets are not only fading,
but, for some products will eventually disappear. As a result, companies need to globalise
their international strategy by formulating it across markets to take advantage of underlying
market, cost, environmental and competitive factors.
55

Principles of Management and

Organisational Behaviour

3.8.1 Why Plan Globally?

International firms have found it necessary to institute formal global strategic planning to
provide a means for top management to identify opportunities and threats from all over
the world, formulate strategies to handle them and stipulate how to finance the strategies
implementation. Global strategic plans not only provide for constancy of action among
the firm's managers worldwide but also require the participants to consider the ramifications
of their actions on the other geographical and functional areas of the firm.

3.8.2 Global Strategic Planning Process

Global strategic planning is the primary function of managers. The process of strategic
planning provides a formal structure in which managers:
l

Analyse the company's external environments

Analyse the company's internal environments

Define the company's business and mission

Set corporate objectives

Quantify goals

Formulate strategies and

Make tactical plans.

The steps mentioned above may not be in a sequential form. In practice, there is
considerable flexibility in the order in which firms take up these items.

3.8.3 Nature of Planning Process

Planning shapes strategy and defines the means to achieve goals. It is the matching of
markets with products and other corporate resources so that the long term competitive
advantage of the firm gets strengthened. In other words, the process of planning seeks
to answer question regarding what the firm expects to achieve and what method the
firm is going to use to this end. It decomposes problems and issues, applies rational tools
on the basis of available information, and finalises action to achieve the goal. In small
firm, planning may be ad hoc. But in large firms, especially in multinational corporations
that operate in varying environments, the process of planning is more systematic and
comprehensive.

3.9 LET US SUM UP

No business enterprise can achieve its objectives until and unless all the members of the
enterprise make an integrated and planned effort under the directions of a central
coordinating agency. This central coordinating agency is technically known as
'management'. The process of management involves the determination of objectives and
putting them into action. When management is reviewed as a process, planning is the
first function performed by a manager. The work of a manager begins with the setting of
objectives of the organisation and goals in each area of the business. This is done through
planning. A plan is a predetermined course of action to accomplish the set objectives.
decision involves cutting off of alternatives between those that are desirable and those
that are not desirable. Decision is a kind of choice of a desirable alternative.

3.10 LESSON END ACTIVITY

56

Under management as a process, management is considered as a continuing activity

made up of basic management functions. Discuss.

3.11 KEYWORDS

Functions of Management

Management Functions
Planning
Strategies
Strategy Formulation
Policies
Decision Making

3.12 QUESTIONS FOR DISCUSION

1.

Describe the process of management and explain how it can be used to accomplish
results in any organisation?

2.

Name the various functions which constitute the process of management and discuss
each of them briefly.

3.

"Decision making is the primary task of the management". Discuss this statement
and explain the process of decision making.

4.

What are the essential characteristics of a good decision? How can a manager
make effective decisions?

3.13 SUGGESTED READINGS

A Dassgupta, Indian Business and Management, Dept. of Business Management and
Industrial Administration, University of Delhi 1969.
Appley Lawrence, Management in Action: The Art of Getting Things Done Through
People, American Management Association, New York, 1956.
Burack, Elmer H and Robert D Smith, Personnel Management: Human Resources
System Approach, West Publishing Co., New York, 1977.
Charles R. DeCarlo, Systems Design and Nature of Work, US Dept. of Labor Govt
Printing Office, Washington D.C., 1969. Louis A Allen, Management and Organization,
McGraw Hill, New York, 1958.
Metcalf H C and L Urwick (Ed) Dynamic Administration the Collected Papers of
Mary Parket Follet, Harper and Row, New York, 1941.
George R Terry, Principles of Management, Richard D Irwin Inc., Homewood, Illinois,
1968.
Institute of Personnel Management, Functions of Personnel Department in India,
Calcutta 1973.
Louis A Allen, Management and Organization, McGraw Hill, New York, 1958.
Prasad L.M, "Business Policy: Strategic Management" Sultan Chand and Sons, New
Delhi (2000)
Robert N. Anthony, "Planning and Control Systems: A Framework for Analysis"
Harvard University Press, Boston (1965)
Terry T. R. Principles of Management, Richard D Irwin, Homewood, 1960.
P.G. Aquinas, Organizational Behaviour, Excel Books, New Delhi.

57

UNIT-II

LESSON

4
ORGANISING
CONTENTS
4.0

Aims and Objectives

4.1

Introduction

4.2

Definition of Organisation

4.3

Organisation as a Process

4.4

4.3.1

Determination of Objectives

4.3.2

Enumeration of Objectives

4.3.3

Classification of Activities

4.3.4

Assignment of Duties

4.3.5

Delegation of Authority

Organisation Structure
4.4.1

Significance of Organisation Structure

4.4.2

Determining the kind of Organisation Structure

4.5

Principles of Organisation

4.6

Formal and Informal Organisation

4.7

4.8

4.6.1

Formal Organisation

4.6.2

Informal Organisation

4.6.3

Management's Attitude Towards Informal Organisation

4.6.4

Differences Between Formal and Informal Organisation

Importance of Organisation
4.7.1

Facilitates Administration

4.7.2

Facilitates Growth and Diversification

4.7.3

Provides for Optimum use of Technological Improvements

4.7.4

Encourages Human use of Human Beings

4.7.5

Stimulates Creativity

4.7.6

Facilitates Stability of the Organisation

4.7.7

Reduces Employee Turnover

4.7.8

Reduces Duplication of Activities

4.7.9

Fosters Coordination

Organisation Charts and Manuals

4.8.1

Meaning of Organisation Chart

4.8.2

Advantages of Organisation Chart

Contd...

Principles of Management and

Organisational Behaviour

4.9

4.8.3

Disadvantages or Limitations of Organisation Chart

4.8.4

Types of Organisation Chart

4.8.5

Meaning of Organisation Manual

4.8.6

Types of Manuals

4.8.7

Advantages of Manuals

4.8.8

Disadvantages of Manual

Forms of Organisation
4.9.1

Line Organisation

4.9.2

Line and Staff Organisation

4.9.3

Functional Organisation

4.9.4

Committee Organisation

4.10 Organisational Culture

4.10.1 Basic Elements of Culture
4.10.2 Successful Organizational Culture
4.11 Global Organizing
4.12 Let us Sum up
4.13 Lesson-end Activity
4.14 Keywords
4.15 Questions for Discussion
4.16 Suggested Readings

4.0 AIMS AND OBJECTIVES

This lesson is intended to study the various aspects of organising. After study this lesson
you will be able to:
(i)

describe meaning and process of organising

(ii)

determine the kind of organisational structure

(iii) know principles of organisation

(iv) differentiate between formal and informal organisation
(v)

describe the importance of organisational structure

(vi) understand meaning and features of organisational charts and manuals

(vii) describe various types of organisation
(viii) know the importance of organisational culture
(ix) describe features of global organising

4.1 INTRODUCTION

62

Organisation involves division of work among people whose efforts must be co-ordinated
to achieve specific objectives and to implement pre-determined strategies. Organisation
is the foundation upon which the whole structure of management is built. It is the backbone
of management. After the objectives of an enterprise are determined and the plan is
prepared, the next step in the management process is to organise the activities of the

enterprise to execute the plan and to attain the objectives of the enterprise. The term
organisation is given a variety of interpretations. In any case, there are two broad ways
in which the term is used. In the first sense, organisation is understood as a dynamic
process and a managerial activity which is necessary for bringing people together and
tying them together in the pursuit of common objectives. When used in the other sense,
organisation refers to the structure of relationships among positions and jobs which is
built up for the realisation of common objectives. Without organising managers cannot
function as managers. Organisation is concerned with the building, developing and
maintaining of a structure of working relationships in order to accomplish the objectives
of the enterprise. Organisation means the determination and assignment of duties to
people, and also the establishment and the maintenance of authority relationships among
these grouped activities. It is the structural framework within which the various efforts
are coordinated and related to each other. Sound organisation contributes greatly to the
continuity and success of the enterprise. The distinguished industrialist of America, Andrew
Carnegie has shown his confidence in organisation by stating that: "Take away our
factories, take away our trade, our avenues of transportation, our money, leave nothing
but our organisation, and in four years we shall have re-established ourselves." That
shows the significance of managerial skills and organisation. However, good organisation
structure does not by itself produce good performance. But a poor organisation structure
makes good performance impossible, no matter how good the individual may be.

Organising

4.2 DEFINITION OF ORGANISATION

The term 'Organisation' connotes different things to different people. Many writers have
attempted to state the nature, characteristics and principles of organisation in their own
way. It can be used as a group of persons working together or as a structure of relationships
or as a process of management. Now, let us analyse some of the important definition of
organising or organisation, and understand the meaning of organisation.
According to Sheldon, "Organisation is the process of so combining the work which
individuals or groups have to perform with facilities necessary for its execution, that the
duties so performed provide the best channels for efficient, systematic, positive and coordinated application of available effort."
In the words of Chester I Bernard, "Organisation is a system of co-operative activities
of two or more persons."
Mc Ferland has defined organisation as, "an identifiable group of people contributing
their efforts towards the attainment of goals".
According to Louis A Allen, "Organisation is the process of identifying and grouping the
work to be performed, defining and delegating responsibility and authority, and establishing
relationships for the purpose of enabling people to work most effectively together in
accomplishing objectives.
According to North Whitehead, "Organisation is the adjustment of diverse elements, so
that their mutual relationship may exhibit more pre-determined quality."
In the words of Theo Haimann, "Organising is the process of defining and grouping the
activities of the enterprise and establishing the authority relationships among them. In
performing the organising function, the manager defines, departmentalises and assigns
activities so that they can be most effectively executed."
In the words of Mooney and Railey, "Organisation is the form of every human association
for the attainment of a common purpose.
According to John M Pfiffner and Frank P Sherwood, "Organisation is the pattern of
ways in which large number of people, too many to have intimate face-to-face contact
with all others, and engaged in a complexity of tasks, relate themselves to each other in
the conscious, systematic establishment and accomplishment of mutually agreed purposes.

63

Principles of Management and

Organisational Behaviour

In the words of Koontz and O'Donnell, "Organisation involves the grouping of activities
necessary to accomplish goals and plans, the assignment of these activities to appropriate
departments and the provision of authority, delegation and co-ordination."
According to Noirthcott, C H, "Organisation refers to arrangements by which tasks are
assigned to men and women so that their individual efforts contribute effectively to some
more or less clearly defined purpose for which they have been brought together."
In the words of G E Milward, "Organisation is a process of dividing work into convenient
tasks or duties, of grouping such duties in the form of posts of delegating authority to each
post and of appointing qualified staff to be responsible that the work is carried out as planned."

4.3 ORGANISATION AS A PROCESS

Organisation is the process of establishing relationship among the members of the
enterprise. The relationships are created in terms of authority and responsibility. To
organise is to harmonise, coordinate or arrange in a logical and orderly manner. Each
member in the organisation is assigned a specific responsibility or duty to perform and is
granted the corresponding authority to perform his duty. The managerial function of
organising consists in making a rational division of work into groups of activities and
tying together the positions representing grouping of activities so as to achieve a rational,
well coordinated and orderly structure for the accomplishment of work. According to
Louis A Allen, "Organising involves identification and grouping the activities to be
performed and dividing them among the individuals and creating authority and responsibility
relationships among them for the accomplishment of organisational objectives." The various
steps involved in this process are:

4.3.1 Determination of Objectives

It is the first step in building up an organisation. Organisation is always related to certain
objectives. Therefore, it is essential for the management to identify the objectives before
starting any activity. Organisation structure is built on the basis of the objectives of the
enterprise. That means, the structure of the organisation can be determined by the
management only after knowing the objectives to be accomplished through the
organisation. This step helps the management not only in framing the organisation structure
but also in achieving the enterprise objectives with minimum cost and efforts.
Determination of objectives will consist in deciding as to why the proposed organisation
is to be set up and, therefore, what will be the nature of the work to be accomplished
through the organisation.

4.3.2 Enumeration of Objectives

If the members of the group are to pool their efforts effectively, there must be proper
division of the major activities. The first step in organising group effort is the division of
the total job into essential activities. Each job should be properly classified and grouped.
This will enable the people to know what is expected of them as members of the group
and will help in avoiding duplication of efforts. For example, the work of an industrial
concern may be divided into the following major functions production, financing,
personnel, sales, purchase, etc.

4.3.3 Classification of Activities

64

The next step will be to classify activities according to similarities and common purposes
and functions and taking the human and material resources into account. Then, closely
related and similar activities are grouped into divisions and departments and the
departmental activities are further divided into sections.

4.3.4 Assignment of Duties

Organising

Here, specific job assignments are made to different subordinates for ensuring a certainty
of work performance. Each individual should be given a specific job to do according to
his ability and made responsible for that. He should also be given the adequate authority
to do the job assigned to him. In the words of Kimball and Kimball - "Organisation
embraces the duties of designating the departments and the personnel that are to carry
on the work, defining their functions and specifying the relations that are to exist between
department and individuals."

4.3.5 Delegation of Authority

Since so many individuals work in the same organisation, it is the responsibility of
management to lay down structure of relationship in the organisation. Authority without
responsibility is a dangerous thing and similarly responsibility without authority is an
empty vessel. Everybody should clearly know to whom he is accountable; corresponding
to the responsibility authority is delegated to the subordinates for enabling them to show
work performance. This will help in the smooth working of the enterprise by facilitating
delegation of responsibility and authority.

4.4 ORGANISATION STRUCTURE

An organisation structure shows the authority and responsibility relationships between
the various positions in the organisation by showing who reports to whom. Organisation
involves establishing an appropriate structure for the goal seeking activities. It is an
established pattern of relationship among the components of the organisation. March
and Simon have stated that-"Organisation structure consists simply of those aspects of
pattern of behaviour in the organisation that are relatively stable and change only slowly."
The structure of an organisation is generally shown on an organisation chart. It shows
the authority and responsibility relationships between various positions in the organisation
while designing the organisation structure, due attention should be given to the principles
of sound organisation.

4.4.1 Significance of Organisation Structure

1.

Properly designed organisation can help improve teamwork and productivity by

providing a framework within which the people can work together most effectively.

2.

Organisation structure determines the location of decision-making in the organisation.

3.

Sound organisation structure stimulates creative thinking and initiative among

organisational members by providing well defined patterns of authority.

4.

A sound organisation structure facilitates growth of enterprise by increasing its

capacity to handle increased level of authority.

5.

Organisation structure provides the pattern of communication and coordination.

6.

The organisation structure helps a member to know what his role is and how it
relates to other roles.

4.4.2 Determining the kind of Organisation Structure

According to Peter F Drucker-"Organisation is not an end in itself, but a means to the
end of business performance and business results. Organisation structure is an
indispensable means; and the wrong structure will seriously impair business performance
and may even destroy it. Organisation structure must be designed so as to make possible
to attainment of the objectives of the business for five, ten, fifteen years hence". Thus it
is essential that a great deal of care should be taken while determining the organisation
structure. Peter Drucker has pointed out three specific ways to find out what kind or
structure is needed to attain the objectives of a specific business:

65

Principles of Management and

Organisational Behaviour

(i)

Activities Analysis: The purpose of 'activities analysis' is to discover the primary

activity of the proposed organisation, for it is around this that other activities will be
built. It may be pointed out that in every organisation; one or two functional areas
of business dominate. For example, designing is an important activity of the
readymade garments manufacturer. After the activities have been identified and
classified into functional areas, they should be listed in the order of importance. It
is advisable to divide and sub-divide the whole work into smaller homogeneous
units so that the same may be assigned to different individuals. Thus, in devising an
organisational structure, it is important to divide the entire work into manageable
units. It has rightly been said that the job constitutes the basic building block in
building up an organisational structure.

(ii)

Decision Analysis: At this stage, the manager finds out what kinds of decisions
will need to be made to carry on the work of the organisation. What is even more
important, he has to see where or at what level these decisions will have to be
made and how each manager should be involved in them. This type of analysis is
particularly important for deciding upon the number of levels or layers in the
organisation structure.

As regards decision analysis, Peter Drucker, has emphasised four basic characteristics.
They are:
1.

the degree of futurity in the decision

2.

the impact that decision has on other functions

3.

the character of he decision determined by a number of qualitative factors, such

as, 'basic principles of conduct, ethical values, social and political beliefs etc., and

4.

whether the decisions are periodically recurrent or rates as recurrent decisions may
require a general rule whereas a rate decision is to be treated as a distinctive event.

A decision should always be made at the lowest possible level and so close to the scene
of action as possible.
(iii) Relations Analysis: Relations Analysis will include an examination of the various
types of relationships that develop within the organisation. These relationships are
vertical, lateral and diagonal. Where a superior-subordinate relationship is envisaged,
it will be a vertical relationship. In case of an expert or specialist advising a manager
at the same level, the relationship will be lateral. Where a specialist exercises
authority over a person in subordinate position in another department in the same
organisation it will be an instance of diagonal relationship. Peter Drucker emphasises
that-"the first thing to consider in defining a manager job is the contribution his
activity has to make to the larger unit of which it is a part." Thus, downward,
upward and lateral (side-ways) relations must be analysed to determine the
organisation structure.

4.5 PRINCIPLES OF ORGANISATION

66

1.

Consideration of unity of objectives: The objective of the undertaking influences

the organisation structure. There must be unity of objective so that all efforts can
be concentrated on the set goals.

2.

Specialisation: Effective organisation must include specialisation. Precise division

of work facilitates specialisation.

3.

Co-ordination: Organisation involves division of work among people whose efforts

must be co-ordinated to achieve common goals. Co-ordination is the orderly
arrangement of group effort to provide unity of action in the pursuit of common
purpose.

4.

Clear unbroken line of Authority: It points out the scalar principle or the chain of
command. The line of authority flows from the highest executive to the lowest
managerial level and the chain of command should not be broken.

5.

Responsibility: Authority should be equal to responsibility i.e., each manager should

have enough authority to accomplish the task

6.

Efficiency: The organisation structure should enable the enterprise to attain

objectives with the lowest possible cost.

7.

Delegation: Decisions should be made at the lowest competent level. Authority

and responsibility should be delegated as far down in the organisation as possible.

8.

Unity of Command: Each person should be accountable to a single superior. If an

individual has to report to only one supervisor there is a sense of personal
responsibility to one person for results.

9.

Span of Management: No superior at a higher level should have more than six
immediate subordinates. The average human brain can effectively direct three to
six brains (i.e., subordinates).

Organising

10. Communication: A good communication sub-system is essential for smooth flow

of information and understanding and for effective business performance.
11.

Flexibility: The organisation is expected to provide built in devices to facilitate

growth and expansion without dislocation. It should not be rigid or inelastic.
Check Your Progress 1

1.

Define organisation.

2.

Explain the process of organisation.

3.

What is the significance of organisation structure?

4.

State the principles of organisation.

4.6 FORMAL AND INFORMAL ORGANISATION

The formal organisation refers to the structure of jobs and positions with clearly defined
functions and relationships as prescribed by the top management. This type of organisation
is built by the management to realise objectives of an enterprise and is bound by rules,
systems and procedures. Everybody is assigned a certain responsibility for the performance
of the given task and given the required amount of authority for carrying it out. Informal
organisation, which does not appear on the organisation chart, supplements the formal
organisation in achieving organisational goals effectively and efficiently. The working of
informal groups and leaders is not as simple as it may appear to be. Therefore, it is
obligatory for every manager to study thoroughly the working pattern of informal
relationships in the organisation and to use them for achieving organisational objectives.

4.6.1 Formal Organisation

Chester I Bernard defines formal organisation as -"a system of consciously coordinated
activities or forces of two or more persons. It refers to the structure of well-defined jobs,
each bearing a definite measure of authority, responsibility and accountability." The essence
of formal organisation is conscious common purpose and comes into being when persons
(i)

Are able to communicate with each other

67

Principles of Management and

Organisational Behaviour

(ii)

Are willing to act and

(iii) Share a purpose.

The formal organisation is built around four key pillars. They are:
l

Division of labour

Scalar and functional processes

Structure and

Span of control

Thus, a formal organisation is one resulting from planning where the pattern of structure
has already been determined by the top management.
Characteristic Features of formal organisation
1.

Formal organisation structure is laid down by the top management to achieve

organisational goals.

2.

Formal organisation prescribes the relationships amongst the people working in the
organisation.

3.

The organisation structures is consciously designed to enable the people of the

organisation to work together for accomplishing the common objectives of the enterprise

4.

Organisation structure concentrates on the jobs to be performed and not the

individuals who are to perform jobs.

5.

In a formal organisation, individuals are fitted into jobs and positions and work as
per the managerial decisions. Thus, the formal relations in the organisation arise
from the pattern of responsibilities that are created by the management.

6.

A formal organisation is bound by rules, regulations and procedures.

7.

In a formal organisation, the position, authority, responsibility and accountability of

each level are clearly defined.

8.

Organisation structure is based on division of labour and specialisation to achieve

efficiency in operations.

9.

A formal organisation is deliberately impersonal. The organisation does not take

into consideration the sentiments of organisational members.

10. The authority and responsibility relationships created by the organisation structure
are to be honoured by everyone.
11.

In a formal organisation, coordination proceeds according to the prescribed pattern.

Advantages of formal organisation

1.

The formal organisation structure concentrates on the jobs to be performed. It,

therefore, makes everybody responsible for a given task.

2.

A formal organisation is bound by rules, regulations and procedures. It thus ensures

law and order in the organisation.

3.

The organisation structure enables the people of the organisation to work together
for accomplishing the common objectives of the enterprise

Disadvantages or criticisms of formal organisation

68

1.

The formal organisation does not take into consideration the sentiments of
organisational members.

2.

The formal organisation does not consider the goals of the individuals. It is designed
to achieve the goals of the organisation only.

3.

The formal organisation is bound by rigid rules, regulations and procedures. This
makes the achievement of goals difficult.

4.6.2 Informal Organisation

Organising

Informal organisation refers to the relationship between people in the organisation based
on personal attitudes, emotions, prejudices, likes, dislikes etc. an informal organisation is
an organisation which is not established by any formal authority, but arises from the
personal and social relations of the people.
These relations are not developed according to procedures and regulations laid down in
the formal organisation structure; generally large formal groups give rise to small informal
or social groups. These groups may be based on same taste, language, culture or some
other factor. These groups are not pre-planned, but they develop automatically within
the organisation according to its environment.
Characteristics features of informal organisation
1.

Informal organisation is not established by any formal authority. It is unplanned and

arises spontaneously.

2.

Informal organisations reflect human relationships. It arises from the personal and
social relations amongst the people working in the organisation.

3.

Formation of informal organisations is a natural process. It is not based on rules,

regulations and procedures.

4.

The inter-relations amongst the people in an informal organisation cannot be shown

in an organisation chart.

5.

In the case of informal organisation, the people cut across formal channels of
communications and communicate amongst themselves.

6.

The membership of informal organisations is voluntary. It arises spontaneously and

not by deliberate or conscious efforts.

7.

Membership of informal groups can be overlapping as a person may be member of

a number of informal groups.

8.

Informal organisations are based on common taste, problem, language, religion,

culture, etc. it is influenced by the personal attitudes, emotions, whims, likes and
dislikes etc. of the people in the organisation.

Benefits of Informal organisation

1.

It blends with the formal organisation to make it more effective.

2.

Many things which cannot be achieved through formal organisation can be achieved
through informal organisation.

3.

The presence of informal organisation in an enterprise makes the managers plan

and act more carefully.

4.

Informal organisation acts as a means by which the workers achieve a sense of

security and belonging. It provides social satisfaction to group members.

5.

An informal organisation has a powerful influence on productivity and job

satisfaction.

6.

The informal leader lightens the burden of the formal manager and tries to fill in the
gaps in the manager's ability.

7.

Informal organisation helps the group members to attain specific personal objectives.

8.

Informal organisation is the best means of employee communication. It is very fast.

9.

Informal organisation gives psychological satisfaction to the members. It acts as a

safety valve for the emotional problems and frustrations of the workers of the
organisation because they get a platform to express their feelings.

10. It serves as an agency for social control of human behaviour.

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Principles of Management and

Organisational Behaviour

4.6.3 Management's Attitude Towards Informal Organisation

Formal organisation, no doubt is an important part of the organisation but it alone is not
capable of accomplishing the organisational objectives. Informal organisation supplements
the formal organisation in achieving the organisational objectives. If handled properly,
informal organisation will help in performing the activities of the organisation very efficiently
and effectively. In the words of Keith Davis-"An informal organisation is a powerful
influence upon productivity and job satisfaction. Both formal and informal systems are
necessary for group activity just as two blades are essential to make a pair of scissors
workable". As both formal and informal organisations are quite essential for the success
of any organisation, a manager should not ignore the informal organisation. He should
study thoroughly the working pattern of informal relationship in the organisation and use
the informal organisation for achieving the organisational objectives.

4.6.4 Differences Between Formal and Informal Organisation

Formal Organisation

Informal Organisation

1. Formal organisation is established with the explicit

aim of achieving well-defined goals.

1. Informal organisation springs on its

own. Its goals are ill defined and
ntangible.

2. Formal organisation is bound together by authority

relationships among members. A hierarchical
structure is created, constituting top management,
middle management and supervisory management.

2. Informal organisation is characterised

by a generalised sort of power
relationships. Power in informal
organisation has bases other than
rational legal right.

3. Formal organisation recognises certain tasks and

activities which are to be carried out to achieve its
goals.

3. Informal organisation does not have

any well-defined tasks.

4. The roles and relationships of people in formal

organisation are impersonally defined

4. In informal organisation the

relationships among people are
interpersonal.

5. In formal organisation, much emphasis is placed on

efficiency, discipline, conformity, consistency and
control.

5. Informal organisation is characterised

by relative freedom, spontaneity,
homeliness and warmth.

6. In formal organisation, the social and psychological

needs and interests of members of the organisation
get little attention.

6. In informal organisation the sociopsychological needs, interests and

aspirations of members get priority.

7. The communication system in formal organisation

follows certain pre-determined patterns and paths.

7. In informal organisation, the

communication pattern is haphazard,
intricate and natural.

8. Formal organisation is relatively slow to respond and

adapt to changing situations and realities.

8. Informal organisation is dynamic and

very vigilant. It is sensitive to its
surroundings.

4.7 IMPORTANCE OF ORGANISATION

Organisation, in its simplest sense, means a form of human association for the attainment
of common objectives. Sound organisation is quite essential for every enterprise. Organised
70

thoughts have always been the basis of organised actions. Without sound organisation,
no management can manage the various operations of the enterprise. Obviously, the
better the organisation, the fuller would be the achievement of the common objectives
and similarly, loose organisation of an enterprise implies a dangerous state of affairs.
The importance of organisation can be clearly understood from the statement of Kenneth
C Towe. According to him , "A sound form of organisation is the answer to every business
problem, that a poor organisation could run a good product into the ground and that a
good organisation with a poor product could run a good product out of the market." Some
of the principal advantages of organisation may be outlined as below:

Organising

4.7.1 Facilitates Administration

A properly designed and balanced organisation facilitates both management and operation
of the enterprise. It increases management's efficiency and promptness, avoids delay
and duplication of work and motivates the employee to perform their job efficiently. By
proper division of labour, consistent delegation and clear job definition, the organisation
structure siphons off the routine duties and makes them the responsibility of lower rated
positions.

4.7.2 Facilitates Growth and Diversification

The organisation structure is the framework within which the company grows. The
organisation structure should provide for expansion and diversification of the enterprise
otherwise, the enterprise will find itself in a serious administrative crisis. Thus, the
organisation facilitates growth and diversification of the enterprise.

4.7.3 Provides for Optimum use of Technological Improvements

A sound organisation structure facilitates the optimum use of technological improvements
like computer systems etc. The high cost of installation, operation and maintenance of
such equipment calls for proper organisation.

4.7.4 Encourages Human use of Human Beings

A sound organisation provides for efficient selection, training and development of staff,
job rotation and job enlargement. The organisation structure can profoundly affect the
people of the company. Proper organisation facilitates the intensive use of human capital.

4.7.5 Stimulates Creativity

Organisation stimulates creativity. By providing well-defined areas of work and ensuring
delegation of authority, organisation provides sufficient freedom to the managers and
encourages their initiative, independent thinking and creativity.

4.7.6 Facilitates stability of the organisation

By ensuring delegation of authority, two-way communication, co-operation, effective
leadership, employee morale and flexibility to adjust to changes in the conditions, a sound
organisation facilitates stability of the organisation.

4.7.7 Reduces Employee Turnover

Organisation increases employee satisfaction, ensures better relations between the
management and the workers, and thereby reduces employee turnover.

71

Principles of Management and

Organisational Behaviour

4.7.8 Reduces Duplication of Activities

Organisation avoids delay and duplication of activities and consequent confusion by
ensuring well-defined responsibilities and authority.

4.7.9 Fosters Coordination

By providing the framework for holding together the various functions in an orderly
pattern, organisation fosters co-ordination.
Check Your Progress 2

1.

Explain the term formal organisation.

2.

What is the attitude of management towards informal organisation?

3.

Explain the difference between formal and informal organisation.

4.

What is the importance of an organisation?

4.8 ORGANISATION CHARTS AND MANUALS

Organisation chart: The pattern of network of relations between the various positions in
an organisation as well as between the persons who hold those positions is referred to as
"Organisation chart". Organisation data are often shown in the form of graphic chart.
Organisation charts are the important tool for providing information on managerial positions
and relationships in an organisation.

4.8.1 Meaning of Organisation Chart

According to Harold Koontz and Cyril O' Donnell, "Every organisation can be charted,
for a chart is nothing more than an indication of how departments are tied together along
their principal lines of authority."
In the words of George R Terry, "A chart is a diagrammatical form which shows important
aspects of an organisation including the major functions and their respective relationships,
the channels of supervision, and the relative authority of each employee who is in charge
of each respective function."
According to Louis A Allen, "The organisation chart is a graphic means of showing
organisation data. Organisation charts are snap-shots; they show only the formal
organisation and depict it for only a given moment in time."
In the word of J Batty, "An organisation chart is a diagrammatic representation of the
framework or structure of an organisation."
According to Henry H Albens, "An organisation chart portrays managerial positions and
relationships in a company or department unit."
From the above definitions, it is clear that an organisation chart is a diagrammatical form
which shows important aspects of an organisation including the major functions and their
respective relationships. It is a graphic portrayed of positions in the enterprise and of the
formal lines of communication among them. It enables each executive and employee to
understand his position in the organisation and to know to whom he is accountable. The
organisation chart has the following characteristics:

72

It is a diagrammatical presentation

It shows principal lines of authority in the organisation

It shows the interplay of various functions and relationships

It indicates the channels of communication.

Organising

The organisation chart should not be confused with the organisation structure. An organisation
chart is merely a type of record showing the formal organisational relationships which
management intends should prevail. It is, therefore, primarily a technique of presentation.

4.8.2 Advantages of Organisation Chart

1.

Organisation chart gives a clear picture of the organisation structure and the
relationships that exist in an organisation.

2.

It shows at a glance the lines of authority and responsibility. From it, the individuals can
see who their associates are, to whom they report and from whom they get instructions.

3.

By providing a detailed and clear picture of the authority relationships existing in an

organisation, they help to avoid misunderstanding of jurisdictional problems and
minimise organisational conflicts.

4.

It plays a significant part in organisation improvement by pointing out inconsistencies

and deficiencies in certain relationships. When management sees how its
organisation structure actually looks, it may discover some unintended relationships.

5.

With the help of an organisation chart, outsiders can easily know the persons whom
they have to approach in connection with their work. This helps the outsiders to
save their time and also to form a better opinion of the concern.

6.

By providing a clear picture of the lines of authority and responsibilities, they help
to avoid overlapping and duplication of authority and secure unity of command.

7.

It serves as a valuable guide to the new personnel in understanding the organisation

and for their training.

8.

It provides a framework of personnel classification and evaluation systems. They

show to the personnel what promotions they can expect, and what extra training is
required for promotion to a higher position.

4.8.3 Disadvantages or Limitations of Organisation Chart

1.

Organisation chart shows only the formal relationships and fails to show the informal
relations within the organisation. Informal relationships are also important in any
organisation.

2.

Organisation charts, no doubt show the line of authority but they do not show the
quantum of authority vested in different managerial positions. Thus, it is not bale to
answer the questions like how much authority can be exercised by a particular executive,
how far he is responsible for his functions and to what extent he is accountable.

3.

An organisation chart is incomplete. It is not possible to include all information

affecting the organisation.
It shows a static state of affairs and does not represent flexibility which usually
exists in the structure of a dynamic organisation.

4.
5.

When there is an organisation chart, the personnel in the organisation become too
conscious of their responsibilities and boundary line. This injects rigidity and
inflexibility into the organisation structure. Updating is not possible without disturbing
the entire set-up.

6.

Organisation chart gives rise to a feeling of superiority and inferiority which causes
conflicts in the organisation and affects team-spirit adversely.

7.

It does not show the relationships that actually exist in the organisation but shows
only the "supposed to be" relationships.

73

Principles of Management and

Organisational Behaviour

8.

The organisation charts just display the organisation structure. They neither guarantee
a good organisation structure nor good management.

4.8.4 Types of Organisation Chart

An organisation chart can be drawn in different forms. They are:
l
l

Top-to-down chart or vertical chart

Left-to-right chart or Horizontal chart

Circular chart.

Top-to-down chart or vertical chart: Most organisations use this type of chart which
presents the different levels of organisation in the form of a pyramid with senior executive
at the top of the chart and successive levels of management depicted vertically below
that. The following diagram illustrates this type of chart.

Shareholders

Board of Directors

Chief Executive

Production
Manager

Marketing
Manager

Works Superintendent I

Works Superintendent II

Foreman I

Personnel
Manager

Finance
Manager

Foreman II

Workers

Figure 4.1: Top-to-down organisation chart

Left-to-right or Horizontal Chart: Horizontal charts which read from left to right are
occasionally used. The pyramid lies horizontally instead of standing in the vertical position.
The line of command proceeds horizontally from left to right showing top level at the left
and each successive level extending to the right. The following diagram illustrates this
type of chart:

74

Organising

Production
Manager

Marketing
Manager
Board of Directors

Chief Executive

Sales
Executive
North
Sales
Executive
South

Salesman
Clerks

Personnel
Manager

Finance
Manager

Figure 4.2: Horizontal organisation chart

Circular Chart: In this chart, top positions are located in the centre of the concentric
circle. Positions of successive echelons extend in all directions outward from the centre.
Positions of equal status lie at the same distance from the centre on the same concentric
circle. The following diagram illustrates the circular chart.

Chief
Executive

Figure 4.3: Circular Organisational Chart

4.8.5 Meaning of Organisation Manual

An organisation chart shows who has the authority over whom but does not state that
extent of authority or the duties each person in the organisation is expected to perform.
In order to supplement the information of this chart, an organisation may prepare a
Manual or Management Guide. Manual sets down in the form of a book or booklet all
the details of the organisation, its objectives and policies, authorities, functions, duties
and responsibilities of each unit and all information relating thereto.
A manual can be a useful instrument of management which more than justifies the
amount of work and money involved in its compilation. Where a good manual is in use,
each person can determine the responsibilities of his job and its proper relationship with
other jobs in the organisation. Jurisdictional conflicts and overlapping can be avoided. A

75

Principles of Management and

Organisational Behaviour

manual provides quick settlement of all misunderstandings. It relieves the manager from
the botheration of repeating the same information time and again. It provides uniformity
and consistency in the procedures and practises. If, a good organisation manual is in use,
each personnel in the organisation can know the responsibilities of his job and its relationship
with other jobs in the organisation. Good organisation manual has the following contents.
1.

Nature of the enterprise

2.

Objectives of the enterprise

3.

Policies of the management

4.

Job Descriptions

5.

Duties and responsibilities of various personnel

6.

Instructions relating to the performance of standard as well as non-standard jobs.

4.8.6 Types of Manuals

The different types of manuals are:
1.

Policy Manuals: It describes the overall limitations within which activities are to
take place and thus reveals the broad courses of managerial action likely to take
place under certain conditions.

2.

Operations Manual: It is prepared to inform the employees of established methods,

procedures and standards of doing the various kinds of work.

3.

Organisation Manual: It explains the organisation, the duties and responsibilities

of various departments, and their respective sub-divisions. Promotional charts may
be included in the organisation manual which will show possible promotional lines
throughout the entire organisation.

4.

Departmental Practice Manual: It deals in detail with the internal policies,

organisation and procedures of one department.

5.

Rules and Regulations Manual: It gives information about he operating rules

and employment regulations. It is a handbook of employment rules.

4.8.7 Advantages of Manuals

1.

It contains in writing all-important decisions relating to internal organisation of the

enterprise.

2.

It avoids conflicts and overlapping of authority.

3.

It enables new employees to know the various procedure and practice in the shortest
possible time.

4.

It enables quick decisions.

5.

It contains rules and regulations which employees must follow.

4.8.8 Disadvantages of Manual

1.

The preparation of manual is costly and time consuming and process.

2.

Manuals leave little scope of individual's initiative and direction.

3.

Manuals bring rigidity to the organisation.

4.

Manuals may put on record those relationships which no one would like to see exposed.

4.9 FORMS OF ORGANISATION

76

Organisation requires the creation of structural relationship among different departments

and the individuals working there for the accomplishment of desired goals. Organisation
structure is primarily concerned with the allocation of tasks and delegation of authority.
The establishment of formal relationships among the individuals working in the organisation
is very important to make clear the lines of authority in the organisation and to coordinate

the efforts of different individuals in an efficient manner. According to the different

practices of distributing authority and responsibility among he members of the enterprise,
several types of organisation structure have been evolved. They are:
1.

Line organisation

2.

Line and Staff organisation

3.

Functional organisation

4.

Committee organisation

Organising

4.9.1 Line Organisation

This is the simplest and the earliest form of organisation. It is also known as "Military",
"traditional", "Scalar" or "Hierarchical" form of organisation. The line organisation
represents the structure in a direct vertical relationship through which authority flows.
Under this, the line of authority flows vertically downward from top to bottom throughout
the organisation. The quantum of authority is highest at the top and reduces at each
successive level down the hierarchy. All major decisions and orders are made by the
executives at the top and are handed down to their immediate subordinates who in turn
break up the orders into specific instructions for the purpose of their execution by another
set of subordinates. A direct relationship of authority and responsibility is thus established
between the superior and subordinate. The superior exercises a direct authority over his
subordinates who become entirely responsible for their performance to their commanding
superior. Thus, in the line organisation, the line of authority consists of an uninterrupted
series of authority steps and forms a hierarchical arrangement. The line of authority not
only becomes the avenue of command to operating personnel, but also provides the
channel of communication, coordination and accountability in the organisation.
Prof. Florence enunciates three principles which are necessary to realise the advantages
of this system and the non-observance of which would involve inefficiency.
1.

Commands should be given to subordinates through the immediate superior; there

should be no skipping of links in the chain of command.

2.

There should be only one chain. That is, command should be received from only
one immediate superior.

3.

The number of subordinates whose work is directly commanded by the superior

should be limited.

The following picture depicts the line organisation:

GENERAL MANAGER

SALES MANAGER

PRODUCTION MANAGER

PERSONNEL
MANAGER

Assistant Works Manager

Superintendent

Foreman

Workers

Figure 4.4: Chart showing a line organisation

Advantages or merits of line organisation

1.

It is the easiest to establish and simplest to explain to the employers.

2.

It fixes responsibility for the performance of tasks in a definite manner upon certain
individuals.

77

Principles of Management and

Organisational Behaviour

3.

There is clear-cut identification of authority and responsibility relationship. Employees

are fully aware of the boundaries of their job.

4.

It is most economical and effective.

5.

It makes for unity of control thus conforming to the scalar principle of organisation.

6.

It ensures excellent discipline in the enterprise because every individual knows to

whom he is responsible. The subordinates are also aware of the necessity of
satisfying their superior in their own interests.

7.

It facilitates prompt decision-making because there is definite authority at every

level.

8.

As all the activities relating to one department or division are managed by one
executive, there can be effective coordination of activities.

9.

This system is flexible or elastic, in the sense that, as each executive has sole
responsibility in his own position and sphere of work, he can easily adjust the
organisation to changing conditions.

10. Under this system, responsibility and authority are clearly defined. Every member
of the organisation knows his exact position, to whom he is responsible and who
are responsible to him. Because of the clear fixation of responsibility, no person
can escape from his liability.
Disadvantages or demerits of line organisation

78

1.

With growth, the line organisation makes the superiors too overloaded with work.
Since all work is done according to the wishes of one person alone, the efficiency
of the whole department will come to depend upon the qualities of management
displayed by the head of that department. If therefore, something happens to an
efficient manager, the future of the department and of the concern as a whole
would be in jeopardy.

2.

Being an autocratic system, it may be operated on an arbitrary, opinionated and

dictatorial basis.

3.

Under this system, the subordinates should follow the orders of their superior without
expression their opinion on the orders. That means there is limited communication.

4.

There may be a good deal of nepotism and favouritism. This may result in efficient
people being left behind and inefficient people getting the higher and better posts.

5.

The line organisation suffers from lack of specialised skill of experts. Modern
business is so complex that it is extremely difficult for one person to carry in his
head all the necessary details about his work in this department.

6.

Line organisation is not suitable to big organisations because it does not provide
specialists in the structure. Many jobs require specialised knowledge to perform
them.

7.

If superiors take a wrong decision, it would be carried out without anybody having
the courage to point out its deficiencies.

8.

The organisation is rigid and inflexible.

9.

There is concentration of authority at the top. If the top executives are not capable,
the enterprise will not be successful.

Prof. Florence, sums up the inefficiencies of the line organisation system under three
heads-"(i) Failure to get correct information and to act upon it; (ii) red-tape and
bureaucracy; (iii) Lack of specialised skill or experts while commands go down the
line under the hierarchical system information is supposed to be coming up the line." In

spite of these drawbacks, the line organisation structure is very popular particularly in
small organisations where there are less number of levels of authority and a small number
of people.

Organising

4.9.2 Line and Staff Organisation

In line and staff organisation, the line authority remains the same as it does in the line
organisation. Authority flows from top to bottom. The main difference is that specialists
are attached to line managers to advise them on important matters. These specialists
stand ready with their speciality to serve line mangers as and when their services are
called for, to collect information and to give help which will enable the line officials to
carry out their activities better. The staff officers do not have any power of command in
the organisation as they are employed to provide expert advice to the line officers. The
combination of line organisation with this expert staff constitutes the type of organisation
known as line and staff organisation. The 'line' maintains discipline and stability; the
'staff' provides expert information. The line gets out the production, the staffs carries on
the research, planning, scheduling, establishing of standards and recording of performance.
The authority by which the staff performs these functions is delegated by the line and
the performance must be acceptable to the line before action is taken. The following
figure depicts the line and staff organisation:
M a n a g in g D ire cto r
F in a n c ia l
A d v iso r

T e c h n ic a l
A d v iso r

E c o n o m ic
A d v iso r

A ssista n t to
M. D.

P ro d u c tio n
M a n ag e r
R e se arc h a n d
D e v e lo p m e n t
S ta ff

S y ste m s
E n g in e er

T e c h n ic a l
E x p e rt

In d u strial
E n g in e er

F o rem an

S u p erv is o r A

Worker

Worker

S u p erv is o r B

Worker

Worker

Worker

Worker

Figure 4.5: Line and staff Organisation

Types of Staff
The staff position established as a measure of support for the line managers may take
the following forms:
1.

Personal Staff: Here the staff official is attached as a personal assistant or adviser
to the line manager. For example Assistant to managing director.

2.

Specialised Staff: Such staff acts as the fountainhead of expertise in specialised

areas like R & D, personnel, accounting etc. For example-R & D Staff

3.

General Staff: This category of staff consists of a set of experts in different areas
who are meant to advise and assist the top management on matters called for
expertise. For exampleFinancial advisor, technical advisor etc.
79

Principles of Management and

Organisational Behaviour

Features of line and staff organisation

1.

Under this system, there are line officers who have authority and command over
the subordinates and are accountable for the tasks entrusted to them. The staff
officers are specialists who offer expert advice to the line officers to perform their
tasks efficiently.

2.

Under this system, the staff officers prepare the plans and give advise to the line
officers and the line officers execute the plan with the help of workers.

3.

The line and staff organisation is based on the principle of specialisation.

Advantages or merits of line and staff organisation

l

It brings expert knowledge to bear upon management and operating problems.

Thus, the line managers get the benefit of specialised knowledge of staff specialists
at various levels.

The expert advice and guidance given by the staff officers to the line officers
benefit the entire organisation.

As the staff officers look after the detailed analysis of each important managerial
activity, it relieves the line managers of the botheration of concentrating on specialised
functions.

Staff specialists help the line managers in taking better decisions by providing expert
advice. Therefore, there will be sound managerial decisions under this system.

It makes possible the principle of undivided responsibility and authority, and at the
same time permits staff specialisation. Thus, the organisation takes advantage of
functional organisation while maintaining the unity of command.

It is based upon planned specialisation.

Line and staff organisation has greater flexibility, in the sense that new specialised
activities can be added to the line activities without disturbing the line procedure.

Disadvantages or demerits of line and staff organisation

80

Unless the duties and responsibilities of the staff members are clearly indicated by
charts and manuals, there may be considerable confusion throughout the organisation
as to the functions and positions of staff members with relation to the line supervisors.

There is generally a conflict between the line and staff executives. The line managers
feel that staff specialists do not always give right type of advice, and staff officials
generally complain that their advice is not properly attended to.

Line managers sometimes may resent the activities of staff members, feeling that
prestige and influence of line managers suffer from the presence of the specialists.

The staff experts may be ineffective because they do not get the authority to
implement their recommendations.

This type of organisation requires the appointment of large number of staff officers or
experts in addition to the line officers. As a result, this system becomes quite expensive.

Although expert information and advice are available, they reach the workers through
the officers and thus run the risk of misunderstanding and misinterpretation.

Since staff managers are not accountable for the results, they may not be performing
their duties well.

Line mangers deal with problems in a more practical manner. But staff officials
who are specialists in their fields tend to be more theoretical. This may hamper
coordination in the organisation.

Organising

4.9.3 Functional Organisation

The difficulty of the line organisation in securing suitable chief executive was overcome
by F. W. Taylor who formulated the Functional type of organisation. As the name implies,
the whole task of management and direction of subordinates should be divided according
to the type of work involved. As far as the workman was concerned, instead of coming
in contact with the management at one point only, he was to receive his daily orders and
help directly from eight different bosses; four of these were located in the planning room
and four in the shop. The four specialists or bosses in the planning room are:
(i)

Route Clerk

(ii)

Instruction Card Clerk

(iii) Time and Cost Clerk

(iv) Shop disciplinarian.
The four specialists or bosses at the shop level are:
1.

Gang Boss

2.

Speed Boss

3.

Inspector

4.

Repair Boss

The Route Clerk: To lay down the sequence of operations and instruct the workers
concerned about it.

The Instruction Card Clerk: To prepare detailed instructions regarding different

aspects of work.

The Time and Cost Clerk: To send all information relating to their pay to the
workers and to secure proper returns of work from them.

The Shop Disciplinarian: To deal with cases of breach of discipline and

absenteeism.

The Gang Boss: To assemble and set up tools and machines and to teach the
workers to make all their personal motions in the quickest and best way.

The Speed Boss: To ensure that machines are run at their best speeds and proper
tools are used by the workers.

The Repair Boss: To ensure that each worker keeps his machine in good order
and maintains cleanliness around him and his machines.

The Inspector: To show to the worker how to do the work.

The following chart depicts the functional foremanship:

Factory Manager

Superintendent

Route
clerk

Instruction
card clerk

Time &
cost clerk

Shop
disciplinarian

Gang
boss

Speed
boss

Inspector

Repair
boss

WORKMAN

Figure 4.6: The chart showing functional foremanship

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Principles of Management and

Organisational Behaviour

It was F. W. Taylor who evolved functional organisation for planning and controlling
manufacturing operations on the basis of specialisation. But in practice, functionalisation
is restricted to the top of the organisation as recommended by Taylor.

Features of functional organisation

The features of functional organisation are as follows:
1.

The work of the enterprise is divided into different functional departments and the
different functional departments are placed under different specialists.

2.

The functional specialist has the authority or right to give orders regarding his
function whosesoever that function is performed in the enterprise.

3.

Under this system, the workers have to receive instructions from different specialists.

4.

If anybody in the enterprise has to take any decision relating to a particular function,
it has to be in consultation with the functional specialist.

5.

Under this system, the workers have to perform a limited number of functions.

Advantages of functional organisation

1.

Functional organisation is based on expert knowledge. Every functionary in charge

is an expert in his area and can help the subordinates in better performance in his
area.

2.

Division of labour is planned not incidental.

3.

As there is not scope for one-man control in this form of organisation, this system
ensure co-operation and teamwork among the workers.

4.

This system ensures the separation of mental functions from manual functions.

5.

It helps mass production by standardization and specialization.

6.

This system ensures maximum use of he principle of specialisation at every work

point.

7.

As there is joint supervision in the organisation, functional organisation reduces the

burden on the top executives.

8.

Functional organisation offers a greater scope for expansion as compared to line

organisation. It does not face the problem of limited capabilities of a few line
managers.

9.

The expert knowledge of the functional mangers facilitates better control and
supervision in the organisation.

Disadvantages or demerits of Functional organisation

82

a)

It is unstable because it weakens the disciplinary controls, by making the workers

work under several different bosses. Thus, functional organisation violates the
principle of unity of command.

b)

Under this type of organisation, there are many foremen of equal rank. This may
lead to conflicts among them.

c)

The co-ordinating influence needed to ensure a smoothly functioning organisation

may involve heavy overhead expenses.

d)

The inability to locate and fix responsibility may seriously affect the discipline and
morale of the workers through apparent or actual contradiction of the orders.

e)

This system is very costly as a large number of specialists are required to be

appointed.

f)

A functional manager tends to create boundaries around himself and think only in
term of his own department rather than of the whole enterprise. This results in loss
of overall perspective in dealing with business problems.

g)

It is difficult for the management to fix responsibility for unsatisfactory results.

Organising

4.9.4 Committee Organisation

Committee organisation as a method of managerial control has very little practical
importance, because it is managed by a senior member of the committee only. But the
committee organisations are widely used for the purpose of discharging advisory functions
of the management. Committees are usually relatively formal bodies with a definite
structure. They have their own organisation. To them are entrusted definite responsibility
and authority.
According to Hicks, "A committee is a group of people who meet by plan to discuss or
make a decision for a particular subject."
According to Louis A Allen, "A committee is a body of persons appointed or elected to
meet on an organised basis for the consideration of matters brought before it."
A committee may formulate plans, make policy decisions or review the performance of
certain units. In some cases, it may only have the power to make recommendations to a
designated official. Whatever may be the scope of their activities, committees have
come to be recognised as an important instrument in the modern business as well as nonbusiness organisations.
Objectives of committees
Committees are constituted to achieve one or more of the following objectives:
l

To have consultations with various persons to secure their view-points

To give participation to various groups of people

To secure cooperation of different departments

To coordinate the functioning of different departments and individuals by bringing

about unity of directions.

Types of committees
1.

Line committee: If a committee is vested with the authority and responsibility to

decide and whose decisions are implemented, it is known as line committee.

2.

Staff committee: If a committee is appointed merely to counsel and advise, it is

known as a staff committee.

3.

Formal committee: When a committee is constituted as a part of the organisation

structure and has clear-cut jurisdiction, it is a formal committee.

4.

Informal committee: An informal committee is formed to advice on certain

complicated matters. It does not form part of the organisation structure.

5.

Coordinating committee: It is constituted to coordinate the functioning of different

departments.

6.

Executive committee: It is a committee which has power to administer the affairs

of the business.

7.

Standing committee: are formal committees that are of permanent character.

8.

Ad hoc committee: They are temporary bodies. It is appointed to deal with some
special problem and stops functioning after its job are over.
83

Principles of Management and

Organisational Behaviour

Advantages or merits of committee type of organisation

1.

A committee is an effective method of bringing the collective knowledge and

experience of a number of persons. Therefore, many multi-dimensional and complex
problems of modern enterprises, which cannot be solved satisfactorily by individual
managers, can be solved by committees.

2.

Committees offer scope for group deliberations and group judgment. Results
obtained by group deliberation and group judgment are likely to be better than those
obtained by individual judgment.

3.

When it is necessary to integrate varying points of view, which cannot conveniently

be coordinated by individuals, the committee may be used to bring about coordination.

4.

The management can give representation to the employees in various committees.

This will motivate the employees for better performance as they feel that they
have a say in the affairs of the organisation.

5.

A committee form of organisation facilitates pooling of authority of individual

managers for making some type of decisions of an inter-departmental nature.

6.

A committee form of organisation tends to promote organisational cohesiveness.

Group endeavour, team spirit and collective responsibility are control to the philosophy
of committees.

Disadvantages of committee type of organisation

(a)

If a manager has an opportunity to carry a problem to a committee, he may take it

as a means of avoiding decision-making or to escape the consequences of an
unpopular decision.

(b)

Sometimes, a committee may not be able to take the needed decision because of
the conflicting views of the members.

(c)

Committees take more time in procedural matters before any decision is taken. In
some cases, slowness seriously handicaps the administration of the organisation.

(d)

Committees are an expensive device both in terms of cost and time.

(e)

When the committee findings represent a compromise of different viewpoints, they

may be found to be weak and indecisive.

(f)

No member of a committee can be individually held responsible for the wrong

decision taken by the committee.

(g)

It is very difficult to maintain secrecy regarding the deliberations and the decisions
taken by a committee, especially when there are many members in the committee.
Check Your Progress 3

1.

Explain with a neat diagram the different types of organisation charts.

2.

What is an organisation manual?

3.

Explain the different forms of organisations.

4.10 ORGANISATIONAL CULTURE

When we talk about culture, we are typically referring to the pattern of development
reflected in a societys system of knowledge, ideology, values, laws, social norms and
day-to-day rituals. Accordingly, culture varies from one society to another. The word
84

culture has been derived metaphorically from the idea of cultivation the process of
tilling and developing land. Thus, culture can be considered as a constellation of factors
that are learned through our interaction with the environment.

Organising

The organizational culture is a system of shared beliefs and attitudes that develop within
an organization and guides the behaviour of its members. There are clear-cut guidelines
as to how employees are to behave generally within organization. The employees need
to learn how the particular enterprise does things.
A few definitions on the term organizational culture are given below:According to Larry Senn, The corporate culture consists of the norms, values and
unwritten rules of conduct of an organization as well as management styles, priorities,
beliefs and inter-personal behaviour that prevail. Together they create a climate that
influences how well people communicate, plan and make decisions
Joanne Martin defines cultures in organization in the following words As individuals
come into contact with organizations, they come into contact with dress norms the
organizations formal rules and procedures, its formal codes of behaviour rituals . And
so on. These elements are some of the manifestations of organizational culture.
Edgar Schein defines organizational culture as a pattern of basic assumptions invented,
discovered or developed by a given group as it learns to cope with its problems of
external adaptation and internal integration that has worked well enough to be considered
valuable and, therefore to be taught to new members as the correct way to perceive,
think and fell in relation to those problems.

4.10.1 Basic Elements of Culture

From the above definitions it is clear that culture is how an organization has learned to
deal with its environment. It is a complex mixture of assumptions, behaviours, myths
and other ideas that fit together to define what it means to work in a particular organization.
Edgar H Schein suggests that culture exists on three levels: artefacts, espoused values
and underlying assumptions.
1.

Artefacts: According to Schein, Artefacts are the first level of organizational culture.
Artefacts are the things that come together to define a culture and reveal what the
culture is about to those who pay attention to them. They include products, services,
and even behaviour patterns of the members of an organization. Schein has defined
Artefacts as things that one sees, hears, and feels when one encounters a new
group with an unfamiliar culture.

2.

Espoused Values: Espoused values are the second level of organizational culture.
Values are things worth doing, or the reasons for doing what we do. Values are the
answers to the why questions. For examples, why are you reading this book? To
know more about Organization Behaviour. Why is that Important? To be a better
HR Manager. Why do you need more money? To fulfil my wifes desire to own a
farm house. Such questions go on and on, until you reach the point where you no
longer want something for the sake of something else. At this point, we have
arrived at a value. Corporations have values, such as size, profitability, or making
a quality product.
Espoused values are the reasons that we give for doing what we do. Schein argues
that most organizational cultures can trace their espoused values back to the founders
of the culture.

3.

Basic Assumptions: The third level of organizational culture, are the beliefs that
organization members take for granted. Culture prescribes the right way to do
things at an organization, often through unspoken assumptions.
85

Principles of Management and

Organisational Behaviour

4.10.2 Successful Organisational Culture

Research conducted by D.R Denison and A.K Mishra, show that organizational culture
is related to organizational success. Organizational culture is a framework that guides
day-to-day behaviour and decision making for employees and directs their actions toward
completion of organizational goals. Culture is what gives birth to and defines the
organizational goals. Culture must be aligned with the other parts of organizational
actions, such as planning, organizing, leading, and controlling; indeed, if culture is not
aligned with these tasks, then the organization is in for difficult times.
The figure below shows that culture based on adaptability, involvement, a clear mission
and consistency can help companies achieve higher sales growth, return on assets, profits,
quality and employee satisfaction.

ADAPTABILITY

INVOLVEMENT
CONSISTENCY

CLEAR MISSION

Successful Organizational Cultures

Source: D.R Denison and A.K Mishra, Toward a Theory of Organizational Culture and Effectiveness, Organization Science Vol.6
(1995) Page 204 223.

Note:
l

Adaptability: is the ability to notice and respond to changes in the organizations

environment.

Involvement: In cultures that promote higher levels of employment in decision

making employees feel a greater sense of ownership and responsibility.

Clear Mission: Mission is a companys purpose or reason for existing. In

organizational cultures in which there is a clear organizational vision, the
organizations strategic purpose and direction are apparent to everyone in the
company.

Consistency: In consistent organizational cultures, the company actively defines

and teaches organizational values, beliefs and attitudes. Consistent organizational
cultures are also called strong cultures, because the core beliefs and widely shared
and strongly held.

Conclusion: Organisational culture refers to a system of shared meaning held by

members that distinguishes the organisation form other organisations. Organisational
culture is concerned with how employees perceive the characteristics of an organisations
culture. It represents a common perception held by the organisations members. Culture
performs a number of functions within an organisation.
1.
86

It has a boundary-defining role. It creates distinctions between one organisation

and another organisation.

2.

Organisational culture conveys a sense of identity for organisation members.

3.

Culture facilitates the generation of commitment to something larger than ones

individual self- interest.

4.

Organisation culture enhances the stability of the social system.

5.

Culture guides and shapes the behaviour and attitude of employees.

Organising

Check Your Progress 4

1.

What is organizational culture?

2.

Describe the seven dimensions of organizational culture.

4.11 GLOBAL ORGANIZING

Organising normally follows planning because the organisation must implement the
strategic plan. The planning process itself, because it encompasses an analysis of all the
firm's activities, often discloses a need to alter the organisation.
In designing the organisational structure, management is faced with two concerns:
1.

finding the most effective way to departmentalise to take advantage of the

efficiencies gained from the specialisation of labour and

2.

Co-ordinating the firm's activities to enable it to meet its overall objectives.

Organisational Structure: Organisational structure provides a route and locus for decision
making. It also provides a system, or a basis, for reporting and communication networks.
The basics of an organisation chart are similar for both domestic firms and international
firms. But since international firms have to face complex problems, the form of the
organisational structure is specific to them. The structure of an organisation becomes
complex with the growing degree of internationalisation.
Co-ordination among the branches/units: The different branches/units need to be well
co-ordinated in order to make the organisational structure effective. Proper co-ordination
smoothens communication between one branch and another. It is true that there are
impediments to effective co-ordination. Managers at different units may have varying
orientation. The geographic distance may be too much to ensure effective coordination.
Formal co-ordination can be ensured through direct contact among the managers of
different branches/units. It can also be ensured by giving a manager of a unit the
responsibility for coordinating with his counterpart in another unit. A number of international
firms have adapted the practice of direct reporting to headquarters by managers.

4.12 LET US SUM UP

Organisation is the foundation upon which the whole structure of management is built. It
is the backbone of management. Organisation is the process of establishing relationship
among the members of the enterprise. The relationships are created in terms of authority
and responsibility. Informal organisation, which does not appear on the organisation chart,
supplements the formal organisation in achieving organisational goals effectively and
efficiently. Organisation requires the creation of structural relationship among different
departments and the individuals working there for the accomplishment of desired goals.
Organisation structure is primarily concerned with the allocation of tasks and delegation
of authority. The establishment of formal relationships among the individuals working in
the organisation is very important to make clear the lines of authority in the organisation
and to coordinate the efforts of different individuals in an efficient manner.

87

Principles of Management and

Organisational Behaviour

4.13 LESSON END ACTIVITY

"Good committee management is through adherence to the basic precepts of the human
relations approach to organisation". Do you agree with this? Give suggestions to make
committees more effective.

4.14 KEYWORDS
Organisations
Organisation Structure
Formal Organisation
Informal Organisation
Organisation Chart
Manual
Functional Organisation
Committee Organisation

4.15 QUESTIONS FOR DISCUSSION

1.

Define organising and explain the importance of organising in the present business
environment.

2.

"Organisation is the backbone of management". Comment.

3.

Enunciate and explain the important principles of organisation.

4.

What is an organisation chart?

5.

Define organisation as a structure and give its basic principles.

6.

Discuss the uses and limitations of organisation charts.

7.

Compare line, functional and line-staff organisations. Which of these will be

appropriate for a large manufacturing enterprise?

8.

" A committee is made up of the unfit selected by the unwilling to do the unnecessary".
Comment.

9.

Discuss the merits and limitations of line and staff organisation.

10. What are the merits and demerits of management by committees?

11.

What is the source of an organisations culture?

12. Explain the elements of a successful organizational culture.

4.16 SUGGESTED READINGS

Alfred D. Chandler, "Strategy and Structure" MIT Press, Cambridge: Mass (1962)
Chris Argyris, "Personality and Organisation" Harper and Row, New York (1959)
Douglas M. McGregor "The Human Side of Enterprise" McGraw-Hill, New York (1967)
Earnest Dale "Management : Theory and Practice" McGraw-Hill, New York (1968)
Louis A. Allen "Management and Organization" McGraw-Hill, New York (1978)
88

Lyndall F. Urwick, "The Manager's Span of Control", Harvard Business Review,

(May-June 1956)

John M. Pfifner and Frank P Sherwood "Administrative Organisation" Prentice-Hall

of India, New Delhi (1968)

Organising

John Seiler, "System Analysis in Organizational Behaviour" Richard D Irwin,

Homewood III (1967)
Keith Davis "Human Behaviour at Work" Tata McGrew-Hill, New Delhi (1981)
Henry Mintzberg, "The Structuring of Organisations: A synthesis if the Research"
Prentice-Hall, Upper Saddle River N.J (1979)
Peter F. Drucker "Management Task, Responsibilities and Practices" Harper Brothers,
New York (1971)
Ralph C. Davis "The Fundamentals of Top Management" Harper Brothers, New
York (1971)
Richard H. Hall, "Organisation: Structure and Process", Prentice Hall, Englewood
Cliffs, N.J (1972)
Rocco Carzo and John N Yanouzas "Formal Organizations: A system approach"
Richard D. Irwin : Homewood III (1967)
Joan Woodward, "Industrial Organization: Theory and Practice" Oxford University
Press, London (1965)
Tom Burns and G. M Stalker "The Management of Innovation" Tavistock (1961)
Warren G. Bennis "Organisation Development: Its Nature, Origin, and Prospects"
Addison Wesley, Cambridge: Mass (1969)
Willan G Scott, "Organisation Theory: An overview", journal of Academy of
Management, April 1961 page 7 - 26.
William R Scott, "Theory of organisations" in Robert E.R Farris (ed) "Handbook of
Modern Sociology" Rand McNally, Chicago (1974)
P.G. Aquinas, Organizational Behaviour, Excel Books, New Delhi.
Case

The Lowering of the Pirates' Flag at Apple

The combination seemed ideal. Steven P. Jobs, charismatic co-founder and chairman of
Apple Computer, Inc., Woos John Sculley, the young, dynamic president of Pepsi-Cola
USA, to be president of Apple. While Jobs oversaw technical innovation, Sculley was to
boost Apple's marketing expertise and improve its relationship with retailers and customers.
The ultimate goal was to break IBM's stronghold on the business market for personal
computers. Under Jobs, the company had had almost a singular focus on products, and
Jobs had piqued the imagination of employees with predictions of "insanely great" new
computers. One of Sculley's first moves was reorganizing the company's nine productoriented and highly decentralized divisions into two major divisions, one for the Apple II
and one, headed by Jobs himself, for the forthcoming Macintosh. The reorganization
allowed resources to be focused on the company's two major product lines and facilitated
Sculley's emphasise on marketing them, particularly to the business community.
With Jobs ensconced in the Macintosh division, the reorganization seemed to work at first.
Jobs devoted his attention to the further development of the Macintosh, which was not
selling quite as well as had been expected. Meanwhile, the Apple II division turned in a
record sales performance with the less sophisticated, but highly profitable, Apple IIe.
Unfortunately, trouble began to develop. The Mac division employees, touted by Jobs as
being superstars, viewed themselves as the Apple elite, since they were developing the
new technology. Indicative of these feelings, a pirates' flag flew over the building in which
the Macintosh division was housed. Morale in the Apple II division was not helped when
Jobs addressed the Apple II marketing staff as members of the "dull and boring product
Contd...

89

Principles of Management and

Organisational Behaviour

division." However, with the largest block of stock (11.3 percent) and the job of chairman,
Jobs was an unusually powerful general manager.
Troubles accelerated when sales of personal computers began to slump nationally; the
Mac, in particular, continued to sell less well than anticipated. The situation was exacerbated
by the fact that the Mac division chronically missed deadlines for the development of
crucial parts of the Mac system. Pushed by the board of directors to take greater control,
Sculley finally proposed a new organization structure that would, in effect, eliminate the
Mac division and with it the general manager position held by Jobs. The proposal (which
was ultimately approved by the board) was aimed in part at reducing the duplication of
position, in such areas as marketing, human resources, and manufacturing, that has been
necessary under the division by products. It called for a functional structure, which included
product operations (comprising R&D, manufacturing, service, and distribution), marketing
and sales, finance and management information systems, legal services, and human
resources. With the Mac division dissolved, Jobs resigned his position as chairman and
left the company.
With 18 months, sales of the Mac, with its technologically advanced desktop publishing
capability and its relative ease of use for computer novices, started to take off. But other
companies, including IBM, quickly began to develop products to match the Mac capabilities.
Although Sculley professed that Job's vision of putting a computer into every person's
hands and thus changing the world remained intact, Apple watchers wondered whether
Apple could keep innovating under Sculley.
To Foster product innovation further, Sculley purchased a super-computer, doubled the
R&D budget, and increased the number of engineers to more than 1000.
Meanwhile, Apple sales had grown from about $580 million in 1984 to more than $5billoon
by 1989. The number of employees almost doubled to more than 10,000 worldwide during
the same period. This massive growth led Sculley to reorganize once again, this time into
major geographic division (Apple USA, Apple Pacific, and Apple Europe) with a separate
division for Apple products. The Apple products division was responsible for all aspects of
product development, ranging from basic research and product definition all the way to
manufacturing, introduction, and coordination of marketing. This integrated approach was
aimed at competing with Japan on price and quality while incorporating the latest technology
and innovation. The major geographic divisions were responsible for selling and servicing
the various products in their respective regions.
1. Use your knowledge of organization design to assess the probable effectiveness of
Apple's new organization structure.
2. What evidence of the differential paradox related to innovation is manifested in this
situation?
3. Trace the various reorganizing efforts by Sculley, and explain his reasons for each
reorganization.
Source: Deborah Wise and Catherine Harris, "Apple's New Crusade", Business Week, November 26, 1984. Page 146 - 156.

90

LESSON

5
HUMAN FACTORS AND MOTIVATION

CONTENTS
5.0

Aims and Objectives

5.1

Introduction

5.2

Definition of Motivation

5.3

Nature and Characteristics of Motivation

5.3.1

Motivation is an Internal Feeling

5.3.2

Motivation is Related to Needs

5.3.3

Motivation Produces Goal-directed Behaviour

5.3.4

Motivation can be Either Positive or Negative

5.4

Importance and Benefits of Motivation

5.5

Types of Motivation

5.6

5.5.1

Positive or Incentive Motivation

5.5.2

Negative or Fear Motivation

Theories of Motivation
5.6.1

McGregor's Theory X and Theory Y

5.6.2

Maslow's Need-Hierarchy Theory of Motivation

5.6.3

Hertzberg's Theory of Motivation

5.6.4

Victor Vroom's Expectancy Theory

5.6.5

McClelland's Need for Achievement Theory

5.7

Requirements of a Sound Motivation System

5.8

Methods of Motivating People

5.9

Let us Sum up

5.10 Lesson-end Activity

5.11 Keywords
5.12 Questions for Discussion
5.13 Suggested Readings

5.0 AIMS AND OBJECTIVES

The purpose of this lesson is to highlight the importance of enhancing employee motivation.
After studying this lesson you will be able to:
(i)

describe meaning, nature and types of motivation

(ii)

understand various theories related to motivation

Principles of Management and

Organisational Behaviour

(iii) explain the pre-requisites of motivation

(iv) know the methods of motivation

5.1 INTRODUCTION
Motivation is the process of channelling a person's inner drives so that he wants to accomplish
the goals of the organization. Motivation concern itself with the will to work. It seeks to
know the incentives for work and tries to find out the ways and means whereby their
realization can be helped and encouraged. Managers, by definition, are required to work
with and through people, so they must gain at least some understanding of the forces that
will motivate the people they are to manage. People are complex and they are uniquely
different. What motivates one person may not motivate another. Most successful managers
have learned to understand the concept of human motivation and are able to use that
understanding to achieve higher standards of subordinate work performance.

5.2 DEFINITION OF MOTIVATION

"Motivation" is a Latin word, meaning "to move". Human motives are internalised goals
within individuals. Motivation may be defined as those forces that cause people to behave
in certain ways. Motivation encompasses all those pressures and influences that trigger,
channel, and sustain human behaviour. Most successful managers have learned to
understand the concept of human motivation and are able to use that understanding to
achieve higher standards of subordinate work performance.
Motivation has been defined by Michael J Juicus as "the act of stimulating someone or
oneself to get a desired course of action".
In the words of Lewis Allen, "Motivation is the work a manager performs to inspire,
encourage and impel people to take required action".
According to Dubin, Motivation is, "The complex of forces starting and keeping a person
at work in an organization. To put it generally, motivation starts and maintains an activity
along a prescribed line. Motivation is something that moves the person to action, and
continuous him in the course of action already initiated".
According to William G Scott, "Motivation means a process of stimulating people to
action to accomplish desired goals".
According to Koontz and O'Donnell, "Motivation is a general term applying to the entire
class of drives, needs, wishes and similar forces".
In the words of Brech, "Motivation is a general inspiration process which gets the
members of the team to pull their weight effectively, to give their loyalty to the group, to
carry out properly the tasks they have accepted and generally to play an effective part in
the job that the group has undertaken".
In the words of Dalton E McFarland, "Motivation refers to the way in which urges,
drives, desires, aspirations, striving or needs direct, control or explain the behaviour of
human beings".
In the words of Tolman, "The term motivation has been called an intervening variable.
Intervening variables are internal and psychological process which are not directly
observable and which, in turn, account for behaviour".
The Encyclopaedia of Management observes: "Motivation refers to the degree of
readiness of an organism to pursue some designated goal, and implies the determination
of the nature and locus of the forces, including the degree of readiness".
92

In the words of C. B. Mamoria - Motivation is - "a willingness to expend energy to

achieve a goal or reward. It is a force that activates dormant energies and sets in motion
the action of the people. It is the function that kindles a burning passion for action among
the human beings of an organization".

Human Factors and

Motivation

Motivation is a process by which a need or desire is aroused and a psychological force

within our mind sets us in motion to fulfil our needs and desire. An unsatisfied need becomes
the motive for a person to spend his energy in order to achieve a goal. In a business
organization the 4 P's praise, prestige promotion and pay are the best positive motivators.

5.3 NATURE AND CHARACTERISTICS OF MOTIVATION

Psychologists generally agree that all behaviour is motivated, and that people have reasons
for doing the things they do or for behaving in the manner that they do. Motivating is the
work a manager performs to inspire, encourage and impel people to take required action.
The process of motivation is characterized by the following:-

5.3.1 Motivation is an Internal Feeling

Motivation is a psychological phenomenon which generates in the mind of an individual
the feeling that he lacks certain things and needs those things. Motivation is a force
within an individual that drives him to behave in a certain way.

5.3.2 Motivation is Related to Needs

Needs are deficiencies which are created whenever there is a physiological or
psychological imbalance. In order to motivate a person, we have to understand his needs
that call for satisfaction.

5.3.3 Motivation Produces Goal-Directed Behaviour

Goals are anything which will alleviate a need and reduce a drive. An individual's behaviour
is directed towards a goal.

5.3.4 Motivation can be either Positive or Negative

Positive or incentive motivation is generally based on reward. According to Flippo "positive motivation is a process of attempting to influence others to do your will through
the possibility of gain or reward".
Negative or fear motivation is based on force and fear. Fear causes persons to act in a
certain way because they are afraid of the consequences if they don't.

5.4 IMPORTANCE AND BENEFITS OF MOTIVATION

A manager's primary task is to motivate others to perform the tasks of the organization.
Therefore, the manager must find the keys to get subordinates to come to work regularly
and on time, to work hard, and to make positive contributions towards the effective and
efficient achievement of organizational objectives. Motivation is an effective instrument
in the hands of a manager for inspiring the work force and creating confidence in it. By
motivating the work force, management creates "will to work" which is necessary for
the achievement of organizational goals. The various benefits of motivation are:(i)

Motivation is one of the important elements in the directing process. By motivating

the workers, a manager directs or guides the workers' actions in the desired direction
for accomplishing the goals of the organization.
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Principles of Management and

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(ii)

Workers will tend to be as efficient as possible by improving upon their skills and
knowledge so that they are able to contribute to the progress of the organization
thereby increasing productivity.

(iii) For performing any tasks, two things are necessary. They are: (a) ability to work
and (b) willingness to work. Without willingness to work, ability to work is of no
use. The willingness to work can be created only by motivation.
(iv) Organizational effectiveness becomes, to some degree, a question of management's
ability to motivate its employees, to direct at least a reasonable effort towards the
goals of the organization.
(v)

Motivation contributes to good industrial relations in the organization. When the

workers are motivated, contented and disciplined, the frictions between the workers
and the management will be reduced.

(vi) Motivation is the best remedy for resistance to changes. When changes are
introduced in an organization, generally, there will be resistance from the workers.
But if the workers of an organization are motivated, they will accept, introduce and
implement the changes whole heartily and help to keep the organization on the right
track of progress.
(vii) Motivation facilitates the maximum utilization of all factors of production, human,
physical and financial resources and thereby contributes to higher production.
(viii) Motivation promotes a sense of belonging among the workers. The workers feel
that the enterprise belongs to them and the interest of the enterprise is their interests.
(ix) Many organizations are now beginning to pay increasing attention to developing their
employees as future resources upon which they can draw as they grow and develop.

5.5 TYPES OF MOTIVATION

If a manager wants to get work done by his employees, he may either hold out a promise
of a reward (positive motivation) or he may install fear (negative motivation). Both these
types are widely used by managements.

5.5.1 Positive or Incentive Motivation

This type of motivation is generally based on reward. A positive motivation involves the
possibility of increased motive satisfaction. According to Flippo - "Positive motivation is
a process of attempting to influence others to do your will through the possibility of gain
or reward". Incentive motivation is the "pull" mechanism. The receipt of awards, due
recognition and praise for work-well done definitely lead to good team spirit, co-operation
and a feeling of happiness.
Positive motivation include:l

Praise and credit for work done

Wages and Salaries

Appreciation

A sincere interest in subordinates as individuals

Delegation of authority and responsibility

5.5.2 Negative or Fear Motivation

94

This type of motivation is based on force and fear. Fear causes persons to act in a
certain way because they fear the consequences. Negative motivation involves the
possibility of decreased motive satisfaction. It is a "push" mechanism.

The imposition of punishment frequently results in frustration among those punished,

leading to the development of maladaptive behaviour. It also creates a hostile state of
mind and an unfavourable attitude to the job. However, there is no management which
has not used the negative motivation at some time or the other.

Human Factors and

Motivation

Check Your Progress 1

1.

Define Motivation?

2.

Explain the nature and characteristics of motivation.

3.

What is the benefits of motivation?

4.

Explain the types of motivation.

5.6 THEORIES OF MOTIVATION

Motivation to work is very complex. There are many internal and environmental variables
that affect the motivation to work. Behavioural scientists started to search new facts
and techniques for motivation. These theories are termed as theories of motivation. The
most important theories are explained below.

5.6.1 McGregor's Theory X and Theory Y

Different styles of management have a different bearing on the motivation of workers in
the organization. The style adopted by a manager in managing his subordinates is basically
dependent upon his assumption about human behaviour. Theory X is negative, traditional
and autocratic style while Theory Y is positive, participatory and democratic. Thus, these
labels describe contrasting set of assumptions about human nature.
Douglas McGregor has classified the basic assumption regarding human nature into two
parts and has designated them as 'theory X and 'theory Y'.
Theory X: This is the traditional theory of human behaviour, which makes the following
assumptions about human nature:
1.

Management is responsible for organizing the elements of productive enterprises money, material, equipment, and people - in the interest of economic ends.

2.

With reference to people it is a process of directing their efforts, motivating them,

controlling their actions, modifying their behaviour in order to be in conformity with
the needs of the organization.

3.

Without this active intervention by management, people would be passive even

resistant to organizational needs. Hence they must be persuaded, rewarded, punished
and properly directed.

4.

The average human being has an inherent dislike of work and will avoid it if he can.

5.

He lacks ambition, dislikes responsibility and prefers to be led.

6.

He is inherently self-centred, indifferent to organizational needs.

7.

He is by nature resistant to change.

8.

He is gullible, not very bright.

Theory Y: The assumption of theory Y, according to McGregor are as follows:1.

Work is as natural as play or rest, provided the conditions are favourable; the
average human being does not inherently dislike work.

2.

External control and the thrust of punishment are not the only means for bringing
about efforts towards organizational objectives. Man can exercise self-control and
self-direction in the service of objectives to which he is committed.

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Principles of Management and

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3.

Commitment to objectives is a result of the rewards associated with their

achievement. People select goals for themselves if they see the possibilities of
some kind of reward that may be material or even psychological.

4.

The average human being, under proper conditions does not shirk responsibility, but
learn not only to accept responsibility but also to seek it.

5.

He has capacity to exercise a relatively high degree of imagination, ingenuity and

creativity in the solution of organizational problems in widely, not narrowly distributed
in the population.

6.

Under conditions of modern industrial life the intellectual potentialities of people

are only partially utilized. As a matter of fact, men, have unlimited potential.
Comparison of Theory X and Theory Y

THEORY X

THEORY Y

1. Theory X assumes human beings inherently

dislike work and are distasteful towards work.

1.Theory Y assumes that work is as natural

as play or rest

2. Theory X emphasizes that people do not have

ambitions and they shrink responsibility

2. Theory Y assumes just the reverse.

Given proper conditions, people have
ambitions and accept responsibility

3. Theory X assumes that people in general have

little capacity for creativity

3. According to Theory Y the creativity is

widely distributed in the population

4. According to Theory X, people lack self

motivation and require be externally controlling
and closely supervising in order to get maximum
output.

4. While in Theory Y people are selfdirected and creative and prefer Selfcontrol

5. Theory X emphasise upon centralization of

authority in decision-making process

5. Theory Y emphasizes decentralisation

and greater participation in decisionmaking process

5.6.2 Maslow's Need-Hierarchy Theory of Motivation

According to Abraham Maslow, a U.S psychologist, man is a wanting animal. He has a
variety of wants or needs. All motivated behaviour of man is directed towards the
satisfaction of his needs. The theory postulated that people are motivated by multiple
needs, which could be arranged in a hierarchy.
Maslow offers a general theory of motivation called the 'need hierarchy theory'.
The features of his theory are as follows:-

96

1.

People have a wide range of needs which motivate them to strive for fulfilment.

2.

Human needs can be definitely categorized into five types:

l

Physical needs,

Safety or security needs,

Affiliation or social needs,

Esteem needs and

Self-actualisation needs.

3.

These needs can be arranged into a hierarchy. Physical needs are at the base
whereas self-actualisation needs are at the apex.

4.

People gratify their physical needs first, when the need is satisfied, they feel the
urge for the next higher level need.

5.

Relative satisfaction of lower level need is necessary to activate the next higher
level need.

6.

A satisfied need does not motivate human behaviour. It only triggers or activates
the urge for the next higher level of needs.

Human Factors and

Motivation

Deficit and Progression Principles: In order to comprehend the full meaning of

Maslow's theory, it is necessary to understand the deficit and progression principles.
Deficit Principle: According to Maslow, once a need is fairly well satisfied, it is no
longer a stronger motivator of behaviour. People are motivated to satisfy only those
needs that are perceived to be deficient.
Progression Principle: Maslow contends that the five categories of needs exist in a
hierarchy. A need at a given level is not activated until the need directly below it is fairly
well gratified. Thus, the person is expected to progress step-by-step up the need hierarchy.
The need-hierarchy theory must not be viewed as a rigid structure to be applied universally
in all situations. The hierarchy represents a typical pattern that operates most of the
time.

SELFACTUALISATION
(Creativity, selfexpression etc.
ESTEEM SELFRESPECT
(Status etc)
SOCIAL ASSOCIATION WITH
OTHERS
(Belonging, giving and receiving affection etc)

SECURITY

(Protection against
danger, threat
deprivation etc)
PHYSIOLOGICAL
(Hunger, thirst, relaxation, sex,
etc)

Figure 5.1: Maslow's Hierarchy of needs.

5.6.3 Hertzberg's Theory of Motivation

Hertzberg developed a theory of motivation on the premise that human nature has two
separate elements - The motivators and maintenance factors. According to this theory
of motivation the items that determine job content are considered motivational factors
e.g.:- Achievement, recognition, responsibility, advancement and the work itself. The
elements that influence the job context are the hygiene or maintenance factors e.g.:company policy, salary, inter-personal relations, working conditions etc. They must be
adequate and if they are absent or inadequate, they will create dissatisfaction.
(a)

Hygiene Factors: Hygiene factors represent the need to avoid pain in the
environment. They are not an intrinsic part of a job, but they are related to the
conditions under which a job is performed. They are associated with negative
feelings. They must be viewed as preventive measures that remove sources of
dissatisfaction from environment. Hertzberg believed that hygiene factors created
a zero level of motivation and if maintained at proper level prevents negative type
of motivation from occurring.
Thus, hygiene factors, when absent, increase dissatisfaction with the job. When
present, help in preventing dissatisfaction but do not increase satisfaction or
motivation.

(b)

Motivators: Motivators are associated with positive feelings of employees about

the job. They make people satisfied with their job. Motivators are necessary to
keep job satisfaction and job performance high. On the other hand, if they are not

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present they do not prove highly satisfying. Motivational factors or satisfiers are
directly related to job content itself, the individual's performance of it, its responsibilities
and the growth and recognition obtained from it. Motivators are intrinsic to the job.
Thus, when motivators are absent, prevent both satisfaction and motivation. When,
motivators are present, they lead to satisfaction and motivation.
To apply the two-factor theory to the workplace, Hertzberg suggests a two-step process
(i)

The supervisor should attempt to eliminate the hygiene factors that are found to be
more basic than factors that lead to satisfaction.

(ii)

Once the dissatisfies have been somewhat neutralized, the supervisor may be able
to motivate workers through the introduction of motivational factors.

5.6.4 Victor Vroom's Expectancy Theory

Expectancy Theory was developed by Victor H Vroom. It is based on the notion that
human behaviour depends on people's expectations concerning their ability to perform
tasks and to receive desired rewards. The expectancy theory argues that the strength of
a tendency to act in a certain way depends in the strength of an expectation that the act
will be followed by a given outcome and on the attractiveness of the outcome to the
individual. It includes three variables which Vroom refers to as (i)

Valance: Valence means the strength of an individual's preference for a particular

outcome. A valence of zero occurs when the individual is indifferent towards the
outcome. The valance is negative when the individual prefers not attaining the
outcome to attaining it.

(ii)

Instrumentality: Instrumentality refers to the relationship between performance

and reward. It refers to a degree to which a first level outcome (e.g.:-superior
performance) will lead to a desired second level outcome (e.g.:- promotion). If
people perceive that their performance is adequately rewarded the perceived
instrumentality will be positive. On the other hand, if they perceive that performance
does not make any difference to their rewards, the instrumentality will be low.

(iii) Expectancy: People have expectancies about the likelihood that an action or effort
on their part will lead to the intended performance. Workers will be motivated by
the belief that their performance will ultimately lead to payoffs for them. Expectancy
is the probability that a particular action will lead to a particular first level outcome.
In sum, Vroom emphasizes the importance of individual perceptions and assessments of
organizational behaviour. The key to "expectancy" theory is the "understanding of an
individual's goals" - and the linkage between "effort" and "performance" between
"performance" and "rewards" and between "rewards" and "individual-goal satisfaction".
It is a contingency model, which recognizes that there is no universal method of motivating
people. Because we understand what needs an employee seeks to satisfy does not
ensure that the employee himself perceives high job performance as necessarily leading
to the satisfaction of these needs.

5.6.5 McClelland's Need for Achievement Theory

David C McClelland, a Harvard Psychologist, has proposed that there are three major
relevant motives most needs in work-place situations. According to him, the motives
are:-

98

The need for achievement i.e., strives to succeed.

The need for affiliation i.e., warm relationship with others.

The need for power i.e., controls other people.

According to McClelland, every motive is acquired except striving for pleasure and
avoiding pain. He proposed that people acquire these needs for achievement, power and
affiliation through experiences over the time. On the job, people are motivated by these
needs, and the manager can learn to recognize these needs in workers and use them to
motivate behaviour.

Human Factors and

Motivation

McClelland used the Thematic Apperception Test (TAT) to study human needs. The
TAT process involves asking respondents to look at pictures and write stories about
what they see in the pictures. The stories are then analysed to find certain themes that
represent various human needs. From his research, McClelland found that, achievement
motive is a "desire to perform in terms of a standard of excellence or to be successful in
competitive situations". They (employees) seek situations where:
1.

They can attain personal responsibility for finding solutions to problems.

2.

They can receive immediate feedback information on how they are progressive
towards a goal.

3.

They can set moderately challenging goals.

4.

They find accomplishing a task intrinsically satisfying.

"High achievers" differentiate themselves from others by their desire to do things better.
Evaluation: Achievement motivated people is the backbone of any organization. As
such considerable time and attention must be devoted to constructing ways of developing
the achievement motive at the managerial level. Organizational climate must be conducive
to high achievement. Managers must try to raise the achievement need level of
subordinates by creating the proper work environment, increasing responsibility and
autonomy and rewarding excellence in performance.
Check Your Progress 2

1.

Explain theory X and theory Y.

2.

Explain the need hierarchy theory.

3.

Explain the term 'valance' and 'expectancy'.

4.

Explain the features of the need achievement theory.

5.7 REQUIREMENTS OF A SOUND MOTIVATION SYSTEM

It is very difficult for an average manager to sort through all the different motivational
theories and models and know when and how to maximize their application in widely
differing situations. There should be a sound system of motivation to make the workers
put forth their best efforts. A sound system of motivation should have the following
essential features.
1.

A sound motivation system should satisfy the needs and objectives of both
organization and employees.

2.

Motivational system should change with the changes in the situation.

3.

Jobs should be designed in such a way as to provide challenge and variety.

4.

Managers should recruit the active co-operation of subordinates in improving the

organization's output. Subordinates should be made to realize that they are
stakeholders in the organization.

5.

The motivational system should satisfy the different needs of employees. It should
be directly related to the efforts of the employers.
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Principles of Management and

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6.

The motivational system should be simple so that it is easily understood by the

workers.

5.8 METHODS OF MOTIVATING PEOPLE

Several factors influence human behaviour. There are numerous drives and needs which
can act as good motivators moving people to work and getting things done through them
as per the plan. People respond to physiological needs, social needs and egoistic needs.
Human needs and desires are the door ways through which the manager channelises his
motivation efforts. There are three types of motivational programmes to improve a person's
behaviour towards his job. These are:1.

Pay incentive plans,

2.

Job enrichment and

3.

Management by objectives.

Factors Determining Response to Motivation

There are four important factors governing employee response to the measures of
motivation:
l

The intensity or urge of the Drive.

Past Experience - can he rely upon the promises given by the boss.

Amount of Reward - The quantity and quality of the reward can influence the
amount of extra effort put forth by the employee.

Time Relationship of Response to Reward - Long range promises are less effective
than immediate fulfilment.
Check Your Progress 3

1.

What are the requirements of a sound motivation system?

2.

Explain the methods of motivating people.

3.

What are the factors determining the response to motivation?

5.9 LET US SUM UP

People are complex and they are uniquely different. What motivates one person may not
motivate another. Most successful managers have learned to understand the concept of
human motivation and are able to use that understanding to achieve higher standards of
subordinate work performance. Motivation is the process of channelling a person's inner
drives so that he wants to accomplish the goals of the organization. Motivation concern
itself with the will to work. The Encyclopaedia of Management observes: "Motivation
refers to the degree of readiness of an organism to pursue some designated goal, and
implies the determination of the nature and locus of the forces, including the degree of
readiness". Motivation facilitates the maximum utilization of all factors of production,
human, physical and financial resources and thereby contributes to higher production.
Motivation promotes a sense of belonging among the workers. The workers feel that the
enterprise belongs to them and the interest of the enterprise is their interests. Many
organizations are now beginning to pay increasing attention to developing their employees
as future resources upon which they can draw as they grow and develop. If a manager
wants to get work done by his employees, he may either hold out a promise of a reward
100

(positive motivation) or he may install fear (negative motivation). Both these types are
widely used by managements. Positive or Incentive Motivation is generally based on
reward. There are three types of motivational programmes to improve a person's behaviour
towards his job. These are Pay incentive plans, Job enrichment and Management by
objectives. Motivation to work is very complex. There are many internal and environmental
variables that affect the motivation to work. Behavioural scientists started to search
new facts and techniques for motivation. These theories are termed as theories of
motivation.

Human Factors and

Motivation

5.10 LESSON END ACTIVITY

Elaborate the following statement:
Motivation is a process by which a need or desire in aroused and a psychological force
within our mind sets us in motion to fulfill our needs and desire.

5.11 KEYWORDS
Motivation
Hygiene Factors
Valance
Instrumentality
Expectancy

5.12 QUESTIONS FOR DISCUSSION

1.

Define Motivation. What is its importance?

2.

"Management is essentially a process of motivation". Explain.

3.

Critically examine Maslow's need priority theory. How far up the hierarchical ladder
do most people progress?

4.

Distinguish between motivators and hygiene factors. Why is it important to make

this distinction?

5.

Does money play any role in motivating people? Explain.

6.

Define "morale" and explain its importance in an organization.

7.

Explain the requirements of a sound motivational system.

5.13 SUGGESTED READINGS

Abraham H. Maslow, "Motivation and Personality" Harper and Row, New York (1954)
Abraham K. Korman, "Organizational Behaviour" Prentice-Hall, Englewood Cliffs,
N.J (1977)
Bernard Berelson and Garry A. Steiner "Human Behaviour" Harcourt, Brace & World,
New York (1964)
Clayton P. Alderfer, "Existence, Relatedness and Growth: Human Needs in
Organisational Settings" Free Press, New York (1972)
Dalton E. McFarland, "Management Principles and Practices" Macmillan, New Yorks
(1974)
Douglas McGregor, "The Human Side of Enterprise" McGraw-Hill, New York (1954)
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Principles of Management and

Organisational Behaviour

David C. McClelland, "The Achievement Motive" Appleton-Century-Crofts, New York (1953)

Elmer H. Burack and Robert D. Smith, "Personnel Management - A Human Resource
Systems Approach" John Wiley, New York 91982)
Frederick Herzberg, "Work and the Nature of Man" World Publishing, Clever land (1966)
International Labour Organisation, "Payments by results" Oxford &IBH, New Delhi
(1951)
John W. Newstrom and Keith Davis, "Organisational Behaviour: Human Behaviour
at Work" Tata McGraw-Hill, New Delhi (1998)
Peter F. Drucker, "How to be an Employee", Psychology Today, (March 2968)
Rensis Likert, "New Patterns of Management" McGraw-Hill, New York (1961)
Robert Dubin, "Human Relations in Administration" Prentice-Hall of India, New Delhi (1974)
Robert L. Mathis and J.H Jackson, "Personnel - Contemporary Perspectives and
Applications" West Publishing New York (1982)
Robert N. Ford, "Motivation Through the Work Itself", American Management
Association, New York (1969)
P.G. Aquinas, Organizational Behaviour, Excel Books, New Delhi.

Case

Sri Ram Pharmacy

K.U Nayak is the Managing Director of Sri Ram Pharmacy, a medium sized pharmaceutical firm
in Mangalore. He holds a M.S degree in pharmacy. He has been managing the company from
its inception in 1980. For more than two decades, the company is doing reasonably well.
Of late, Mr. Nayak has noticed that the workers are not working to their full potential. It is a
well-known fact that they filled their days with unnecessary and unproductive activities
and worked only for the sake of wages. About a year back, the situation has become quite
alarming as the organisation began to crumble under the weight of uneconomical effort.
The situation demanded prompt remedial measure to check the detrimental trend that was
noticed in the last year. Mr. Nayak knew very well that the only way to progress and prosper
is to motivate workers to peak performance through various incentive plans.
Mr. Nayak summoned the HR Manager and enquired - What is the problem with the workers?
We pay the highest in the industry. Our working conditions are excellent. Our fringe benefits
are the best in the industry. Still the workers are not motivated. Find out what the workers
really want? Unless productivity increases we are doomed.
The HR Manager made a detailed investigation and comes out with the following reply The wages, fringe benefits and working conditions are not enough. Other things are equally
important. I have found out from the workers that work and efficiency go unnoticed and
unrewarded in the company. The promotions and benefit plans are tied to the length of
service. Even unproductive workers enjoy all the benefits in the organisation, which in fact,
according to the workers, should go only to those who work hard. As a result more and
more workers are joining the bandwagon of non-performers. This has become quite alarming
as workers refuse to perform.
Questions:

102

1.

Explain the motivational problem in this case by relating it to Herzberg's theory.

2.

Analyse the problem in depth and find out a solution to the problem.

3.

If you were the HR Manager how would you motivate the employees so that they work
better?

LESSON

6
LEADERSHIP AND GROUP DECISION MAKING

CONTENTS
6.0

Aims and Objectives

6.1

Introduction

6.2

Definitions and Meaning of Leadership

6.3

Nature or Characteristic Features of Leadership

6.4

Leadership Styles and Patterns

6.5

Leadership Skill
6.5. 1 Human Skill
6.5 .2 Conceptual Skill
6.5 .3 Technical Skill
6.5 .4 Personal Skill

6.6

Importance of Leadership

6.7

Functions of a Leader

6.8

Type of Leaders
6.8 .1 Autocratic or Task Management Leadership
6.8 .2 Participative or Democratic Leadership

6.9

6.8.3

Laissez Faire or Free-rein Leadership

6.8.4

Paternalistic Leadership

Leadership Committee
6.9.1

Selecting Members for a Committee

6.9.2

Selecting the Chairman for the Committee

6.10 Group Decision Making

6.10.1 Advantages of Group Decision Making
6.10.2 Disadvantages of Group Decision Making
6.11 Groupthink
6.12 Let us Sum up
6.13 Lesson-end Activity
6.14 Keywords
6.15 Questions for Discussion
6.16 Suggested Readings

Principles of Management and

Organisational Behaviour

6.0 AIMS AND OBJECTIVES

This lesson is intended to discuss the concept and importance of leadership and group
decision making in an organisation. After studying this lesson you will be able to:
(i)

know meaning and nature of leadership

(ii)

describe leadership styles and patterns

(iii) know kinds of leadership skill

(iv) describe the importance of leadership in an organisation
(v)

understand types and functions of leadership styles

(vi) know about the leadership committee and importance of group decision making

6.1 INTRODUCTION
The problem of leadership has been one of man's major concerns since the days of
antiquity. Leadership was a matter of concern even in biblical times. The children of
Israel needed someone to guide them out of their bondage in Egypt, and Moses stepped
forward to lead them in their journey to the promised holy land of Israel. In the 20th
century, Great Britain needed the leadership of Winston Churchill to successfully combat
her enemies in the 2nd World War. In the same way Franklin D Roosevelt provided
leadership to the American people, Adolph Hitler in Germany, Stalin in USSR and M.K.
Gandhi in India.
Coming to the business enterprises, people working there need leaders, who could be
instrumental in guiding the efforts of groups of workers to achieve the goals of both
individuals and the organization. Leadership is a process of influence on a group.
Leadership is the ability of a manager to induce subordinates to work with confidence
and zeal. Peter F Drucker considers "leadership" as a human characteristic which lifts a
man's vision to higher sights, raises a man's performance to higher standards and builds
man's personality beyond its normal limitations.

6.2 DEFINITIONS AND MEANING OF LEADERSHIP

Leadership is a great quality and it can create and convert anything. There are many
definitions of leadership. Some of the definitions of leadership are reproduced below:"Leadership" according to Alford and Beatty "is the ability to secure desirable actions
from a group of followers voluntarily, without the use of coercion".
According to Chester I Barnard, "It (leadership) refers to the quality of the behaviour of
the individual whereby they guide people on their activities in organized efforts".
According to Terry, "a leader shows the way by his own example. He is not a pusher, he
pulls rather than pushes".
According to Koontz and O'Donnell - Managerial leadership is "the ability to exert interpersonal influence by means of communication, towards the achievement of a goal.
Since managers get things done through people, their success depends, to a considerable
extent upon their ability to provide leadership".
In the words of R.T. Livingston - Leadership is "the ability to awaken in others the desire
to follow a common objective".
According to the Encyclopedia of the Social Sciences - "Leadership is the relation between
an individual and a group around some common interest and behaving in a manner directed
or determined by him".
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According to Peter Drucker - Leadership "is not making friends and influencing people
i.e., salesmanship. Leadership is the lifting of man's vision to higher sights, the raising of
man's performance to higher standards, the building of man's personality beyond its
normal limitations".

Leadership and Group Decision

Making

According to Louis A Allen - "A leader is one who guides and directs other people. He
gives the efforts to his followers a direction and purpose by influencing their behaviour".
In the words of Theo Haimann - "Leadership is the process by which an executive
imaginatively directs, guides and influences the work of others in choosing and attaining
specified goals by mediating between the individuals and the organization in such a manner
that both will obtain maximum satisfaction".
In the words of James Gibbon - Leadership is "a process of influencing on a group in a
particular situation at a given point of time and in a specific set of circumstances that
stimulates people to strive willingly to attain organizational objectives, giving them the
experience of helping attain the common objectives and satisfaction with the type of
leadership provided".
According to Katz and Kalm - "In the descriptions of organizations, no word is used with
such varied meanings. The word leadership is sometimes used to indicate that it is an
attribute of personality; sometimes, it is used as if it were a characteristic of certain
positions, and sometimes as an attribute of behaviour".
From the above definitions we can conclude that leadership is a psychological process of
influencing followers (subordinates) and providing guidance, directing and leading the
people in an organization towards attainment of the objectives of the enterprise.

6.3 NATURE OR CHARACTERISTIC FEATURES OF

LEADERSHIP
1.

Leadership implies the existence of followers: We appraise the qualities of

leadership by studying his followers. In an organization leaders are also followers
for e.g.:- Supervisor works under a branch head. Thus, in a formal organization a
leader has to be able to be both a leader as well as a follower, and be able to relate
himself both upward and downward.

2.

Leadership involves a community of interest between the leader and his

followers: In other words, the objectives of both the leader and his men are one
and the same. If the leader strives for one purpose and his team of workers work
for some other purpose, it is no leadership.

3.

Leadership involves an unequal distribution of authority among leaders and

group members: Leaders can direct some of the activities of group members, i.e.,
the group members are compelled or are willing to obey most of the leader's
directions. The group members cannot similarly direct the leader's activities, though
they will obviously affect those activities in a number of ways.

4.

Leadership is a process of Influence: Leadership implies that leaders can influence

their followers or subordinates in addition to being able to give their followers or
subordinates legitimate directions.

5.

Leadership is the function of stimulation: Leadership is the function of motivating

people to strive willingly to attain organizational objectives. A successful leader
allows his subordinates (followers) to have their individual goals set up by themselves
in such a way that they do not conflict with the organizational objectives.

6.

A leader must be exemplary: In the words of George Terry - "A Leader shows
the way by his own example. He is not a pusher, he pulls rather than pushes".
According to L.G. Urwick - "it does not what a leader says, still less what he

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writes, that influences subordinates. It is what he is. And they judge what he is by
what he does and how he behaves". From the above explanation it is clear that a
leader must set an ideal before his followers. He must stimulate his followers for
hard and sincere work by his personal behaviour. In other words a leader must set
an exemplary standard before his followers.
7.

A Leader ensures absolute justice: A leader must be objective and impartial. He

should not follow unfair practices like favouritism and nepotism. He must show fair
play and absolute justice in all his decisions and actions.

6.4 LEADERSHIP STYLES AND PATTERNS

Tannenbaum and Schmidt have described the range of possible leadership behaviour
available to a manager. Each type of action is related to the degree of authority used by
the boss and to the degree of freedom available to his subordinates in reaching decisions.
The figure below shows the different leadership styles and patterns.

2.

4.

5.

6.

7.

AREA OF FREEDOM FOR SUBORDINATES

3.

Manager Makes and

Announces Decisions
Manager sells his
Decisions
Manager Presents ideas
and invites questions
Manager offers tentative
decisions subject to
change
Manager Presents
problems gets
suggestions and makes
decisions
Manager defines limits
and requests group to
make decisions
Manager permits full
involvement of
subordinates in the
decision-making
process

USE OF AUTHORITY BY MANAGER

1.

Boss Centered Leadership

Subordinate Centered

Figure 6.1: Range of leadership styles

Leadership Styles

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1.

The Manager makes decision and announces it: It is an extreme form of

autocratic leadership whereby decisions are made by the boss who identifies the
problem, considers alternative solutions, selects one of them and then reports his
decision to his subordinates for implementation.

2.

The Manager sells his decisions: It is a slightly improved form of leadership

wherein the manager takes the additional step of persuading the subordinates to
accept his decision.

3.

The Manager presents his ideas and invites questions: There is greater
involvement of the employees in this pattern. The boss arrives at the decision, but
provides a full opportunity to his subordinates to get fuller explanation of his thinking
and intentions.

4.

The manager presents a tentative decision subject to change: Herein the

decision is tentatively taken by the manager but he is amenable to change and
influence from the employees.

5.

The manager may present the problem, get the suggestions and then take his
own decision: Herein sufficient opportunity is given to the employees to make
suggestions that are coolly considered by the Manager.

6.

The Manager may define the limits and request the group to make a decision: A
manager of this style of management lets the group have the right to make the decision.
The subordinates are able to take the decision to the limits defined by the manager.

7.

The Manager may permit full involvement of the subordinates in the decisionmaking process: It is often designated as 'Democratic' leadership.

Leadership and Group Decision

Making

Leadership style refers to the behaviour pattern adopted by a leader to influence the
behaviour of his subordinates for attaining the organizational goals. As different leadership
styles have their own merits and demerits, it is difficult to prefer one leadership styles to
another. The selection of a leadership style will depend on the consideration of a number
of factors. Tannenbaum and Schmidt have pointed out the important factors that affect
the choice of a style of leadership. They are:*

Forces in the manager i.e., the manager's personality, experience and value system.

Forces in the subordinates i.e., the subordinates readiness for making decisions,
knowledge, interest, need for independence etc.

Forces in the situation i.e., complexity of the problem, pressure of time etc.
Check Your Progress 1

1.

Define leadership.

2.

Explain the characteristics of leadership.

3.

What are the different leadership styles?

6.5 LEADERSHIP SKILL

The leader is expected to play many roles and therefore, must be qualified to guide
others to organizational achievement. Although no set of absolute traits or skills may be
identified, the individuals who possess abilities to lead others must have certain attributes
to help them in performing their leadership rolls. In a broad way the skills which are
necessary for an industrial leader may be summarized under four heads:(a)

Human skill

(b)

Conceptual skill

(c)

Technical skill and

(d)

Personal skill.

6.5.1 Human Skill

A good leader is considerate towards his followers because his success largely depends
on the co-operation of his followers. He approaches various problems in terms of people
involved more than in terms of technical aspects involved. A leader should have an
understanding of human behaviour. He should know people; know their needs, sentiments,
emotions, as also their actions and reactions to particular decisions, their motivations etc.
Thus, a successful leader possesses the human relations attitude. He always tries to
develop social understanding with other people. The human skill involves the following:(a)

Empathy: A leader should be able to look at things objectively. He should respect

the rights, belief and sentiments of others. He should equip himself to meet the
challenges emanating from the actions and reactions of other people. The leader
should be empathetic towards his followers so that he can carefully judge their
strengths, weakness, and ambitions and give them the attention they deserve.

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(b)

Objectivity: A good leader is fair and objective in dealing with subordinates. He

must be free from bias and prejudice while becoming emotionally involved with the
followers. His approach to any issue or problem should be objective and not based
on any pressure, prejudice or preconceived notions. Objectivity is a vital aspect of
analytical decision making. Honesty, fairplay, justice and integrity of character are
expected of any good leader.

(c)

Communication Skill: A leader should have the ability to persuade, to inform,

stimulate, direct and convince his subordinates. To achieve this, a leader should
have good communication skill. Good communications seem to find all responsibilities
easier to perform because they relate to others more easily and can better utilize
the available resources.

(d)

Teaching Skill: A leader should have the ability to demonstrate how to accomplish
a particular task.

(e)

Social Skill: A leader should understand his followers. He should be helpful,

sympathetic and friendly. He should have the ability to win his followers confidence
and loyalty.

6.5.2 Conceptual Skill

In the words of Chester Barnard -"the essential aspect of the executive process is the
sensing of the organization as a whole and the total situation relevant to it". Conceptual
skills include (a)

The understanding of the organization behaviour,

(b)

Understanding the competitors of the firm, and

(c)

Knowing the financial status of the firm.

A leader should have the ability to look at the enterprise as a whole, to recognize that the
various functions of an organization depend upon one another and are interrelated, that
changes in one affect all others. The leader should have skill to run the firm in such a
way that overall performance of the firm in the long run will be sound.

6.5.3 Technical Skill

A leader should have a thorough knowledge of, and competence in, the principles,
procedures and operations of a job. Technical skill involves specialized knowledge,
analytical skill and a facility in the use of the tools and techniques of a specific discipline.
Technical competence is an essential quality of leadership.

6.5.4 Personal Skill

The most important task of the leader is to get the best from others. This is possible only
if he possesses certain qualities. These personal skills include-

108

(a)

Intelligence: Intellectual capacity is an essential quality of leadership. Leaders

generally have somewhat higher level of intelligence than the average of their
followers.

(b)

Emotional Maturity: A leader should act with self-coincidence, avoid anger, take
decisions on a rational basis and think clearly and maturely. A leader should also
have high frustration tolerance. According to Koontz and O'Donnell - "Leaders
cannot afford to become panicky, unsure of themselves in the face of conflicting
forces, doubtful of their principles when challenged, or amenable to influence".

(c)

Personal Motivation: This involves the creation of enthusiasm within the leader
himself to get a job done. It is only through enthusiasm that one can achieve what
one wants. Leaders have relatively intense achievement type motivational drive.

He should work hard more for the satisfaction of inner drives than for extrinsic
material rewards.
(d)

Integrity: In the words of F.W Taylor - "integrity is the straight forward honesty of
purpose which makes a man truthful, not only to others but to himself; which makes
a man high-minded, and gives him high aspirations and high ideals".

(e)

Flexibility of Mind: A leader must be prepared to accommodate other's viewpoints

and modify his decisions, if need be. A leader should have a flexible mind, so that
he may change in obedience to the change in circumstances. Thomas Carle has
said - "A foolish consistency is the hobgoblin of a little mind".

Leadership and Group Decision

Making

In sum, a leader must have a dynamic personality, intellectual attainment, amiable

disposition, unassuming temperament and knowledge of how to deal with his followers.
Difference between Leadership and Management: Leadership is different from
management. The main differences between these two terms are:1.

A manager is required to plan, organize, direct and control. But a leader is one who
gets others to follow him.

2.

A manager depends on his authority. But a leader depends on his confidence and
goodwill. He inspires enthusiasm.

3.

Management is concerned with the formulation of broad policies to guide the

operations of an enterprise. But leadership is concerned with the initiation of action
for the accomplishment of the goals.

4.

An individual is a leader in the true sense if he is accepted as a leader by the group.

A manager is appointed and he derives his authority by virtue of his office.

5.

Management is associated with the organized structure. But leadership may be

associated with unorganised groups.

6.6 IMPORTANCE OF LEADERSHIP

The importance of leadership in an organization cannot be denied. People working in an
organization need individuals (leaders) who could be instrumental in guiding the efforts
of groups of workers to achieve goals and objectives of both the individuals and the
organization. The leader guides the action of others in accomplishing these tasks. A good
leader motivates his subordinates, creates confidence and increases the morale of the
workers. In the words of Peter F Drucker - "Good leadership is a must for the success
of a business but the business leaders are the scarcest resources of any enterprise". The
following points highlight the importance of leadership:1.

Leadership is the process of influencing the activities of an individual or a group

towards the achievement of a goal.

2.

An effective leader motivates the subordinates for higher level of performance.

3.

Leadership promotes team - spirit and team - work which is quite essential for the
success of any organization.

4.

Leadership is an aid to authority. A leadership helps in the effective use of formal

authority.

5.

Leadership creates confidence in the subordinates by giving them proper guidance

and advice.

The history of business is full of instances where good leaders led their business concerns
to unprecedented peaks of success .To quote George R Terry - " The will to do is
triggered by leadership and lukewarm desires for achievement are transformed into
burning passe.. for successful accomplishments by the skilful use of leadership."

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6.7 FUNCTIONS OF A LEADER

According to Peter Drucker - "An effective leader is one who can make ordinary men
do extraordinary things, make common people do uncommon things. Leadership is a
lifting of a man's sights to a higher vision, the raising of man's standard to a higher
performance, the building of a man's personality beyond its normal limitations." This
view point of Peter Drucker stresses the leaders' obligation to attain organizational goals
and gives attention to the needs of the individuals who are his subordinates. The important
functions of a business leader may be briefly summarized as follows:1.

To take the initiative: A leader initiates all the measures that are necessary for the
purpose of ensuring the health and progress of the undertaking in a competitive
economy. He should not expect others to guide or direct him. He should lay down
the aims and objectives, commence their implementation and see that the goals are
achieved according the predetermined targets.

2.

He identifies group goals: A leader must always help the group identify and
attain their goals. Thus, a leader is a goal setter.

3.

He represents the organization: A leader represents the organization and its

purpose, ideals, philosophy and problems to those working for it and to the outside
world .In other words, leaders is true representative of the entire organization.

4.

He acts as a arbitrator: When groups experience internal difference, whether

based on emotional or intellectual clashes, a leader can often resolve the differences.
He acts as an arbitrator to prevent serious group difference.

5.

To assign reasons for his action: It is a delicate task of leaders to assigns reason
to his every command. He has to instruct things in such a way that they are intelligible
to all concerned and their co-operation is readily forthcoming.

6.

To interpret: He interprets the objectives of the organization and the means to be

followed to achieve them; he appraises his followers, convinces them, and creates
confidence among them.

7.

To guide and direct: It is the primary function of the leader to guide and direct the
organization. He should issue the necessary instructions and see that they are
properly communicated.

8.

To encourage team work: A leader must try to win the confidence of his
subordinates. He must act like the capital of a team.

9.

He manages the organization: Last, but not the least, he administers the
undertaking by arranging for the forecast, planning, organization, direction, coordination and control of its activities.
Check Your Progress 2

1.

What are the skills that a leader should possess?

2.

What are the differences between leadership and management?

3.

What is the importance of leaders?

4.

Explain the functions of a leader.

6.8 TYPE OF LEADERS

The different types of leadership styles are:-

110

1.

Autocratic or task Management Leadership,

2.

Participative or democratic leadership,

3.

Laissez faire or Free-rein Leadership, and

4.

paternalistic Leadership.

Leadership and Group Decision

Making

6.8.1 Autocratic or Task Management Leadership

The autocratic Leader gives order which he insists shall be obeyed. He determines
polices for the group without consulting them, and does not give detailed information
about future plans, but simply tells the group what steps must they take. In other words,
an autocratic leader is one who centralizes the authority in himself and does not delegate
authority to his subordinates. He is dictatorial by nature, and has no regard for the
subordinates. He drives himself and his subordinates with one thought uppermost in his
mind- action must produce results. An autocratic close the entire planning and cells upon
his subordinates to execute what he has planned. An Autocratic leader operates on the
following assumptions:(a)

An average human being has inherent dislikes of work and will avoid it if he can.

(b)

His assumption is that if his subordinate was intelligent enough, he would not be in
that subordinate position.

(c)

He assumes that unintelligent subordinates are immature, unreliable and irresponsible

persons. Therefore, they should be constantly watched in the course of their work.

(d)

As he has no regard for his subordinates, he gets the work done by his subordinates
through negative motivation i.e. through threats of penalty and punishment.

Thus under this style all decision-making power is centralized in the leader. The autocratic
leader stresses his prerogative to decide and order and subordinates obligation to do
what they are told to carry out. He does not give subordinates the freedom to influence
his behaviour.
Types of autocratic leadership
Strict autocratic leaders: A strict autocratic relies on negative influence and gives
orders which the subordinates must accept. He may also use his power to disperse
rewards to his group.
Benevolent Autocrat: The benevolent is effected in getting high productivity in many
situations and he can develop effective human relationship. His motivational style is
usually positive.
Manipulative Autocrat: A manipulative autocratic leader is one who makes the
subordinates feel that they are participating in decision making process even though he
has already taken the decision.

6.8.2 Participative or Democratic Leadership

A democratic leader is one who consults and invites his subordinates to participate in the
decision making process. He gives orders only after consulting the group; sees to it that
polices are worked out in group decisions and with the acceptance of group. The manager
largely avoids the use of power to get a job done. He behaves that a desired organizational
behaviour can be obtained if employees' needs and wants are satisfied. Therefore, he
not only issues orders but interprets them and sees to it that the employees have the
necessary skill and tool to carry out their assignments. He assigns a fair work lead to his
personal and recognizes the job that is well done; there is a team approach to the attainment
of organizational goals. He recognizes human value for greater concern for his
subordinates. A participative leader operates on the following assumptions:(a)

Subordinates are capable of doing work and assuming the responsibility if they are
given opportunities and incentives.

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Principles of Management and

Organisational Behaviour

(b)

Subordinates are supervised, guided and aided rather then threatened and
commanded to work.

(c)

Mistakes are not viewed seriously. The assumption is that disciplinary action breeds
discontent and frustration among employees and creates an unhealthy work
environment.

6.8.3 Laissez Faire or Free-rein Leadership

A free-rein leader does not lead, but leaves the group entirely to itself. The leader avoids
using power and interest the decision making authority to his subordinates. He does not
direct his subordinates and there is complete freedom for the subordinates. Group of
members work themselves and provide their own motivation. The manager exits as a
contact man with outsiders to bring for his group the information and resources it needs
to accomplish its job. A free-rain leadership operates on the following assumption:(a)

He follows the rule of minimum exposure to accountability.

(b)

He relieves himself of responsibilities and is ready to blame his subordinates if

something goes wrong.

(c)

He has no clear idea of the goals to be attained.

(d)

He is more security conscious than status conscious.

This mode of direction can produce good and quick results if the subordinates are highly
educated and brilliant people who have a will to go ahead and perform their responsibility.

6.8.4 Paternalistic Leadership

Under this type of leadership, the leader assumes that his function is fatherly. His attitude
is that of treating the relationship between the leader and his groups that of family with
the leader as the head of the family. The leader works to help to work to help, guide,
protect and keep his followers happily working together as members of a family. He
provides them with good working condition, fringe benefits and employee services. It is
said that employees under such leadership well work harder out of gratitude.
Check Your Progress 3

1.

What are the different types of leaders?

2.

What are the different types of autocratic leaders?

3.

What do you mean by paternalistic leadership?

6.9 LEADERSHIP COMMITTEE

A committee is a small group of people formed from a larger group of employees assigned
with a particular task. A committee member may be appointed or the employee concerned
may also volunteer to become a member. The ideal size of a committee for most of the
tasks is 3 to 5 persons. The first person named in a committee is usually considered as
the chairman of the committee.

6.9.1 Selecting Members for a Committee

In selecting committee members we have to remember the contribution that participating
members can make to the committee. The following guidelines may be followed in selecting
a committee member:
112

He/She should be interested in the work to be done.

He/She should honour the appointment and be committed to the job.

The person should have special skills needed for the job.

He/ She should not be overloaded with conflicting commitments.

He/She should be willing to contribute to the group.

The chairman should consider him/her as useful and desirable for the committee.

He/She should be compatible with other members and should cooperate with them.

Leadership and Group Decision

Making

6.9.2 Selecting the Chairman for the Committee

Utmost care is needed in selecting the chairman of the committee than in selecting its
members. The chairman has the primary responsibility to give leadership to the group
and to stimulate them to their higher productivity both individually and as members of the
group. He/ She should be able to organise the individual members into a working group.
It is always desirable to have a chairman who had previously served as a member of a
committee or has had similar experience.
The chairman may also be chosen for his/ her ability to lead the group. The one who
proposes an idea or alternatively, the committee may select the leader by themselves.

6.10 GROUP DECISION MAKING

Major decisions in organizations are most often made by more than one person. Managers
use groups to make decisions for the following reasons.
1.

Synergy: Synergy is a positive force in groups that occurs when group members
stimulate new solutions to problems through the process of mutual influence and
encouragement in the group.

2.

Commitment: Another reason for using a group is to gain commitment to a decision.

3.

Knowledge and Experience: Groups also bring more knowledge and experience
to the problem-solving situation.

6.10.1 Advantages of Group Decision Making

Compared with individual decision-making, group decision making has several advantages.
They are:
(a)

More knowledge and information through the pooling of group member resources;

(b)

Increased acceptance of, and commitment to, the decision, because the members
had a voice in it;

(c)

Greater understanding of the decision, because members were involved in the

various stages of the decision process;

(d)

An increased number of alternatives can be developed;

(e)

Members develop knowledge and skills for future use.

6.10.2 Disadvantages of Group Decision Making

Despite its advantages, group decision making also has several disadvantages when
contrasted with individual decision making. They are:(a)

Pressure within the group to conform and fit in;

(b)

Domination of the group by one forceful member or a dominant clique, who may
ramrod (ramifications) the decision;

(c)

It is usually more time consuming, because a group is slower than an individual to

make a decision;

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Principles of Management and

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(d)

Disagreements may delay decisions and cause hard feelings;

(e)

Groupthink may cause members to overemphasize gaining agreement.

Given the emphasis on teams in the workplace, many managers believe that groups
produce better decisions than do individuals, yet the evidence is mixed. Two potential
liabilities are found in group decision: Groupthink and Group polarization. These problems
are discussed below:

6.11 GROUPTHINK
One liability of a cohesive group is its tendency to develop groupthink a dysfunctional
process. Group think is the tendency in cohesive groups to seek agreement about an
issue at the expense of realistically appraising the situation. With groupthink, group members
are so concerned about preserving the cohesion of the group that they are reluctant to
bring up issues that may cause disagreements or to provide information that may prove
unsettling to the discussion. Irving Janis, the originator of the groupthink concept, describes
group think as "a deterioration of mental efficiency, reality testing and moral judgement"
resulting from in-group pressures.
Certain conditions favour the development of group think.
(a)

Highly cohesive groups tend to avoid conflicts and to demand conformity.

(b)

Another condition (antecedents) includes directive leadership, high stress, insulation

of the group, and lack of methodical procedures for developing and evaluating
alternatives.

(c)

Having to make a highly consequential decision that has great impact on the group
members and on outside parties.

(d)

When group members feel that they have limited time in which to make a decision,
they may rush through the process.

These antecedents cause members to prefer concurrence in decisions and to fail to

evaluate one another's suggestions critically. Such tendencies can have disastrous
consequences when major issues are being considered.
A group suffering from groupthink shows recognizable symptoms. The figure below
presents these symptoms and makes suggestions on how to avoid groupthink.

Symptoms of Group Think and How to Prevent It

SYMPTOMS OF GROUP THINK

114

Illusions of invulnerability. Group members feel they are moral in their actions and
therefore above reproach. This symptom leads the group to ignore the ethical
implications of their decisions.

Illusions of unanimity. Group members believe there is unanimous agreement on the

decisions. Silence is misconstrued as consent.

Rationalization. Group members concoct explanations for their decisions to make

them appear rational and correct. The results are that other alternatives are not
considered, and there is an unwillingness to reconsider the group's assumptions.

Stereotyping the enemy. Competitors are stereotyped as evil or stupid. This leads the
group to underestimate its opposition.

Self-censorship. Members do not express their doubts or concerns about the course
of action. This prevents critical analysis of the decisions.
Contd...

Peer pressure. Any member who express doubts or concerns and pressured by other
group members, who question their loyalty.

Mindguards. Some members take it upon themselves to protect the group from
negative actions.

Leadership and Group Decision

Making

GUIDELINES FOR PREVENTING GROUPTHINK

l

Ask each group member to assume the role of the critical evaluator who actively
voices objections or doubts.

Have the leader avoid stating his or her position on the issue prior to the group
decision.

Create several groups that work on the decision simultaneously.

Bring in outside experts to evaluate the group process.

Appoint a devil's advocate to question the group's course of action consistently.

Evaluate the competition carefully, posing as many different motivations and intentions
as possible.

Once consensus is reached, encourage the group to rethink its position by reexamining
the alternatives.

Source: Irving L Janis, "Groupthink: Psychological Studies of Policy Decisions and Fiascoes" (second edition) Houghton
Mifflin Company (1982)

Group Polarization: Group polarization is the tendency for group discussion to produce
shifts towards more extreme attitudes among members. The tendency toward polarization
has important implications for group decision making. Groups whose initial views lean a
certain way can be expected to adopt more extreme views following interaction. Several
ideas have been proposed to explain why group polarization occurs. They are (a)

The Social Comparison Approach: Prior to group discussion, individuals believe

they hold better views than the other members. During group discussion, they see
that their views are not so far from average, so they shift to more extreme position.

(b)

Persuasive Arguments View: It contends that group discussion reinforces the

initial views of the members, so they take a more extreme position.

Both these processes cause the group to develop more polarized attitudes. Group
polarization leads groups to adopt extreme attitudes. In some cases, this can be disastrous.
Check Your Progress 4

1.

What do you mean by group decision-making?

2.

How does the syndrome of groupthink take place?

6.12 LET US SUM UP

People working in business enterprises need leaders who could be instrumental in guiding
the efforts of groups of workers to achieve the goals of both the individual and the
organization. Leadership is a process of influence on a group. Leadership is the ability of
a manager to induce subordinates to work with confidence and zeal. Leadership is a
psychological process of influencing followers (subordinates) and providing guidance,
directing and leading the people in an organization towards attainment of the objectives
of the enterprise. People working in an organization need individuals (leaders) who could

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be instrumental in guiding the efforts of groups of workers to achieve goals and objectives
of both the individuals and the organization. The leader guides the action of others in
accomplishing these tasks. Major decisions in organizations are most often made by
more than one person. Managers use groups to make decisions. One liability of a cohesive
group is its tendency to develop groupthink a dysfunctional process. Group think is the
tendency in cohesive groups to seek agreement about an issue at the expense of realistically
appraising the situation

6.13 LESSON END ACTIVITY

Leadership is the driving force for which gets thing done by others." Discuss.

6.14 KEYWORDS
Leader
Leadership
Human Skill
Communication Skill
Empathy
Teaching Skill
Social Skill
Conceptual Skill
Technical Skill
Personal Skill
Personal Motivation
Integrity

6.15 QUESTIONS FOR DISCUSSION

1.

What is leadership? What are its characteristics?

2.

"A good leader is one who understands his subordinates, their needs and their
sources of satisfaction." Comment.

3.

Briefly discuss the essential opacities of leadership.

4.

Critically examine the different approaches to the study of leadership behaviour. Is

there one best style of leadership?

5.

Explain the various Theories of leadership.

6.

"A Successful Leader is not necessarily effective." Comment.

7.

Explain the qualities of a good leader.

8.

Explain managers use groups to make decisions.

9.

What are the symptoms of Groupthink and how to Prevent it?

6.16 SUGGESTED READINGS

A.G Jagpo and Victor H. Vroom, "Hierarchical Level and leadership style,"
Organizational Behaviour and Human Performance No. 18 (1977)
116

Barnard Keys and Thomas Case, "How to Become an Influential Manager", Academy
of Management Executive (November 1990).

Bernard M. Bass, "From Transactional Leadership to Transformational Leadership:

Learning to share the vision", Organisational Dynamics (winter 1990).

Leadership and Group Decision

Making

Fred E. Fiedler, "A Theory of Leadership Effectiveness" McGraw Hill, New York
(1967)
George R. Terry, "Principles of Management" Richard D. Irwin, Homewood III (1988).
John P. Kotter, "A Force for Change: How Leadership Differs from Management".
Free Press, New York (1990)
Ralph M. Stogdill, "Personal Factors Associated with Leadership: A survey of the
Literature, Journal of Psychology (January 1948)
Rensis Likert, "The Human Organisation" McGraw Hill, New York (1967)
Robert Tannenbaum and Warrant H. Schmidt, "How to choose a Leadership Pattern",
Harvard Business Review (March - April, 1958).
Roger M. Stogdill and Alvin E. Coons, "Leadership Behaviour: Its Description and
Measurement", The Ohio State University, Ohio (1957)
Paul Hersey and Kenneth H. Blanchard, "Management of Organizational Behaviour",
Prentice-Hall, Englewood Cliffs (1988)
P.G. Aquinas, Organizational Behaviour, Excel Books, New Delhi.

Case

UNWANTED PROMOTION

Vinod was a scientist in the R and D department of the Indian Space Research Organization
(ISRO). He worked for the Institution ever since he received his degree 15 years earlier and
he was clearly recognized as one of the best researchers in the area. He spent many hours
keeping current on the literature, and he knew how to set up tight research designs.
Knowledgeable in space research, he had a reputation for sticking to his guns about how
specific research studies should be conducted. He believed that if something was not done
well, it should not be done at all.
A number of his discoveries had saved the company of millions of dollars in foreign exchange.
His colleagues frequently came to him for advice about how to proceed on various projects.
He was convinced about the correctness of his advice. In short, Vinod was a star in the
organization.
Early in February 2000, Roney would retire as head of R& D. The decision about his
successor was in the hands of Dr Arun the chairman of ISRO. Roney recommended Vinod
because his record of his outstanding service. The new position required large amounts of
administrative work and less research.
Roney and Dr. Arun discussed some of these issues with Vinod. He would no longer be in
charge of specific research projects, but because everyone came to him for advice, he could
still be actively involved in research. Vinod thought long about the offer. The promotion
meant more money and recognition. Starting June 1, Vinod became the head of the R& D
department.
It was not long before things started to go wrong. First, of all, Vinod had more difficulty
keeping up with the literature. Other priorities seemed to always interfere with his reading
time. He also noticed a distinct cooling in the way his colleagues treated him. At first they
had continued to come to him with questions and problems. Vinod responded as he always
had "Here's how it has to be done". In few cases his advice was not followed.
He also got into a number of arguments with Dr Arun. In many cases he demanded more
financial support form Dr Arun to conduct various research projects in the way he felt it
Contd...

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should be done. It got to the point where almost every interaction between the two resulted
in an argument.
Finally, Dr. Arun knew that something had to be changed. He went to Vinod and told him
that he had to (1) compromise more and accept the realities of his job. (2) Step down from his
position, or (3) leave ISRO.
Questions:

118

1.

Why do you think Vinod was not successful at this job?

2.

Why did problem start to occur between Vinod and his colleagues?

3.

Do you think the selection of Vinod to the position of R and D Head was the right
move? How should this process of selection have been conducted?

LESSON

7
COMMUNICATION

CONTENTS
7.0

Aims and Objectives

7.1

Introduction

7.2

Definitions of Communication

7.3

Importance of Communication

7.4

Functions of Communication
7.4.1

Control

7.4.2

Information

7.4.3

Motivation

7.4.4

Emotional Expression

7.5

Communication Styles

7.6

The Communication Process

7.7

7.8

7.9

7.6.1

Source

7.6.2

Encoding

7.6.3

The Message

7.6.4

The Channel

7.6.5

Decoding

7.6.6

The Receiver

7.6.7

Feedback

Directions of Communication in the Organization

7.7.1

Downward Communication

7.7.2

Upward Communication

7.7.3

Lateral Communication

Communication Networks
7.8.1

Chain Network

7.8.2

Y Network

7.8.3

Wheel Network

7.8.4

Circle Network

7.8.5

The All-Channel Network or the Star Network

Informal Communication
7.9.1

The Grapevine

7.9.2

The Old-Boy Network

Contd...

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7.10 Non-Verbal Communication

7.10.1 Proxemics
7.10.2 Kinesics
7.10.3 Paralanguage
7.10.4 Object Language
7.10.5 Territory
7.10.6 Physical Appearance
7.11 Barriers to Effective Communication
7.11.1 Filtering
7.11.2 Selective Perception
7.11.3 Emotions
7.11.4 Language
7.11.5 Stereotyping
7.11.6 Status Difference
7.11.7 Use of Conflicting Signals
7.11.8 Reluctance to Communicate
7.11.9 Projection
7.11.10 The "Halo Effect"
7.12 Keys to Effective Supervisory Communication
7.12.1 Expressive Speakers
7.12.2 Empathetic Listeners
7.12.3 Persuasive Leaders
7.12.4 Sensitive to Feelings
7.12.5 Informative Managers
7.13 How Communication Leads Globally?
7.14 Let us Sum up
7.15 Lesson-end Activity
7.16 Keywords
7.17 Questions for Discussion
7.18 Suggested Readings

7.0 AIMS AND OBJECTIVES

The purpose of this lesson is to know the meaning, functions, types and importance of
communication in an organisation. After study this lesson you will be able to:
(i)

understand meaning, importance and functions of communication

(ii)

describe steps involved in communication process

(iii) know the downward, upward and lateral communication in the organisation
(iv) describe patterns of direction (communication network)
(v)

differentiate between formal and informal action communication within an

organisation

(vi) describe barriers to effective communication.

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7.1 INTRODUCTION

Communication

Communication is the exchange of messages between people for the purpose of achieving
common meanings. Unless common meanings are shared, managers find it extremely
difficult to influence others. Whenever group of people interact, communication takes
place. Communication is the exchange of information using a shared set of symbols. It is
the process that links group members and enables them to coordinate their activities.
Therefore, when managers foster effective communication, they strengthen the
connections between employees and build cooperation. Communication also functions
to build and reinforce interdependence between various parts of the organization. As a
linking mechanism among the different organizational subsystems, communication is a
central feature of the structure of groups and organizations. It helps to coordinate tasks
and activities within and between organizations.

7.2 DEFINITIONS OF COMMUNICATION

Whenever a group of people interact, communication takes place. Communication is the
exchange of information using a shared set of symbols. It is the process that links group
members and enables them to coordinate their activities. Therefore, when managers
foster effective communication, they strengthen the connections between employees
and build cooperation. The term "communication" is derived from the Latin word
"communis" which means "common". This stands for the sharing of ideas in common. It
is the process of passing information and understanding from one person to another.
According to Theo Haimann, "Communication, fundamental and vital to all managerial
actions, is the process of imparting ideas and making oneself understood by others".
According to Dalton McFarland, "Communication may be broadly defined as the process
of meaningful interaction among human beings. More specifically, it is the process by
which meanings are perceived and understandings are reached among human beings".
According to Louis A Allen, "Communication is the sum of all the things one person does
when he wants to create understanding in the mind of another. It is a bridge of meaning.
It involves a systematic and continuous process of telling, listening and understanding".
In the words of Newman and Summer, "Communication is an exchange of fact, ideas,
opinions or emotions by two or more persons".
According to Hudson, " Communication in its simplest form is conveying of information
from one person to another".
According to Charles E Redfield, communication is "the broad field of human interchange
of facts and opinions and not the technologies of telephone, telegraph, radio and the like".
According to Koontz and O'Donnell, "Communication, is an intercourse by words, letters
symbols or messages, and is a way that the organization members shares meaning and
understanding with another".
In the words of Jacques, "Communication is the sum total of directly and indirectly,
consciously and unconsciously transmitted feeling, attitudes and wishes".
In the words of Mockler, "Communication is the process of passing information, ideas or
even emotions from one person to another".
In the words of Kelly, "Communication is a field of knowledge dealing with systematic
application of symbols to acquire common information regarding an object or event".
In the words of Brown, communication is "a process of transmitting ideas or thoughts
from one person to another, for the purpose of creating understanding in the thinking of
the person receiving the communication".

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According to Sigmund, Communication is "the transmission and reception of ideas, feelings

and attitudes both verbally and non-verbally eliciting a response. It is a dynamic concept
underlying all lands of living systems".
According to Ordeay Tead, "Communication is a composite:
l

Of information given and received,

Of learning experience in which certain attitudes, knowledge and skills change,

carrying with them alternations of behaviour,

Of a listening effort by all involved,

Of a sympathetic fresh examination of issues by communicator himself,

Of a sensitive interaction of points of view leading to a higher level of shared

understanding and common intention".

It should be clear from the above definitions that communication is not merely sending or
receiving message. It is much more than that. It includes proper understanding of message,
its acceptance and action on it. Unless common meanings are shared, managers find it
extremely difficult to influence others. Communication is a critical part of every manager's
job. Without effective communication, even the most brilliant strategies and the best-laid
plans may not be successful. As a result, it is not surprising that high-level executives, as
well as managers at other levels, often mention effective communication skills, both oral
and written, as crucial elements for managerial success. Communication is thus an attempt
to share understanding by two or more persons. It is a two-way process and is completed
when there is some response from the receiver of information. It has two basic objectives:
To transmit message, ideas or opinions, and
To create an impression or understanding in the minds of the receiver of information.

7.3 IMPORTANCE OF COMMUNICATION

Communication is an indispensable activity in all organizations. No organization can think
of its existence without effective communication. That is why, Chester Bernard remarked,
"the first executive function is to develop and maintain a system of communication". An
organization's very survival depends on its employees' ability to communicate with one
another and with the members of its environment. The free flow of ideas and information
is an essential ingredient in the drive for quality and continuous improvement. The
organization relies on communications to learn what its customers want, to foster
cooperation among its employees, and to identify and adapt to changes in the environment.
An effective communication system is essential to pass messages, ideas and information
for explaining objectives and plans, controlling, performance and taking corrective action.
Outrageous
P.O.S: T. Scott Gross has it; and he thinks every other entrepreneur should, too. P.O.S
stands for Positively Outrageous Service. It is also the title of his book, which encourages
entrepreneurs to provide customers with service that 1) is random and unexpected; 2) is out
of proportion to the circumstances; 3) invites the customer to play or be highly involved: 4)
creates compelling word of mouth; and 5) results in lifetime buying decisions. Who is T.
Scott Gross, and what does P.O.S have to do with communication?
Gross is a consultant in "participative service," which is service that "actively involves the
customer, while you market one customer at a time". He also owns a restaurant, which
allows him to put his ideas into practice. Communications are a vital part of his philosophy
between business owner and customer as well as between manager and employee.
122

Contd...

Communication with the customer is necessary and fun. The random, unexpected, and
out-of-proportion communication can be fun (such as when Phil Romano, owner of a
restaurant called Macaroni's announced one evening that all his dinner guests were truly
guests they would not be charged for their meals). It also requires imagination and courage.

Communication

On a more serious note, Gross insists on constant communication with the customer,
including asking the customer's opinion about various aspects of one's goods and/or
services. He considers it essential to future success.
Communications between management and employees actually compose a substantial
portion of Gross's P.O.S ten rules of management. "Give immediate feedback to employees
and customers with a highly visible customer response system" he advises in rule #2. "The
communications system should get information immediately into the hands of the employees
involved, so they can make the mental connection between their behavior and customer
attitudes toward the company."
"Your company's communications and meeting should regularly feature stories about
outstanding customer service." He says in rule#3. "Public praise turns ordinary clerks into
heroes and encourages future service excellence."
Gross has built his own career on good communication skills and has gone a long way
toward improving the skills of other managers and entrepreneurs. There's nothing outrageous
about that.
Source: T. Scott Gross, "Outrageous!" Success, March 1992, Page 40 - 42.

The importance of communication in management can be judged from the following:

1.

Gaining acceptance of policies, winning cooperation of others, getting instructions

and ideas clearly understood and bringing about the desired changes in performance
are dependent upon effective communication.

2.

Communication helps the management in arriving at vital decisions. In its absence,

it may not be possible for the top-level management to come in closer contact with
each other and discuss the important problems pertaining to the organization.

3.

Constant communication with personnel helps the management to remain informed

about their problems, difficulties and grievances. Appropriate steps can be taken in
time to remove the worker's difficulties. Conflicts often arise because of
communication gap. They can be averted by setting up a regular arrangement of
keeping contact with the workers through communication media.

4.

Communication is quite essential for coordination, which is the essence of effective

management. It brings about mutual understanding between the personnel at all
levels and fosters the spirit of cooperation. In the words of Mary Crushing Niles,
"Good communications are essential to coordination. They are necessary upward,
downward and sideways, through all the levels of authority and advise for the
transmission, interpretation and adoption of policies, for the sharing of knowledge
and information, and for the more subtle needs of good morale and mutual
understanding".

5.

Greater, better and cheaper production are the aims of all managers. In today's
organizations; the information passes through a variety of filters and there is always
a chance for misinterpretation. An effective system of communication can play a
vital role in avoiding this illusion. The employees should be told clearly what exactly
to do and the way in which an instruction is to be carried out. In this process certain
directions are to be given, certain feelings must be expressed and a certain amount
of interpersonal perceptions must be exchanged. In the words of Shobhana
Khandwala, "For this, management has to sell ideas, motivate the workers to work
with a will, and build up higher morale in the company. Communication, as an

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influence, process, plays a vital role here. It becomes, thus, a part of education,
propaganda, leadership and guidance function of the management".
6.

Under an effective system of communication it is quite convenient for the employees

to express their grievances, and bring all their problems to the notice of the
management. Proper communications between the interested parties reduce the
point of friction and minimize those that inevitably arise. Hence by effective
communication, a group having 'skill' and 'will' to do is to be built up.

7.

Communication helps in securing the largest possible participation or consultation

in decision making, planning and general administration. This will give democratic
character to managerial process and strengthen the morale of the staff.

7.4 FUNCTIONS OF COMMUNICATION

Communication serves four major functions within an organization.

7.4.1 Control
Communication acts to control the employees' behaviour. Organizations have authority
hierarchies and formal guidelines that employees are required to follow. The control
mechanism can work only when the communication oral and written, is effective.
Informal communication also controls behaviour.

7.4.2 Information
Communication is a vital necessity to an organization, just as the bloodstream is to the
person. It is essential that information must be communicated to the managers on the
basis of which the plans can be developed; these plans must be communicated to the
operating managers and employees.

7.4.3 Motivation
Communication fosters motivation by clarifying to employees what is to be done, how
well they are doing and what can be done to prove performance if it is unsatisfactory.

7.4.4 Emotional Expression

Communication provides a release for the emotional expression of feelings and for
fulfillment of social needs. Employees show their frustrations and feelings of satisfaction
through communication.
Check Your Progress 1

1.

Define communication?

2.

What is the importance of communication?

3.

State the functions of communication?

7.5 COMMUNICATION STYLES

124

When people communicate, they differ not only in non-verbal behaviours and language
but in the degree to which they provide and seek information. Such differences constitute
various communication styles. A popular model for describing differences in
communication style is the Johari window developed by Joseph Luft and Harry Ingham.
The name Johari is derived from the first names of its developers. The Johari window is
a grid that describes tendencies for facilitating or hindering interpersonal communication.

Communication

The person knows

The person does not

The person knows

About him or herself

1
Open Self

2
Hidden Self

The person does not

Know about him or
herself

3
Blind Self

4
Undiscovered Self

Source: Joseph Luft, "The Johari Window", Human Relations Training News, Vol.5 no.1, 1961 Page 6 - 7.

Figure 7.1: The Johari Window

The model classifies an individual's tendencies to facilitate or hinder interpersonal

communication along two dimensions: exposure and feedback. Exposure is defined as
the extent to which an individual openly and candidly divulges feelings, experiences, and
information when trying to communicate. Feedback is the extent to which an individual
successfully elicits exposure from others. As shown in the figure above, these dimensions
translate into four "windows" open self, hidden self, blind self and undiscovered self.
1.

Open Self: The open self is the arena information known to the person and to
others. A large arena results from behaviour that is high in both exposure and
feedback. There would generally be openness and compatibility and little reason to
be defensive. This type of interpersonal relationship would tend decrease
interpersonal conflict.

2.

Hidden Self: In this situation the hidden information is known to the person but not
to others; it encompasses those things or feelings that we are aware of but don't
share with others for fear they will think less of us or possibly use the information
against us. Very large hidden knowledge can cause problems if the person expends
too much effort in keeping secrets or others if suspicious about the lack of disclosure.
There is potential interpersonal conflict in this situation because the person may
keep his or her true feelings or attitudes secret and will not open up to the others.

3.

Blind Self: The blind self are information known to others but not to yourself. This
is the result of no one ever telling you or because you are defensively blocking
them out. The person may be unintentionally irritating to the other. The other could
tell the person but may be fearful of hurting the person's feelings. Such a configuration
is rarely total human resources. Furthermore, the person is likely to make many
blunders, reflecting insensitivity to others. As in the "hidden self", there is potential
interpersonal conflict in this situation.

4.

Undiscovered Self: The undiscovered self includes feelings, experience, and

information that neither you nor others are aware of. It arises from lack of
communication. A manager whose unknown area is very large tends to be an
autocratic leader, perceived as aloof. Employees may have trouble discerning what
this person wants. In other words, there is much misunderstanding and interpersonal
conflict and is almost sure to result.

The Johari window only points out possible interpersonal styles. It does not necessarily
describe but rather helps analyze possible interpersonal conflict situations. The National
Training Laboratory (NTL) recommends seven guidelines for providing feedback for

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Principles of Management and

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effective interpersonal relations. These guidelines given below can help to decrease the
potential for interpersonal conflict.
Guidelines for Effective Interpersonal Relations
1.

Be descriptive rather than judgmental.

2.

Be specific rather than general.

3.

Deal with things that can be changed.

4.

Give feedback when it is desired.

5.

Consider the motives for giving and receiving feedback.

6.

Give feedback at the time the behaviour takes place.

7.

Give feedback when its accuracy can be checked with others.

Source: - National Training Laboratories "Summer Reading Book", NTL Institute for Applied Behavioral Science, Bethel, Maine, 1968.

7.6 THE COMMUNICATION PROCESS

Communication is important in building and sustaining human relationships at work. It

cannot be replaced by the advances in information technology and data management
that have taken place over the past several decades. Communication can be thought of
as a process or flow. Before communication can take place, a purpose, expressed as a
message to be conveyed is needed. It passes between the sender and the receiver. The
result is transference of meaning from one person to another.
The figure below depicts the communication process. This model is made up of seven
parts: (1) the communication source, (2) encoding, (3) the message, (4) the channel, (5)
decoding, (6) the receiver, and (7) feedback.

Source

Encoding

Message

Channel

Decoding

Receiving

Figure 7.2: The Communication Process Model.

7.6.1 Source
The source initiates a message. This is the origin of the communication and can be an
individual, group or inanimate object. The effectiveness of a communication depends to
a considerable degree on the characteristics of the source. Aristotle believed that
acceptance of the source's message could be increased by:l

Pathos Playing on the emotions of the receiver.

Logos Generating logical arguments or

Ethos Asking for message acceptance because the source is trustworthy.

The person who initiates the communication process is known as sender, source or
communicator. In an organization, the sender will be a person who has a need or desire
to send a message to others. The sender has some information which he wants to
communicate to some other person to achieve some purpose. By initiating the message,
the sender attempts to achieve understanding and change in the behaviour of the receiver.

7.6.2 Encoding
126

Once the source has decided what message to communicate, the content of the message
must be put in a form the receiver can understand. As the background for encoding

information, the sender uses his or her own frame of reference. It includes the individual's
view of the organization or situation as a function of personal education, interpersonal
relationships, attitudes, knowledge and experience.

Communication

Three conditions are necessary for successful encoding the message.

l

Skill: Successful communicating depends on the skill you posses. Without the requisite
skills, the message of the communicator will not reach the requisite skills; the message
of the communicator will not reach the receiver in the desired form. One's total
communicative success includes speaking, reading, listening and reasoning skills.

Attitudes: Our attitudes influence our behaviour. We hold predisposed ideas on a

number of topics and our communications are affected by these attitudes.

Knowledge: We cannot communicate what we don't know. The amount of

knowledge the source holds about his or her subject will affect the message he or
she seeks to transfer.

7.6.3 The Message

The message is the actual physical product from the source encoding. The message
contains the thoughts and feelings that the communicator intends to evoke in the receiver.
The message has two primary components:l

The Content: The thought or conceptual component of the message is contained

in the words, ideas, symbols and concepts chosen to relay the message.

The Affect: The feeling or emotional component of the message is contained in the
intensity, force, demeanour (conduct or behaviour), and sometimes the gestures of
the communicator.

According to D.K Berlo - "when we speak, the speech is the message. When we write,
the writing is the message. When we paint, the picture is the message. When we gesture,
the movements of our arms, the expressions on our faces are the message".

7.6.4 The Channel

The actual means by which the message is transmitted to the receiver (Visual, auditory,
written or some combination of these three) is called the channel. The channel is the
medium through which the message travels. The channel is the observable carrier of the
message. Communication in which the sender's voice is used as the channel is called
oral communication. When the channel involves written language, the sender is using
written communication. The sender's choice of a channel conveys additional information
beyond that contained in the message itself. For example, documenting an employee's
poor performance in writing conveys that the manager has taken the problem seriously.

Channel

Required Source of
Activity

Required
Receiver Activity

Some Examples

1.Auditory

Speaking
Use of mechanical
sending device

Listening

Telegraph signals
Radio
Telephone conversations

2. Visual

Action

Observing

Ship-to-shore visual signals.

Hand signals
Color emphasis
Flag waving

3.Written

Composition

Reading

Reports
Company policy manuals
Books
Contd...

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4.Auditory-visual
combination

Speaking and action

Listening and
observing

Television, movies
Ballet
Students listening to a lecture

5.Visual-written
combination

Action and
composition

Observing and
reading

Billboard advertising
Magazines
Newspapers
Transit advertising

6.Auditory-written
combination

Speaking and
composition

Listing and
reading

Students following handouts

provided by the instructor

Source: Jerry L Gray and Frederick A Strake "Organizational Behavior - Concepts and Applications" Charles E Merrill Publishing
Company, Columbus (Third Edition) Page 307.

7.6.5 Decoding
Decoding means interpreting what the message means. The extent to which the decoding
by the receiver depends heavily on the individual characteristics of the sender and receiver.
The greater the similarity in the background or status factors of the communicators, the
greater the probability that a message will be perceived accurately. Most messages can
be decoded in more than one way. Receiving and decoding a message are a type of
perception. The decoding process is therefore subject to the perception biases.

7.6.6 The Receiver

The receiver is the object to whom the message is directed. Receiving the message
means one or more of the receiver's senses register the message - for example, hearing
the sound of a supplier's voice over the telephone or seeing the boss give a thumbs-up
signal. Like the sender, the receiver is subject to many influences that can affect the
understanding of the message. Most important, the receiver will perceive a communication
in a manner that is consistent with previous experiences. Communications that are not
consistent with expectations is likely to be rejected.

7.6.7 Feedback
The final link in the communication process is a feedback loop. Feedback, in effect, is
communication travelling in the opposite direction. If the sender pays attention to the
feedback and interprets it accurately, the feedback can help the sender learn whether
the original communication was decoded accurately. Without feedback, one-way
communication occurs between managers and their employees. Faced with differences
in their power, lack of time, and a desire to save face by not passing on negative information,
employees may be discouraged form providing the necessary feedback to their managers.

7.7 DIRECTIONS OF COMMUNICATION IN THE

ORGANIZATION
Within organizations, there are three directions in which communications flow: downward,
upward and laterally (horizontal).

7.7.1 Downward Communication

Downward communication involves a message travelling to one or more receivers at the
lower level in the hierarchy. The message frequently involves directions or performance
feedback. The downward flow of communication generally corresponds to the formal
organizational communications system, which is usually synonymous with the chain of
command or line of authority. This system has received a great deal of attention from
both managers and behavioural scientists since it is crucial to organizational functioning.
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Communication

7.7.2 Upward Communication

In upward communication, the message is directed toward a higher level in the hierarchy.
It is often takes the form of progress reports or information about successes and failures
of the individuals or work groups reporting to the receiver of the message. Sometimes
employees also send suggestions or complaints upward through the organization's
hierarchy.
The upward flow of communication involves two distinct manager-subordinate activities
in addition to feedback:
(a)

The participation by employees in formal organizational decisions.

(b)

Employee appeal is a result against formal organization decisions. The employee

appeal is a result of the industrial democracy concept that provides for two-way
communication in areas of disagreement.
Is Clear Communication Always Desirable?

Virtually all writing about communication exhorts people to be clear, precise, and succinct
when they communicate. It is argued that that clarity, precision, and succinctness lead to
communication effectiveness. But is this always so? Isn't it sometimes beneficial (and
necessary) to be vague in order to be effective?
Consider the manager who is faced with a personality dispute between two subordinates
who must work together. Each subordinate will undoubtedly give a somewhat different
version of the problem as well as some other comments about the other person in the
dispute. Does the manager communicate these comments? NO. Rather, the manager facilitates
resolution of the dispute without communicating certain remarks that each person may
have made about the other. In this way the problem may be resolved by focusing on the
areas of agreement rather than the areas of conflict. The problem may thus be solved by
leaving certain things unsaid rather than clarifying them.
Source: Jerry L. Gray and Frederick A. Starke "Organizational Behavior - Concepts and Applications" (third edition), Charles
E. Merril Publishing Company, Columbus. (Page 315).

Stimulating Upward Communication

Although most managers agree on the need for upward communication, it is often not
clear what actions can be taken to stimulate it. Given this situation, it is important to
develop ways to stimulate upward communication. Planty and Machaver give the
following suggestions.
Stimulating Upward Communication
1.

Coverage must be systematic and balanced. While spontaneous communication is

often useful, efforts at stimulating upward communication must be planned, systematic,
and balanced. The planning requirement assures that communication is not left to
chance, while the balance requirement attempts to prevent upward communication
originating from only a few sources. Many times only the most vocal organizational
members are heard, whereas the less vocal may have important things to say as well.
In following these principles, management obtains information from a wider variety
of sources, and communication is not limited to crisis situations. The old adage "no
news is good news" does not hold for upward organizational communication.

2.

The flow of communication must be directed. Communication that is not directed to

the proper receivers becomes rumour and finds its way through the organization
according to who will listen. Proper directed communication, however, reaches those
individuals who are in a position to take action. Employees who are dissatisfied and
wish to communicate with management must be directed to the correct channels, and
these channels should be known to everyone.
Contd...

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3.

Listening must be sensitive. Because of the fundamental nature of hierarchical

systems, employees may be conditioned to tell management what they think
management wants to hear rather than what they actually feel. Complaints are often
disguised in ways that prevent them from being obvious to the listener. Consequently,
management must attempt to respond not only to the spoken word, but to the meaning
of the words. To a large degree, the sensitivity of the manager determines the amount
and type of communication that is directed upward from subordinates.

4.

Listening must be objective. Upward communication will be selective and infrequent

if employees think their communications are not being perceived in an objective
fashion. It is easy for managers to show more interest in favorable communication
than unfavorable or seek out those employees who will agree with them and ignore
those who do not. Objectivity in upward communication means that management
must make a conscious effort to avoid these biases.

5.

Listening implies action. Communication is not an end in itself but a means to an

end. While listening to employees is certainly important, unless some kind of action
is forthcoming, the listening function loses its value. In some cases, listening itself
can give the employee the impression that action will be taken, and management must
be cautious not to leave the impression that communication efforts guarantee results.
If, for example, employees offer suggestions for work improvements that cannot be
implemented, they should be told why.

Source: Earl G Planty and William Machaver, "Stimulating Upward Communication," in Effective Communication on the Job
(American Management Association, 1956)

If properly utilized, upward communication is potentially one of the most useful managerial
practices. Upward communication keeps managers aware of how employees feel about
their jobs, co-workers and the organization in general. Managers also rely on upward
communication for ideas on how things can be improved.

7.7.3 Lateral Communication

When takes place among members of the same work group, among members of work
groups at the same level, among managers at the same level or among any horizontally
equivalent personnel, we describe it as lateral communications. In lateral communication,
the sender and receiver(s) are at the same level in the hierarchy. Formal communications
that travel laterally involve employees engaged in carrying out the same or related tasks.
The messages might concern advice, problem solving, or coordination of activities.
The direction of communication in organizations explained above is summarized in the
figure below.

Upward
Communication
Problems and exception
Suggestions for
improvement
Performance reports
Grievance and disputes
Financial and accounting
information

Downward Communication
Implementation of goals,
strategies, objective
Job instructions and
rationale
Procedures and practices
Performance feedback
Indoctrination

Lateral Communication
Intradepartmental problem solving
Interdepartmental coordination
Staff advice to line departments
Coordinate

Influence
Interpret

Source: Richard L Daft and Richard M Steers, "Organizations: A micro / macro approach".

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Figure 7.3: Directions of Communication in Organization

Communication

7.8 COMMUNICATION NETWORKS

A communication network is the pattern of directions in which information flows in the
organization. Channels of communication (networks by which information flows) are
either formal networks or informal networks. Formal networks follow the authority chain
and are limited to task-related communications. The informal network (grapevine) is
free to move in any direction, skip authority levels, and is as likely to satisfy group
members' social needs as it is to facilitate task accomplishments.
The basic types of communication networks are shown in the figure below:

Wheel

Y
Chain

Circle

All-channel

Figure 7.4: Types of Communication Networks

7.8.1 Chain Network

In chain network, communication travels up and down through the hierarchy. Each person
communicates with only the person directly above or below in terms of reporting
relationships. The chain network rigidly follows the formal chain of command.

7.8.2 Y Network
In the Y network, the flow of communication resembles an upside down Y; information
flows upward and downward through the hierarchy, widening to encompass the number
of employees reporting to a supervisor.

7.8.3 Wheel Network

In a wheel network, information flows to and from a single person. Employees in the
group communicate primarily with that person rather than with each other. Such a
communication network is a fast means of getting information to employees, since the
person at the hub of the wheel can do so directly and efficiently. The wheel network
relies on the leader to act as the central conduit (channel) for the entire group's
communication.
The chain network, the Y network and the wheel network are fairly centralized in that
most messages must flow through a pivotal (essential, crucial) person in the network. In
the wheel network, the most centralized, all messages must flow through the individual

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at the centre of the wheel. In the chain network, some members can communicate with
more than one member of the network, but the individual in the centre of the chain still
tends to emerge as the controller of the messages. In the Y network, the member at the
fork of the "Y" usually becomes the central person in the network.

7.8.4 Circle Network

In a circle network, employees communicate only with adjoining members of the
organization. The circle network is analogous to a group working in a physical arrangement
such that workers can communicate with their immediate neighbour but not with others
in the group.

7.8.5 The All-Channel Network or the Star Network

In an all-channel network, communications flow upward, downward and laterally among
all members of the group. This pattern of communication supports an egalitarian, (equal,
unrestricted) participative culture and fosters (promote, cultivate) cross-functional efforts.
The all-channel network is best if you are concerned with having high member satisfaction.
The circle network and the all-channel network are more decentralized in that there is
freer communication among the various members. In the circle network, each member
can communicate with the individual on either side. The all-channel network is the most
decentralized of the networks; each member can communicate with any other member.
Check Your Progress 2

1.

Explain the Johari window.

2.

Explain the communication process.

3.

Explain the direction of communication.

7.9 INFORMAL COMMUNICATION

Informal communication is communication outside the organization's formally authorized
channels. Informal communication includes all messages transmitted in the work setting
other than those that are generated specifically to fulfil work-related assignments. The
nature of such communication is nowhere described in the formal communication systems,
but the organization could not survive without it.

7.9.1 The Grapevine

The network for much informal communication is the organization's grapevine. Grapevines
develop in organizations to handle communications that the formal channels of
communication do not handle. It typically supplements or replaces the organizational
hierarchy as the means for transmitting communication. The grapevine serves as an
excellent source of information about employee attitudes as well as an emotional outlet
for workers. Thus, grapevine is likely to be strong during uncertain times and in organizations
that limit the low of information to employees through formal channels. Also, employees
may participate in a grapevine to help meet social needs.

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The development of grapevines is inevitable. Although grapevines are neither good nor
bad in themselves, the messages they carry are subject to distortion as messages
transmitted from one human link to another become progressively more garbled (distorted:
confused). Their content is misinterpreted, abbreviated, embellished (overstated) and
selectively transmitted in terms of what the sender believes the receiver wants or needs
to know. Since the original message may be only partially true, it is not surprising that the

grapevine is sometimes referred to as a rumour mill. The information that travels through
a grapevine typically takes the form of gossip (belief about other people) and rumours
(efforts to predict future events).

Communication

The Grapevine has three main characteristics

(a)

It is not controlled by management.

(b)

It is perceived by most employees as being more believable and reliable than formal
communiqus issued by top management.

(c)

It is largely used to serve the self-interests of these people within it.

The network of a grapevine typically takes on one of the patterns shown in the figure
below:Y

C
E

D
G
K

D
B

J
F

Probability
(each randomly tell others)

Single Strand (each tells one other)

F
D
C
A

Cluster (some tell selected others)

G
E

H
I

D
C

J
B
A

Gossip (one tells all)

Source: Keith Davis and John W Newstrom, "Human Behavior at Work: Organizational Behaviour," 7th edition
(1985). Newyork: McGraw Hill (page 317)

Figure 7.5: Grapevine Patterns

(i)
(ii)

Single Strand: In the single-strand chain, communication moves serially from person
A to B to C and so on.
Gossip Chain: With gossip chain, person A seeks out and tells others.

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(iii) Probability Chain: When following the probability chain, person A spreads the
message randomly as do individuals F and D.
(iv) Cluster Chain: In cluster chain, person A tells three selected individuals and then
one of these tells three others.
Despite the fact that grapevines sometimes create difficulties when they carry gossip
and false rumours, they are a fact of life in organizations and it is unrealistic of managers
to think that they can eliminate grapevines.

7.9.2 The Old-Boy Network

The old-boy network is another network for informal communication. It is an exclusive
group that wields power through shared information. In an old-boy network, members
share information to help one another along in their careers. An old-boy network differs
from other kinds of informal alliances among groups of employees in that its members
have control over much of the organizations resources. Belonging to an old-boy network
can be advantageous to its members, but from an organization's perspective, an old-boy
network can be harmful. It limits some employees' access to information and prevents
the organization from readily tapping the potential of people outside the network.
Organizations that view their entire pool of employees as a source of competitive advantage
therefore seek to broaden employees' access to information. The more the organization's
goals, strategies, performance and staffing needs are communicated through formal
channels, and the more the organization listens to its employees, the less important are
informal channels such as old-boy networks.

7.10 NON-VERBAL COMMUNICATION

Non-verbal communication is communication by means of elements and behaviours that
are not coded into words. A glance, a star, a smile, a frown, a provocative body movement
- they all convey meaning. Nonverbal communication includes all elements of
communication, such as gestures and the use of space, that does not involve words or do
not involve language. Porter has defined four aspects of non-verbal communications:
1

Physical: pertaining to the personal method, i.e., facial expressions, tone of voice,
sense of touch, smell and body motion.

2.

Esthetics: Creative expressions such as those found in music, dancing or any of

the creative arts.

3.

Symbolic: Conveying messages through symbolic representations of reality; includes

religious, status or ego-building symbols.

4.

Sign: mechanical means of conveying messages such as bills, buzzers, locks on

doors, etc.

The important categories of non-verbal communication include:-

7.10.1 Proxemics
Proxemics refers to the influence of proximity and space on communication. The study
of an individual's perception and use of space, including territorial space, is called
proxemics. Territorial space refers to bands of space extending outward from the body.
These bands constitute comfort zones. In each comfort zone, different cultures prefer
different types of interaction with others. Typically there are four zones of territorial
space.
(a)

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Intimate Zone: (touching to two feet): This space is normally reserved for closest
family and friends. In this zone, we interact with spouses, significant others, family
members and others with whom we have an intimate relationship.

(b)

Personal Zone: (two to four feet): Family and friends may enter this zone without
causing discomfort. Friends typically interact with this distance.

(c)

Social Zone (four to twelve feet): The person comfortably interacts with others in
this zone. Most business transactions take place within the social zone. We prefer
that business associates and acquaintances interact with us in this zone.

(d)

Public Zone (twelve feet to as far as the person can hear and see): This is the
most distant zone at which communication can occur. Most of us prefer that
strangers stay at least 12 feet from us, and we become uncomfortable when they
move closer. Lectures and other formal presentations take place within this zone.

Communication

In general, a person who moves into a closer zone of personal space is signalling a desire
for greater closeness. When the receiver of this non-verbal message interprets it as a
request for more closeness than is desirable, the receiver probably will feel uncomfortable
and try to move away. Territorial space varies greatly across cultures. People often
become uncomfortable when operating in territorial space different from those in which
they are familiar.

7.10.2 Kinesics
Kinesics is the study of body movements, including posture. Like proxemics, kinesics is
culturally bound; there is no single universal gesture. Kinesics behaviour refers to body
movements, such as gestures, facial expressions, eye movements and posture. We often
draw conclusions regarding people's feelings about an issue, not only from their words
but also from their non-verbal behaviour, such as their facial expressions.
(a)

Facial Expressions: The face is a rich source of nonverbal communication. The

face often gives unintended clues to emotions the sender is trying to hide. Although
smiles have universal meaning, frowns, raised eyebrows, and wrinkled foreheads
must all be interpreted in conjunction with the actors, the situation and the culture.

(b)

Eye Behaviour: Eye behaviour are used to add cues for the receiver. Eye contact
can enhance reflective listening, and it varies by culture. In India, a direct gaze
indicates honesty and forthrightness. Appropriate use of eye contact signals interest
in the other person.

(c)

Gestures: Some people use gestures extensively; others communicate little through
this channel. In India, the handshake is a widely used gesture. People often use the
handshake as a source of information about another person's characteristics. A
strong, firm handshake is seen as a sign of confidence and enthusiasm.

7.10.3 Paralanguage
Paralanguage refers to vocal aspects of communication that relate to how something is
said rather than to what is said. Voice quality, tone of voice, laughing, and yawning fit in
this category. People make attributions about the sender by deciphering (make sense of;
interpret or decode) paralanguage cues. Rapid, loud speech may be taken as a sign of
nervousness or anger. Vocal tone includes pitch, loudness, rhythm, rate, and clarity of
speech. The standards for what is comfortable vary from one culture to another.

7.10.4 Object Language

Object language refers to the communicative use of material things, including clothing,
cosmetics, furniture and architecture. A work area adorned with expensive objects
communicate high status.

7.10.5 Territory
Employees' work areas are, in a sense, their territory. The way people arrange themselves
and others within their territory also conveys messages. In a meeting or training session,

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arranging chairs in rows signals that participants will be lectured to and encourages
passive behaviour. Arranging chairs in a circle signals that active participation is
encouraged. When interviewing or meeting with someone in his or her office, a manager
sends different messages depending on whether the manager remains behind the desk
or joins the other person in comfortable chairs on the same side of the desk.

7.10.6 Physical Appearance

Aspects of personal appearance such as clothing, hairstyle, jewellery and makeup
communicate people's values and social group. In the workplace, the norms for appropriate
physical appearance depend on the industry, job, and organizational culture. People who
fail to live up to these norms typically create a bad impression. Their physical appearance
is interpreted as meaning they either do not understand their role or do not care about
fulfilling it.
It is important for the receiver to be alert to these nonverbal aspects of communication.
You should look for nonverbal cues as well as listen to the literal meaning of a sender's
words. You should particularly be aware of contradictions between the messages.
Nonverbal communication is important for managers because of its impact on the meaning
of the message. However, a manager must consider the total message and all media of
communication. A message can only be given meaning in context, and cues are easy to
misinterpret. The figure below presents common nonverbal behaviour exhibited by
managers and how employees may interpret them. Nonverbal cues can give others the
wrong signal.
NONVERBAL
COMMUNICATION
Manager looks away when talking to
the employee

SIGNAL
RECEIVED
Divided attention

REACTION FROM RECEIVER

Manager fails to acknowledge

greeting from fellow employee.

Unfriendliness.

This person is unapproachable.

Manager glares ominously (i.e.,

gives the evil eye).

Anger.

Reciprocal anger, fear, or avoidance,

depending on who is sending the signal
in the organization.

Manager rolls the eyes.

Not taking person

seriously

This person thinks he or she is smarter

or better than I am.

Manager sighs deeply.

Disgust or
displeasure.

My opinions do not count. I must be

stupid or boring to this person.

Manager uses heavy breathing

(sometimes accompanied by hand
waving)

Anger or heavy
stress.

Avoid this person at all costs.

Manager does not maintain eye

contact when communicating.

Suspicion or
uncertainty.

What does this person have to hide?

Manager crosses arms and leans

away.

Apathy or closedmindedness.

This person already has made up his or

her mind; my opinions are not
important.

Manager peers over glasses.

Scepticism or
distrust.

Manager continues to read a report

when employee is speaking.

Lack of interest.

My supervisor is too busy to listen to

my problem or simply does not care.

He or she does not believe what I am

saying.
My opinions are not important enough
to get the supervisors undivided
attention.

Source: C. Hemilton and B.H. Kieiner, "Steps to Better Listening," Personnel Journal (February 1987).
136

Figure 7.6: Common Nonverbal Cues from Manager to Employee

7.11 BARRIERS TO EFFECTIVE COMMUNICATION

Communication

Barriers to communication are factors that block or significantly distort successful

communication. Effective managerial communication skills helps overcome some, but
not all, barriers to communication in organizations. The more prominent barriers to effective
communication which every manager should be aware of is given below:

7.11.1 Filtering
Filtering refers to a sender manipulating information so it will be seen more favourably
by the receiver. The major determinant of filtering is the number of levels in an
organization's structure. The more vertical levels in the organization's hierarchy, the
more opportunities for filtering. Sometimes the information is filtered by the sender himself.
If the sender is hiding some meaning and disclosing in such a fashion as appealing to the
receiver, then he is "filtering" the message deliberately. A manager in the process of
altering communication in his favour is attempting to filter the information.

7.11.2 Selective Perception

Selective perception means seeing what one wants to see. The receiver, in the
communication process, generally resorts to selective perception i.e., he selectively
perceives the message based on the organizational requirements, the needs and
characteristics, background of the employees etc. Perceptual distortion is one of the
distressing barriers to the effective communication. People interpret what they see and
call it a reality. In our regular activities, we tend to see those things that please us and to
reject or ignore unpleasant things. Selective perception allows us to keep out dissonance
(the existence of conflicting elements in our perceptual set) at a tolerable level. If we
encounter something that does not fit out current image of reality, we structure the
situation to minimize our dissonance. Thus, we manage to overlook many stimuli from
the environment that do not fit into out current perception of the world. This process has
significant implications for managerial activities. For example, the employment interviewer
who expects a female job applicant to put her family ahead of her career is likely to see
that in female applicants, regardless of whether the applicants feel that way or not.

7.11.3 Emotions
How the receiver feels at the time of receipt of information influences effectively how
he interprets the information. For example, if the receiver feels that the communicator is
in a jovial mood, he interprets that the information being sent by the communicator to be
good and interesting. Extreme emotions and jubilation or depression are quite likely to
hinder the effectiveness of communication. A person's ability to encode a message can
become impaired when the person is feeling strong emotions. For example, when you
are angry, it is harder to consider the other person's viewpoint and to choose words
carefully. The angrier you are, the harder this task becomes. Extreme emotions - such
as jubilation or depression - are most likely to hinder effective communication. In such
instances, we are most prone to disregard our rational and objective thinking processes
and substitute emotional judgments.

7.11.4 Language
Communicated message must be understandable to the receiver. Words mean different
things to different people. Language reflects not only the personality of the individual but
also the culture of society in which the individual is living. In organizations, people from
different regions, different backgrounds, and speak different languages. People will have
different academic backgrounds, different intellectual facilities, and hence the jargon
they use varies. Often, communication gap arises because the language the sender is
using may be incomprehensible, vague and indigestible. Language is a central element in

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communication. It may pose a barrier if its use obscures meaning and distorts intent.
Words mean different things to different people. Age, education and cultural background
are three of the more obvious variables that influence the language a person uses and
the definitions he or she gives to words. Therefore, use simple, direct, declarative language.
Speak in brief sentences and use terms or words you have heard from you audience. As
much as possible, speak in the language of the listener. Do not use jargon or technical
language except with those who clearly understand it.

7.11.5 Stereotyping
Stereotyping is the application of selective perception. When we have preconceived
ideas about other people and refuse to discriminate between individual behaviours, we
are applying selective perception to our relationship with other people. Stereotyping is a
barrier to communications because those who stereotype others use selective perception
in their communication and tend to hear only those things that confirm their stereotyped
images. Consequently, stereotypes become more deeply ingrained as we find more
"evidence" to confirm our original opinion.
Stereotyping has a convenience function in our interpersonal relations. Since people are
all different, ideally we should react and interact with each person differently. To do this,
however, requires considerable psychological effort. It is much easier to categorize
(stereotype) people so that we can interact with them as members of a particular category.
Since the number of categories is small, we end up treating many people the same even
though they are quite different. Our communications, then, may be directed at an individual
as a member of a category at the sacrifice of the more effective communication on a
personal level.

7.11.6 Status Difference

The organizational hierarchy pose another barrier to communication within organization,
especially when the communication is between employee and manager. This is so because
the employee is dependent on the manager as the primary link to the organization and
hence more likely to distort upward communication than either horizontal or downward
communication. Effective supervisory skills make the supervisor more approachable
and help reduce the risk of problems related to status differences. In addition, when
employees feel secure, they are more likely to be straightforward in upward
communication.

7.11.7 Use of Conflicting Signals

A sender is using conflicting signals when he or she sends inconsistent messages. A
vertical message might conflict with a nonverbal one. For example, if a manager says to
his employees, "If you have a problem, just come to me. My door is always open", but he
looks annoyed whenever an employee knocks on his door". Then we say the manager is
sending conflicting messages. When signals conflict, the receivers of the message have
to decide which, if any, to believe.

7.11.8 Reluctance to Communicate

For a variety of reasons, managers are sometimes reluctant to transmit messages. The
reasons could be:-

138

They may doubt their ability to do so.

They may dislike or be weary of writing or talking to others.

They may hesitate to deliver bad news because they do not want to face a negative
reaction.

When someone gives in to these feelings, they become a barrier to effective

communications.

Communication

7.11.9 Projection
Projection has two meanings.
(a)

Projecting one's own motives into others behaviour. For example, managers who
are motivated by money may assume their subordinates are also motivated by it. If
the subordinate's prime motive is something other than money, serious problems
may arise.

(b)

The use of defense mechanism to avoid placing blame on oneself. As a defense

mechanism, the projection phenomenon operates to protect the ego from unpleasant
communications. Frequently, individuals who have a particular fault will see the
same fault in others, making their own fault seem not so serious.

7.11.10 The "Halo Effect"

The term "halo effect" refers to the process of forming opinions based on one element
from a group of elements and generalizing that perception to all other elements. For
example, in an organization, a good attendance record may cause positive judgements
about productivity, attitude, or quality of work. In performance evaluation system, the
halo effect refers to the practice of singling out one trait of an employee (either good or
bad) and using this as a basis for judgement of the total employee (e.g., seeing the welldressed manager as the "good" manager).

7.12 KEYS TO EFFECTIVE SUPERVISORY

COMMUNICATION
Managers can and should improve communication in organizations. Interpersonal
communication between managers and their employees is a critical foundation for effective
performance in organizations. In his research work F. M Jablin has identified five
communication skills that distinguish "good" from "bad" supervisors.

7.12.1 Expressive Speakers

Better supervisors express their thoughts, ideas and feelings. Supervisors who speak out
let the people they work with know where they stand, what they believe and how they feel.
EFFECTIVE LISTENING
Too many people take listening skills for granted. They confuse hearing with listening.
What's the difference? Hearing is merely picking up sound vibrations. Listening is making
sense out of what we hear. That is, listening requires paying attention, interpreting, and
remembering sound stimuli.
The average person normally speaks at the rate of 125 to 200 words per minute. However,
the average listener can comprehend up to 400 words per minute. This leaves a lot of time
for idle mind wandering while listening. For most people, it also means they've acquired a
number of bad listening habits to fill in the "idle time".
The following eight behaviors are associated with effective listening skills. If you want to
improve your listening skills, look to these behaviors as guides:
1.

Make eye contact. How do you feel when somebody doesn't look at you when you're
speaking? If you're like most people, you're likely to interpret this as aloofness or
disinterest. We may listen with our ears, but others tend to judge whether we're really
listening by looking at our eyes.
Contd...

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Principles of Management and

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2.

Exhibit affirmative head nods and appropriate facial expressions. The effective
listener shows interest in what is being said. How? Through nonverbal signals.
Affirmative head nods and appropriate facial expressions, when added to good eye
contact, convey to the speaker you're listening.

3.

Avoid distracting actions or gestures. The other side of showing interest is avoiding
actions that suggest your mind is somewhere else. When listening, don't look at your
watch, shuffle papers, play with your pencil, or engage in similar distractions. They
make the speaker feel you're bored or uninterested. Maybe more importantly, they
indicate you aren't fully attentive and may be missing part of the message the speaker
wants to convey.

4.

Ask Questions. The critical listener analyzes what he or she hears and asks questions.
This behaviour provides clarification, ensures understanding, and assures the speaker
you're listening.

5.

Paraphrase. Paraphrasing means restating what the speaker has said in your own
words. The effective listener uses phrases like "what I hear you saying is " or "do
you mean ?" Why rephrase what's already been said? Two reasons! First, it's an
excellent control device to check on whether you're listening carefully. You can't
paraphrase accurately if your mind is wandering or if you're thinking about what
you're going to say next. Second, it's a control for accuracy. By rephrasing what the
speaker has said in your own words and feeding it back to the speaker, you verify the
accuracy of your understanding.

6.

Avoid interrupting the speaker. Let the speaker complete his or her thought before
you try to respond. Don't try to second-guess where the speaker's thoughts are
going. When the speaker is finished, you'll know it!

7.

Don't over talk. Most of us would rather speak our own ideas than listen to what
someone else says. Too many of us listen only because it's the price we have to pay
to get people to let us talk. While talking may be more fun and silence may be
uncomfortable, you can't talk and listen at the same time. The good listener recognizes
this fact and doesn't over talk.

8.

Make smooth transitions between the roles of speaker and listener. When you're a
student sitting in a lecture hall, you find it relatively easy to get into an effective
listening frame of mind. Why? Because communication is essentially one way: The
teacher talks and you listen. But the teacher-student dyad is atypical. In most work
situations, you're continually shifting back and forth between the roles of speaker
and listener. The effective listener, therefore, makes transitions smoothly from speaker
to listener and back to speaker. From a listening perspective, this means concentrating
on what a speaker has to say and practicing not thinking about what you're going to
say as soon as you get your chance.

Source: Stephen P Robbins "Organizational Behavior - concepts, controversies, applications" (7th edition. (1996) Prentice
Hall, Englewood Cliffs Page -388-389.

7.12.2 Empathetic Listeners

The better supervisors are willing, empathetic listeners. Empathetic listeners are able to
hear the feelings and emotional dimensions of the messages people send them, as well
as the content of the ideas and issues. Better supervisors are approachable and willing to
listen to suggestions and complaints.
Are You a Good Listener?
Reflective listening is a skill that you can practice and learn. Here are ten tips to help you
become a better listener.
1.
140

Stop talking. You cannot listen if your mouth is moving.

Contd...

2.

Put the speaker at ease. Break the ice to help the speaker relax. Smile!

3.

Show the speaker you want to listen. Put away your work. Do not look at your watch.
Maintain good eye contact.

4.

Remove distractions. Close your door. Do not answer the telephone.

5.

Empathize with the speaker. Put yourself in the speaker's shoes.

6.

Be patient. Not everyone delivers messages at the same pace.

7.

Hold your temper. Do not fly off the handle.

8.

Go easy on criticism. Criticizing the speaker can stifle communication.

9.

Ask questions. Paraphrase and clarify the speaker's message.

10.

Stop talking. By this stage, you are probably very tempted to start talking, but do not.
Be sure the speaker has finished.

Communication

Think of the last time you had a difficult communication with someone at work or school.
Evaluate yourself in that situation against each of the ten items. Which one(s) do you need
to improve on the most?
Source: C. Hamilton and B.H Kleiner "Steps to Better Listening" Personnel Journal February 1987.

7.12.3 Persuasive Leaders

Better supervisors are persuasive leaders. They are distinguished by their use of persuasive
communication when influencing others. Specifically, they encourage others to achieve
results instead of telling others what to do. They are not highly directive or manipulative
in their influence attempts.

7.12.4 Sensitive to Feelings

Better supervisors are also sensitive to the feelings, self-image and psychological defences
of their employees. Care is taken to avoid giving critical feedback or reprimanding in
public. They work to enhance that self-esteem as appropriate to the person's real talents,
abilities and achievements.

7.12.5 Informative Managers

Finally, better supervisors keep those who work for them well informed. They give
advance notice of organizational changes and explain the rationale for organizational
policies.
Check Your Progress 3

1.

Explain the different grapevine patterns.

2.

What do you mean by the old boys network?

3.

Explain the various categories of non-verbal communications.

4.

What suggestions do you give to supervisors to improve their communication?

7.13 HOW COMMUNICATION LEADS GLOBALLY?

Improved communication might be considered a supportive reason for opening up new
markets overseas, because the reason for opening up new markets overseas, because

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Principles of Management and

Organisational Behaviour

the effective ability to communicate with subordinates and customers has given managers
confidence in their ability to control foreign operations if they should undertake them.
l

Good, relatively inexpensive international communication enables international firms

to transmit computer-oriented tasks worldwide to a cheap but skilled labour force
abroad.

Shorter travelling time has also been responsible for numerous business opportunities
because foreign businessmen have come to the home country to look for new
products to import or to buy new technology.

7.14 LET US SUM UP

Whenever a group of people interact, communication takes place. Communication is the
exchange of information using a shared set of symbols. Communication is a critical part of
every manager's job. Without effective communication, even the most brilliant strategies
and the best-laid plans may not be successful. Communication is an indispensable activity
in all organizations. No organization can think of its existence without effective
communication. When people communicate, they differ not only in nonverbal behaviours
and language but in the degree to which they provide and seek information. Such differences
constitute various communication styles. A popular model for describing differences in
communication style is the Johari window. Within organizations, there are three directions
in which communications flow: downward, upward and laterally. The network for much
informal communication is the organization's grapevine. Grapevines develop in organizations
to handle communications that the formal channels of communication do not handle. It
typically supplements or replaces the organizational hierarchy as the means for transmitting
communication. Barriers to communication are factors that block or significantly distort
successful communication. Effective managerial communication skills helps overcome some,
but not all, barriers to communication in organizations.

7.15 LESSON END ACTIVITY

What, according to you, can be the ways to be followed in a workforce having diversity?

7.16 KEYWORDS
Communication
Johari window
grapevine patterns
old boys network

7.17 QUESTIONS FOR DISCUSSION

142

1.

Define Communication. Why has communication assumed importance in modern

industrial organizations?

2.

"Communication is sharing of understanding". Comment.

3.

What are the elements of communication? Explain the process of communication.

4.

Bring out clearly the importance of communication.

5.

Explain the various types of communication. Discuss the comparative advantages

of oral and written communications.

6.

Bring out clearly the characteristics of a good communication system.

7.

Describe the steps in the communication process.

8.

Name and describe briefly the five different patterns of communication networks
within an organization.

9.

What are the five communication skills of effective supervisors?

Communication

10. What is kinesics? Why is it important?

11.

Explain the term 'Grapevine' as a channel of communication. What are its benefits
to the management?

12. Explain the principal barriers to communication and suggest measures for removing
them.
13. How does perception affect the communication process?
14. Contrast encoding and decoding?
15. Describe the communication process and identify its key components.
16. What is the main function of "effective listening"? What are the common
organizational situations in which this technique might be useful?
17. What function does feedback serve in the communication process?
18. What conditions stimulate the emergence of rumours?

7.18 SUGGESTED READINGS

Ashburner L (1990) "Impact of Technological and Organizational Change" Personnel
Review U.K.
Bernard M Bass and Edward C Ryterband, (1979) "Organizational Psychology" (2nd
Ed) Allyn and Bacon, Boston.
Boss R.W (1989) "Organizational development in Health care" Addison-Wesley Mass;
Reading.
Davis P and John Rohrbugh "Group Decision Process Effectiveness: A competing
Value Approach" Group and Organization Studies, March 1990.
George J.M(1990) "Personality Effect, and Behavior in Groups", Journal of Applied
Psychology, vol.75
Hirokawa R.Y (1990) "The Role of Communication in Group Decision-Making
Efficacy: A task-Contingency Perspective". Small Group Research May 1990.
Irwin L Janis (1992) "Groupthink" (2nd Ed) Houghton Mifflin.
James H Davis (1964)"Group Performance" Addison-Wesley readings Mass.
Martell R.F and Guzzo R.A (1991) "The Dynamics of Implicit Theories of Group
Performance: When and How Do They Operate?" Organizational behavior and Human
Decision Processes, October 1991.
Marvin D Dunnette (1976) "Handbook of Industrial and Organizational Psychology"
Rand McNally, Chicago.
Marvin E Shaw, (1981)"Group Dynamics: The Psychology of Small Group Behavior"
(3rd Edition) McGraw-Hill New York.
Osborne J. E (1992) "Turning to Teambuilding to Tackle tough Times" Supervisory
management May 1992.
P.G. Aquinas, Organizational Behaviour, Excel Books, New Delhi.
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Case

Suggestion Box

Diana was sitting in the office of her dentist. She had to wait for at least 30 minutes before
her turn came. To pass the time she picked up a magazine. In the magazine she found a very
good article entitled "where good ideas really come from". The major theme of the article
was that the best ideas for improvement were most likely to come from the rank-and-file
employees and not managers. The article went on to describe the various ways of getting
these ideas flowing upward so they could be used to improve the organization.
The article, proposed that special "suggestion boxes" be placed in strategic places around
the organization with blank forms for employees to fill out describing their ideas for
improvement.
Diana, the Managing Director of Diatech Ltd., held discussions with several of her senior
managers. It was agreed to implement the programme. Several special designed boxes were
placed in various areas around the company and employees were requested through circulars
about the implementation of the suggestion scheme.
Diana anxiously awaited the first batch of suggestions. After the first week, the personnel
manager brought them in. There were three "suggestions".
l

One suggestion was that the suggestion box be scrapped.

The second suggestion was for Diana requesting her to get married.

The third suggestion was not to waste time thinking about stupid suggestions.

Questions

144

1.

Why has the "suggestion box" system not worked?

2.

Suggest an alternative method by which the "suggestion box" system could be

implemented.

UNIT-III

LESSON

8
THE PROCESS OF CONTROLLING

CONTENTS
8.0

Aims and Objectives

8.1

Introduction

8.2

Definitions of Control

8.3

Characteristics of Control

8.4

Steps in Control Process

8.5

8.4.1

Establishing Standards

8.4.2

Measuring and Comparing actual Results against Standards

8.4.3

Taking Corrective Action

Types of Control
8.5.1

Past Oriented Controls

8.5.2

Future-Oriented Controls

8.6

Essentials of Effective Control Systems

8.7

Scope of Control

8.8

Let us Sum up

8.9

Lesson-end Activities

8.10 Keywords
8.11 Questions for Discussion
8.12 Suggested Readings

8.0 AIMS AND OBJECTIVES

The purpose of this lesson is to discuss about the process of controlling in an organisation.
After studying this lesson you will be able to:
(i)

understand the meaning and characteristics of management control

(ii)

identify the steps involved in control process

(iii) describe requirements of control

8.1 INTRODUCTION
Controlling is an important function of management. It is the process that measures
current performance and guides it towards some predetermined objectives. Under primitive

Principles of Management and

Organisational Behaviour

management, control was undertaken only when something went wrong and the objectives
of control was to reprimand the person responsible for these events and take action
against him. The modern concept of control envisages a system that not only provides a
historical record of what has happened to the business as a whole but also pinpoints the
reasons why it has happened and provides data that enable the manager to take corrective
steps, if he finds he is on the wrong track. Therefore, there is no intention to punish the
person for wrongdoing, but to find out the deviations between the actual performance
and the standard performance and to take steps to prevent such variances in future.
The concept of control is often confused with lack of freedom. The opposite of control
is not freedom but chaos or anarchy. Control is fully consistent with freedom. In fact,
they are inter-dependent. Without control, freedom cannot be sustained for long. Without
freedom, control becomes ineffective. Both freedom and accountability are embedded
in the concept of control.

8.2 DEFINITIONS OF CONTROL

Control is the process through which managers assure that actual activities conform to
planned activities. According to Breach - "Control is checking current performance against
predetermined standards contained in the plans, with a view to ensuring adequate progress
and satisfactory performance."
According to George R Terry - "Controlling is determining what is being accomplished
i.e., evaluating the performance and if necessary, applying corrective measures so that
the performance takes place according to plans."
According to Billy E Goetz - "Management control seeks to compel events to conform
plans".
According to Robert N Anthony - "Management control is the process by which managers
assure that resources are obtained and used effectively and efficiently."
In the words of Koontz and O'Donnell - "Managerial control implies measurement of
accomplishment against the standard and the correction of deviations to assure attainment
of objectives according to plans."
In the words of Haynes and Massie - "Fundamentally, control is any process that guides
activity towards some predetermined goal. The essence of the concept is in determining
whether the activity is achieving the desired results.
In the words of J. L. Massie - "Control is the process that measures current performance
and guides it towards some predetermined goals."
In the words of Henry Fayol - "Control consists in verifying whether everything occurs
in conformity with the plan adopted, the instructions issued and the principles established.
Its object is to find out the weakness and errors in order to rectify them and prevent
recurrence. It operates on everything, i.e., things, people and actions".
From the above definitions it is clear that the managerial function of control consists in a
comparison of the actual performance with the planned performance with the object of
discovering whether all is going on well according to plans and if not why. Remedial
action arising from a study of deviations of the actual performance with the standard or
planned performance will serve to correct the plans and make suitable changes. Controlling
is the nature of follow-up to the other three fundamental functions of management.
There can, in fact, be not controlling without previous planning, organising and directing.
Controlling cannot take place in a vacuum.

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8.3 CHARACTERISTICS OF CONTROL

The Process of Controlling

Managerial control has certain characteristic feature. They are:

1.

Control is the function of every manager. Managers at all levels have to perform
this function to contribute to the achievement of organisational objectives.

2.

Control leads to appraisal of past activities. The deviations in the past are revealed
by the control process. Corrective actions can be initiated accordingly.

3.

Control is linked with future, as past cannot be controlled. It should anticipate

possible deviations and to think of corrective action for the control of such deviations
in the future. It is usually preventive as presence of control system tends to minimise
wastages, losses and deviations from standards.

4.

Control is concerned with setting standards, measurement of actual performance,

comparison of actual performance with predetermined standards and bringing to
light the variations between the actual performance and the standard performance.

5.

Control implies taking corrective measures. The object in checking the variations
or deviations is to rectify them and prevent their recurrence. It is only action which
adjusts performance to predetermined standards whenever deviations occur.

6.

Control can be exercised only with reference to and or the basis of plans. To quote
Mary Cushing Niles - "Whereas planning sets the course, control observes deviations
from the course or to an appropriately changed one".

7.

To some people, control is opposite of freedom. This is not true. Control is based on
facts and figures. Its purpose is to achieve and maintain acceptable productivity
from all resources of an enterprise. Therefore, control aims at results and not at
persons. It is for correcting a situation, and not for reprimanding persons.

8.

Information or feedback is the guide to control. The feedback is helpful to the

manager to determine how far the operations are proceeding in conformity with
plans and standards, and where remedial action is called for.

9.

Control involves continuous review of standards of performance and results in

corrective action which may lead to change in the performance of other functions
of management. This makes control a dynamic and flexible process.

10. Control is a continuous activity. It involves constant analysis of validity of standards,

policies, procedures etc.

8.4 STEPS IN CONTROL PROCESS

There are three basic steps in a control process:
l

Establishing standards.

Measuring and comparing actual results against standards.

Taking corrective action.

8.4.1 Establishing Standards

The first step in the control process is to establish standards against which results can be
measured. The standards the managers desire to obtain in each key area should be
defined as far as possible in quantitative terms. Standards expressed in general terms
should be avoided. Standards need to be flexible in order to adapt to changing conditions.
The standard should emphasis the achievement of results more than the conformity to
rules and methods. If they do not do so, then people will start giving more importance to
rules and methods than to the final results.
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Principles of Management and

Organisational Behaviour

While setting the standards, the following points have to be borne in mind:
(a)

The standards must be clear and intelligible. If the standards are clear and are understood
by the persons concerned, they themselves will be able to check their performance.

(b)

Standards should be accurate, precise, acceptable and workable.

(c)

Standards are used as the criteria or benchmarks by which performance is measured

in the control process. It should not be either too high or too low. They should be
realistic and attainable.

(d)

Standards should be flexible i.e., capable of being changed when the circumstances
require so.

8.4.2 Measuring and Comparing actual Results against Standards

The second step in the control process is to measure the performance and compare it with
the predetermined standards. Measurement of performance can be done by personal
observation, by reports, charts and statements. If the control system is well organised,
quick comparison of these with the standard figure is quite possible. This will reveal variations.
After the measurement of the actual performance, the actual performance should be
compared with the standards fixed quickly. A quick comparison of actual performance
with the standard performance is possible, if the control system is well organised. While
comparing the actual performance with the standards fixed, the manager has to find out
not only the extent of variations but also the causes of variations. This is necessary,
because some of the variations may be unimportant, while others may be important and
need immediate corrective action by the manager.

8.4.3 Taking Corrective Action

After comparing the actual performance with the prescribed standards and finding the
deviations, the next step that should be taken by the manager is to correct these deviations.
Corrective action should be taken without wasting of time so that the normal position can
be restored quickly. The manager should also determine the correct cause for deviation.
Taking corrective action can be achieved in the following way:
(a)

The manager should try to influence environmental conditions and external situations
in such a way as to facilitate the achievement of goals.

(b)

He should review with his subordinates the instructions given earlier so that he
may be able to give clear, complete and reasonable instructions in future.

(c)

There are many external forces which cannot be adjusted by the manager. They
have to be accepted as the facts of the situation, and the executives should revise
their plans in the light of these changing forces.
Check Your Progress

1.

Define control.

2.

What are the characteristics of the control process?

3.

Explain the steps in the control process.

8.5 TYPES OF CONTROL

Most control methods can be grouped into one of the two basic types:

150

Future-oriented controls and

Past-oriented controls.

8.5.1 Past-oriented Controls

The Process of Controlling

These are also known as post-action controls and measure results after the process.
They examine what has happened in a particular period in the past. These controls can
be used to plan future behaviour in the light of past errors or successes.

8.5.2 Future-oriented Controls

These are also known as steering controls or feed-forward controls and are designed to
measure results during the process so that action can be taken before the job is done or
the period is over. They serve as warning-posts principally to direct attention rather than
to evaluate e.g.: Cash flow analysis, funds flow analysis, network planning etc.

8.6 ESSENTIALS OF EFFECTIVE CONTROL SYSTEMS

1.

2.

3.

4.

5.

6.

7.

Suitable: The control system should be appropriate to the nature and needs of the
activity. A large firm calls for controls different from those needed for a small firm.
In other words, control should be tailored to fit the needs of the organisation. The
flow of information concerning current performance should correspond with the
organizational structure employed. If a superior is to be able to control overall
operations, he must find a pattern that will provide control for individual parts.
Budgets, quotas and other techniques may be useful in controlling separate
departments.
Timely and Forward Looking: The control system should be such as to enable
the subordinates to inform their superiors expeditiously about the threatened
deviations and failures. The feedback system should be as short and quick as
possible. If the control reports are not directed at future, they are of no use as they
will not be able to suggest the types of measures to be taken to rectify the past
deviations. A proper system of control should enable the manager concerned to
think of and plan for future also.
Objective and Comprehensive: The control system should be both, objective and
understandable. Objective controls specify the expected results in clear and definite
terms and leave little room for argument by the employees. This is necessary both
for the smooth working and the effectiveness of the system.
Flexible: The control system should be flexible so that it can be adjusted to suit the
needs of any change in the environment. A sound control system will remain
workable even when the plans change or fail outright. It must be responsive to
changing conditions. It should be adaptable to new developments including the
failure of the control system itself. Plans may call for an automatic system to be
backed up by a human system that would operate in an emergency.
Economical: Economy is another requirement of every control. The benefit derived
from a control system should be more than the cost involved in implementing it. A
small company cannot afford the elaborate control system used by a large company.
A control system is justifiable if the savings anticipated from it exceed the expected
costs in its working.
Acceptable to Organisation Members: The system should be acceptable to
organisation members. When standards are set unilaterally by upper level managers,
there is a danger that employees will regard those standards as unreasonable or
unrealistic.
Motivate People to High Performance: A control system is most effective when
it motivates people to high performance. Since most people respond to a challenge,
successfully meeting to tough standard may well provide a greater sense of
accomplishment than meeting an easy standard. However, if a target is so tough that it
seems impossible to meet, it will be more likely to discourage than to motivate effort.

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Principles of Management and

Organisational Behaviour

8.

Corrective Action: Merely pointing of deviations is not sufficient in a good control

system. It must lead to corrective action to be taken to check deviations from
standard through appropriate planning, organizing and directing. In the words of
Koontz and O'Donnell, "An adequate control system should disclose where failure
is occurring, who is responsible for them and what should be done about them." A
control system will be of little use unless it can generate the solution to the problem
responsible for deviation from standards.
9. Reflection of Organisation Pattern: Organization is not merely a structure of duties
and function, it is also an important vehicle of control. In enforcing control the efficiency
and the effectiveness of the organisation must be clearly brought out.
10. Human Factor: A good system of control should find the persons accountable for
results, whenever large deviations take place. They must be guided and directed if
necessary.
11. Direct Control: Any control system should be designed to maintain direct contact
between the controller and controlled. Even when there are a number of control
systems provided by staff specialists, the foreman at the first level is still important
because he has direct knowledge of performance.
12. Focus on Strategic Points: A good system of control not only points out the
deviations or exceptions but also pinpoints them where they are important or strategic
to his operations.

8.7 SCOPE OF CONTROL

The scope of control is very wide. A well designed plan of control (or control system)
covers almost all management activities. According to Holden, Fish and Smith, the main
areas of control are as follows:

152

1.

Control over policies: The success of any business organisation to a large extent,
depends upon, how far its policies are implemented. Hence the need of control
over policies is self-evident. In many enterprises, policies are controlled through
policy manuals.

2.

Control over organisation: Control over organisation is accomplished through the

development of organisation chart and organisation manual. Organisation manual
attempts at solving organisational problems and conflicts making long-range
organisation planning possible, enabling rationalisation of organisation structure,
helping in proper designing of organisation and department.

3.

Control over personnel: The statement that Management is getting the work
done through people underlines sufficiently the importance of control of personnel.
All employees working at different levels must perform their assigned duties well
and direct their efforts in controlling their behaviour. Personal Director or Personnel
Manager prepares control plan for having control over personnel.

4.

Control over wages and salaries: Such type of control is done by having
programme of job evaluation and wage and salary analysis. This work is done
either by personnel department or industrial engineering department. Often a wage
and salary committee is constituted to help these departments in the task of controlling
wages and salaries.

5.

Control over costs: Cost control is exercised by the cost accountant, by setting
cost standards for material, labour and overheads and making comparison of actual
cost data with standard cost. Cost control is supplemented by budgetary control
systems.

6.

Control over methods: Control over methods is accomplished by conducting

periodic analysis of activities of each department. The functions performed, methods

adopted and time devoted by every employee is studied with a view to eliminate
non-essential motions, functions and methods.
7.

Control over capital expenditures: It is exercised through a system of evaluation

of projects, ranking of projects in terms of their rank power and appropriate capital
to various projects. A capital budget is prepared for the whole firm. A capital
budgeting committee reviews the project proposes and approves the projects of
advantages to the firm. Capital budgeting, project analysis, break-even analysis,
study of cost of capital, etc. are some popular techniques of control over capital
expenditure.

8.

Control over research and development: Such activities are highly technical in
nature so no direct control is possible over them. By improving the ability and
judgement of research staff through training programmes and other devices, an
indirect control is exercised on them. Control is also exercised by having a research
on the business.

9.

Control over external relations: Public relations department is responsible for

controlling the external relations of the enterprise. It may prescribe certain measures
for other operating departments which are instrumental in improving external
relations.

The Process of Controlling

10. Overall control: It is effected through budgetary control. Master plan is prepared
for overall control and all the departments are made involved in this procedure. For
effective control through the master plan, active support of the top management is
essential.

8.8 LET US SUM UP

Controlling is an important function of management. It is the process that measures
current performance and guides it towards some predetermined objectives. Control is
fully consistent with freedom. In fact, they are inter-dependent. Without control, freedom
cannot be sustained for long. The control system should be appropriate to the nature and
needs of the activity. A large firm calls for controls different from those needed for a
small firm. This chapter provided insight into nature, scope and process of control. The
various types of control and their importance are also highlighted.

8.9 LESSON END ACTIVITY

Planning and control are after thought of as a system; control is also often referred to as
a system. What is meant by this? can both statements be trees?

8.10 KEYWORDS
Control
Part Oriented Control
Future Oriented Control
Budgeting
Standard Costing
Effective Control

8.11 QUESTIONS FOR DISCUSSION

1.

Define 'control'. What are the elements of control? How do managers exercise
control?

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Principles of Management and

Organisational Behaviour

2.

Discuss the concept and process of control. State the requirements of an effective
control system.

3.

Why is control a must in business management? What are the requirements of an

effective control system?

4.

"The essence of control is action". Comment.

5.

"The controlling function of management is similar to the function of the thermostat

in a refrigerator". Comment.

8.12 SUGGESTED READINGS

Billy E. Goetz, "Management Planning and Control", McGraw-Hill, New York (1979)
Chris Argyris, "Personality and Organization", Harper and Row, New York (1957)
Charles Handy, "Trust and the Virtual Organization", Harvard Business Review
(may - June 1995)
Douglas S. Sherwin, "The Meaning of Control", in Max D. Richards and William A
Nielander (eds. Readings in Management, D.B Taraporevala, Bombay (1971).
George R. Terry, "Principles of Management", Richard D. Irwin, Homewood III (1988).
George R. Terry and Stephen G. Franklin, "Principles of Management" AITBS, Delhi
(2000).
G. B. Giglione and A.G. Bedein, "Conception of Management Control Theory",
Academy of Management Journal, (June 1974)
Harold Koontz, Cyril O'Donnell, and Heinz Weihrich, "Management", McGraw-Hill,
New York (1984).
John A. Pearce and Richard B. Robinson, "Strategic Management" Homewood III
Richard D. Irwin (1988)
McGregor Douglas, "The Human Side of Enterprise", McGraw Hill Book Company,
New York (1960).
Peter F. Drucker, "Management Tasks, Responsibilities and Practices", Harper &
Row, New York (1974).
Paul E. Holden, L.S. Fish, and Hubert L. Smith, "Top Management Organisation and
Control", McGraw-Hill, New York (1981).
Scanlon Burt K., "Principles of Management and Organisation Behaviour", John
Wiley and Sons (1973).
Tom K. Reeves and Joan Woodward, "The Study of Management Control", Joan
Woodward (ed.) "Industrial Organization, Behaviour and Control", Oxford University
Press, London (1970).
P.G. Aquinas, Organizational Behaviour, Excel Books, New Delhi.

154

LESSON

9
CONTROL TECHNIQUES & GLOBAL
CONTROLLING
CONTENTS
9.0

Aims and Objectives

9.1

Introduction

9.2

Control Aids
9.2.1

Budgeting

9.2.2

Standard Costing

9.2.3

Responsibility Accounting

9.2.4

Reports

9.2.5

Standing Orders, Rules and Limitations

9.2.6

Personal Observation

9.3

Other Methods of Control

9.4

Critical Path Method (CPM)

9.5

Gantt Chart

9.6

Programme Evaluation and Review Technique

9.7

Global Controlling & Global Challenges

9.8

Let us Sum up

9.9

Lesson-end Activity

9.10 Keywords
9.11 Questions for Discussion
9.12 Suggested Readings

9.0 AIMS AND OBJECTIVES

This lesson is intended to discuss various methods and techniques of management control.
After studying this lesson you will be able to:
(i)

apply techniques, aids and tools of effective management control

(ii)

describe CPM, PERT and Gantt Chart

(iii) understand global controlling system

9.1 INTRODUCTION
A variety of tools and techniques have been used over the years to help managers
control the activities in their organizations. There can be control in different perspectives.
Time control relate to deadlines and time constraints, material controls relate to inventory
control etc. Various techniques of control are discussed in this lesson.

Principles of Management and

Organisational Behaviour

9.2 CONTROL AIDS

9.2.1 Budgeting
A budget is a statement of anticipated results during a designated time period expressed
in financial and non-financial terms. Budgets cover a designated time period - usually a
year. At stated intervals during that time period, actual performance is compared directly
with the budget targets and deviations are quickly detected and acted upon. E.g. of
Budgets: Sales budget, production budget, capital expenditure budget, cash budget, master
budget etc.

9.2.2 Standard Costing

The cost of production determines the profit earned by an enterprise. The system involves
a comparison of the actuals with the standards and the discrepancy is called variance.
The various steps involved in standard costing are:
l

Setting of cost standards for various components of cost e.g.: raw materials, labour
etc.

Measurement of actual performance.

Comparison of actual cost with the standard cost.

Finding the variance of actual from the standard cost.

Findings the causes of variance.

Taking necessary action to prevent the occurrence of variance in future.

9.2.3 Responsibility Accounting

Responsibility accounting can be defined as a system of accounting under which each
departmental head is made responsible for the performance of his department.

9.2.4 Reports
A major part of control consists of preparing reports to provide information to the
management for purpose of control and planning.

9.2.5 Standing Orders, Rules and Limitations

Standing orders, rules and limitations are also control techniques used by the management.
They are issued by the management and they are to be observed by the subordinates.

9.2.6 Personal Observation

A manager can also exercise fruitful control over his subordinates by observing them
while they are engaged in work.
Check Your Progress

Explain the different types of control techniques.

9.3 OTHER METHODS OF CONTOL

1.
156

Self-control: Each employee must exercise self-control and do what is expected

at work most of the time on most work related matters, as no enterprise can exist

self-control. Self-control stems from the employees ego, orientation, training and
work attitudes.
2.

Group control: It affects individuals both in output and behaviour. Group norms of
doing a good job exert pressures on the individual to perform and to follow work
rules.

3.

Policies and procedures: They are guides to action for managers to use in
controlling behaviour and output of employees. They can, for example, protect the
firmss resources and equipment and require employees presence for appropriate
work times.

Control Techniques & Global

Controlling

9.4 CRITICAL PATH METHOD (CPM)

A critical path consists of that set of dependent tasks (each dependent on the preceding
one), which together take the longest time to complete. A CPM chart can define multiple,
equally critical paths. The tasks, which fall on the critical path, should be noted in some
way, so that they may be given special attention. One way is to draw critical path tasks
with a double line instead of a single line. Tasks, which fall on the critical path, should
receive special attention by both the project manager and the personnel assigned to
them. The critical path for any given method may shift as the project progresses; this
can happen when tasks are completed either behind or ahead of schedule, causing other
tasks which may still be on schedule to fall on the new critical path.

9.5 GANTT CHART

Henry Laurence Gantt (1861-1919) was a mechanical engineer, management consultant
and industry advisor. He developed Gantt charts in the second decade of the 20th century.
Gantt charts were used as a visual tool to show scheduled and actual progress of projects.
It was an innovation of worldwide importance in the 1920s. Gantt charts were used on
large construction projects. A Gantt chart is a matrix, which lists on the vertical axis all
the tasks to be performed. Each row contains a single task identification, which usually
consists of a number and name. The horizontal axis is headed by columns indicating
estimated task duration, skill level needed to perform the task and the name of the
person assigned to the task, followed by one column for each period in the project's
duration. Each period may be expressed in hours, days, weeks, months and other time
units. The graphics portion of the Gantt chart consists of a horizontal bar for each task
connecting the period start and period ending columns. A set of markers is usually used
to indicate estimated and actual start and end. Each bar on a separate line and the name
of each person assigned to the task, is on a separate line. In many cases when this type
of project plan is used, a blank row is left between tasks. When the project is under way,
this row is used to indicate progress indicated by a second bar, which starts in the period
column when the task is actually started and continues until the task is actually completed.
Comparison between estimated start and end and actual start and end should indicate
project status on a task-by-task basis.

9.6 PROGRAMME
TECHNIQUE

EVALUATION

AND

REVIEW

Program evaluation and review technique (PERT) is a variation on Critical Path Analysis
that takes a slightly more sceptical view of time estimates made for each project stage.
Critical Path Method (CPM) charts are similar to PERT charts and are sometimes
known as PERT/CPM. To use it, estimate the shortest possible time each activity will
take, the most likely length of time and the longest time that might be taken if the activity

157

Principles of Management and

Organisational Behaviour

takes longer than expected. PERT charts depict task, duration and dependency
information. Each chart starts with an initiation node from which the first task or tasks,
originates. If multiple tasks begin at the same time, they are all started from the node or
branch, or fork out from the starting point. Each task is represented by a line, which
states its name or other identifier, its duration, the number of people assigned to it and, in
some cases, the initials of the personnel assigned. The other end of the task line is
terminated by another node, which identifies the start of another task or the beginning of
any slack time, that is, waiting time between tasks. Each task is connected to its successor
tasks in this manner, forming a network of nodes and connecting lines. The chart is
complete when all final tasks come together at the completion node. When slack time
exists between the end of one task and the start of another, the usual method is to draw
a broken or dotted line between the end of the first task and the start of the next
dependent task.

9.7 GLOBAL CONTROLLING & GLOBAL CHALLENGES

Need for Leadership in global organisations: The work place in the present day context
is increasingly multicultural and diverse. Employees are required to work together with
colleagues from different parts of the world with varied backgrounds, customs and practices.
Many products and services are produced for export. In addition, organisations are
outsourcing their work to countries having low labour costs to stay competitive. As
opportunities for global expansion increase, the workplace will have more diversity.
Organisations are now hiring professionals with different backgrounds, cultures, styles and
motivation. It is therefore necessary for organisations to expand the capacity for people to
handle the challenges of working with other cultures if they are to participate successfully.
Leaders must be adaptive and flexible to manage this diverse workforce. This requires
an understanding of the historical, political and economic references of people who work
in the organisations. Leaders must understand differences in worldviews, communication
styles, ethics and etiquette of the people they deal with both internally and externally.
Understanding different cultures: According to Richard D Lewis, the different nations
and cultures can be put into three groups:
1.

Linear-active: In these cultures, people focus on a scheduled timeline and like to

do one thing at a time. The people in these cultures are task-oriented planners.

2.

Multi-active: People belonging to these cultures are more focused on interactions

and dialogues. Meetings are given priorities and discussions and dialogues help to
build relationship and it is this relationship that determines what comes out of work.

3.

Reactive: People belonging to this type of culture are more introverted. They are
respect-oriented listeners and concentrate on what people have to say without
interruption and even if they interrupt it is rarely done. People in these cultures
usually express their ideas in a passive voice.

Leaders must understand different cultures when they work in an organisation which
has employees belonging to different cultures. The grouping done by Lewis is a simple
perspective that can help one to begin to understand basic differences in ways of doing
business in foreign countries. However, we must be cautious and avoid working with
unverified assumptions.

9.8 LET US SUM UP

158

The techniques of control involve the feed forward control, concurrent control and the
feed-back process. There are several techniques to establish the control system in an
organisation like CPM, Gantt Chart, PERT, etc. We have also studied about global
controlling and global challenges.

9.9 LESSON END ACTIVITY

Control Techniques & Global

Controlling

PERT is a management interventional technique designed to establish an effective control

system. Justify the statement.

9.10 KEYWORDS
Feedback
Feed Forward
Gantt Chart
Material Control
Performance
PERT
CPM

9.11 QUESTIONS FOR DISCUSSION

1.

What are the methods of effective control?

2.

Explain standard costing as a technique of control.

3.

What is the need for leadership in global organisations?

4.

Discuss the critical path method of controlling.

9.12 SUGGESTED READINGS

Billy E. Goetz, "Management Planning and Control", McGraw-Hill, New York (1979).
Chris Argyris, "Personality and Organization", Harper and Row, New York (1957).
Charles Handy, "Trust and the Virtual Organization", Harvard Business Review
(may - June 1995).
Douglas S. Sherwin, "The Meaning of Control", in Max D. Richards and William A
Nielander (eds.) Readings in Management, D.B Taraporevala, Bombay (1971).
George R. Terry, "Principles of Management", Richard D. Irwin, Homewood III (1988).
George R. Terry and Stephen G. Franklin, "Principles of Management" AITBS, Delhi
(2000).
G. B. Giglione and A.G Bedein, "Conception of Management Control Theory",
Academy of Management Journal (June 1974).
Harold Koontz, Cyril O'Donnell, and Heinz Weihrich, "Management", McGraw-Hill,
New York (1984).
John A. Pearce and Richard B. Robinson, "Strategic Management", Homewood III
Richard D. Irwin (1988).
McGregor Douglas, "The Human Side of Enterprise", McGraw Hill Book Company,
New York (1960).
Peter F. Drucker, "Management Tasks, Responsibilities and Practices", Harper &
Row, New York (1974).
Paul E. Holden, L.S Fish, and Hubert L. Smith, "Top Management Organisation and
Control", McGraw-Hill, New York (1981).

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Principles of Management and

Organisational Behaviour

Scanlon Burt K., "Principles of Management and Organisation Behaviour", John

Wiley and Sons (1973).
Tom K. Reeves and Joan Woodward, "The Study of Management Control", Joan
Woodward (ed.) "Industrial Organization, Behaviour and Control", Oxford University
Press, London (1970).
P.G. Aquinas, Organizational Behaviour, Excel Books, New Delhi.

160

LESSON

10
DIRECTING

CONTENTS
10.0 Aims and Objectives
10.1 Introduction
10.2 Meaning and Definition
10.3 Characteristics of Directing
10.4 Scope of Directing
10.5 Importance of Direction
10.6 Nature of Direction Functions of Management
10.6.1 Pervasiveness of Direction
10.6.2 Continuing Function
10.7 Principles of Direction
10.8 Principles of Issuing Orders
10.9 Types of Direction
10.10 Techniques of Direction
10.11 Let us Sum up
10.12 Lesson-end Activity
10.13 Questions for Discussion
10.14 Suggested Readings

10.0 AIMS AND OBJECTIVES

After studying controlling and techniques of controlling in previous two chapters, this
lesson is intended to discuss all about directing the staff. After studying this lesson you
will be able to:
(i)

appreciate the role of direction.

(ii)

understand the nature, principles and elements of direction.

(iii) use various tools and techniques of directing the staff.

10.1 INTRODUCTION
In practice, management is essentially the art and process of getting things done. The
managers have therefore, the responsibility not only of planning and organising the
operations but also of guiding and supervising the subordinates. This is the managerial
function of direction. In the words of Marshall "Directing involves determining the course,
giving orders and instructions and providing dynamic leadership".

Principles of Management and

Organisational Behaviour

10.2 MEANING AND DEFINITION

According to G. R. Terry - "Directing means moving to action and supplying simulative
power to a group of persons". Thus, the plan is put into operation through the organisation
by the process of direction. Another term used to describe this function is "Activating".
In the words of G. R. Terry - "Activating means moving into action - supplying simulative
power to the group".
According to Dale, "Direction is telling people what to do and seeing that they do it to the
best of their ability. It is through directing that managers get the work done through
people. It consists of:
l

Issuing orders and instructions by a superior to his subordinates.

Guiding, advising and helping subordinates in the proper methods of work.

Motivating them to achieve goals by providing incentives, good working environment

etc.

Supervising subordinates to ensure compliance with plans".

To carry out physically the activities resulting from the planning and organising steps, it is
necessary for the manager to take measures that will start and continue action as long as
they are needed in order to accomplish the task by the members of the group. The
process of directing or activating involves:
1.

Providing effective leadership

2.

Integrating people and tasks and convincing them to assist in the achievement of
the overall objectives

3.

Effective communication

4.

Providing climate for 'subordinate' development

Directing represents one of the essential functions of management because it deals with
human relations. Once the organisational plans have been laid down, the structure being
designed and competent people brought in to fill various positions in organisation, direction
starts. Direction phase of management is the heart of management-in action.

10.3 CHARACTERISTICS OF DIRECTING

Directing has the following characteristics features:
1.

It is the function of the superior manager and runs from top to down in the organisation
structure. A subordinate has to receive instructions for doing his job from his superior.

2.

Direction implies issuing orders and instruction. Besides issuing orders and
instruction a superior also guides and counsels his subordinates to do his job properly.

3.

The top management gives broad direction to the middle level managers who in
turn give specific direction to the lower level management.

4.

The four important aspects of directing are supervision, motivation, leadership and
communication. All these functions are interconnected and mutually dependent.

10.4 SCOPE OF DIRECTING

The function of directing is concerned with employee orientation, issuing instructions,
supervision, motivation, communication and leadership.
1.
162

Employee Orientation: An employee must be properly oriented to the enterprise

in which they are working. This orientation is necessary for them to accomplish the
objectives of the enterprise.

2.

Instructions: An instruction is an order or command by a senior directing a

subordinate to act or refrain from acting under a given situation. The right to issue
orders should be with the superior by virtue of his position.

3.

Supervision: In order to see that the work is done according to the instructions the
superior must observe the activities of the subordinates. Supervision is done at all
levels of management. However, supervision is more important at lower levels.

4.

Motivation: One of the most challenging problems for management is to motivate

people. Management has to induce the employee to utilise his talent and skill to
contribute to the organisational goal.

Directing

10.5 IMPORTANCE OF DIRECTION

The importance of direction in an organisation can be viewed by the fact that every
action is initiated through direction. It is the human element which handles the other
resources of the organisation. Each individual in the organisation is related with others
and his functioning affects others and, in turn, is affected by others. This makes the
functioning of direction all the more important. The importance of the direction function
is given below:
1.

Direction integrates employees' efforts: The individual efforts needs to be

integrated so that the organisation achieves its objectives. No organisational objective
can be achieved without the function of direction.

2.

Direction initiates action: It is through direction that the management makes

individuals function in a particular way to get organisational objectives.

3.

Direction gets output from individuals: Every individual in the organisation has
some potentials and capabilities which can be properly utilised through the function
of direction.

4.

Direction facilitates changes: To manage change management must motivate

individuals to accept these changes which can be accomplished through motivation.
Check Your Progress

Directing derives sufficient attention along with the other function of guiding the
subordinates to work willingly and enthusiastically towards the accomplishment of
predetermined organisational objectives. Comment.

10.6 NATURE OF DIRECTIONFUNCTIONS OF

MANAGEMENT
Direction is one of the most important functions of management. A good plan may have
been checked out, sound organisation may have been evolved and a sound team of
workers may be employed, but all these will not produce any result until there is proper
direction of the people in the use of various resources. Direction helps in achieving coordination among various operations of the enterprise. It is only after the performance of
direction function that the purpose of planning, organising and staffing is achieved. Directing
is the process around which all performance revolves. It is the essence of operation and
co-ordination is a necessary by-product of good managerial directing.

10.6.1 Pervasiveness of Direction

Direction is a pervasive function of management. It exists at every level, location and
operation throughout an enterprise. Some people think that only the managers at the

163

Principles of Management and

Organisational Behaviour

lower level who deal directly with the workers, perform the direction function. This point
of view is not correct. Direction function must be performed by every manager at different
levels of the enterprise. For instance, chief executive of a company interprets the objectives
and policies of the company and delegates authority to the departmental managers, the
direction function is part and parcel of these activities. Every manager, regardless of the
number of subordinates, performs this function because he is busy in giving instructions
to the subordinates, guiding them, and motivating them for the achievement of certain
goals.

10.6.2 Continuing Function

Like any other function of management, directing is a continuing activity. A manager
never ceases to direct, guide and supervise his subordinates. A manager who issues
orders and instructions and thinks his job is complete is committing a very serious error.
He must continuously supervise the execution of his orders or instructions by the
subordinates. He should also provide them effective leadership and motivation. Thus, he
will have to continue to devote considerable time on the direction function.

10.7 PRINCIPLES OF DIRECTION

For effective direction, following principles may be used:
(i)

Principle of leadership: Ability to lead effectively is essential to effective direction.

(ii)

Principle of informed communication: The management should recognise and

utilise informal organisation constructively.

(iii) Principle of direct supervision: The manager should supplement objective methods
of supervision and control with direct personal supervision to ensure personal contact.
(iv) Principle of direct objectives: The manager should communicate effectively and
motivate the subordinates for most effective performance.
(v)

Principle of harmony of objectives: The manager should guide the subordinates

so that their individual interest harmonizes with group interests.

(vi) Principle of unity of command: For most effective direction, subordinates should
be responsible to one superior.
(vii) Principle of managerial communication: The manager being the principle medium
of communication, should keep lines of communication open.
(viii) Principle of comprehension: The communication should ensure that the recipients
of the information actually comprehend it.
(ix) Principle of direct communication: The direct flow of information is most effective
for communications.

10.8 PRINCIPLES OF ISSUING ORDERS

Following points should be observed while issuing orders to the subordinates:
(i)

Few orders: Issue as few orders as possible. More orders than those that are
absolutely necessary, if issued, will result in loss of independence and thus initiatives
of subordinates will be suppressed.

(ii)

Clear orders: The orders should be absolutely clear. They create confidence in
the mind of the subordinates about the clear understanding by the order given.

(iii) Brief but complete orders: The orders should be as brief as possible but complete
orders to convey fully what is intended to be done.
164

(iv) Promptness: Professional form and proper tone in orders. Prompt issuing of order
and proper use of technical words and phrases is essential for effective directing.
Proper tone in issuing the orders should be observed.
(v)

Directing

Legitimate scope of orders: The manager issuing the order should keep within his
own domain. He must not encroach upon the sphere of the receiving executive.

(vi) Follow up orders: Another important principle of direction is that once orders or
instructions are issued, they should be followed up to see that they are executed, or
the instructions should be countermanded or withdrawn.

10.9 TYPES OF DIRECTION

Directions may be either oral or written. Some of the advantage of written directions are
as follows:
(i)

Written directions are more clear, comprehensive and clarity of thought and better
quality of direction maintained.

(ii)

Written orders are comparatively more intelligible and the chances for
misunderstanding and duplication of efforts will be minimised.

(iii) The subordinates also get an ample opportunity to study the directive carefully.
(iv) It also makes it possible to communicate to all interested parties simultaneously.
(v)

A written order can be consulted readily to maintain accuracy.

(vi) It helps in accountability and smooth carrying out of orders.

10.10 TECHNIQUES OF DIRECTION

A manager has at his disposal three broad techniques of direction.
1.

Consultative direction: In this method executive consults with his subordinates

concerning the feasibility, the workability and the extent and content of a problem
before the superior makes a decision and issues a directive.
The following advantages are claimed in this type of method:
(a)

Participation occurs on every level of organisation.

(b)

Better communication.

(c)

Least resistance from subordinates, experience and knowledge of subordinate

also can be used to arrive at right directives.

(d)

It induces better motivation and morale.

(e)

It leads to better co-ordination and effective results.

This method has the following disadvantages:

2.

(a)

It is time consuming.

(b)

Subordinates may consider it their right and prerogative to be consulted before

a directive is given to them by their superiors.

(c)

Sometimes unnecessary arguments arise leading to wastage of time.

Free rein direction: The free rein technique encourages and enables the
subordinate to contribute his own initiative, independent thought, drive, perspicacity
and ingenuity to the solution of the problem. The free rein technique of direction
will probably show the best and quickest results, if the subordinate is highly educated,
brilliant young man a sole performer, who has a sincere desire to become a top
level manager.

165

Principles of Management and

Organisational Behaviour

3.

Automatic direction: In this method manager gives direct, clear and precise orders
to his subordinates, with detailed instructions as how and what is to be done allowing
no room for the initiative of the subordinate.

10.11 LET US SUM UP

In this chapter the fundamentals and principles of direction were presented. Directing
consists of the process and techniques utilised in issuing instructions and making sure
that operations are carried on as originally planned. It also highlighted various intricacies
of direction together with types and techniques of direction. The principles of direction
include: (a) Principle of leadership (b) Principle of informed communication (c) Principle
of direct supervision (d) Principle of direct objectives (e) Principle of harmony of objectives
(f) Principle of unity of command (g) Principle of managerial communication (h) Principle
of comprehension and (i) Principle of direct communication.

10.12 LESSON END ACTIVITY

How should orders be issued in business enterprise? To what extent can personal appeal
prove effective?

10.13 QUESTIONS FOR DISCUSSION

Q 1. Define direction. What are its elements?
Q 2. Explain the nature of direction function of management.
Q 3. Describe the characteristics of a good order.
Q 4. Direction function of management involves dealing with human factor. Expound
this statement.
Q 5. Explain the principles of direction.
Q 6. Good leadership is an integrated part of effective direction. Explain and illustrate.
Q 7. Briefly explain the principles of directions and methods of directing Subordinates
to active objects.

10.14 SUGGESTED READINGS

Billy E. Goetz, "Management Planning and Control", McGraw-Hill, New York (1979).
Chris Argyris, "Personality and Organization", Harper and Row, New York (1957).
Charles Handy, "Trust and the Virtual Organization", Harvard Business Review
(May - June 1995).
Douglas S. Sherwin, "The Meaning of Control", in Max D. Richards and William A
Nielander (eds.) Readings in Management, D.B. Taraporevala, Bombay (1971).
George R. Terry, "Principles of Management", Richard D. Irwin, Homewood III (1988).
George R. Terry and Stephen G. Franklin, "Principles of Management" AITBS, Delhi
(2000).
G. B. Giglione and A.G. Bedein, "Conception of Management Control Theory",
Academy of Management Journal (June 1974).
Harold Koontz, Cyril O'Donnell, and Heinz Weihrich, "Management", McGraw-Hill,
New York (1984).
166

John A. Pearce and Richard B. Robinson, "Strategic Management", Homewood III

Richard D. Irwin (1988).

Directing

McGregor Douglas, "The Human Side of Enterprise", McGraw Hill Book Company,
New York (1960)
Peter F. Drucker, "Management Tasks, Responsibilities and Practices", Harper &
Row, New York (1974).
Paul E. Holden, L.S. Fish, and Hubert L. Smith, "Top Management Organisation and
Control", McGraw-Hill, New York (1981).
Scanlon Burt K., "Principles of Management and Organisation Behaviour", John
Wiley and Sons (1973)
Tom K. Reeves and Joan Woodward, "The Study of Management Control", Joan
Woodward (ed.) "Industrial Organization, Behaviour and Control", Oxford University
Press, London (1970).
P.G. Aquinas, Organizational Behaviour, Excel Books, New Delhi.

167

UNIT-IV

LESSON

11
ORGANISATIONAL BEHAVIOUR

CONTENTS
11.0 Aims and Objectives
11.1 Introduction
11.2 Meaning & Definition of Organisational Behaviour
11.3 History and Evolution of OB
11.3.1 Historical Perspective of Organisational Behaviour
11.3.2 Various Historical Concepts
11.4 Challenges and Opportunities of Organisational Behaviour
11.5 The Nature of Organisational Behaviour
11.6 Interdisciplinary Contributions to the Study of Organisational Behaviour
11.6.1 Psychology
11.6.2 Medicine
11.6.3 Sociology
11.6.4 Social Psychology
11.6.5 Engineering
11.6.6 Management
11.6.7 Anthropology
11.6.8 Political Science
11.6.9 The Organisational Context
11.7 Let us Sum up
11.8 Lesson-end Activity
11.9 Keywords
11.10 Questions for Discussion
11.11 Suggested Readings

11.0 AIMS AND OBJECTIVES

The purpose of this lesson is to note the origins and bases of modern organisational
thinking. After studying this lesson you will be able to:
(i)

understand meaning and nature of organisational behaviour.

(i)

describe the challenges and opportunities of organisational behaviour.

(i)

discuss the emerging thoughts in organisational behaviour.

(i)

describe interdisciplinary influences on organisational behaviour.

Principles of Management and

Organisational Behaviour

11.1 INTRODUCTION
Why do people behave the way they do? What causes different people to react differently
to the same situation? Why are some Organisations more successful than others, even
though they appear to be managed in the same manner? All of these questions and
more are the substance of what organisational behaviour is all about.

11.2 MEANING & DEFINITION OF ORGANISATIONAL

BEHAVIOUR
Organisational behaviour (OB) is the systematic study of the actions and attitudes that
people exhibit within organisations. It is individual behaviour and group dynamics in
organisations. The study of organisational behaviour is primarily concerned with the
psychosocial, interpersonal and behavioural dynamics in orgnanisations. However,
organisational variables that affect human behaviour at work are also relevant to the
study of organisational behaviour. These organisational variable include jobs, the design
and organisational structure. Therefore, although individual behaviour and group dynamics
are the primary concerns in the study of organisational behaviour, organisational variables
are important as the context in which human behaviour occurs.
The term organisational behaviour is defined by Stephen P Robbins as "a field of study
that investigates the impact of individuals, groups and structures on behaviour within
organisations for the purpose of applying such knowledge towards improving an
organisation's effectiveness". According to this definition, organisational behaviour
l

Is a field of study with a common body of knowledge.

It studies three determinants of behaviour in organisations. They are individuals,

groups and structures.

It applies the knowledge gained about individuals, groups and the effect of structure
on behaviour in order to make organisations work more effectively.

11.3 HISTORY AND EVOLUTION OF OB

11.3.1 Historical Perspective of Organisational Behaviour
In 1776, Adam Smith advocated a new form of organisational structure based on the
division of labour. One hundred years later, German Sociologist Max Weber introduced the
concept about rational organisations and initiated the concept of charismatic leadership.
Though the origin to the study of Organisational Behaviour can trace its roots back to Max
Weber and earlier organisational studies, it is generally considered to have begun as an
academic discipline with the advent of scientific management in the 1890's, with Taylorism
representing the peak of the movement. Thus, it was Fredrick Winslow Taylor who introduced
the systematic use of goal setting and rewards to motivate employees that could be considered
as the starting of the academic discipline of Organisational Behaviour. Proponents of
scientific management held that rationalising the organisation with precise sets of instructions
and time-motion studies would lead to increased productivity. Studies of different
compensation systems were also carried out to motivate workers.

172

In 1920's Elton Mayo an Australian born Harvard Professor and his colleagues conducted
productivity studies at Western Electric's Hawthorne Plant. With this epoch making
study the focus of organisational studies shifted to analysis of how human factors and
psychology affected organisations. This shift of focus in the study of organisations was
called the Hawthorne Effect. The Human Relations Movement focused on teams,
motivation, and the actualisation of goals of individuals within organisations. Studies

conducted by prominent scholars like Chester Barnard, Henri Fayol, Mary Parker Follett,
Frederick Herzberg, Abraham Maslow, David McCellan and Victor Vroom contributed
to the growth of Organisational Behaviour as a discipline.

Organisational Behaviour

In the 1960's and 1970's, the field was strongly influenced by social psychology and the
emphasis in academic study was quantitative research. An explosion of theorising, bounded
rationality, informal organisation, contingency theory, resource dependence, institution theory
and population ecology theories have contributed to the study of organisational behaviour.

11.3.2 Various Historical Concepts

1.

Industrial Revolution: It has only been since the Industrial Revolution of the
nineteenth century that relatively large number of individuals have been required to
work together in manager-subordinate relationships. Prior to this many of the large
organisations that did exist, were military ones in which the authority of the leader
was supreme and practically unquestioned, since membership was not voluntary.
Behavioural problems were relatively easy to deal with under these conditions. It is
certainly no accident that much of our current knowledge about human behaviour
has been derived from organisations in which influencing behaviour consists of
more than just giving orders.
Famous industrialist like William C Durant, Henry Ford, Andrew Carnegie, and
John D Rockfeller were men of brilliant managerial qualities. They possessed the
managerial qualities necessary for the initial stages if industrialization. However,
when the industrial revolution began to mature and become stabilized, this approach
was no longer appropriate.

2.

Scientific Management: The great industrialist was primarily concerned with

overall managerial organisation in order for their companies to survive and prosper.
The scientific management movement around the turn of the century took a
narrower, operations perspective. Yet, the two approaches were certainly not
contradictory. The managers in both cases applied the scientific method to their
problems and they thought that effective management at all levels was the key to
organisational success.

Fredrick W Taylor (1856 - 1915) is the recognized father of scientific management.

Taylor started scientific management in his time-and-motion studies at the Midvale Steel
Company in the early 1900's. As an industrial engineer, he was concerned with
inefficiencies in manual labour jobs and believed that by scientifically studying the specific
motions that made up the total job, a more rational, objective and effective method of
performing the job could be determined. In his early years as a foreman in the steel
industry, he saw different workers doing the same job in different ways. It was his
opinion that each man could not be doing his job in the optimal way, and he set out to find
the "one best way" to perform the job efficiently. His argument proved to be correct and
in some instances "taylorism" resulted in productivity increases of 400 percent. In almost
all cases, his methods improved productivity over existing levels.
Is Taylorism Really Dead?
Fred Taylor took a lot of flack during his heyday. Unions were suspicious of him, employers
were skeptical of his claims and the government thought he needed to be investigated.
Taylor's philosophy permeated his whole life. Sudhin Kakar, in his study, Frederick Taylor:
A Study in Personality and Innovation (Cambridge: MIT Press, 1970), notes that he did
such strange things as experiment with his legs on cross-country walks to discover the
step that would cover the greatest distance with the least expenditure of energy; as a
young man, before going to a dance, he would conscientiously and systematically list the
attractive and unattractive girls with the object of dividing his time equally between them;
and he often incurred the wrath of his playmates when he was more concerned that the
Contd...

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playing field for sports be scientifically measured than he was with actually playing the
game.
Taylor's "one best way" philosophy has often been misunderstood; though he believed
that in terms of physical motions there should be "one best way", he also recognized that
the equipment needed to perform the "one best way" would vary from person to person.
His famous example of equipping a large man and a small man with shovels of different sizes
to match the equipment with the person.
While it is fashionable today to blast Taylor as being insensitive to human needs and
treating people like machines, it is painfully obvious that his influence is probably as great
now as it ever was. Though Taylor is criticized for treating people only as economic beings,
surveys show that dollar motivation is still strong, particularly in manufacturing organisations.
If one includes managerial personnel who are on some type of bonus or profit-sharing
scheme, then we probably have more people today on economic incentive systems than
ever before.
Source: ORGANISATIONAL BEHAVIOR - concepts and applications, Jerry L Gray and Frederick A Starke - Charles E Merrill
Publishing Company Columbus (Third Edition) Page 9

Taylor had actually shop and engineering experience and therefore was intimately involved
with tools, products and various machining and manufacturing operations. His well-known
metal-cutting experiments demonstrated the scientific management approach. Over a
period of twenty-six years, Taylor tested every conceivable variation in speed, feed,
depth of cut, and kind of cutting tool. The outcome of this experimentation was highspeed steel, considered one of the most significant contributions to the development of
large-scale production.
Coupled with Taylor's logical, rational, engineering-like approach to management was a
simple theory of human behaviour: people are primarily motivated by economic rewards
and well take direction if offered the opportunity to better their economic positions. Put
simply, taylor's theory stated that:
l

Physical work could be scientifically studied to determine the optimal method of

performing a job.

Workers could thereafter be made more efficient by being given prescriptions for
how they were to do their jobs.

Workers would be willing to adhere to these prescriptions if paid on "differential

piecework" basis.

In addition to advocating the use of scientific means to develop the best way to do a task,
Taylor argued that several other principles were important.
1.

Workers with appropriate abilities had to be selected and trained in the appropriate
task method.

2.

Supervisors needed to build cooperation among the workers to ensure that they
followed the designated method of work. Building such cooperation included soliciting
workers' suggestions and being willing to discuss ideas for improved work methods.

3.

There needed to be a clear division of work responsibilities. Previously, the workers

planned how to approach a task, and then they executed it. Under the Taylor
scheme, it was management's job to do the task planning, using scientific methods.

Taylor's four principles of scientific management are summarized here: -

174

Scientifically study each part of a task and develop the best method for performing
the task.

Carefully select workers and train them to perform the task by using the scientifically
developed method.

Cooperate fully with workers to ensure that they use the proper method.

Divide work and responsibility so that management is responsible for planning work
methods using scientific principles and workers are responsible for executing the
work accordingly.

Organisational Behaviour

Many have criticized Taylor's work for dehumanizing the work place and treating workers
like machines, but his overall contribution to management was significant. Although others
were studying similar methods at the same general time, Taylor was one of the first to
take the theory and practice of management out of the realm of intuitive judgment and
into the realm of scientific inquiry and reasoning.
Taylor's ideas on time study, standardization of work practices, goal setting, money as a
motivator, scientific selection of workers and rest pauses have all proved to be successful
techniques of management today.
Taylor was by no means the only noteworthy scientific manager. Others in the movement,
such as Frank and Lillian Gilberth and Henry L Gantt made especially significant contributions.
The Gilbreths: Other major advocates of scientific management were the husband and
wife team of Frank Gilbreth (1868 - 1924) and Lillian Moller Gilberth (1878 - 1972). As
Frank become involved in training young bricklayers, he noticed the inefficiencies that
were handed down from experienced workers. To remedy the situation he proposed
using motion studies to streamline the bricklaying process. Frank also designed special
scaffolding for different types of jobs and devised precise directions for mortar consistency.
On the basis of these and other ideas, Frank was able to reduce the motions involved in
bricklaying from 18 to 4. Using his approach, workers increased the number of bricks
laid per day from 1000 to 2700 with no increase in physical exertion.
Frank married Lillian Moller, who began working with him on projects while she completed
her doctorate in psychology. The two continued their studies aimed at eliminating
unnecessary motions and expanded their interests to exploring ways of reducing task
fatigue. Part of their work involved the isolation of 17 basic motions, each called a
therblig ("Gilbreth" spelled backward, with the "t" and "h" reversed). Therbligs included
such motions as select, position, and hold - motions that were used to study tasks in a
number of industries. The Gilbreths used the therblig concept to study tasks in a number
of industries. The Gilbreths used the therblig concept to study jobs and also pioneered
the use of motion picture technology in studying jobs.
Lillian's doctoral thesis was published as a book, The Psychology of Management, making
it one of the early works applying the findings of psychology to the workplace. At the
insistence of the publisher, the author was lilted as L.M. Gilbreth to disguise the fact that
the book was written by a woman.
Lillian helped define scientific management by arguing that scientific studies of
management must focus on both analysis and synthesis. With analysis, a task is broken
down into its essential parts or elements. With synthesis, the task is reconstituted to
include only those elements necessary for efficient work. She also had a particular
interest in the human implications of scientific management, arguing that the purpose of
scientific management is to help people reach their maximum potential by developing
their skills and abilities. Lillian Gilbreth ranks as the first woman to gain prominence as a
major contributor to the development of management as a science.
Henry L Gantt (1861-1919): One of Taylor's closest associates, Henry Gantt latter
become an independent consultant and made several contributions of his own. The most
well-known is the Gantt Chart, a graphic aid to planning, scheduling and control that is
still in use today. He also devised a unique pay incentive system that not only paid
workers extra for reaching standard in the allotted time but also awarded bonuses to
supervisors when workers reached standard. He wanted to encourage supervisors to
coach workers who were having difficulties.

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The scientific managers like Taylor, Frank and Lillian Gilberth and Henry Gantt were not
the first or only group that recognized the importance of the operating functions. A
hundred years earlier, Adam Smith had carefully pointed out the advantages of division
of labour and in 1832, Charles Babbage, a British mathematician with some astounding
managerial insights, discussed transference of skill in his book Economy of Machinery
and Manufacture.
3.

The Human Relations Movement: The second major step on the way to current
organisational behaviour theory was the Human Relations Movement that began in
the 1930's and continued in various forms until the 1950's. The practice of
management, which places heavy emphasis on employee cooperation and morale,
might be classified as human relations. Raymond Mills states that the human relation
approach was simply to "treat people as human beings (instead of machines in
the productive process), acknowledge their needs to belong and to feel
important by listening to and heeding their complaints where possible and by
involving them in certain decisions concerning working conditions and other
matters, then morale would surely improve and workers would cooperate with
management in achieving good production".
The Human Relations Movement, popularized by Elton Mayo and his famous
Hawthorne studies conducted at the Hawthorne Plant of the Western Electric
Company, in many ways it remained the foundation of much of our management
thinking today. Before the Hawthorne studies officially started, Elton Mayo headed
a research team, which was investigating the causes of very high turnover in the
mule-spinning department of a Philadelphia textile mill in 1923 and 1924. After
interviewing and consulting the workers, the team set up a series of rest pauses,
which resulted in greatly reduced turnover and more positive worker attitudes and
morale.

Illumination Experiments: The initial experiments reflected strongly the physical

orientation of scientific management, since they were designed to explore the relationship
between lighting and productivity. The rational approach of scientific management
predicted a positive relationship i.e., as lighting increased, productivity would increase up
to a point of course. Logically, at some (high) level of illumination productivity should
begin to decline, so the original experiment was designed to determine the optimal level
of illumination.
The light experiments were conducted on female workers, who were divided into two
groups. One group was placed in a test room where the intensity of illumination was
varied, and the other group worked in a control room with supposedly constant conditions.
The results were baffling to the researchers. The researchers found no predictable
relationship between lighting and output and, because the research results could not be
explained by existing knowledge, the researchers were forced to find new explanation.
Further research indicated that the lack of a predictable relationship between lighting
and output was related to the mental and emotional side of organisations rather than the
physical, mechanistic side recognized by scientific management. Additional studies showed
that economic factors, such as incentive systems, were equally poor in predicting
behaviour.
Relay Room Experiments: Intrigued with positive changes in productivity some of the
engineers and company officials decided to attempt to determine the causes through
further studies. Accordingly, a second set of experiments took place between 1927 and
1933 known as the Relay Room experiments.

176

The most famous study involved five girls assembling electrical relays in the Relay
Assembly Test Room, a special room away from other workers where the researchers
could alter work conditions and evaluate the results. During the experiment, the girls

were often consulted and sometimes allowed to express themselves about the changes
that took place in the experiment. Apparently, the researchers were concerned about
possible negative reactions and resistance from the workers who would be included in
the experiment. To lessen potential resistance, the researchers changed the usual
supervisory arrangement so that there would be no official supervisor; rather, the workers
would operate under the general direction of the experimenter. The workers also were
given special privileges such as being able to leave their workstation without permission,
and they received considerable attention from the experimenters and company officials.
In total, they were treated and recognized as individuals with something to contribute.

Organisational Behaviour

The study was aimed at exploring the best combination of work and rest periods, but a
number of other factors were also varied, such as pay, length of the workday, and provisions
for free lunches. Generally, productivity increased over the period of the study, regardless
of how the factors under consideration were manipulated.
The results in the relay room were practically identical with those in the illumination
experiment. Each test period yielded higher productivity than the previous one had done.
Even when the girls were subjected to the original conditions of the experiment, productivity
increased. The conclusion was that the independent variables (rest pauses and so forth)
were not by themselves causing the change in the dependent variable (output).
One outcome of the studies was the identification of a famous concept that ultimately
came to be known as the Hawthorne effect. The Hawthorne effect refers to the possibility
that individuals singled out for a study may improve their performance simply because of
the added attention they receive from the researchers, rather than because of any specific
factors being tested in the study. More contemporary investigations now suggest that the
Hawthorne effect concept is too simplistic to explain what happened during the Hawthorne
studies and that the Hawthorne effect concept itself is defective. In the Hawthorne
situation, the workers likely viewed the altered supervision as an important positive change
in their work environment, even though that was not what the researchers intended.

Bank Wiring Room Study

The final phase of the research programme was the bank wiring study, which started in
November 1931 and lasted until May 1932. Its primary purpose was to make observational
analysis of the informal work group. A group of male workers in the study provided
knowledge about informal social relations within groups and about group norms that
restrict output when such steps sum advantageous to the group. It also included a massive
interviewing programme (1928 - 1931) that was initially aimed at improving supervision
but evolved into a means of learning what workers had on their minds and allowing them
to let of steam.
The results in the bank wiring room were essentially opposite to those in the relay room.
The output was actually restricted by the bank wirers. By scientific management analysis,
a standard of 7312 terminal connections per day had been arrived at. This represented
2 equipments. The workers had a different brand of rationality. They decided that
2 equipments was a "proper" days work.
The researchers determined that the informal group norm of 2 equipments represented
restriction of output rather than a lack of ability to produce 2 equipments. The following
evidence supports this contention:
1.

The observer noted that all the men stopped before quitting time.

2.

Most of the men admitted to the interviewer they could easily turn out more work.

3.

Tests of dexterity and intelligence indicated no relationship between capacity to

perform and actual performance.

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Assessing the Hawthorne Studies: The Hawthorne studies have been severely criticized
mainly because the studies often had major flaws (such as changing several factors at
the same time) and because important data were sometimes ignored in drawing conclusions
(especially in discounting the potential importance of pay).
The Human Relations Movement, like Scientific Management, is not without its
shortcomings. Because of the nature of its findings and the resulting lessons for managers,
it has been criticised as "cow Sociology"(so called because happy cows presumably give
more milk). This simplistic view of the relationship between morale and productivity is
something that existing research has not been able to verify.
Yet, despite their shortcomings, the effects of these pioneering studies were far-reaching.
In strong contrast to the impersonality that characterized the classical approach, the
Hawthorne studies pointed to the impact that social aspects of the job had on productivity,
particularly the effect of personal attention from supervisors and relationship among
group members. As a result, the focus of the field of management was drastically altered.
A common interpretation of the Human Relations Movement is that managers need only
treat their employees well to generate maximum productivity. This conclusion is unfortunate
for two reasons.
1.

It is oversimplified and therefore often inaccurate.

2.

Those who do not agree with this conclusion might be labeled advocates of poor
treatment of employees - which, of course, is also false.
Do Happy Cows Give More Milk?
The Human Relations School of thought has been accused of advocating "cow sociology"
as a method of managing people, i.e., since happy cows can give more milk, it follows that
happy people will produce more. But do happy cows give more milk? Or, perhaps more
importantly, how can you tell if cows are happy? In our quest for an answer to these
important questions we asked farmers, dairies, and professors of agriculture; we read journals
(Journal of Dairy Science), textbooks on dairy management, and popular farm publications.
We even assigned a graduate student to research the question. But alas, we could not
uncover any scientific evidence proving it to be true (although everyone we spoke to
believed it to be true). In one study, we found, an author noted the importance of
"psychological and stress" factors which affected milk production, but declined to study
them because "they were too difficult to measure". So at least for the present, we must
scientifically conclude that the question is yet unanswered. Nevertheless, we were impressed
by one textbook in dairy science in which the author prescribes several techniques to
maximize milk production:

178

1.

Cows become accustomed to a regular routine; disturbing this routine disturbs them
and causes a decrease in milk production.

2.

Attendants should come into close contact with the cows, and it is important that the
best of relations exist between the cows and keepers.

3.

The cows should not be afraid of the attendants.

4.

Cows should never be hurried.

5.

Chasing cows with dogs or driving them on the run should never be allowed.

6.

In the barn, attendants must work quietly; loud shouting or quick movements upset
cows and cause them to restrict production

Quite possibly the positive but simplistic philosophy of human relations has actually
hindered needed research into organisational behaviour. This does not necessarily mean
that an understanding of human relations is not useful; it may have a payoff in areas
other than performance, such as absenteeism, turnover etc. The influence of the human
relations philosophy can be seen in many management training programmes today. Topics

such as communication, counselling, understanding people, and leadership are common

ingredients in many training programmes and reflect the findings of the original Hawthorne
studies. Often participants are taught that improved communications, etc., will increase
morale. Unfortunately, these topics can erroneously be seen as the totality of the manager's
job, thereby increasing the probability that employee morale may increase and productivity
may decrease.

Organisational Behaviour

Conclusion
The Human Relations Movement is sometimes referred to as a backlash to the economic
and rational approach of Scientific Management movement, but this point of view tends
to cast Scientific Management in an unfair light. Because of his shop-floor experience,
Taylor realized before Mayo and his colleagues did that there were "goldbrickers" that
group norms might restrict output, and that workers generally preferred their own ways
of doing things. Perhaps the major shortcoming of Taylor's philosophy was his
underestimation of the magnitude of these feelings in relation to his economic man concept.
Taylor believed that in the final analysis, workers are rational, logical people who would
change their behaviour in the interest of their economic well-being. Mayo, on the other
hand, attempted to show that man is also an emotional, non-logical being who often
reacts unpredictably to the work environment.
Today it is common to picture modern management theory as a blend of the extremes of
the principles contained in scientific management and human relations, with each
contributing valuable insights for managing organisations. We now recognize that the
subject involving combinations of the rational and the emotional, the physical and the
mental, and the logical and non-logical. Regardless of one's interpretation of the Hawthorne
experiments, or perceptions of their social significance, that series of investigations stand
as a monumental research study in the field of organisational behaviour. Elton Mayo and
his associates should be considered as the founding fathers of modern organisational
behaviour concepts.
Check Your Progress

1.

Trace the History of Organisation Behaviour.

2.

Explain the stages in the Human Relations Movement.

11.4 CHALLENGES AND OPPORTUNITIES OF

ORGANISATIONAL BEHAVIOUR
The challenges and opportunities of organisational behaviour could be understood through
the following areas:
1.

Understanding Global Organisational Behaviour: Globalisation reflects a

business orientation based on the belief that the world is becoming more
homogeneous and that distinctions between national markets are not only fading,
but, for some products will eventually disappear. International firms have found it
necessary to institute formal global strategic planning to provide a means for top
management to identify opportunities and threats from all over the world, formulate
strategies to handle them and stipulate how to finance the strategies of these
implementation. Keeping these changes in mind the challenges are to understand
global organisational behaviour. The issues include:
l

The creation of a global village

Work force diversity

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Improving quality and productivity to match global standards

Improving people skills

Moving towards employee empowerment

Improving ethical behaviour

Multiculturalism and diversity.

2.

Working with people from different cultures: To work effectively with people
from different cultures, you need to understand how their culture and religion have
shaped them and how they will respond to particular styles in management. What
motivates people from one culture may not be appealing for people form another
culture and this makes the work of a manager more challenging.

3.

Movement of jobs to countries with low cost labour: In a global economy, jobs
tend to flow to places where lower costs of labour provide business firms with a
comparative advantage. Jobs are moving from U.S.A and U.K and other developed
countries to developing countries like India and China. This is a threat to managers
from developed counties while it is an opportunity for developing countries especially
like India for we have a talented people with good knowledge of the English language.

4.

Workforce Diversity: While globalisation focuses on differences between people

form different countries, workforce diversity addresses differences among people
within a given country. Workforce diversity means that organisations are becoming
more heterogeneous in terms of gender, age race etc.

11.5 THE NATURE OF ORGANISATIONAL BEHAVIOUR

Organisational behaviour is not a discipline in the usual sense of the term, but rather an
eclectic field of study that integrates the behaviour sciences into the study of human
behaviour within organisations. Organisational behaviour is a young field of inquiry, in
terms of the use of scientific techniques. To learn that human behaviour in organisations
is not an exact science is in itself a significant realization. One of the failings of the
scientific management movement was it belief that human behaviour was easily predicted.
So while the field of organisational behaviour may be inexact, it is realistic.
Organisational behaviour is neither a purely scientific area of inquiry nor a strictly
intellectual endeavour. It involves the study of abstract ideas, such as valance and
expectancy in motivation, as well as the study of concrete matters, such as observable
behaviours and physiological symptoms of distress at work. Therefore, learning about
organisational behaviour is a multidimensional activity as shown in Figure 11.1 below.

Mastery of basic
objective knowledge

Development of special
skills and abilities

Application of
knowledge and skills

Figure 11.1: Learning about organisational behaviour

180

Mastery of basic objective knowledge: Objective knowledge, in any field of study, is

developed through basic and applied research. Acquiring objective knowledge requires
the cognitive mastery of theories, conceptual models, and research findings.

Skill Development: The study of organisational behaviour requires skill development

and the mastery of abilities essential to successful functioning in organisations. The
essential skills identified by the U.S Department of labour are:
a.

Resource management skills, such as time management

b.

Information management skills, such as data interpretation

c.

Personal interaction skills such as team work

d.

Systems behaviour and performance skills, such as cause-effect relations

e.

Technology utilization skills, such as troubleshooting.

Organisational Behaviour

Many of these skills, such as decision-making and information management, are directly
related to the study of organisation behaviour. Developing skills is different from acquiring
objective knowledge in that it requires structured practice and feedback.
Application of Knowledge and Skills: It requires the integration of objective knowledge
and skill development in order to apply both appropriately in specific organisational settings.

Goals of Organisational Behaviour

The goals of organisational behaviour are to:
1.

Explain individual and group behaviour: We are pursuing the explanation

objective, when we want to know why individuals or groups behaved the way they
did. For example, if the turnover rate in an organisation is very high, we want to
know the reason so that action can be taken to correct the situation in the future.

2.

Predict certain behavioural response to change: Prediction seeks to determined

what outcomes will result from a given action. Having a sound knowledge of OB
will help the manager predict certain behavioural responses to change. In this way,
the manager can anticipate which approaches will generate the least degree of
employee resistance and use that information in making decision.

3.

Control behaviour: The knowledge of OB can be used by managers to control

behaviour. Managers frequently see the control objective as the most valuable
contribution that OB makes toward their effectiveness on the job.

11.6 INTERDISCIPLINARY CONTRIBUTIONS TO THE

STUDY OF ORGANISATIONAL BEHAVIOUR
Organisational behaviour is a blended discipline that has grown out of contributions from
numerous earlier fields of study. These interdisciplinary influences are the root for what is
increasingly recognized as the independent discipline of organisational behaviour.
Organisational behaviour is an applied behavioural science that is built on contributions
from a number of behavioural disciplines. The sciences of psychology, sociology, anthropology,
political science, engineering, management and medicine are the primary fields of study out
of which organisational behaviour has grown. Each of these sciences has had its own
importance and unique influence on the discipline of organisational behaviour.

11.6.1 Psychology
Psychology is the science of human behaviour and dates back to the closing decades of
the nineteenth century. Psychology traces its origins to philosophy and the science of
physiology. Psychology is the science that seeks to measure, explain and sometimes
change the behaviour of humans. Psychologists concern themselves with studying and
attempting to understand individual behaviour.

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Since its origin, psychology has itself become differentiated into a number of specialized
fields, such as clinical, experimental, military, organisational and Psychology. The topics
in organisational psychology, which include work teams, work motivation, training and
development, power and leadership, human resource planning and workplace wellness,
are very similar to the topics covered by organisational behaviour.
Those who have contributed and continue to add to the knowledge of OB are learning
theorist, personality theorists, counseling psychologists and most important, industrial and
organisational psychologists. Industrial and organisational psychologists concern themselves
with problems of fatigue, boredom, perception, learning motivation, job satisfaction,
personality, performance appraisals, employee selection, job designing, work stress etc.

11.6.2 Medicine
It is the applied science of healing or treatment of diseases to enhance an individual's
health and well-being. Medicine embraces concern for both physical and psychological
health with the concern for the concern mental health dating back at least sixty years.
More recently, as the war against acute diseases is being won, medical attention has
shifted from the acute diseases such as influenza to the more chronic, such as
hypertension. Individual behaviour and lifestyle patterns play a more important role in
treating chronic diseases than in treating acute diseases. These trends have contributed
to the growth of wellness programmes in the context of corporate medicine. These
programmes have led to the increasing attention to medicine in organisational behaviour.

11.6.3 Sociology
Sociology, the science of society, has made important contributions to knowledge about
group and inter group dynamics in the study of organisational behaviour. Because sociology
takes the society rather than the individual as a point of departure, the sociologist is
concerned with the variety of roles within a society or culture, the norms and standards
of behaviour that emerge within societies and groups, and the examination of the
consequences of compliant and deviant behaviour within social group.
Sociologists have made their greatest contributions to organisational behaviour through
their study of group behaviour in organisations, particularly formal and complex
organisations. Some of the areas within organisational behaviour that have received
inputs from sociologist are group dynamics, design of work teams, organisational culture,
formal organisations theory and structure, organisational culture, formal organisation
theory and structure, organisational technology, bureaucracy, communications, power,
conflict and inter group behaviour.

11.6.4 Social Psychology

Social psychology is a branch of psychology which borrows concepts from psychology
and sociology. Social psychology focuses on the influence of people on one another.
Social psychologists have made significant contributions in the area of measuring,
understanding and changing attitudes; communication patterns; the way in which group
activities can satisfy individual needs, and group decision-making processes.

11.6.5 Engineering

182

Engineering has made important contributions to our understanding of the design of

work. By taking basic engineering ideas and applying them to human behaviour in work
organisations, Fredrick Taylor had a profound influence on the early years of the study
of organisational behaviour. Taylor's engineering background led him to place special
emphasis of human productivity and efficiency in work behaviour. His notions of

performance standards and differential piece- rate system have contributed to the growth
of organisational behaviour.

Organisational Behaviour

11.6.6 Management
Originally called administrative science, is a discipline concerned with the study of
overseeing activities and supervising people in organisations. It emphasizes the design,
implementation, and management of various administrative and organisational systems.
Management is the first discipline to take the modern corporation as the unit of analysis,
and this viewpoint distinguishes the discipline's contribution to the study of organisational
behaviour.

11.6.7 Anthropology
It is the science of human learned behaviour and is especially important to understand
organisational culture. Anthropologists study societies to learn about human beings and
their activities. Their work on cultures and environments has helped us understand
differences in fundamental values, attitudes, and behaviour between people in different
countries and within different organisations.
Cultural anthropology focuses on the origins of culture and the patterns of behaviour as
culture is communicated symbolically. Current research in this tradition has examined
the effects of efficient cultures on organisation performance and how pathological
personalities may lead to dysfunctional organisational cultures. Much of our current
understanding of organisational culture, organisational environments, and differences
between national cultures is the result of anthropologists.

11.6.8 Political Science

Political scientists study the behaviour of individual and groups within a political
environment. Political scientists have become increasingly aware that organisations are
political entities and if we are able to accurately explain and predict the behaviour of
people in organisations, we need to bring a political perspective to our analysis. The
contributions of political scientists are significant to the understanding of behaviour in
organisations.

11.6.9 The Organisational context

A complete understanding of organisational behaviour requires both an understanding of
human behaviour and an understanding of the organisational context within which human
behaviour is acted out. The organisational context is the specific setting within which
organisational behaviour is enacted. The organisational context includes:
1.

Organisations as systems: Organisations are systems of interacting components,

which are people, tasks, technology and structure. These internal components also
interact with components in the organisation's task environment. Organisations as
open systems have people, technology, structure and purpose, which interact with
elements in the organisation's environment.

2.

The Formal and Informal Organisation: The formal organisation is the part of
the system that has legitimacy and official recognition. The informal organisation is
the unofficial part of the organisation. The informal organisation was first fully
appreciated as a result of the Hawthorne studies conducted during the 1920's and
1930's. It was during the interview study, the third of the four Hawthorne studies,
that the researchers began to develop a fuller appreciation for the informal elements
of the Hawthorne works as an organisation.
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11.7 LET US SUM UP

Organisational behaviour (OB) is the systematic study of the actions and attitudes that
people exhibit within organisations. It is individual behaviour and group dynamics in
organisations. It has only been since the Industrial Revolution of the nineteenth century
that relatively large number of individuals have been required to work together in managersubordinate relationships. The major step on the way to current organisational behaviour
theory was the Human Relations Movement that began in the 1930's and continued in
various forms until the 1950's. The Human Relations Movement, popularized by Elton
Mayo and his famous Hawthorne studies conducted at the Hawthorne Plant of the
Western Electric Company, in many ways it remained the foundation of much of our
management thinking today. Today it is common to picture modern management theory
as a blend of the extremes of the principles contained in scientific management and
human relations, with each contributing valuable insights for managing organisations.
Regardless of one's interpretation of the Hawthorne experiments, or perceptions of their
social significance, that series of investigations stand as a monumental research study in
the field of organisational behaviour. Elton Mayo and his associates should be considered
as the founding fathers of modern organisational behaviour concepts. Organisational
behaviour is a blended discipline that has grown out of contributions from numerous
earlier fields of study. These interdisciplinary influences are the root for what is
increasingly recognized as the independent discipline of organisational behaviour.

11.8 LESSON END ACTIVITY

Why do you feel the Hawthorne studies make such an important historical contribution
to the study of organisational behaviour?

11.9 KEYWORDS
Organisational Behaviour
Scientific Management
Hawthorne Experiments

11.10 QUESTIONS FOR DISCUSSION

1.

Define Organisational Behaviour.

2.

Identify and briefly summarize the major historical contributions to the human
relations movement.

3.

How did Scientific Management Contribute to the development of Organisational

Behaviour theory?

4.

How did the Human Relations Movement contribute to the development of

organisational behaviour theory?

5.

Identify how eight disciplines have contributed to the development of organizational

behaviour.

11.11 SUGGESTED READINGS

Ahmed Abad, "Management and Organisation Development", Rachna Prakashan,
New Delhi (1972).
184

Arnold and Feidman, "Organisational Behaviour", McGraw Hill International,

New York.

Apple White, Phillip B, "Organisational Behaviour", Prentice Hall, Englewood Cliff

(1965)

Organisational Behaviour

Davis Keith and Scott William G, "Human Relations and Organisational Behaviour:
Readings and Comments", McGraw Hill, New York (1969).
Fred Luthans, "Organisational Behaviour", (7th Ed) McGrawHill, New York (1995)
John W Newstorm, Keith Davis, "Organisational Behaviour a - Human Behaviour
at Work", (9th Edition) McGraw Hill, New York (1989)
Whyte W.F., "Organisational Behaviour", Irwin/ Dorsey Homewood III (1969)
Woodward J (Ed), "Industrial Organisations: Behaviour and Control", Oxford
University Press, Oxford (1970)
P.G. Aquinas, Organisational Behaviour, Excel Books, New Delhi.

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LESSON

12
PERSONALITY

CONTENTS
12.0 Aims and Objectives
12.1 Introduction
12.2 Definition of Personality
12.3 Major Determinants of Personality
12.3.1 Biological Factors
12.3.2 Cultural Factors
12.3.3 Family Factors
12.3.4 Social Factors
12.3.5 Situational Factors
12.4 Personality Characteristics in Organizations
12.4.1 Locus of Control
12.4.2 Machiavellianism
12.4.3 Self-Esteem
12.4.4 Self-Efficacy
12.4.5 Self-Monitoring
12.4.6 Positive/Negative Effect
12.4.7 Risk-Taking
12.4.8 Type A and Type B Personality
12.5 Measuring Personality
12.5.1 The Projective Tests
12.5.2 Behavioural Measures
12.5.3 Self-Report Questionnaire
12.6 Matching Personalities and Jobs
12.7 Trait Theories
12.7.1 Intrapsychic Theory
12.7.2 Psycho-analytical Social Learning
12.8 Let us Sum up
12.9 Lesson-end Activity
12.10 Keywords
12.11 Questions for Discussion
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12.13 Suggested Readings

12.0 AIMS AND OBJECTIVES

Personality

The purpose of this lesson is learning about personality and its relationships to organisational
behaviour. After studying this lesson you will be able to:
(1)

define the term personality.

(2)

identify the determinants of personality

(3)

explain the theories of personality

(4)

identify several personality characteristics and their influences on behaviours in

organisations.

(5)

explain how personality is measured.

(6)

match personality and job.

12.1 INTRODUCTION
When we talk of personality, we don't mean a person has charm, a positive attitude
toward life, a smiling face, or has won the "miss world" context. When psychologists talk
of personality, they mean a dynamic concept describing the growth and development of
a person's whole psychological system. The word personality has an interesting derivation.
It can be traced to the Latin words "per sonare" which translates as "to speak through".
The Latin term was used to denote the masks worn by actors in ancient Greece and
Rome. This Latin meaning is particularly relevant to the contemporary analysis of
personality. Personality traditionally refers to how people influence others through their
external appearances and actions. But for the psychologists personality includes i.

Eternal appearances and behaviour

ii.

The inner awareness of self as a permanent organizing force, and

iii.

The particular organization of measurable traits, both inner and outer.

Personality is an individual difference that lends consistency to a person's behaviour.

Personality is defined as a relatively stable set of characteristics that influence an
individual's behaviour. For our purposes, you should think of personality as the sum total
of ways in which an individual reacts and interacts with others. This is most often
described in terms of measurable personality traits that a person exhibits.

12.2 DEFINITION OF PERSONALITY

Though psychologists and social scientists unanimously agree to the importance of
personality, they are unable to come out with a unanimous definition. Many authorities
on the subject have defined personality in different ways. Some of the definitions are
reproduced below:
Probably the most meaningful approach would be to include both the person and the role
as Floyd L Ruch does in his definition. He states that:
"the human personality includes:
i.

External appearance and behaviour or social stimulus value

ii.

Inner awareness of self as a permanent organizing force

iii.

The particular pattern or organization of measurable traits, both "inner and "outer"."

Gordon Allport gave the most frequently used definition of personality nearly 70 years
ago. He said personality is "the dynamic organization within the individual of those
psychophysical systems that determine his unique adjustments to his environment".

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J.B Kolasa defines personality as - "Personality is a broad, amorphous designation relating

to fundamental approaches of persons to others and themselves. To most psychologists
and students of behaviour, this term refers to the study of the characteristic traits of an
individual, relationships between these traits and the way in which a person adjusts to
other people and situations".
According to Gluck - "Personality is a pattern of stable states and characteristics of a
person that influences his or her behaviour toward goal achievement. Each person has
unique ways of protecting these states".
James D Thompson and Donald Van Houten define personality as - "a very diverse and
complex psychological concept. The word "personality" may mean something like
outgoing, invigorating interpersonal abilities but we must also recognize and explain
the fact that development results in man acquiring a distinctiveness or uniqueness which
gives him identity which enables him and us to recognize him as apart from others.
These distinguishing characteristics are summarized by the term personality".
From the above definitions we can say that personality is a very diverse and complex
psychological concept. It is concerned with external appearance and behaviour, self,
measurable traits, and situational interactions. The words of Clyde Kleeckholn and H. A
Murray can be used to sum up the meaning of this complex term personality whey they
said "that to some extent, a person's personality is like all other people's, like some other
people's, like no other people's ".

12.3 MAJOR DETERMINANTS OF PERSONALITY

What determines personality? Of all the complexities and unanswered questions in the
study of human behaviour, this question may be the most difficult. People are enormously
complex; their abilities and interests and attitudes are diverse. An early argument in
personality research was whether an individual's personality was the result of heredity
or environment. Was the personality predetermined at birth, or was it the result of the
individual's interaction with his or her environment? Personality appears to be a result of
both influences. Additionally, today we recognize another factor - the situation. The
problem lies in the fact the cognitive and psychological processes, plus many other
variables, all contribute to personality. The determinants of personality can perhaps best
be grouped in five broad categories: biological, cultural, family, social and situational.

12.3.1 Biological Factors

The study of the biological contributions to personality may be studied under three heads:
(a)

Heredity: Heredity refers to those factors that were determined at conception.

Physical stature, facial attractiveness, sex, temperament, muscle composition and
reflexes, energy level, and biological rhythms are characteristics that are considered
to be inherent from ones parents. The heredity approach argues that the ultimate
explanation of an individual's personality is the molecular structure of the genes,
located in the chromosomes.
Research on animals has showed that both physical and psychological characteristics
can be transmitted through heredity. But research on human beings is inadequate
to support this viewpoint. However, psychologists and geneticists have accepted
the fact that heredity plays an important role in one's personality.

(b)

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Brain: The second biological approach is to concentrate on the role that the brain
plays in personality. Though researchers make some promising inroads, the
psychologists are unable to prove empirically the contribution of human brain in
influencing personality. The most recent and exciting possibilities come from the
work done with electrical stimulation of the brain (ESB) and split-brain psychology.
Preliminary results from the electrical stimulation of the brain (ESB) research give

indication that better understanding of human personality and behaviour might come
from the study of the brain. Work with ESB on human subjects is just beginning.
There seem to be definite pleasurable and painful areas in the human brain. This
being true, it may be possible physically to manipulate personality through ESB.
(c)

Biofeedback: Until recently, physiologists and psychologists felt that certain biological
functions such as brainwave patterns, gastric secretions, and fluctuations in blood
pressure and skin temperature were beyond conscious control. Now some scientists
believe that these involuntary functions can be consciously controlled through
biofeedback. In BFT the individual learns the internal rhythm of a particular body
process through electronic signals feedback from equipment that is wired to the
body area. From this biofeedback the person can learn to control the body process
in question. More research is needed on biofeedback before any definitive
conclusions can be drawn. But its potential impact could be extremely interesting
for the future.

(d)

Physical features: A vital ingredient of the personality, an individual's external

appearance, is biologically determined. The fact that a person is tall or short, fat or
skinny, black or white will influence the person's effect on others and this in turn,
will affect the self-concept. Practically all would agree that physical characteristics
have at least some influence on the personality. According to Paul H Mussen "a
child's physical characteristics may be related to his approach to the social
environment, to the expectancies of others, and to their reactions to him. These, in
turn, may have impacts on personality development".

Personality

If personality characteristics were completely dictated by heredity, they would be

fixed at birth and no amount of experience could alter them. But personality
characteristics are not completely dictated by heredity. There are other factors,
which also influence personality.

12.3.2 Cultural Factors

Among the factors that exert pressures on our personality formation are the culture in
which we are raised, our early conditioning, the norms among our family, friends and
social groups and other influences we experience. Traditionally, cultural factors are usually
considered to make a more significant contribution to personality than biological factors.
The culture largely determines attributes toward independence, aggression, competition,
and cooperation. According to Paul H Mussen "each culture expects, and trains, its
members to behave in the ways that are acceptable to the group. To a marked degree,
the child's cultural group defines the range of experiences and situations he is likely to
encounter and the values and personality characteristics that will be reinforced and
hence learned". Culture requires both conformity and acceptance from its members.
There are several ways of ensuring that members comply with the dictates of the culture.
The personality of an individual to a marked extent is determined by the culture in which
he or she is brought up. It follows that a person reared in a western culture has a
different personality from a person reared in our Indian culture.

12.3.3 Family Factors

Whereas the culture generally prescribes and limits what a person can be taught, it is the
family, and later the social group, which selects, interprets and dispenses the culture.
Thus, the family probably has the most significant impact on early personality development.
A substantial amount of empirical evidence indicates that the overall home environment
created by the parents, in addition to their direct influence, is critical to personality
development. For example, children reared in a cold, unstimulating home are much more
likely to be socially and emotionally maladjusted than children rose by parents in a warm,
loving and stimulating environment.

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The parents play an especially important part in the identification process, which is
important to the person's early development. According to Mischel, the process can be
examined from three different perspectives.
i.

Identification can be viewed as the similarity of behaviour including feelings and

attitudes between child and model.

ii.

Identification can be looked at as the child's motives or desires to be like the model.

iii.

It can be viewed as the process through which the child actually takes on the
attributes of the model.

From all three perspectives, the identification process is fundamental to the understanding
of personality development. The home environment also influences the personality of an
individual. Siblings (brothers and sisters) also contribute to personality.

12.3.4 Social Factors

There is increasing recognition given to the role of other relevant persons, groups and
especially organizations, which greatly influence an individual's personality. This is
commonly called the socialization process. Socialization involves the process by which a
person acquires, from the enormously wide range of behavioural potentialities that are
open to him or her. Socialization starts with the initial contact between a mother and her
new infant. After infancy, other members of the immediate family father, brothers,
sisters and close relatives or friends, then the social group peers, school friends and
members of the work group, play influential roles.
Socialization process is especially relevant to organizational behaviour because the process
is not confined to early childhood, taking place rather throughout one's life. In particular,
evidence is accumulating that socialization may be one of the best explanations for why
employees behave the way they do in today's organizations.

12.3.5 Situational Factors

Human personality is also influenced by situational factors. The effect of environment is
quite strong. Knowledge, skill and language are obviously acquired and represent important
modifications of behaviour. An individual's personality, while generally stable and consistent,
does change in different situations. The different demands of different situations call
forth different aspects of one's personality. According to Milgram "Situation exerts an
important press on the individual. It exercises constraints and may provide push. In
certain circumstances it is not so much the kind of person a man is, as the kind of
situation in which he is placed that determines his actions". We should therefore not look
at personality patterns in isolation.
Check Your Progress 1

1.

Define personality.

2.

What are the major determinants of Personality?

12.4 PERSONALITY CHARACTERISTICS IN

ORGANIZATIONS
Managers should learn as much as possible about personality in order to understand their
employees. Hundreds of personality characteristics have been identified. We have
selected eight characteristics because of their particular influences on individual behaviour
in organizations. They are:
190

1.

Locus of Control

2.

Machiavellianism

3.

Self-esteem

4.

Self-efficacy

5.

Self-monitoring

6.

Positive/Negative affect

7.

Risk Taking

8.

Type A Personality,

Personality

12.4.1 Locus of Control

Some people believe they are masters of their own fate. Other people see themselves as
pawns of fate, believing that what happens to them in their lives is due to luck or chance.
An individual's generalised belief about internal (self) versus external (situation or others)
control is called locus of control.
(a)

Internals: Those who believe they control their destinies have been labelled
internals. Internals (those with an internal locus of control) have been found to
have higher job satisfaction, to be more likely to assume managerial positions, and
to prefer participative management styles. In addition, internal's have been shown
to display higher work motivation, hold stronger beliefs that effort leads to
performance, receive higher salaries and display less anxiety than externals (those
with an external locus of control).

(b)

Externals: Externals are those individuals who believe that what happens to them
is controlled by outside forces such as luck or chance. Externals prefer a more
structured work setting and they may be more reluctant to participate in decisionmaking. They are more compliant and willing to follow directions.

Research on locus of control has strong implications for organisations. A large amount of
research comparing internals with externals has consistently shown that individuals who
rate high in externality are less satisfied with their jobs, have higher absenteeism rates,
are more alienated from the work setting, and are less involved on their jobs than internals.
Why are externals more dissatisfied? The answer is probably because they perceive
themselves as having little control over those organisational outcomes that are important
to them. Knowing about locus of control can prove valuable to managers. Because
internals believe they control what happens to them, they will want to exercise control in
their work environment. Allowing internals considerable voice is how work is performed
is important. Internals will not react well to being closely supervised. Externals, in contrast,
may prefer a more structured work setting, and they may be more reluctant to participate
in decision-making.
Therefore, internals do well on sophisticated tasks which includes most managerial
and professional jobs that require complex information processing and learning.
Additionally, internals are more suited to jobs that require initiative and independence of
action. In contrast, externals should do well on jobs that are well structured and routine
and where success depends heavily on complying with the directions of others.

12.4.2 Machiavellianism
Niccolo Machiavelli was a sixteenth century Italian statesman. He wrote "The Prince",
a guide for acquiring and using power. The primary method for achieving power that he
suggested was manipulation of others. Machiavellianism then is a personality characteristic
indicating one's willingness to do whatever it takes to get one's way. An individual high in
Machiavellianism is pragmatic, maintains emotional distance and believes that ends can
justify means. "If it works use it", is consistent with a high-Mach perspective.

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High-Machs believe that any means justify the desired ends. They believe that
manipulations of others are fine if it helps to achieve a goal. Thus, high-Machs are likely
to justify their manipulative behaviour as ethical. They are emotionally detached from
other people and are oriented toward objective aspects of situations.
R Christie and F.L Geis, have found that high-Mach's flourish (a)

When they interact face to face with others rather than indirectly;

(b)

When the situation has a minimum number of rules and regulations thus allowing
latitude for improvisation; and

(c)

When emotional involvement with details irrelevant to winning distracts low-Mach's.

A high-Mach individual behaves in accordance with Machiavelli's ideas, which include

the notion that it is better to be feared than lived. High-Machs tend to use deceit in
relationships have a cynical view of human nature and have little concern for conventional
notions of right and wrong. They are skilled manipulators of other people, relying on their
persuasive abilities. High-Machs are suitable in jobs that require bargaining skills or
where there are substantial rewards for winning (example commissioned sales).

12.4.3 Self-Esteem
Self-esteem is an individual's general feeling of self-worth. Individuals with high self-esteem
have positive feelings about themselves, perceive themselves to have strength as well as
weaknesses, and believe their strengths are more important than their weaknesses. Individuals
with low self-esteem view themselves negatively. They are more strongly affected by
what other people think of them, and they compliment individuals who give them positive
feedback while cutting down people who give them negative feedback.
Research on self-esteem (SE) offers some interesting insights into organisational behaviour.
i.

ii.

High-SEs: People with High SEs

l

believe they possess more of the ability they need in order to succeed at
work,

will take more risks in job selection and are more likely to choose
unconventional jobs,

are more satisfied with their jobs.

Low-SEs: - People with low SEs

l

are more susceptible to external influence,

depend on the receipt of positive evaluations from others,

tend to be concerned with pleasing others and therefore, are less likely to
take unpopular stands, and

are less satisfied with their jobs.

Self-esteem may be strongly affected by situations. Success tends to raise self-esteem,

whereas failure tends to lower it. Given that high self-esteem is generally a positive
characteristic, managers should encourage employees to raise their self-esteem by giving
them appropriate challenges and opportunities for success.

12.4.4 Self-Efficacy
Self-efficacy refers to an individual's belief that he or she is capable of performing a
task. The higher your self-efficacy, the more confidence you have in your ability to
succeed in a task. So, in difficult situations, we find that people with low self-efficacy
are more likely to lessen their effort or give up altogether whereas those with high self192

efficacy will try harder to master the challenge. In addition, individuals high in selfefficacy seem to respond to negative feedback with increased effort and motivation;
those low in self-efficacy are likely to lessen their effort when given negative feedback.

Personality

Individuals with high self-efficacy believes that they have the ability to get things done,
that they are capable of putting forth the effort to accomplish the task, and that they can
overcome any obstacles to their success. There are four sources of self-efficacy:
l

Prior experiences;

Behaviour models - witnessing the success of others;

Persuasion from other people; and

Assessment of current physical and emotional capabilities.

Believing in one's own capability to get something done is an important facilitator of

success. There is strong evidence that self-efficacy leads to high performance on a
wide variety of physical and mental tasks. Managers can help employees develop their
self-efficacy. This can be done by providing performance, and rewarding employee's
achievements.

12.4.5 Self-Monitoring
A characteristic with great potential for affecting behaviour in organisations is selfmonitoring. Self-monitoring refers to an individual's ability to adjust his or her behaviour
to external situational factors.
High self-monitors pay attention to what is appropriate in particular situations and to the
behaviour of other people, and they behave accordingly. Low self-monitors, in contrast,
are not as vigilant to situational cues and act from internal states rather than paying
attention to the situation. As a result, the behaviour of low self-monitors, because their
behaviour varies with the situation appear to be more unpredictable and less consistent.
High self-monitors are capable of presenting striking contradictions between their public
persona and their private self. Low self-monitors can't disguise themselves this way.

12.4.6 Positive/Negative Effect

Individuals who focus on the positive aspects of themselves, other people, and the world
in general are said to have positive effect. In contrast, those who accentuate the negative
in themselves, others, and the world are said to possess negative affect. Employees with
positive effect are absent from work less often. Individuals with negative effect report
more work stress. Negative individual effect produces negative group effect and this
leads to less cooperative behaviour in the work group. Managers can do several things
to promote positive effect, including allowing participative decision making and providing
pleasant working conditions.

12.4.7 Risk-Taking
People differ in their willingness to take chances. High-risk-taking managers made more
rapid decisions and used less information in making their choices than the low-risktaking managers.
While it is generally correct to conclude that managers in organizations are risk aversive,
there are still individual differences on this dimension. As a result, it makes sense to
recognise these differences and even to consider aligning risk-taking propensity with
specific job demands. For example, a high-risk-taking propensity may lead to more effective
performance for a stockbroker but these personality characteristics might prove a major
obstacle for an auditor.
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12.4.8 Type A and Type B Personality

Type A behaviour pattern is a complex of personality and behavioural characteristics,
including competitiveness, time urgency, social status insecurity, aggression, hostility and
a quest for achievements. Type A personality individual is "aggressively involved in a
chronic, struggle to achieve more and more in less and less time, and if required to do so,
against the opposing efforts of other things or other persons".
Type A personality:
i.

Are always moving, walking, and eating rapidly:

ii.

Feel impatient with the rate at which most events take place;

iii.

Strive to think or do two or more things simultaneously;

iv.

Cannot cope with leisure time; and

v.

Are obsessed with numbers, measuring their success in terms of how much of
everything they acquire.

The alternative to the Type A behaviour pattern is the Type B behaviour pattern. People
with Type B personalities are relatively free of the Type A behaviours and characteristics.
Type B personalities are "rarely harried by the desire to obtain a wildly increasing number
of things or participate in an endless growing series of events in an ever decreasing
amount of time".
Type B personality:
i.

Never suffer from a sense of time urgency with its accompanying impatience;

ii.

Feel no need to display or discuss either their achievements or accomplishments

unless such exposure is demanded by the situation;

iii.

Play for fun and relaxation, rather than to exhibit their superiority at any cost; and

iv.

Can relax without guilt.

Organizations can also be characterised as Type A or Type B organizations. Type A

individuals in Type B organisations and Type B individuals in Type A organizations
experience stress related to a misfit between their personality type and the predominant
type of the organization.
Check Your Progress 2

1.

Explain any two personality characteristics in organisations.

2.

Who is a type A personality and how does he differ from type B personality?

3.

What do you mean by high-Mach?

12.5 MEASURING PERSONALITY

Several methods can be used to assess personality. These include projective tests,
behavioural measures and self-report questionnaires. These measures of personality are
explained below: -

12.5.1 The Projective Tests

194

In these tests, individuals are shown a picture, abstract image, or photo and are asked to
describe what they see or to tell a story about what they see. The rationale behind
projective tests is that each individual responds to the stimulus in a way that reflects his
or her unique personality. The Rorschach inkblot test, Thematic Apperception test (TAT),

sentence completion method are projective tests commonly used to assess personality.

Personality

Research evidence concerning the validity of projective techniques as a whole is very

disappointing. Projective tests continue to suffer from a lack of objectivity in scoring and
an absence of adequate norms. Nevertheless, in clinical practice, projective tests continue
to be popular and valued diagnostic tool.

12.5.2 Behavioural Measures

There are behavioural measures of personality as well. Using an observational technique
known as behavioural assessment, psychologist can count and record the frequency of
particular behaviours. For example, we might assess a person's sociability; by counting
the number of times he or she approaches strangers at a party. The behaviour is scored
in some manner to produce an index of personality.
Although much can be learned from observation, it has the following shortcomings i.

It is time-consuming and expensive.

ii.

What is observed may be misinterpreted.

iii.

Two observers can view the same event and interpret it differently.

iv.

The presence of the observer can alter the behaviour being observed.

12.5.3 Self-Report Questionnaire

The most common method of assessing personality is the self-report questionnaire.
Individuals respond to a series of questions, usually in an agree/disagree or true/false
format. The widely recognized self-report questionnaire are Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory (MMPI)
Myers-Briggs Type Indicator (MBTI):
(a)

Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory (MMPI): The MMPI is

comprehensive and assesses a variety of traits, as well as various neurotic or
psychotic disorders. Used extensively in psychological counselling to identify
disorders, the MMPI is a long questionnaire. It is useful in the screening, diagnosis
and clinical description of abnormal behaviour, but does not reveal differences
among normal personalities very well.

(b)

The Myers-Briggs Type Indicator (MBTI): Another popular self-report

questionnaire is the Myers-Briggs Type Indicator (MBTI). It is essentially a 100 question personality test that asks people how they usually feel or act in particular
situations. Katharine Briggs and her daughter, Isabel Briggs Myers, developed the
Myers-Briggs Type Indicator to put Jung's type theory into practical use. The MBTI
is used extensively in organizations as a basis for understanding individual
differences. The MBTI has been used in career counselling, team building, conflict
management and understanding management styles.

Based on the answers individuals give to the test, they are classified as l

Extroverted or Introverted (E or I)

Sensing or Intuitive (S or N)

Thinking or Feeling (T or F) and

Perceiving or Judging (P or J)

There are four basic preferences in type theory and two possible choices for each of the
four preferences. The combination of these preferences makes up an individual's
psychological type.
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12.6 MATCHING PERSONALITIES AND JOBS

Obviously, individual personalities differ. So, too do jobs. Following this logic, efforts
have been made to match the proper personalities with the proper jobs. John Holland's
"personality-job fit theory" is concerned with matching the job requirements with personality
characteristics. The personality-job fit theory identifies 6 personality types and proposes
that the fit between personality type and occupational environment determines satisfaction
and turnover.
Holland has developed a Vocational Preference Inventory Questionnaire that contains
160 occupational titles. Respondents indicate which of these occupations they like or
dislike, and these answers are used to form personality profiles. Six major personality
types have been identified. They are listed in the figure below along with their compatible
occupations.
Type
Realistic: Prefers physical
activities that require skill,
strength and coordination
Investigative: Prefers activities
involving thinking, organizing,
and understanding
Social: Prefers activities that
involve helping and developing
others
Conventional: Prefers ruleregulated, orderly, and
unambiguous activities
Enterprising: Prefers verbal
activities where there are
opportunities to influence
others and attain power
Artistic: Prefers ambiguous
and unsystematic activities that
allow creative expression

Personality Characteristics

Sample Occupations

Shy, genuine, persistent, stable,

conforming, practical

Mechanic, drill, press operator,

assembly line worker, farmer

Analytical, original, curious,

independent

Biologist, economist,
mathematician, news reporter

Sociable, friendly, cooperative,

understanding
Conforming, efficient, practical,
unimaginative, inflexible

Social worker, teacher,

counsellor, clinical
psychologist
Accountant, corporate manager,
bank teller, file clerk

Self-confident, ambitious,
energetic, domineering business
manager

Lawyer, real-estate agent,

public relations specialist, small
business man

Imaginative, disorderly,
idealistic, emotional,
impractical

Painter, musician, writer,

interior decorator.

Source: J.L Holland "Making Vocational Choices: A Theory of Vocational Personalities and Work Environments (2nd edition) Englewood
Cliffs NJ: Prentice Hall (1985).

Figure 12.1: Holland's Typology of Personality and Sample Occupations

What does all these mean? The theory argues that satisfaction is highest and turnover
lowest where personality and occupation are in agreement. The key points of this model
are that
1.

There do appear to be intrinsic personality differences among individuals;

2.

There are different types of jobs; and

3.

People in job environments congruent with their personality type should be more
satisfied and less likely to resign voluntarily than people in incongruent jobs.
Check Your Progress 3

196

1.

How do you match personality with the job?

2.

How is personality measured?

Personality

12.7 TRAIT THEORIES

12.7.1 Intrapsychic Theory
Based on the work of Sigmund Freud, Intrapsychic theory emphasises the unconscious
determinants of behaviour.
The Components of Personality
Freud proposed a new conception of the personality, one that contains three systems the id, the ego, and the superego. These systems do not exist physically; they are only
concepts, or ways of looking at personality.
1.

Id: The id is the only part of the personality that is present at birth. It is inherited,
primitive, inaccessible and completely unconscious. The id contains
i.

The life instincts, which are sexual instincts and the biological urges such as
hunger and thirst, and

ii.

The death instinct, which accounts for our aggressive and destructive impulses.

The id operates according to the pleasure principle; that is, to seek pleasure, avoid
pain and gain immediate gratification of its wishes. The id is the source of the
libido, the psychic energy that fuels the entire personality; yet the id cannot act on
its own. It can only wish, image, fantasize, and demand.
2.

Ego: The ego is the logical, rational, realistic part of the personality. The ego evolves
from the id and draws its energy from the id. One of the ego functions is to satisfy
the id's urges. But the ego, which is mostly conscious, acts according to the reality
principle. It must consider the constraints of the real world in determining appropriate
times, places, and object for gratification of the id's wishes.

3.

Superego: when the child is age 5 or 6 the superego - the moral component of the
personality - is formed. The superego has two parts i.

The "conscience" consists of all the behaviours for which we have been
punished and about which we feel guilty;

ii.

The "ego ideal" contains the behaviours for which we have been praised and
rewarded and about which we feel pride and satisfaction.

In its quest for moral perfection, the superego sets moral guide that define and limit the
flexibility of ego.
Their characteristics are diagrammed and described here

Superego
(Conscience

conscious
Ego

preconscious

Ego ideal)
Id (untamed passion, sex instincts,

Unconscious

Biological urges, aggressive and destructive

Impulses)

Figure 12.2: Freud's conception of the Personality

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Structure
Id

Level of consciousness
Unconscious

Ego

Largely conscious
Partly unconscious

Superego

Both conscious
unconscious

and

Characteristics
Primitive component containing the sexual instincts,
biological urges, aggressive and destructive impulses.
Source of the libido. Operates according to the pleasure
principle, seeking immediate gratification. Impulsive,
amoral, and selfish.
Logical, rational component, which functions to satisfy
the ids urges and carry out transactions in the real
world. Acts according to the reality principle
The morale component, consisting of the conscience and
the ego ideal. Sets moral guidelines, which limit the
flexibility of the ego.

Source: Samuel E Wood and Ellen Green Wood "The World of Psychology" Allyn and Bacon, Boston (second
edition) 1996 page 439.

Defence Mechanisms: A defence mechanism is a technique used to defend against

anxiety and to maintain self-esteem, but it involves self-deception and the distortion of
reality. We use defence mechanisms to protect us from failure and from guilt arousing
desires or actions. All of us use defence mechanisms to some degree; it is only their
overuse that is considered abnormal.
1.

Repression: According to Freud, repression is the most important and frequently

used defence mechanism. Repression operates in two ways:
a.

It can remove painful or threatening memories, thoughts, ideas or perceptions

from consciousness and keep them in the unconscious.

b.

It can prevent unconscious but disturbing sexual and aggressive impulses

from breaking into consciousness.

2.

Projection: We use projection when we attribute our own undesirable impulses,

thoughts, personality traits or behaviour to others, or when we minimize the
undesirable in ourselves and exaggerate it in others. Projection allows us to avoid
acknowledge our unacceptable traits and thereby to maintain our self-esteem, but
it seriously distorts our perception of the external world. For example (1) A sexually
promiscuous wife may accuse her husband of being unfaithful. (2) A dishonest
man may think everyone is out to cheat him.

3.

Denial: It is a refusal to acknowledge consciously or to believe that a danger or a

threatening condition exists. For example (1) Smokers use denial when they refuse
to admit that cigarettes are a danger to their health. (2) Many people who abuse
alcohol and drugs deny that they have a problem.
Yet denial is sometimes useful as a temporary means of getting through a crisis
until a more permanent adjustment can be made, such as when people initially deny
the existence of a terminal illness.

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4.

Rationalization: It occurs when we unconsciously supply a logical, rational, or

socially acceptable reason rather than the real reason for an action or event.
Rationalization can be used to justify past, present, or future behaviours or to soften
the disappointment connected with not attaining a desired goal. When we rationalize,
we make excuses for or justify, our failures and mistakes.

5.

Regression: Sometimes, when frustrated or anxious, we may use regression and

revert to behaviour that might have reduced anxiety at an earlier stage of
development. For example, an adult may have a temper tantrum, rant and rave or
through things.

6.

Reaction Formation: is at work when people express exaggerated ideas and

emotions that are the opposite of their disturbing, unconscious impulses and desires.
In reaction formation the conscious thought or feeling masks the unconscious one.
For example, a former chain smoker becomes irate and complains loudly at the
faintest whiff of cigarette smoke.

7.

Displacement: Occurs when we substitute a less threatening object or person for

the original object of a sexual or aggressive impulse. For example, if your boss
makes you angry, you may take out your hostility on your wife.

8.

Sublimation: With sublimation, we re-channel sexual or aggressive energy into pursuits

or accomplishments that society considers acceptable or even praiseworthy. For example,
an aggressive person may re-channel the aggression and become a football player.
Freud viewed sublimation as the only completely healthy ego defence mechanism.

Personality

12.7.2 Psycho-analytical Social Learning

Evaluating Freud's Contribution: Freud's theory is so comprehensive that its elements
must be evaluated separately. As we have seen, Freud believed that his concepts of the
unconscious and the principles by which it operates were his most important work. In
fact the primary aim of psychoanalysis is to bring unconscious thoughts, wishes and
desires to consciousness. Leading scholars today do not dispute the existence of
unconscious processes. However, they do not see the unconscious as envisioned by
Freud and they disagree as to how sophisticated or simple it might be.
Freud is a towering figure in the world of psychology, but today he does not loom as large
as in decades past. There are very strict Freudians left, and for most psychoanalysts,
Freud's techniques constitute only a part of their therapeutic arsenal. Sigmund Freud has
been both worshipped and ridiculed, but his standing as a pioneer in psychology cannot
be denied.
1.

Social Learning Theory: The main focus of social learning approach is on the
patterns of behaviour the individuals learn in coping with environment. Some
behaviour patterns are learned or acquired through direct experience. Responses
can also be acquired or learned without direct reinforcement. Individuals can also
learn by observing what happens to other people and just be being told about
something, as well as direct experiences. So, for example much of what we have
learned comes from watching models parents, teachers, peers, bosses etc. This
view that we can learn through both observation and direct experience has been
called social-learning theory.
Social-learning theory acknowledges the existence of observational learning and
the importance of perception in learning. People respond to how they perceive and
define consequences, not to the objective consequences themselves. The influence
of models is central to the social-learning process. Four processes have been found
to determine the influence that a model will have on an individual. They are(a)

Attentional Processes: People tend to be most influenced by models that are

attractive and important to us. As the model influences them they learn from
the model by paying attention to them.

(b)

Retention Processes: A model's influence will depend on how well the

individual remembers the model's action after the model is no longer available.

(c)

Motor Reproduction Processes: After a person has seen a new behaviour

by observing the model, the watching must be converted to doing. This process
then demonstrates that the individual can perform the modelled activities.

(d)

Reinforcement Processes: Individuals will be motivated to exhibit the modelled

behaviour if positive incentives or rewards are provided. Behaviours that are
reinforced will be given more attention, learned better, and performed more
often. Reinforcement that controls the expression of learned behaviour
may be:

i.

Direct: It refers to the social approval or disapproval or alleviation of aversive

conditions, and other tangible rewards.
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ii.

Vicarious: It refers to observation of someone else receiving reward or

punishment for similar behaviour.

iii.

Self-administered: It refers to evaluation of one's own performance with

self-praise.

Of all these, self-administered reinforcement theory plays a vital role in social

learning theory.
Evaluation of Social Learning Theory: Social learning theory has made a
significant contribution to personality theory.
(1)

It enables us to look more clearly at human actions as reactions to specific

conditions or circumstances rather than merely symbolic manifestations of
internal and unconscious forces.

(2)

It emphasis on the environmental variables that elicit specific behaviours.

Social learning theory has been criticised on two grounds (1)

It overemphasise the importance of situational factors in behaviour.

(2)

The experimental methods used by social learning theorists are particularly

sensitive to the impact of situational variables and are apt to emphasise change
in behaviour.

12.7.3 Job Fit Theory

The personality-job Fit Theory assumes that examining a person's personality will give
insight into their adaptability in an organisation. By matching the personality with the
company we can achieve a better synergy and avoid problems like high turnover and
low job satisfaction. The person-job fit theory is a study of personality attributes and the
requirements of the job. The matching of the job requirements with personality
characteristics is given in John Holland's Personality-job fit theory. This theory is based
on the notion of fit between an individual's personality characteristics and his or her
occupational environment. Holland presents six personality types and proposes that
satisfaction and the propensity to leave a job depends on the degree to which individuals
successfully match their personality to an occupational environment. Holland has
developed a vocational reference inventory questionnaire that contains 160 occupational
titles. Respondents indicate which of these occupations they like or dislike, and their
answers are used to form personality profiles.
The person-job fit theory argues that satisfaction is highest and turnover lowest when
personality and occupation are in agreement. Social individuals should be in social jobs,
conventional people in conventional jobs and so forth. A realistic person in a realistic job
is in a more congruent situation than is a realistic person in an investigative job.

12.8 LET US SUM UP

When psychologists talk of personality, they mean a dynamic concept describing the
growth and development of a person's whole psychological system. Personality is defined
as a relatively stable set of characteristics that influence an individual's behaviour.
Personality is a very diverse and complex psychological concept. It is concerned with
external appearance and behaviour, self, measurable traits, and situational interactions.
Personality appears to be a result of heredity and environment. Additionally, today we
recognize another factor - the situation. Managers should learn as much as possible
about personality in order to understand their employees. Several methods can be used
to assess personality. These include projective tests, behavioural measures and selfreport questionnaires.
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Personality

What behaviour predictions might you make if you knew that an employee had:
l

An external locus of control?

A low Mach scores?

Low self-esteem?

A type "A" personality?

12.10 KEYWORDS
Personality
Machiavellianism
Type A Personality
Type B Personality
MMPI
MBTI

12.11 QUESTIONS FOR DISCUSSION

1.

Define personality and describe its origins.

2.

Why is the study of "personality" important for a manager?

3.

What is the comprehensive definition of personality? Give brief examples of each

of the major elements.

4.

What are the various factors in the biological contributions to personality? The
cultural contributions? The family contributions? The socialization contributions?
The immediate situational contributions?

12.12 SUGGESTED READINGS

Argyris, C., "Personality and Organization", Harper and Row, New York (1957)
Aquinas P.G., "Organizational Behaviour - concepts, realities and challenges", Excel
Books, New Delhi (2005)
Boulding, K.E, "Conflict and Defence: A General Theory", Harper and Row, New
York (1962)
Chabra Ahuja and Jain, "Managing People at Work", Dhanpat Rai and Sons, New
Delhi.
Harrel, T.W, "Industrial Psychology", Oxford and IBH, New Delhi (1972)
Kossen, Stan, "Human Side of Organization", Canfield Press, San Franciso (1978)
March J. C. and Simon H., "Organisations", Wiley, New York (1958)
Woodward J. (Ed.), "Industrial Organisations: Behaviour and Control" Oxford
University Press, Oxford (1970).

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LESSON

14
ATTITUDES, VALUES AND WORK ETHICS

CONTENTS
14.0 Aims and Objectives
14.1 Introduction
14.2 Meaning of Attitudes
14.3 Characteristics of Attitudes
14.4 Functions of Attitude
14.5 Components of Attitudes
14.5.1 Cognitive Component
14.5.2 Affective Component
14.5.3 Behavioural Component
14.6 Sources of Attitudes
14.7 Types of Attitudes
14.8 Attitude Formation
14.9 Cognitive Dissonance Theory
14.10 Values
14.11 Importance of Values
14.12 Formation of Values
14.13 Types of Values
14.14 Meaning of Ethics
14.15 Ethical Theories
14.16 Contemporary Ethical Issues in Organizations
14.17 Types of Management Ethics
14.17.1 Immoral Management
14.17.2 Moral Management
14.17.3 Amoral Management
14.18 Improving Ethical Behaviour
14.19 Let us Sum up
14.20 Lesson-end Activity
14.21 Keywords
14.22 Questions for Discussion
14.23 Suggested Readings
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Attitudes, Values and Work Ethics

The purpose of this lesson is to discuss about attitudes and values at work. After studying
this lesson you will be able to:
(i)

define attitudes, values and work ethics.

(ii)

explain the components and types of attitude.

(iii) describe how attitudes are formed.

(iv) understand the cognitive dissonance theory.
(v)

distinguish between instrumental and terminal values.

(vi) explain the concept and theories of ethical behaviour.

14.1 INTRODUCTION
Attitudes are individuals' general affective, cognitive and intentional responses toward
objects, other people, themselves, or social issues. Attitudes are evaluative statements either favourable or unfavourable - concerning objects, people or events. They reflect
how one feels about something. As individuals, we respond favourably or unfavourably
towards many things: co-workers, bosses, our own appearances etc. The importance of
attitudes lies in their link to behaviour. When an employee says, "I like my job" he or she
is expressing their attitude about work.

14.2 MEANING OF ATTITUDES

Attitude is defined as a more or less stable set of predisposition of opinion, interest or
purpose involving expectancy of a certain kind of experience and readiness with an
appropriate response. Attitudes are also known as "frames of reference". They provide
the background against which facts and events are viewed. It becomes necessary to
know the attitudes of members of an organisation because they have to perceive specific
aspects like pay, hours of work, promotion etc., of their job life in the wider context of
their generalised attitudes.
An attitude is also a cognitive element; it always remains inside a person. Everyone's
psychological world is limited and thus everyone has a limited number of attitudes. In
business organisation, employees have attitudes relating to world environment, job security
etc. The individual's attitudes towards these factors are indicative of his apathy or
enthusiasm towards the activities and objectives of the organisation.

14.3 CHARACTERISTICS OF ATTITUDES

(i)

An attitude is the predisposition of the individual to evaluate some objects in a

favourable or an unfavourable manner.

(ii)

The most pervasive phenomenon is "attitude". People at work place have attitudes
about lots of topics that are related to them. These attitudes are firmly embedded in
a complex psychological structure of beliefs.

(iii) Attitudes are different from values. Values are the ideals, whereas attitudes are
narrow, they are our feelings, thoughts and behavioural tendencies toward a specific
object or situation.
(iv) Attitude is a predisposition to respond to a certain set of facts.
(v)

Attitudes are evaluative statements - either favourable or unfavourable concerning

the objects, people or events.

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An attitude is "a mental state of readiness, organised through experience, exerting a

specific influence upon a person's response to people, objects and situation with which it
is related". Attitudes thus state one's predispositions towards given aspects of world.
They also provide an emotional basis of one's interpersonal relations and identification
with others. Managers in work organisations need to know and understand employee's
attitudes in order to manage effectively. Attitudes do influence behaviour of people and
their performance in organisations.

14.4 FUNCTIONS OF ATTITUDE

Attitudes are known to serve at least four important functions in an organisation setting:
(i)

Attitudes determine meaning: Much of what is seem in the environment and in

other people's behaviour is determined by attitudes. If one has a overall favourable
attitude towards a person, one tends to judge his activities as "good" or "superior".
On the other hand, negative attitudes or prejudices generally prompt disagreement
with the individual concerned or failure to appreciate the good work done by him.

(ii)

Attitudes reconcile contradictions: It is not uncommon to come across people

who hold contradictory opinions. With the proper attitude as a background, intelligent
people can reconcile or rationalise the same actions, which to others are obvious
contradictions. For example when a worker takes a little rest a superior considers
it "idling".

(iii) Attitudes organise facts: As already seen, objective events can be differently
perceived by different people because of different attitudes. Meanings can be
concocted and falsely communicated to others by changing the attitudes of the
recipients towards wider social issues.
(iv) Attitudes select facts: From the plethora of environmental facts and stimuli, one
tends to select those, which are in consonance with one's cherished beliefs and
attitudes. Attitudes, thus, act as a screen or filter.

14.5 COMPONENTS OF ATTITUDES

The three components of attitudes are:
1.

Cognitive component;

2.

Affective component; and

3.

Behavioural component.

14.5.1 Cognitive Component

This component includes the beliefs an individual has about a certain person, object, or
situation. The belief that "discrimination is wrong" is a value statement. Such an opinion
is the cognitive component of an attitude. Learned beliefs, such as "you need to work
long hours to get ahead in this job", lead to attitudes that have an impact on behaviour in
the workplace. The cognition component of an attitude, reflects a persons perceptions or
beliefs. Cognitive elements are evaluative beliefs and are measured by attitude scales or
by asking about thoughts. The statement "I believe Japanese workers are industrious,"
reflect the cognitive component of an attitude. The cognitive component sets the stage
for the more critical part of attitude - its affective component.

14.5.2 Affective Component

210

This component refers to the person's feelings that result from his or her beliefs about a
person, object or situation. A person who believes hard work earns promotions may feel
anger or frustration when he or she works hard but is not promoted. The affective
component becomes stronger as an individual has more frequent and direct experience

with a focal object, person or situation. Affect is the emotional component of an attitude.
It refers to an individual's feeling about something or someone. Statements such as "I
like this" or "I prefer that" reflect the affective component of an attitude. Affect is
measured by physiological indicators such as galvanic skin response (changes in electrical
resistance of skin which indicate emotional arousal) and blood pressure. These indicators
show changes in emotions by measuring physiological arousal. If an individual is trying to
hide his or her feelings, this might be shown by a change in arousal.

Attitudes, Values and Work Ethics

14.5.3 Behavioural Component

This component refers to the individual's behaviour that occurs as a result of his or her feeling
about the focal person, object or situation. An individual may complain, request a transfer, or
be less productive because he or she feels dissatisfied with work. The behavioural component
of an attitude refers to an intention to behave in a certain way toward someone or something.
For example, our attitudes towards women in management may be inferred from an observation
of the way we behave toward a female supervisor. We may be supportive, passive or hostile
depending on our attitude. The behavioural component of an attitude is measured by observing
behaviour or by asking a person about behaviour or intentions.
Component
A Affect
B Behavioural intentions
C Cognition

Measured by
Physiological indicators
Verbal Statements about Feelings
Observed Behaviour
Verbal Statements about Intentions
Attitude scales
Verbal Statements about Beliefs

Source: M.J Rosenberg and C.I Hovland "Cognitive, Affective and Behavioural Components of Attitude", in Attitude Organization and
Change (New Haven: Yale University Press) 1960.

Figure 14.1: Depicts the three components of attitude

Viewing attitudes as made up of three components - cognition, affect and behaviour - is

helpful toward understanding their complexity and the potential relationship between
attitude and behaviour. The object of an attitude is represented as a prototype in a person's
memory. Then an individual uses an attitude as a schema for evaluating an object. The
person may assess the object as good or bad, positive or negative, favoured or not; then
the person determines the strategy to take toward it. The accessibility of an attitude, or
ease with which it is activated, affects its implementation. Personal experience with the
object and the repeated expression of the attitude increases it accessibility. In this way,
attitude-related information helps process complex information.

14.6 SOURCES OF ATTITUDES

Attitudes, are acquired from parents, teachers, and peer group members. We model our
attitudes after those we admire, respect or fear. We observe the way family and friends
behave, and we shape our attitudes and behaviour to align with theirs. People also imitate
the attitudes of popular individuals and those they admire and respect. Attitudes are an
integral part of the world of work. It is important for managers to understand the
antecedents to attitudes as well as their consequences. Managers also need to understand
the different components of attitudes, how attitudes are formed, and the major attitudes
that affect work behaviour and how to use persuasion to change attitudes.

14.7 TYPES OF ATTITUDES

A person can have thousands of attitudes, but most of the research in OB has been
concerned with three attitudes: Job satisfaction, job involvement, and organizational
commitment.

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1.

Job Satisfaction: Satisfaction results when a job fulfils or facilitates the attainment
of individual values and standards and dissatisfaction occurs when the job is seen
as blocking such attainment. This attitude has received extensive attention by
researchers and practitioners because it was at one time believed to be the cause
of improved job performance. The term "job satisfaction" refers to an individual's
general attitude toward his or her job. A person with a high level of job satisfaction
holds positive attitudes toward the job; a person who is dissatisfied with his or her
job holds negative attitudes about the job. Now, because of managers' concern for
creating both a humane and high performance workplace, researchers continue to
search for definite answers about the causes and consequences of job satisfaction.

2.

Job Involvement: Job involvement is the degree to which a person identifies with
his or her job, actively participates in it and considers his or her performance important
to self-worth. Employees with a high level of job involvement strongly identify with
and really care about the kind of work they do. High levels of job involvement have
been found to be related to fewer absences and lower resignation rates.

3.

Organisational Commitment: Organisational commitment is the degree to which

an employee identifies with a particular organisation and its goals, and wishes to
maintain membership in the organisation. High organisational commitment means
identifying with one's employing organisation.

14.8 ATTITUDE FORMATION

Attitudes are learned. Individuals acquire attitudes from several sources but the point to
be stressed is that the attitudes are acquired but not inherited. Our responses to people
and issues evolve over time. Two major influences on attitudes are direct experience
and social learning.
1.

2.

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Direct Experience: Attitudes can develop from a personally rewarding or punishing

experience with an object. Direct experience with an object or person is a powerful
influence on attitudes. Research has shown that attitudes that are derived from
direct experience are stronger, are held more confidently and are more resistant to
change than are attitudes formed through indirect experience. One reason that
attitudes derived from direct experience are so powerful is because of their
availability. This means that the attitudes are easily accessed and are active in our
cognitive processes. When attitudes are available, we can call them quickly into
consciousness. Attitudes that are not learned from direct experience are not as
available, and therefore we do not recall them easily.
(a)

Classical Conditioning: One of the basic processes underlying attitude

formation can be explained on the basis of learning principles. People develop
associations between various objects and the emotional reactions that
accompany them.

(b)

Operant Conditioning: Attitudes that are reinforced, either verbally or nonverbally, tends to be maintained. Conversely, a person who states an attitude
that elicits ridicule from others may modify or abandon the attitude.

(c)

Vicarious Learning: In which a person learns something through the

observance of others can also account for attitude development particularly
when the individual has no direct experience with the object about which the
attitude is held. It is through vicarious learning processes that children pick up
the prejudices of their parents.

Social Learning: In social learning, the family, peer groups and culture shape an
individual's attitudes in an indirect manner. Substantial social learning occurs through
modelling, in which individuals acquire attitudes by merely observing others. For an
individual to learn from observing a model, four processes must take place:

(i)

The learner must focus attention on the model.

(ii)

The learner must retain what was observed from the model.

Attitudes, Values and Work Ethics

(iii) Behavioural reproduction must occur; that is, the learner must practise the
behaviour.
(iv) The learner must be motivated to learn from the model.
Social learning can take place through the following ways:
(a)

The Family: A person may learn attitudes through imitation of parents. If parents
have a positive attitude towards an object and the child admires his parents, he is
likely to adopt a similar attitude, even without being told about the object, and even
without having direct experience. Children also learn to adopt certain attitudes by
the reinforcement they are given by their parents when they display behaviours
that reflect an appropriate attitude.

(b)

Peer Groups: Peer pressure moulds attitudes through group acceptance of

individuals who express popular attitudes and through sanctions, such as exclusion
from the group, placed on individuals who espouse (promote) unpopular attitudes.

(c)

Modelling: Substantial social learning occurs through modelling, in which individuals

acquire attitudes by merely observing others. The observer overhears other
individuals expressing an opinion or watches them engaging in a behaviour that
reflects an attitude, and the observer adopts this attitude.

Changing Attitudes
Can you change unfavorable employee attitudes? Sometimes! It depends on who you are,
the strength of the employee attitude, the magnitude of the change, and the technique you
choose to try to change the attitude.
Employees are most likely to respond to change efforts made by someone who is liked,
credible, and convincing. If people like you, they're more apt to identify and adopt your
message. Credibility implies trust, expertise, and objectivity. So you're more likely to change
an employee's attitude if that employee sees you as believable, knowledgeable about what
you're talking about, and unbiased in your presentation. Finally, successful attitude change
is enhanced when you present your arguments clearly and persuasively.
It's easier to change an employee's attitude if he or she isn't strongly committed to it.
Conversely, the stronger the belief about the attitude, the harder it is to change it. In
addition, attitudes that have been expressed publicly are more difficult to change because
it requires one to admit he or she has made a mistake.
It's easier to change attitudes when that change isn't very significant. To get an employee
to accept a new attitude that varies greatly from his or her current position requires more
effort. It may also threaten other deeply held attitudes and create increased dissonance.
All attitude change techniques are not equally effective across situations. Oral persuasion
techniques are most effective when you use a positive, tactful tone; present strong evidence
to support your position; tailor your argument to the listener; use logic; and support your
evidence by Applying to the employee's fears, frustrations and other emotions. But people
are more likely to embrace change when they can experience it. The use of training sessions
where employees share and personalize experiences, and practice new behaviours, can be
powerful stimulants for change. Consistent with self-perception theory, changes in
behaviour can lead to changes in attitudes.
Source: Stephen P Robbins "Organizational Behaviour - concepts, controversies, applications" Prentice Hall Englewood
Cliffs, NJ (7th edition) 1996, page 188.

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14.9 COGNITIVE DISSONANCE THEORY

Leon Festinger, in 1957, proposed the theory of cognitive dissonance. According to this
theory, people want their belief to be consistent with one another and want their behaviours
to be consistent with their beliefs. When people become aware of inconsistency among
their beliefs or between their attitudes and their behaviour, they experience "cognitive
dissonance", an unpleasant state of arousal that motivates them to reestablish consistency
by changing one of their attitudes or by changing their behaviours. Thus, if a person
behaves in a way that runs counter to his or her attitude, cognitive dissonance is created
in that person. He or she then attempts to reduce the dissonance by changing either the
attitude or the behaviour.
Cognitive dissonance refers to any incompatibility that an individual might perceive
between two or more of his or her attitudes or between his or her behaviour and attitudes.
Festinger argues that any form of inconsistency is uncomfortable and that individuals
will attempt to reduce the dissonance and hence, the discomfort. Therefore, individuals
will seek a stable state where there is a minimum of dissonance.

Coping with Dissonance

No individual can completely avoid dissonance. So how do people cope with dissonance?
According to Festinger, the desire to reduce dissonance would be determined by the
importance of the elements creating the dissonance; the degree of influence the individual
believes he or she has over the elements and the rewards that may be involved in
dissonance.
(i)

Importance of the Elements: If the elements creating the dissonance are relatively
unimportant, the pressure to correct this imbalance will be low.

(ii)

Degree of Influence: The degree of influence that individuals believe they have
over the elements will have an impact on how they will react to the dissonance. If
they perceive the dissonance to be an uncontrollable, they are less likely to be
receptive to attitude change.

(iii) Rewards: Rewards also influence the degree to which individuals are motivated to
reduce dissonance. High rewards accompanying high dissonance tend to reduce
the tension inherent in the dissonance.
These moderating factors suggest that just because individuals experience dissonance
they will not necessarily move directly toward consistency, that is, toward reduction of
this dissonance. If the issues underlying the dissonance are of minimal importance, if an
individual perceives that the dissonance is externally imposed and is substantially
uncontrollable by him or her, or if rewards are significant enough to off set the dissonance,
the individual will not be under great tension to reduce the dissonance.

Check Your Progress 1

214

1.

Explain the meaning of attitudes.

2.

What are the characteristics of attitudes?

3.

Explain the components of attitudes.

4.

What are the sources of attitudes?

5.

How attitudes are formed?

6.

Explain the cognitive dissonance theory.

14.10 VALUES

Attitudes, Values and Work Ethics

Another source of individual differences is value. Values exist at a deeper level than
attitudes and are more general and basic in nature. We use them to evaluate our own
behaviour and that of others. Value is an enduring belief that a specific mode of conducts
or end state of existence is personally and socially preferable to the alternative modes of
conduct or end states of existence. Once it is internalised it becomes consciously or
unconsciously, a standard or criterion for guiding action, for developing and maintaining
attitudes toward relevant objects and situation, for justifying one's own and others' actions
and attitudes for morally judging oneself and others and for comparing oneself with
others. Value, therefore, is a standard or yardstick to guide actions, attitudes, evaluations
and justifications of the self and others.
Ronald D White and David A Bednar have defined value as a "concept of the desirable,
an internalised criterion or standard of evaluation a person possesses. Such concepts
and standards are relatively few and determine or guide an individual's evaluations of the
many objects encountered in everyday life".
Values are tinged with moral flavour, involving an individual's judgement of what is right,
good or desirable. Thus values:
l

Provide standards of competence and morality.

Are fewer in number than attitudes.

Transcend specific objects, situations or persons.

Are relatively permanent and resistant to change.

Are more central to the core of a person.

Individuals learn values as they grow and mature. They may change over the life span of
an individual develops a sense of self. Cultures, societies, and organizations shape values.

14.11 IMPORTANCE OF VALUES

Values are important to the study of organizational behaviour because they lay the
foundation for the understanding of attitudes and motivation and because they influence
our perceptions. Individuals enter an organization with preconceived notions of what
"ought" and what "ought not' to be. For example, If Jeevan enters IG Ferns and Curtains
with a view that salary on piece-rate system is right and on time-rate basis is wrong. He
is likely to be disappointed if the company allocates salary on time-rate basis. His
disappointment is likely to breed his job dissatisfaction. This will, in turn, adversely affect
his performance, his attitude and in turn, behaviour would be different if his values are
aligned with the company's reward/ pay policy.

14.12 FORMATION OF VALUES

Values are learned and acquired primarily through experiences with people and institutions.
Parents, for example, will have substantial influence on their children's values. A parent's
reaction to everyday events demonstrates what is good and bad, acceptable and
unacceptable and important and unimportant. Values are also taught and reinforced in
schools, religious organizations, and social groups. As we grow and develop, each source
of influence contributes to our definition what is important in life. Cultural mores have
influence of the formation of values. Basic convictions of what is good or bad are derived
from one's own culture.

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14.13 TYPES OF VALUES

Allport and his associates categorized values into six types:
1.

Theoretical: Interested in the discovery of truth through reasoning and systematic

thinking.

2.

Economic: Interest in usefulness and practicality, including the accumulation of

wealth.

3.

Aesthetic: Interest in beauty, form and artistic harmony.

4.

Social: Interest in people and love as a human relationship.

5.

Political: Interest in gaining power and influencing people.

6.

Religious: Interest in unity and understanding the cosmos as a whole.

Instrumental and Terminal Values: Rokeach distinguishes between two types of values:
Instrumental and Terminal.
Instrumental Value: Instrumental values reflect the means to achieve goals; that is,
they represent the acceptable behaviour to be used in achieving some end state.
Instrumental values identified by Rokeach include ambition, honesty, self-sufficiency
and courageousness.
Instrumental value refers to a single belief that always takes the form: I believe that such
and such a mode of conduct (example Honesty, courage, etc.) is personally and socially
preferable in all situations with respect to all objects. An instrumental value is a tool or
means for acquiring a terminal value.
Terminal Value: Terminal values, in contrast, represent the goals to be achieved, or the
end states of existence. Rokeach identified happiness, love, pleasure, self-respect, and
freedom among the terminal values.
Terminal value takes a comparable form: I believe that such and such an end state of
existence (example salvation, or world at peace etc.) is personally and socially worth
striving for. A terminal value is an ultimate goal in a desired status or outcome.
A complete list of instrumental and terminal values is presented in the figure below:
TERM INAL VALUE

INSTRUM ENTAL VALUE

A comfortable life (a prosperous life)

An exciting life (a stimulating, active life)
A
sense
of
accomplishment
(lasting
contribution)
A w orld of peace (free of w ar and conflict)
A w orld of beauty (beauty of nature and the
arts)
Equality (brotherhood, equal opportunity for
all)
Family security (taking care of loved ones)
Freedom (independence, free choice)
Happiness (contentedness)
Inner harmony (freedom from inner conflict)
M ature love (sexual and spiritual intimacy)
National security (protection from attack)
Pleasure (an enjoyable, leisurely life)
Salvation (saved, eternal life)
Self-respect (self-esteem)
Social recognition (respect, admiration)
True friendship (close companionship)
W isdom (a mature understanding of life)

Ambitious (hardw orking, aspiring)

Broad-minded (open-minded)
Capable (competent, effective)
Cheerful (light-hearted, joyful)
Clean (neat, tidy)
Courageous (standing up for your beliefs)
Forgiving (w illing to pardon others)
Helpful (w orking for the w elfare of others)
Honest (sincere, truthful)
Imaginative (daring, creative)
Independent (self-reliant, self-sufficient)
Intellectual (intelligent, reflective)
Logical (consistent, rational)
Loving (affectionate, tender)
Obedient (dutiful, respectful)
Polite (courteous, w ell mannered)
Responsible (dependable, reliable)
Self-controlled (restrained, self-disciplined)

Source: M Rokeach "The Nature of Human Values" New York: Free Press (1973)

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Figure 14.2: Terminal and Instrumental Values in Rokeach Value Survey

Attitudes, Values and Work Ethics

Work Values
Work values are important because they affect how individuals behave on their jobs in
terms of what is right and wrong. The work values most relevant to individuals are: 1.

Achievement: Achievement is a concern for the advancement of one's career.

This is shown in such behaviours as working hard and seeking opportunities to
develop new skills.

2.

Concern for Others: Concern for others reflects caring, compassionate behaviour
such as encouraging other employees or helping others work on difficult tasks.
These behaviours constitute organizational citizenship.

3.

Honesty: Honesty is accurately providing information and refusing to mislead others

for personal gain.

4.

Fairness: Fairness emphasizes impartiality and recognises different points of view.

Although individuals vary in their value systems, when they share similar values at work,
the results are positive. This means that organizations recruiting job candidates should
pay careful attention to individual's values.
Check Your Progress 2

1.

Explain the meaning and importance of values.

2.

How values are formed?

3.

What do you mean by work values?

14.14 MEANING OF ETHICS

Ethics is the study of moral values and moral behaviour. Ethical behaviour is acting in
ways consistent with one's personal values and the commonly held values of the
organization and society. Ethical issues are a major concern in organizations. There is
evidence that paying attention to ethical issues pays off for companies. Doing the right
thing can positively affect an organization's performance.
Managers must confront the ethical challenges that are encountered in organizations.
Some organizations manage ethical issues well. Despite the positive way some
organizations handle ethical issues, there is plenty of evidence that unethical conduct
does occur in other organizations. How can people in organizations rationally think through
ethical decisions so that they make the "right" choice? Ethical theories give us a basis for
understanding, evaluating, and classifying moral arguments and then defending conclusions
about what is right and wrong.

14.15 ETHICAL THEORIES

Ethical theories can be classified into the following types:
1.

Consequential Theories: Consequential theories of ethics emphasize the

consequences or results of behaviour. John Stuart Mill's Utilitarianism, a well-known
consequential theory suggests that right and wrong is determined by the
consequences of the action. "Good" is the ultimate moral value, and we should
maximize the most good for the greatest number of people. But do good ethics
makes for good business? Right actions do not always produce good consequences,
and good consequences do not always follow from right actions.
Using the "greatest number" criterion can we imply that minorities be excluded.
Should an issue that may be important for a minority but unimportant for the majority
is ignored? These are but a few of the dilemmas raided by utilitarianism.

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2.

Rule-based Theories: In contrast, rule-based theories of ethics emphasize the

character of the act itself, not its effects, in arriving at universal moral rights and
wrongs. Moral rights, the basis for legal rights, are associated with such theories.
Companies and business enterprises are more prone to subscribe to consequential
ethics than rule-based ethics, in part due to the persuasive arguments of the Scottish
political economist Adam Smith. He believed that the self-interest of human beings
is God's providence, not the government's. Smith set forth a doctrine of natural
liberty, presenting the classical argument for open market competition and free
trade. Within this framework, people should be allowed to pursue what is in their
economic self-interest, and the natural efficiency of the market place would serve
the well being of society.
However, Immanuel, Kant argued that individuals should be treated with respect
and dignity, and that they should not be used as a means to an end. He argued that
we should put over selves in the other person's position and asks if we would make
the same decision if we were in the other person's situation.

3.

Cultural Theories: The theory emphasises respect for different cultural values.
Cultural relativism contends that there are no universal ethical principles and that
people should not impose universal ethical principles and that people should not
impose their own ethical standards on others. Local standards should be the guides
for ethical behaviour. This theory operates under the old adage "when in Rome do
as the Romans do". Strict adherence to cultural relativism can lead individuals to
deny their accountability for their own decisions and to avoid difficult ethical
dilemmas.

14.16 CONTEMPORARY ETHICAL ISSUES IN

ORGANIZATIONS
In contemporary organizations, people face ethical and moral dilemmas in many diverse
areas. The key areas are:(i)

White-Collar Crime: Corporate criminal behaviours have resulted in big financial

scandals. White-collar crime may occur in more subtle forms as well. Using work
hours for conducting personal business, sending out personal mail using the company
resources. Inflating expenses etc., are all practices some individuals would consider
unethical. Whether the impact is large or small, white-collar crimes are important
issues in organizations.

(ii)

Employee Rights: Managing the rights of employees at work creates many ethical
dilemmas in organizations. Some of these dilemmas are privacy issues, drug testing
etc. The use of employee data from computerized information systems presents
many ethical concerns. Safeguarding employee's right to privacy and at the same
time preserving access to the data for those who need it requires that the manager
balance competing interests.

(iii) Sexual Harassment: Sexual harassment is unwelcome sexual attention, whether

verbal or physical, that affects an employee's job conditions or created a hostile
working environment. Sexual harassment costs the company in the form of
absenteeism, turnover, and loss of productivity. Companies may be required to pay
damages to victims of sexual harassment. Besides, the company may face negative
publicity because of sexual harassment cases.

218

(iv) Romantic Involvements: Hugging, kissing, sexual innuendos, and repeated requests
for dates may constitute sexual harassment for some, but they are prelude to romance
for others. This situation carries with it a different set of ethical dilemmas for
organizations. Conflicts occur within an organization when romantic involvements

at work become disruptive. Moreover, employers are liable for acts of their
employees and can thus be held liable for sexual harassment. Other employees
might claim that the subordinate who is romantically involved with the supervisor
gets preferential treatment.

Attitudes, Values and Work Ethics

Romantic involvements at work can create a conflict of interest. A comprehensive

policy should require anyone who might be experiencing a conflict of interest to
report it to his or her manager. The policy should also include an explanation of
how unwelcome romantic advances can turn into sexual harassment.
(v)

Organizational Justice: Another area in which moral and ethical dilemmas may
arise for people at work concerns organizational justice, both distributive and procedural.
(a)

Distributive Justice: Concerns the fairness of outcomes individuals receives.

(b)

Procedural Justice: Concerns the fairness of the process by which outcomes

is allocated. The ethical questions here do not concern the just or unjust
distribution of organizational resources. Rather, the ethical questions in
procedural justice concern the process. Has the organization used the correct
procedures in allocating resources? Have the right considerations such as
competence and skill, been brought to bear in the decision process?

(vi) Whistle blowing: Whistle-blowers are employees who inform authorities of

wrongdoings of their companies or co-workers. Whistle blowing is important because
committed organizational members sometimes engage in unethical behaviour in an
intense desire to succeed. Organizations can manage whistle blowing by
communicating the conditions that are appropriate for the disclosure of wrongdoing.
Clearly delineating wrongful behaviour and the appropriate ways to respond are
important organizational actions.
(vii) Social Responsibility: Corporate social responsibility is the obligation of an
organization to behave in ethical ways in the social environment in which it operates.
Socially responsible actions are expected of organizations. Current concerns
including protecting the environment, promoting worker safety, supporting social
issues, investing in the community etc. Managers must encourage both individual
ethical behaviour and organizational social responsibility.

14.17 TYPES OF MANAGEMENT ETHICS

Managerial ethics, are standards of conduct or moral judgement used by managers of
organizations in caring out their business. Archi B Carroll, notes that three major levels
of moral or ethical, judgement characterize managers: immoral management, amoral
management, and moral management.

14.17.1 Immoral Management

Immoral management not only lacks ethical principles but also is actively opposed to
ethical behaviour. This perspective is characterized by principal or exclusive concern for
company gains, emphasis on profits and company success at virtually any price, lack of
concern about the desires of others to be treated fairly, views of laws as obstacles to be
overcome, and a willingness to "cut corners".

14.17.2 Moral Management

In contrast to immoral management, moral management strives to follow ethical principles
and percepts. While moral managers also desire to succeed, they seek to do so only
within the parameters of ethical standards and the ideals of fairness, justice, and due
process. As a result, moral managers pursue business objectives that involve simultaneously
making a profit and engaging in legal and ethical behaviours.

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14.17.3 Amoral Management

The amoral management approach is neither immoral nor moral but, rather, ignores or is
oblivious to ethical considerations. There are two types of amoral management:
Intentional: A moral managers do not include ethical concerns in their decision-making,
or behaviour, because they basically think that general ethical standards are more
appropriate to other areas of life than to business.
Unintentional: Amoral managers also do not think about ethical issues in their business
dealings, but the reason is different. These managers are basically inattentive or incentive
to the moral implications of their decision-making, actions, and behaviour. Overall amoral
managers pursue profitability as a goal and may be generally well meaning, but intentionally
or unintentionally they pay little attention to the impacts of their behaviours on others.
The figure given below shows the characteristics of different types of Managerial Ethics
Types.
Organizational
Characteristics

Immoral
Management

Amoral Management

Moral Management

Ethical Norms

Management
decisions, actions, and
behaviour imply a
positive and active
opposition to what is
moral (ethical).
Decisions are
discordant with
accepted ethical
principles.
An active negation of
what is moral is
implied.

Management is neither
moral not immoral,
but decisions lie
outside the sphere to
which moral
judgements apply.
Management activity
is outside or beyond
the moral order of a
particular code.
May imply a lack of
ethical perception and
moral awareness.

Management activity
conforms to a standard
of ethical, or right,
behaviour.
Conforms to accepted
professional standards
of conduct.
Ethical leadership is
commonplace on the
part of management.

Motives

Selfish. Management
cares only about its or
the companys gain

Well-intentioned but
selfish in the sense
that impact on others
is not considered.

Good. Management
wants to succeed but
only within the
confines of sound
ethical precepts
(fairness, justice, due
process).

Goals

Profitability and
organizational success
at any price.

Profitability. Other
goals are not
considered.

Profitability within the

confines of legal
obedience and ethical
standards.

Orientation toward
Law

Legal standards are

barriers that
management must
overcome to
accomplish what it
wants.

Law is the ethical

guide, preferably the
letter of the law. The
central question is
what we can do
legally.

Obedience toward
letter and spirit of the
law. Law is a minimal
ethical behaviour.
Prefer to operate well
above what law
mandates.

Strategy

Exploit opportunities
for corporate gain.
Cut corners when it
appears useful.

Give managers free

rein. Personal ethics
may apply but only if
managers choose.
Respond to legal
mandates if caught
and required to do so.

Live by sound ethical

standards. Assume
leadership position
when ethical dilemmas
arise. Enlightened
self-interest.

Source: Archie B Carroll, "In Search of the Moral Manager", Business Horizons, March-April 1987, page 12.
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Figure14.3: Characteristics of Managerial Ethics

Attitudes, Values and Work Ethics

Many Companies Are Trying Hard to Stamp Out Sexual Harassment

Sexual harassment! No subject in recent memory has stirred so much confusion. Managers
and employees are asking basic questions such as: Was it all right to say I liked her dress?
Is it okay to ask him out to lunch to talk about that project? Should I just stop touching
anybody, even if it's only a congratulatory pat on the back?
One point that all the experts seem to agree on is that sexual harassment is not really about
sex. It's about power - more specifically, the abuse of power.
Ninety percent of Fortune 500 companies have dealt with sexual harassment complaints.
More than a third have been sued at least once, and about a quarter have been sued over
and over again.
What are organizations doing to eliminate sexual harassment? Most are taking a threeprong approach. First, they're establishing formal policies that show the company is serious
about the problem. Honeywell, for instance, publicizes its policy against sexual harassment
in a handbook given to every employee and on posters placed in conspicuous places.
AT&T warns its employees that they can be fired for repeatedly making unwelcome sexual
advances, using sexually degrading words to describe someone, or displaying sexually
offensive pictures or objects at work. Secondly, organizations are investing in training. The
most effective training appears to be workshops where participants get a chance to talk to
each other, instead of just listening to a lecture or watching a video. In classes where men
and women are asked to compare their impressions of the same hypothetical situation, real
revelations can occur. Finally, organizations are establishing clear procedures for handling
complaints when they arise. Typically, employers choose an impartial ombudsperson, usually
in the human resources department, to hear and investigate charges before lawyers get
involved. When complaints are found to be legitimate, organizations then are taking
"immediate and appropriate action". Depending on the circumstances, this can range from
transferring the harassed or the harasser to a different department, to docking the harasser
a couple of weeks' pay, to firing the guilty party outright.
Source: A.B Fisher, "Sexual Harassment: What to Do," Fortune (August 23, 1993) Pages 84 - 88.

14.18 IMPROVING ETHICAL BEHAVIOUR

Unethical behaviour by employees can affect individuals, work teams and even the
organization. Organizations thus depend on individuals to act ethically. The ethical issues
that individuals face at work are complex. The Figure below summarizes the ethical
issues.
1.

Stealing: Taking things that don't belong to you.

2.

Lying: Saying things you know aren't true.

3.

Fraud and deceit: Creating or perpetuating false impressions.

4.

Conflict of interest and influence buying: Bribes, payoff and kickbacks.

5.

Hiding versus divulging information: Concealing information that another party

has a right to know, or failing to protect personal or proprietary information.

6.

Cheating: Taking unfair advantage of a situation.

7.

Personal decadence: Aiming below excellence in terms of work performance (e.g.,

careless or sloppy work).

8.

Interpersonal abuse: Behaviors that are abusive of others (e.g., sexism, racism,
emotional abuse).

9.

Organizational abuse: Organizational practices that abuse members (e.g., inequitable

compensation, misuses of power).
Contd...

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Principles of Management and

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10.

Rule violations: Breaking organizational rules.

11.

Accessory to unethical acts: Knowing about unethical behavior and failing to report it.

12.

Ethical dilemmas: Choosing between two equally desirable or undesirable options.

Source: J.O. Cherrington and D. J. Cherrington, "Amenu of Moral Issues: One Week in the Life of the Wall Street Journal," Journal
of Business Ethics 11 (1992) pages 255 - 265.

Figure 14.4: Ethical Issues from One Week in the Wall Street Journal

Members of organizations are increasingly finding themselves facing ethical dilemmas,

situations where they are required to define right and wrong conduct. What constitutes
good ethical behaviour has never been clearly defined. And in recent years the line
differentiating right from wrong has become more blurred. Employees see people all
around them engaging in unethical practices. When caught these people giving excuses
like "everyone does it", or "I never thought I would get caught".
Managers and their organizations are responding to this problem from a number of
directions. They are writing and distributing codes of ethics to guide employees through
ethical dilemmas and they are creating protection mechanisms for employees who reveal
internal unethical practices.
Today's manager needs to create an ethically healthy climate for his or her employees,
where they can do their work productivity and confront a minimal degree of ambiguity
regarding what constitutes right and wrong behaviours.
Making ethical decisions is part of each manager's job. It has been suggested by
K.R. Andrews that ethical decision-making requires three qualities of individuals:
1.

The competence to identify ethical issues and evaluate the consequences of

alternative courses of action.

2.

The self-confidence to seek out different opinions about the issue and decide what
is right in terms of a particular situation.

3.

Tough-mindedness - the willingness to make decisions when all that needs to be

known cannot be known and when the ethical issue has no established unambiguous
solution.
Check Your Progress 3

1.

Explain ethical behaviour.

2.

What are the common ethical issues in organisations?

3.

Explain the different types of managerial ethics.

Values and Ethics: Sometimes some people consider values and ethics synonymous
and use them interchangeably. However, the two have different meanings. The major
distinction between the two is that values are beliefs that affect an individual's judgemental
ideas about what is good or bad. The ethics is the way the values are acted out. Ethical
behaviour is acting in ways consistent with one's personal values and the commonly held
values of the organization and society.
Values and Attitudes: Both values and attitudes are tinged with morale. There are some
similarities and some dissimilarity between the two:
Similarities: The similarities between values and attitudes are:
1.
222

Both are learned or acquired from the same sources - experience with people,
objects and events.

2.

Both affect cognitive process and behaviour of people.

3.

Both are endurable and difficult to change.

4.

Both influence each other and more often than not, are used interchangeably.

ATTITUDE

VALUE

Attitudes exhibit predisposition to respond.

1.

Values represent judgemental ideas like

what is right.

Attitudes refer to several beliefs relating to a

specific object or situation.

2.

Values represent single belief focused

on objects or situations.

Attitudes are ones personal experiences.

3.

Values are derived from social and

cultural morales.

Attitudes, Values and Work Ethics

Work Attitudes and Job Satisfaction: Attitudes at work are important because, directly
or indirectly, they affect work behaviour. Although many work attitudes are important,
two attitudes in particular have been emphasized. Job satisfaction and organizational
commitment are key attitudes of interest to managers.
1.

Job Satisfaction: Job satisfaction is a pleasurable or positive emotional state resulting

from the appraisal of one's job or hob experiences. The most important factors
conductive to job satisfaction are:
(i)

Mentally Challenging Work: Employees tend to prefer job that give them
opportunities to use their skills and abilities and offer a variety of tasks, freedom
and feedback on how well they are doing. Under conditions of moderate
challenge, most employees will experience pleasure and satisfaction.

(ii)

Personality-Job Fit: People with personality types congruent with their chosen
vocations should find they have the right talents and abilities to meet the
demands of their jobs; and because of this success, have a greater probability
of achieving high satisfaction from their work. It is important, therefore to fit
personality factors with job profiles.

(iii) Equitable Rewards: Employees want pay systems and promotion policies
that they perceive as being just, unambiguous, and in line with their expectations.
When pay is seen as fair based on job demands, individual skill level, and
industry pay standards, satisfaction is likely to result. Similarly, employees
seek fair promotion policies and practices. Promotions provide opportunities
for personal growth, more responsibilities and increased social status.
Individual's who perceive that promotion decisions are made in a fair and just
manner are likely to experience job satisfaction.
(iv) Supportive working conditions: Employees prefer physical conditions that
are comfortable and facilitating doing a good job. Temperature, light, noise
and other environmental factors should not be extreme and provide personal
comfort. Further, employees prefer working relatively close to home, in clean
and relatively modern facilities and with adequate tools and equipment.
(v)

Supportive Colleagues: Employees have need for social interaction. Therefore,

having friendly and supportive co-workers and understanding supervisor's leads
to increase job satisfaction. Most employees want their immediate supervisor
to understand and friendly, offers praise for good performance, listens to
employees' opinions and show a personal interest in them.

An individual may hold different attitudes toward various aspects of the job. For example,
an employee may like his job responsibilities but be dissatisfied with the opportunities for
promotion. Characteristics of individuals also affect job satisfaction. Those with high
negative affectivity are more likely to be dissatisfied with their jobs.
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Are satisfied workers more productive? Or, are more productive workers more satisfied?
The link between satisfaction and performance has been widely explored. Research
shows weak support for both views, but not simple, direct relationship between satisfaction
and performance have been found. However, we can say that satisfied workers are
more likely to want to give something back to the organization because they want to
reciprocate their positive experiences.
2.

Organizational Commitment: - The strength of an individual's identification with

an organization is known as organizational commitment. There are two kinds of
organizational commitment.
(i)

Affective Commitment: Affective commitment is an employee's intention to

remain in an organization because of a strong desire to do so. It consists of
three factors:
l

A belief in the goals and values of the organization.

A willingness to put forth effort on behalf of the organization.

A desire to remain a member of the organization.

Affective commitment encompasses loyalty, but it is also a deep concern for the
organization's welfare.
(ii)

Continuance Commitment: Continuance commitment is an employee's

tendency to remain in an organization because the person cannot afford to
leave. Sometimes, employees believe that if they leave, they will lose a great
deal of their investments in time, effort and benefits and that they cannot
replace these investment.

Organizational commitment is related to lower rates of absenteeism, higher quality of

work, and increased productivity. Managers should be concerned about affective
commitment because committed individuals expend more task-related effort and are
less likely than others to leave the organization.
Job satisfaction and organizational commitment are two important work attitudes that
managers can strive to improve among their employees. And these two attitudes are
strongly related; so increasing job satisfaction is likely to increase commitment as well.

14.19 LET US SUM UP

Attitudes are individuals' general affective, cognitive and intentional responses toward objects,
other people, themselves, or social issues. Attitudes are evaluative statements - either favourable
or unfavourable - concerning objects, people or events. Attitudes thus state one's predispositions
towards given aspects of world. They also provide an emotional basis of one's interpersonal
relations and identification with others. Attitudes are known to serve at least four important
functions in an organisation setting. Attitudes are learned. Individuals acquire attitudes from
several sources but the point to be stressed is that the attitudes are acquired but not inherited.
Values are learned and acquired primarily through experiences with people and institutions.
In contemporary organizations, people face ethical and moral dilemmas in many diverse
areas. Job satisfaction and organizational commitment are two important work attitudes that
managers can strive to improve among their employees.

14.20 LESSON END ACTIVITY

Work Satisfaction is associated with the attitude one has. Justify the statement with
your own arguments.
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14.21 KEYWORDS

Attitudes, Values and Work Ethics

Attitudes
Values
Instrumental Value
Terminal Value
Whistle Blowing
Ethics

14.22 QUESTIONS FOR DISCUSSION

1.

Define Attitudes.

2.

Explain the characteristics of Attitude.

3.

What are the functions of Attitudes?

4.

How attitudes are formed?

5.

Describe the ABC model of an attitude. How should each component be measured?

6.

What is cognitive dissonance and how is it related to attitudes?

7.

Define Values. Distinguish between instrumental values and terminal values.

8.

How values are formed?

9.

How does our values affect our behaviour.

10. What is Ethics? What is the relationship between values and ethics?

14.23 SUGGESTED READINGS

Aquinas, P.G., "Organizational Behaviour - concepts realities and challenges", Excel
Books, New Delhi (2005).
Boulding, K.E., "Conflict and Defence: A General Theory", Harper and Row, New
York (1962).
Chabra Ahuja and Jain, "Managing People at work", Dhanpat Rai and Sons, New
Delhi.
Harrel, T.W., "Industrial Psychology" Oxford and IBH, New Delhi (1972).
Kossen Stan, "Human Side of Organization", Canfield Press San Franciso (1978).
March, J.C., and Simon H "Organisations", Wiley, New York (1958).
Fred Luthans, "Organisational Behaviour", (7th Ed) McGraw Hill, New York (1995).
John W Newstorm, Keith Davis, "Organizational Behaviour - Human Behaviour at
Work", (9th Edition) McGraw Hill, New York (1989).
Whyte W.F., "Organizational Behaviour", Irwin/Dorsey Homewood III (1969).
Woodward, J., (Ed.), "Industrial Organizations: Behaviour and Control", Oxford
University Press, Oxford (1970).

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LESSON

15
PERCEPTION AND LEARNING

CONTENTS
15.0 Aims and Objectives
15.1 Introduction
15.2 Factors Influencing Perception (Perception Process)
15.2.1 Characteristics of the Perceiver
15.2.2 Characteristics of the Target
15.2.3 Characteristic of the Situation
15.3 Managerial Implications of Perception
15.4 Meaning of Learning
15.5 Components of Learning
15.6 Determinants of Learning
15.7 Theories of Learning
15.7.1 Classical Conditioning
15.7.2 Operant Conditioning
15.7.3 Cognitive Learning Theory
15.7.4 Social Learning
15.8 Principles of Reinforcement
15.8.1 Positive Reinforcement
15.8.2 Negative Reinforcers
15.8.3 Extinction
15.8.4 Punishment
15.8.5 Schedules of Reinforcement
15.9 Limitations of Behaviour Modification
15.10 Learning Curves
15.11 Learning and Behaviour
15.12 Learning and Personality Differences
15.13 Let us Sum up
15.14 Lesson-end Activity
15.15 Keywords
15.16 Questions for Discussion
15.17 Suggested Readings
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15.0 AIMS AND OBJECTIVES

Perception and Learning

After studying this lesson you will be able to:

(i)

understand meaning and process of perception.

(ii)

describe managerial implications of perception.

(iii) discuss meaning, components and determinants of learning.

(iv) explain theories of learning.
(v)

describe the principles of learning

(vi) explain various learnings curves.

(vii) understand the role of learning in behaviour modification.
(viii) discuss implications of personality differences on learning.

15.1 INTRODUCTION
Perception involves the way we view the world around us. It adds, meaning to information
gathered via the five senses of touch, smell, hearing, vision and taste. Perception is the
primary vehicle through which we come to understand our surroundings and ourselves.
Perception can be defined as a process by which individuals organize and interpret their
sensory impressions in order to give meaning to their environment.

Why is the study perception important?

Simply because people's behaviour is based on their perception of what reality is, not on
reality itself. Virtually all management activities rely on perception. In appraising
performance, managers use their perceptions of an employee's behaviour as a basis for
the evaluation. One work situation that highlights the importance of perception is the
selection interview. Perception is also culturally determined. Based on our cultural
backgrounds, we tend to perceive things in certain ways.
Thus, perception is the primary vehicle through which we come to understand our
surroundings and ourselves. Social perception is the process of interpreting information
about another person. Social perception is directly concerned with how one individual
perceives other individuals. Formal organization participants constantly perceive one
another. Managers are perceiving workers, workers are perceiving managers, line
personnel perceive staff personnel, staff personnel perceive line personnel, superiors
perceive subordinates, and subordinates are perceiving superiors and so on. There are
numerous complex factors that enter into such social perception, but the primary factors
are found in the psychological process and personality.

15.2 FACTORS INFLUENCING PERCEPTION

(PERCEPTION PROCESS)
A number of factors operate to shape and sometimes distort perception. These factors
residei.

In the perceiver

ii.

In the object or target being perceived or

iii.

In the context of the situation in which the perception is made.

15.2.1 Characteristics of the Perceiver

Several characteristics of the perceiver can affect perception. When an individual looks
at a target and attempts to interpret what he or she, that interpretation is heavily influenced

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by personal characteristics of individual perceiver. The major characteristics of the

perceiver influencing perception are:
(A) Attitudes: The perceiver's attitudes affect perception. For example, suppose Mr.
X is interviewing candidates for a very important position in his organization - a
position that requires negotiating contracts with suppliers, most of whom are male.
Mr X may feel that women are not capable of holding their own in tough negotiations.
This attitude will doubtless affect his perceptions of the female candidates he
interviews.
(B) Moods: Moods can have a strong influence on the way we perceive someone. We
think differently when we are happy than we do when we are depressed. In addition,
we remember information that is consistent with our mood state better than
information that is inconsistent with our mood state. When in a positive mood, we
form more positive impression of others. When in a negative mood, we tend to
evaluate others unfavourably.
(C) Motives: Unsatisfied needs or motives stimulate individuals and may exert a strong
influence on their perceptions. For example, in an organizational context, a boss
who is insecure perceives a subordinate's efforts to do an outstanding job as a
threat to his or her own position. Personal insecurity can be transferred into the
perception that others are out to "get my job", regardless of the intention of the
subordinates.
(D) Self-Concept: Another factor that can affect social perception is the perceivers'
self-concept. An individual with a positive self-concept tends to notice positive
attributes in another person. In contrast, a negative self-concept can lead a perceiver
to pick out negative traits in another person. Greater understanding of self allows
us to have more accurate perceptions of others.
(E) Interest: The focus of our attention appears to be influenced by our interests.
Because our individual interests differ considerably, what one person notices in a
situation can differ from what others perceive. For example, the supervisor who
has just been reprimanded by his boss for coming late is more likely to notice his
colleagues coming late tomorrow than he did last week. If you are preoccupied
with a personal problem, you may find it hard to be attentive in class.
(F) Cognitive Structure: Cognitive structure, an individual's pattern of thinking, also
affects perception. Some people have a tendency to perceive physical traits, such
as height, weight, and appearance, more readily. Others tend to focus more on
central traits, or personality dispositions. Cognitive complexity allows a person to
perceive multiple characteristics of another person rather than attending to just a
few traits.
(G) Expectations: Finally, expectations can distort your perceptions in that you will
see what you expect to see. The research findings of the study conducted by
Sheldon S Zalkind and Timothy W Costello on some specific characteristics of the
perceiver reveal

228

Knowing oneself makes it easier to see others accurately.

One's own characteristics affect the characteristics one is likely to see in

others.

People who accept themselves are more likely to be able to see favourable
aspects of other people.

Accuracy in perceiving others is not a single skill.

These four characteristics greatly influence how a person perceives others in the
environmental situation.

15.2.2 Characteristics of the Target

Perception and Learning

Characteristics in the target that is being observed can affect what is perceived. Physical
appearance plays a big role in our perception of others. Extremely attractive or unattractive
individuals are more likely to be noticed in a group than ordinary liking individuals. Motion,
sound, size and other attributes of a target shape the way we see it.
Physical appearance plays a big role in our perception of others. The perceiver will
notice the target's physical features like height, weight, estimated age, race and gender.
Perceivers tend to notice physical appearance characteristics that contrast with the
norm, that are intense, or that are new or unusual. Physical attractiveness often colour
our entire impression of another person. Interviewers rate attractive candidates more
favourably and attractive candidates are awarded higher starting salaries.
Verbal communication from targets also affects our perception of them. We listen to the
topics they speak about, their voice tone, and their accent and make judgements based
on this input.
Non-verbal communication conveys a great deal of information about the target. The
perceiver deciphers eye contact, facial expressions, body movements, and posture all in
an attempt to form an impression of the target.
The perceiver, who observes the target's behaviour, infers the intentions of the target.
For example, if our manager comes to our office doorway, we think "oh no! he is going
to give me more work to do". Or we may perceive that his intention is to congratulate us
on a recent success. In any case, the perceiver's interpretation of the target's intentions
affects the way the perceiver views the target.
Targets are not looked at in isolation, the relationship of a target to its background influences
perception because of our tendency to group close things and similar things together.
Objects that are close to each other will tend to be perceived together rather than
separately. As a result of physical or time proximity, we often put together objects or
events that are unrelated. For examples, employees in a particular department are seen
as a group. If two employees of a department suddenly resign, we tend to assume their
departures were related when in fact, they might be totally unrelated.
People, objects or events that are similar to each other also tend to be grouped together. The
greater the similarity, the greater the probability we will tend to perceive them as a group.

15.2.3 Characteristics of the Situation

The situation in which the interaction between the perceiver and the target takes place
has an influence on the perceiver's impression of the target. For example, a professor
may not notice his 20-year-old female student in a bikini at the swimming pool. Yet the
professor will notice the same girl if she comes to his organizational behaviour class in a
bikini. In the same way, meeting a manager in his or her office affects your impression
in a certain way that may contrast with the impression you would form had you met the
manager in a restaurant.
The strength of the situational cues also affects social perception. Some situations provide
strong cues as to appropriate behaviour. In these situations, we assume that the individual's
behaviour can be accounted for by the situation, and that it may not reflect the individual's
disposition. This is the discounting principle in social perception. For example, you may
encounter an automobile salesperson who has a warm and personable manner, asks you
about your work and hobbies, and seems genuinely interested in your taste in cars. Can
you assume that this behaviour reflects the salesperson's personality? You probably cannot,
because of the influence of the situation. This person is trying to sell you a car, and in this
particular situation he probably treats all customers in this manner.
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The figure below summarises the factors influencing perception.

Factors in the perceiver
Attitudes
Motives
Interests
Experience
Expectation
Factors in the situation
Time
Work setting
Social setting

PERCEPTION

Factors in the target

Novelty
Motion
Sound
Size
Background
Proximity
Source: Stephen P Robbins "Organizational Behaviour concepts, controversies, applications" Prentice Hall Englewood Cliffs NJ
07632 (seventh edition) 1996 pages 135.

Figure 15.1: Factors that Influence Perception

Frequently Used Shortcuts in judging others: Perceiving and interpreting what others
do is burdensome. As a result, individuals develop techniques for making the task more
manageable. These techniques are not foolproof. Several factors lead us to form
inaccurate impressions of others. These barriers to perception are inaccurate impressions
of others. These barriers to perception are
1.

Selective Perception: We receive a vast amount of information. Therefore, it is

impossible for us to assimilate everything we see - on eye certain stimuli can be
taken. That is why their boss may reprimand some employees for doing something
that when done by another employee goes unnoticed. Since, we can't observe
everything going on about us, we engage in selective perception.
Selective perception is also out tendency to choose information that supports our
viewpoints; Individuals often ignore information that makes them feel uncomfortable
or threatens their viewpoints.
Selective perception allows us to "speed-read" others, but not without the risk of
drawing an inaccurate picture. Because we see what we want to see, we can draw
unwarranted conclusions from an ambiguous, perception tends to be influenced more
by an individual's attitudes, interests, and background than by the stimulus itself.

2.

230

Stereotype: A stereotype is a generalization about a group of people. When we

judge someone on the basis of our perception of the group to which he or she
belongs, we are using the shortcut called stereotyping. Stereotypes reduce
information about other people to a workable level, and they are efficient for compiling
and using information. It is a means of simplifying a complex world and it permits
us to maintain consistency. It is less difficult to deal with an unmanageable number
of stimuli if we use stereotypes. Stereotypes can be accurate, and when they are
accurate, they can be useful perceptual guidelines. However, most of the times
stereotypes are inaccurate.
Attractiveness is a powerful stereotype. We assume that attractive individuals are
also warm, kind, sensitive, poised, sociable, outgoing, independent, and strong. Are
attractive people sociable, outgoing, independent, and strong? Are attractive people
really like this? Certainly all of them are not.

In organizations, we frequently hear comments that represent stereotypes based

on gender, age, nationality etc. From a perceptual standpoint, if people expect to
see this stereotype, that is what they will perceive, whether it's accurate or not.
3.

Perception and Learning

Halo Effect: The halo error in perception is very similar to stereotyping. Whereas
in stereotyping the person is perceived according to a single category, under the
halo effect the person is perceived on the basis of one trait.
When we draw a general impression about an individual based on a single
characteristic, such as intelligence, sociability or appearance, a halo effect is
operating. The propensity for the halo effect to operate is not random. Research
suggests it is likely to be most extreme when the traits to be perceived are ambiguous
in behavioural terms, when the traits have moral overtones, and when the perceiver
is judging traits with which he or she has limited experience. Example of halo
effect is the extremely attractive women secretary who is perceived by her male
boss as being an intelligent, good performer, when, in fact, she is a poor typist.

4.

First-impression error: Individuals place a good deal of importance on first

impressions. First impressions are lasting impressions. We tend to remember what
we perceive first about a person, and sometimes we are quite reluctant to change
our initial impressions. First-impression error means the tendency to form lasting
opinions about an individual based on initial perceptions. Primacy effects can be
particularly dangerous in interviews, given that we form first impressions quickly
and that these impressions may be the basis for long-term employment relationships.

5.

Contrast Effect: Stimuli that contrast with the surrounding environment are more
likely to be selected for attention than the stimuli that blends in. A contrasting effect
can be caused by colour, size or any other factor that is unusual (any factor that
distinguishes one stimulus from others at present). For example, a man walking
down the street with a pair of crutches is more attention getting than a common
man. A contrast effect is the evaluation of a person's characteristics that are affected
by comparisons with other people recently encountered that rank higher or lower
on the same characteristics. The "contrast" principle essentially states that external
stimuli that stands out against the background or which are not what are expecting
well receive their attention. The contrast effect also explains why a male student
stands out in a crowd of female students. There is nothing unusual about the male
students but, when surrounded by females, he stands out.
An illustration of how contrast effects operate in an interview situation in which
one sees a pool of job applicants. Distortions in any given candidate's evaluation
can occur as a result of his or her place in the interview schedule. The candidate is
likely to receive a more favourable evaluation if preceded by mediocre applicants,
and a less favourable evaluation if preceded by strong applicants.

6.

Projection: It is easy to judge others if we assume they are similar to us. This
tendency to attribute one's own characteristics to other people is called projection.
Projection can distort perceptions made about others. People who engage in
projection tend to perceive others. According to what they they are like rather than
according to what the person being observed is really like. When managers engage
in projection, they compromise their ability to respond to individual differences.
They tend to see people as more homogeneous than they really are.

7.

Implicit Personality Theories: We tend to have our own mini-theories about how
people look and behave. These theories help us organize our perceptions and take
shortcuts instead of integrating new information all the time. Implicit-personality
theory is opinions formed about other people that are based on our own minitheories about how people behave. For example we believe that girls dressed in
fashionable clothes will like modern music and girls dressed in traditional dress like

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saree will like Indian classical music. These implicit personality theories are barriers
because they limit out ability to take in new information when it is available.
8.

Self-Fulfilling Prophecies: Self-fulfilling prophecies are the situation in which

our expectations about people affect our interaction with them in such a way that
our expectations are fulfilled. Self-fulfilling prophecy is also known as the Pygmalion
effect, named after a sculptor in Greek mythology who carved a statue of a girl
that came to life when he prayed for this wish and it was granted.

Seasickness as Self-Fulfilling Prophecy

Virtually no one is immune to seasickness, especially those in the Navy who must perform
their jobs on rough seas. While there are drugs for the problem, some of the side effects are
the very symptoms that the drugs are intended to prevent: drowsiness, blurred vision, and
dryness of the mouth. Naval and aviation medicine continue to try to solve the challenge of
motion sickness.
The authors of one study devised an experiment to see whether self-fulfilling prophecy
could help. They assigned twenty-five naval cadets in the Israeli Defense Forces to
experimental and control conditions. Before their first cruise, the cadets in the experimental
group were told that they were unlikely to experience seasickness and that, if they did, it
was unlikely to affect their performance at sea. Cadets in the control group were told about
research on seasickness and its prevention. At the end of the five-day cruise, cadets in the
experimental group reported less seasickness and were rated as better performers by their
training officers. These cadets also had higher self-efficacy; that is, they believe they could
perform well at sea despite seasickness.
The pills and patches that physicians often prescribe for seasickness are unpleasant to the
point of deterring their use, are of short-term effectiveness, and have undesirable side
effects. Self-fulfilling prophecy has none of these problems, and it appears to work in
combating seasickness.
Source: D. Eden and Y. Zuk, "Seasickness as a Self-Fullfilling Prophecy: Raising Self-Efficacy to Boost Performance at Sea,
"Journal of Applied Psychology" 80 (1995) pages 628 777 635.

The Pygmalion effect has been observed in work organizations as well. A manager's
expectations of an individual affect both the manager's behaviour toward the individual
and the individual's response. For example, suppose a manager has an initial impression
of an employee as having the potential to move up within the organization. Chances are
that the manager will spend a great deal of time coaching and counselling the employee,
providing challenging assignments and grooming the individual for success.

15.3 MANAGERIAL IMPLICATIONS OF PERCEPTION

People in organizations are always judging each other. Managers must appraise their
subordinate's performance. In many cases, these judgements have important consequences
for the organizations. Let us look at the more obvious applications of perceptions in
organization.
1.

232

Employment Interview: A major input into who is hired and who is rejected in any
organization is the employment interview. Evidence indicated that interviewers often
make inaccurate perceptual judgements. Interviews generally draw early impressions
that become very quickly entrenched. If negative information is exposed early in
the interview, it tends to be more heavily weighted than if that same information
comes out later. As a result, information elicited early in the interview carries greater
weight than does information elicited later. A "good applicant" is probably
characterised more by the absence of unfavourable characteristics than by the
presence of favourable characteristics.

The employment interview is an important input into the hiring decision and a
manager must recognize that perceptual factors influence who is hired. Therefore,
eventually the quality of an organization's labour force depends on the perception
of the interviewers.
2.

Performance Evaluation: An employee's performance appraisal very much

depends on the perceptual process. The performance appraisal represents an
assessment of an employee's work. While this can be objective, many jobs are
evaluated in subjective terms. Subjective measures are, by definition, judgemental.
The evaluator forms a general impression of an employee's work. What the evaluator
perceives to be "good" or "bad" employee characteristics will, significantly influences
the appraisal outcome. An employee's future is closely tied to his or her appraisal promotions, pay raises and continuation of employment are among the most obvious
outcomes.

3.

Performance Expectations: A manager's expectations of an individual affect both

the manager's behaviour towards the individual and the individual's response. An
impressive amount of evidence demonstrates that people will attempt to validate
their perceptions of reality, even when these perceptions are faulty. This is
particularly relevant when we consider performance expectations on the job.

Perception and Learning

The term self-fulfilling prophecy or Pygmalion effect have evolved to characterise

the fact that people's expectations determine their behaviour. Managers can harness
the power of the Pygmalion effect to improve productivity in the organization. It
appears that high expectations of individuals come true. Managers can extend
these high expectations of individuals to an entire group. When a manager expects
positive things from a group, the group delivers. Similarly, if a manager expects
people to perform minimally, they will tend to behave so as to meet these low
expectations. Thus, the expectations become reality.
4.

Employee Loyalty: Another important judgement that managers make about

employees is whether they are loyal to the organization. Few organizations appreciate
employees, especially those in the managerial ranks openly disparaging the firm.
The assessment of an employee's loyalty or commitment is highly judgemental.
What is perceived as loyalty by one may be seen as excessive by another. An
employee who questions a top management decision may be seen as disloyal.
Some employees called whistle-blowers who report unethical practices by their
employer to authorities inside or outside the organization, typically act out of loyalty
to their organization but are perceived by management as troublemakers.

Impression Management: Most people want to make favourable impression on others.

Impression management is the process by which individuals try to control the impression
others have of them. This is particularly true in organizations, where individuals compete
for jobs, favourable performance evaluations and salary increases. Some impression
management techniques used in organizations are given below:
1.

Name-dropping: is a technique, which involves mentioning an association with

important people in the hopes of improving one's image.

2.

Flattery: is a common technique whereby compliments are given to an individual

in order to win his or her approval. Favours are also used to gain the approval of
others. Agreement with someone's opinion is a technique often used to gain a
positive impression.

3.

Managing one's Appearance: is another technique for impression management.

Individuals dress carefully for interviews because they want to "look the part" in
order to get the job. Self-descriptions, or statements about one's characteristics,
are used to manage impressions as well.
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Impression management seems to have an impact on other's impressions. As long as the

impressions conveyed are accurate, this process can be beneficial one in organizations.
If the impressions are found to be false, however, a strongly negative overall impression
may result. Furthermore, excessive impression management can lead to the perception
that the user is manipulative or insincere.
Check Your Progress 1

1.

What is the need to study perception?

2.

Explain the factors influencing perception.

3.

What are the frequently used shortcuts in judging others?

4.

How can we use perception in organizations?

15.4 MEANING OF LEARNING

Learning is a term frequently used by a great number of people in a wide variety of
contexts. Learning can be defined as a relatively permanent change in behaviour or
potential behaviour as a result of direct or indirect experience. There are two primary
elements in this definition:
l

The change must be relatively permanent. This means that after "learning" our
behaviour must be different, either better or worse as compared to our behaviour
prior to this learning experience. For example you "learn" to drive a car or have
learned how to use a computer.

This change must occur due to some kind of experience or practice. This learning
is not caused by biological maturation. For example a child does not learn to walk,
it is a natural biological phenomenon. We do not learn to eat or drink.

Learning is thus a change in behaviour as a result of experience. Different psychologists

and behavioural scientists have defined learning differently. Given below are a few
important definitions of learning:
Stephen P Robbins - "Learning is any relatively permanent change in behaviour that
occurs as a result of experience".
Munn N.L - "Learning is the process of having one's behaviour modified, more or less
permanently, by what he does and the consequences of his action, or by what he observes".
Steers and Porter - "Learning can be defined as relatively permanent change in behaviour
potentially that results from reinforced practice or experience".
It must be understood that the learning itself is not observable, but only change in behaviour
is observable which is the result of the process of learning. This change in behaviour
must be differentiated from changes in behaviour from other causes. The causes of
such changes including aging, such as being stronger or improvement in memory in the
early formative years, instinctive response tendencies such as a timid person being brave
at the time of a crisis. Accordingly, as a unique determinant of behaviour, learning cannot
take place unless the learner actually experiences what has to be learned.

15.5 COMPONENTS OF LEARNING

234

1.

Learning involves change, be it good or bad.

2.

The change in behaviour must be relatively permanent. For that matter, a temporary
change in behaviour as a result of fatigue or temporary adaptations are not
considered learning.

3.

Only change in behaviour acquired through experience is considered learning.

Therefore, a change in individual's thought process or attitudes, if accompanied by
no change in behaviour, would not be learning. For example the ability to walk that
is based on maturation disease or physical damages would not be considered learning.

4.

Some form of experience is necessary for learning. Experience may be acquired

directly through practice or observation or indirectly as through reading.

5.

Learning is not confined to our schooling only. As a matter of fact, learning is a life
long process.

Perception and Learning

15.6 DETERMINANTS OF LEARNING

The important factors that determine learning are:
1.

Motive: Motives also called drives, prompt people to action. They are primary
energisers of behaviour. They are the ways of behaviour and mainspring of action.
They are largely subjective and represent the mental feelings of human beings.
They are cognitive variables. They arise continuously and determine the general
direction of an individual's behaviour without motive learning cannot occur.

2.

Stimuli: Stimuli are objects that exist in the environment in which a person lives.
Stimuli increase the probability of eliciting a specific response from a person.

3.

Generalisation: The principle of generalisation has important implications for human

learning. Generalisation takes place when the similar new stimuli repeat in the
environment. When two stimuli are exactly alike, they will have probability of eliciting
specific response. It makes possible for a manager to predict human behaviour
when stimuli are exactly alike.

4.

Discrimination: What is not generalisation is discrimination. In case of

discrimination, responses vary to different stimuli. For example an MBA student
may learn to respond to video teaching but not to the oral lecturing by his professor.

5.

Responses: The stimulus results in responses - be these in the physical form or in

terms of attitudes or perception or in other phenomena. However, the responses
need to be operationally defined and preferably physically observable.

6.

Reinforcement: Reinforcement is a fundamental conditioning of learning.

Reinforcement can be defined as anything that both increases the strength of
response and tends to induce repetitions of behaviour that preceded the
reinforcement. No measurable modification of behaviour can take place without
reinforcement.

7.

Retention: Retention means remembrance of learned behaviour overtime. Converse

is forgetting. Learning which is forgotten over time is called "extinction". When the
response strength returns after extinction without only intervening reinforcement it
is called "spontaneous recovery".

15.7 THEORIES OF LEARNING

The most basic purpose of learning theory like any other is to better explain how learning
occurs. Attempts have been made by the psychologists and behavioural scientists to
develop theories of learning.
How do we learn? Four theories have been offered to explain the process by which we
acquire patterns of behaviour:
1.

Classical conditioning theory;

2.

Operant conditioning theory;

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3.

Cognitive learning theory; and

4.

Social learning theory.

15.7.1 Classical Conditioning

Classical conditioning is one of the simplest forms of learning yet it has a powerful effect
on our attitudes, likes and dislikes, and emotional responses. We have all learned to
respond in specific ways to a variety of words and symbols. Our lives are profoundly
influenced by associations we learn through classical conditioning. Ivan Pavlov whose
research on the conditioned reflex in dogs revealed much of what we know about the
principles of classical conditioning.
Classical Conditioning of Pavlov: Ivan Pavlov (1849 - 1936) organized and directed
research in physiology at the Institute of Experimental Medicine in St. Petersburg, Russia
from 1891 until his death in 1936. His book "Conditioned Reflexes" is one of the classic
works in psychology.
Classical conditioning is modifying behaviour so that a conditioned stimulus is paired with
an unconditioned stimulus and elicits an unconditioned behaviour. Ivan Pavlov, a Russian
psychologist developed classical conditioning theory based on his experiments to teach
dog to salivate in response to the ringing of a bell. When Pavlov presented meat
(unconditioned stimulus) to the dog, he noticed a great deal of salivation (conditioned
response). But, when merely bell was rung, no salivation was noticed in the dog. Then,
when next Pavlov did was to link the meat and the ringing of the bell. He did this several
times. Afterwards, he merely rang the bell without presenting the meat. Now, the dog
began to salivate as soon as the bell rang. After a while, the dog would salivate merely at
the sound of the bell, even if no meat were presented. In effect, the dog had learned to
respond i.e. to salivate to the bell.

Meat

Unconditional
Stimulus

Bell

Conditional Stimulus

Unconditional
Response

Response

Meat

Unconditional Stimulus

Bell

Conditional Stimulus

Conditional
Response

Source: Ricky W Griffin and Gregory Moorhead Organizational Behaviour", Hougton Mifflin (1986) page 106.

Figure 15.2: Classical Conditioning Theory

236

Classical conditioning introduces a simple cause-and-effect relationship between one

stimulus and response. It also makes the response reflective or involuntary after the
stimulus-response relationship has been established. This leaves no ground for making
choice, which differences human beings from dogs. Under certain situations classical
conditioning does explain human behaviour. For example, if a student is always
reprimanded by his Principal when he is summoned to the principal's office he may
become nervous whenever asked to come to the principal's office because of this
association.

The Elements and Processes in Classical Conditioning

Perception and Learning

Reflex: A reflex is an involuntary response to a particular stimulus. There are two kinds
of reflexes:
(i)

Conditioned Reflex: This is a "learned" reflex rather than a naturally occurring

one.

(ii)

Unconditioned Reflex: This is a "unlearned" reflex. Example, Salivation in response

to food. Unconditioned reflex are built into the nervous system.

The Conditioned and Unconditioned Stimulus and Response: - Pavlov continued to

investigate the circumstances under which a conditioned reflex is formed. Dogs do not
need to be conditioned to salivate to food, so salivation of food is an unlearned or
unconditioned response (UR). Any stimulus (such as food) that without learning will
automatically elicit (bring forth) an unconditioned response is called an unconditioned
stimulus (US).
A reflex is made up of both a stimulus and response. Following is a list of some common
unconditioned reflexes, showing their two components - the unconditioned stimulus and
unconditioned response.
UNCONDITIONED REFLEXES
UNCONDITIONED STIMULUS (US)

UNCONDITIONED RESPONSE (UR)

Food

Salivation

Onion Juice

Tears

Heat

Sweating

Loud Noise

Startle

Light in Eye

Contraction of Pupil

Puff of air in eye

Blink.

Touching hot stove

Hand withdrawal

Figure 15.3: Unconditioned Reflexes

Factors Influencing Classical Conditioning: There are four major factors that affect the
strength of a classically conditioned response and the length of time required for conditioning.
(i)

The number of pairings of the conditioned stimulus and the unconditional

stimulus. In general, the greater the number of pairings, the stronger the conditioned
response.

(ii)

The intensity of the unconditioned stimulus. If a conditioned stimulus is paired

with a very strong unconditioned stimulus, the conditioned response will be stronger
and will be acquired more rapidly than if it is paired with a weaker unconditioned
stimulus.

(iii) The most important factor is how reliably the conditioned stimulus predicts
the unconditioned stimulus. Rescorla has shown that classical conditioning does
not occur automatically just because a neutral stimulus is repeatedly paired with an
unconditioned stimulus. The neutral stimulus must also reliably predict the occurrence
of the unconditioned stimulus. For example, a tone that is always followed by food
will elicit more salivation than one that is followed by food only some of the time.
(iv) The temporal relationship between the conditioned stimulus and the
unconditioned stimulus. Conditioning takes place faster if the conditioned stimulus
occurs shortly before the unconditioned stimulus. It takes place more slowly or not
at all when the two stimuli occur at the same time. Conditioning rarely takes place
when the conditioned stimulus follows the unconditioned stimulus.

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Limitations: Classical conditioning has real limitation in its acceptability to human

behaviour in organizations for at least three reasons:
(i)

Human beings are more complex than dogs but less amenable to simple cause-and
-effect conditioning.

(ii)

The behavioural environment in organizations is also complex.

(iii) The human decision-making process being complex in nature makes it possible to
override simple conditioning.
An alternate approach to classical conditioning was proposed by B.F. Skinner, known as
Operant Conditioning, in order to explain the more complex behaviour of human, especially
in organizational setting.

15.7.2 Operant Conditioning

Operant conditioning argues that behaviour is a function of its consequences. People
learn to behave to get something they want or avoid something they don't want. Operant
behaviour means voluntary or learned behaviour in contrast to reflexive or unlearned
behaviour. The tendency to repeat such behaviour is influenced by the reinforcement or
lack of reinforcement brought about by the consequences of the behaviour. Reinforcement
therefore strengthens behaviour and increases the likelihood it will be repeated.
What Pavlov did for classical conditioning, the Harvard psychologist B.F. Skinner did for
operant conditioning.
Operant conditioning induces a voluntary change in behaviour and learning occurs as a
"consequence" of such change. It is also known as reinforcement theory and it suggests
that behaviour is a function of its consequences. It is based upon the premise that behaviour
or job performance is not a function of inner thoughts, feelings, emotions or perceptions
but is keyed to the nature of the outcome of such behaviour. The consequences of a
given behaviour would determine whether the same behaviour is likely to occur with
future or not. Based upon this direct relationship between the consequences and behaviour,
the management can study and identify this relationship and try to modify and control
behaviour. Thus, the behaviour can be controlled by manipulating its consequences. This
relationship is built around two principles:
l

The behaviour that results in positive rewards tend to be repeated and behaviour
with negative consequences tend not to be repeated.

Based upon such consequences, the behaviour can be predicted and controlled.

Hence, certain types of consequences can be used to increase the occurrence of a

desired behaviour and other types of consequences can be used to decrease the
occurrence of undesired behaviour. The consequences of behaviour are used to influence,
or shape, behaviour through three strategies: reinforcement, punishment and extinction.
Thus, operant conditioning is the process of modifying behaviour through the use of
positive or negative consequences following specific behaviours.
From an organizational point of view, any stimulus from the work environment will elicit
a response. The consequence of such a response will determine the nature of the future
response. For example working hard and getting the promotion will probably cause the
person to keep working hard in the future.
Factors Influencing Operant Conditioning: Several factors affect response rate,
resistance to extinction and how quickly a response is acquired.
1.

238

The first factor is the magnitude of reinforcement. In general, as magnitude of

reinforcement increases, acquisition of a response is greater. For example, workers
would be motivated to work harder and faster, if they were paid a higher salary.

Research indicates that level of performance is also influenced by the relationship between
the amount of reinforcement expected and what is actually received. For example, your
job performance would undoubtedly be affected if your salary were suddenly cut by half.
Also, it might dramatically improve if your employer doubled your pay.
2.

The second factor affecting operant conditioning is the immediacy of reinforcement.

Responses are conditioned more effectively when reinforcement is immediate. As
a rule, the longer the delay in reinforcement, the more slowly a response is acquired.

3.

The third factor influencing conditioning is the level of motivation of the learner. If
you are highly motivated to learn to play football you will learn faster and practice
more than if you have no interest in the game. Skinner found that when food is the
rein forcer, a hungry animal would learn faster than an animal with a full stomach.

Perception and Learning

Difference between Classical Conditioning and Operant Conditioning

CLASSICAL CONDITIONING

OPERANT CONDITIONING

1.

A change in stimulus elicits a particular

response

1.

Stimulus serves as a cue for a person to

emit the response

2.

The strength and frequency of classically

conditioned behaviours are determined mainly
by the frequency of eliciting stimulus.

The strength and frequency of operantly

conditioned behaviours are determined
mainly by the consequences.

3.

The stimulus serving as reward is present

every time.

3.

The reward is presented only if the

organism gives the correct response.

4.

Responses are fixed to stimulus

4.

Responses are variable both in type and

degree.

CLASSICAL CONDITIONING
(S)

(R)

Stimulus
The individual is stuck by a pin
The individual is shocked by an electric current

Response
Flinches
Jumps and Screams

OPERANT CONDITIONING
(S)

(R)

(S)

StimulusStimulus
Response
Works
is paid
The individual enters a library
finds a book
Works hard
receives praise and promotion
Behavior McGraw Hill Inc., New Delhi
Adapted from: Fred Luthans Organizational Behaviour
(seventh Edition) 1995 page 200

CHARACTERISTICS

CLASSICAL
CONDITIONING

OPERANT CONDITIONING

Type of association

Between two stimuli

Between a response and its

consequence

State of the subject

Passive

Active

Focus of Attention

On what precedes response

On what follows response

Type of response typically

involved

Involuntary or reflexive
response

Voluntary response

Bodily response typically

involved

Internal Responses:
Emotional and glandular
reactions

External Responses: Muscular and

skeletal movement and verbal
responses.

Range of Responses

Relatively simple

Simple to highly complex

Responses learned

Emotional Reactions: fear,

likes, dislikes

Goal-oriented responses

Source: Samuel E Wood, Ellen Green Wood "The World of Psychology" Allyn and Bacon, Boston (second edition) 1996 page 191.

Figure 15.4: Classical and Operant Conditioning Compared

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15.7.3 Cognitive Learning Theory

Behaviourists such as Skinner and Watson believed that learning through operant and
classical conditioning would be explained without reference to internal mental processes.
Today, however, a growing number of psychologists stress the role of mental processes.
They choose to broaden the study of learning to include such cognitive processes as
thinking, knowing, problem solving, remembering and forming mental representations.
According to cognitive theorists, these processes are critically important in a more
complete, more comprehensive view of learning.
1.

Wolfang Kohler (1887 - 1967): Learning by insight: - A German Psychologist studied

anthropoid apes and become convinced that they behave intelligently and were capable
of problem solving. In his book The Mentality of Apes (1925), Kohler describes
experiments he conducted on chimpanzees confined in caged areas.
In one experiment Kohler hung a bunch of bananas inside the caged area but
overhead, out of reach of the apes; boxes and sticks were left around the cage.
Kohler observed the chimp's unsuccessful attempts to reach the bananas by jumping
or swinging sticks at them. Eventually the chimps solved the problem by piling the
boxes one on top of the other until they could reach the bananas.
In another experiment, Sultan, the brightest of the chimps, was given one short
stick; beyond reach outside the cage were a longer stick and a bunch of bananas.
After failing to reach the bananas with the short stick, Sultan used it to drag the
longer stick within reach. Then, finding that the long stick did not reach the bananas,
Sultan finally solved the problem by fitting the two sticks together to form one long
stick. With this stick, he successfully retrieved the bananas.
Kohler observed that the chimps sometimes appeared to give up in their attempts
to get the bananas. However, after an interval they returned and came up with the
solution to the problem as if it had come to them in a flash of insight. Kohler insisted
that insight, rather than trial-and-error learning, accounted for the chimps successes
because they could easily repeat the solution and transfer this learning to similar
problems.
Learning by insight occurs when there is a sudden realisation of the relationship
between elements in a problem situation so that a solution becomes apparent.
Kohler's major contribution is his notion of learning by insight. In human terms, a
solution gained through insight is more easily learned, less likely to be forgotten,
and more readily transferred to new problems than solution learned through rote
memorization.

2.

Edward Tolman (1886 - 1959): Latent Learning and Cognitive Maps:- Edward
Tolman differed with the prevailing ideas on learning
(i)

He believed that learning could take place without reinforcing.

(ii)

He differentiated between learning and performance. He maintained that latent

learning could occur. That is learning could occur without apparent reinforcement
but not be demonstrated until the organism was motivated to do so.

The following experiment by Tolman and Honzik (1930) supported this position. The
experiment consisted of three groups of rats that were placed in a maze daily for 17
days. The first group always received a food reward at the end of the maze. The
second group never received a reward, and the third group did not receive a food
reward until the 11th day. The first group showed a steady improvement in performance
over the 17 day period. The second group showed gradual improvement. The third
240

group, after being rewarded on the 11th day showed a marked improvement the next
day and from then on outperformed the rats that had been rewarded daily. The rapid
improvement of the rats that had been rewarded daily. The rapid improvement of the
third group indicated to Tolman that latent learning has occurred that the rats had
actually learned the maze during the first 11 days.

Perception and Learning

In later studies, Tolman showed how rats quickly learned to rearrange learned
cognitive maps and find their way through increasingly complex mazes with ease.

15.7.4 Social Learning

Albert Bandura contends that many behaviours or responses are acquired through
observational learning. Observational learning, sometimes called modelling results when
we observe the behaviours of others and note the consequences of that behaviour. The
person who demonstrates behaviour or whose behaviour is imitated is called models.
Parents, movie stars and sports personalities are often powerful models. The effectiveness
of a model is related to his or her status, competence and power. Other important factors
are the age, sex, attractiveness, and ethnicity of the model.
Whether learned behaviours are actually performed depends largely on whether the
person expects to be rewarded for the behaviour.
Social learning integrates the cognitive and operant approaches to learning. It recognises
that learning does not take place only because of environmental stimuli (classical and
operant conditioning) or of individual determinism (cognitive approach) but is a blend of
both views. It also emphasises that people acquire new behaviours by observing or
imitating others in a social setting. In addition, learning can also be gained by discipline
and self-control and an inner desire to acquire knowledge or skills irrespective of the
external rewards or consequences. This process of self-control is also partially a reflection
of societal and cultural influences on the development and growth of human beings.
Usually, the following four processes determine the influence that a model will have on
an individual:
l

Attention Process: People can learn from their models provided they recognise
and pay attention to the critical features. In practice, the models that are attractive,
repeatedly available or important to us tend to influence us the most.

Retention Process: A model's influence depends on how well the individual can
remember or retain in memory the behaviour/action displayed by him when the
model is no longer readily available.

Motor Reproduction Process: Now, the individual needs to convert the model's
action into his action. This process evinces how well an individual can perform the
modelled action.

Reinforcement Process: Individuals become motivated to display the modelled

action if incentive and rewards are provided to them.

In addition to observing others as role models, human beings have the capacity of selfregulation. By simply thinking about their behaviour, they can change their behaviours
towards betterment and in accordance with the norms of social and organisational living.
Central to Bundura's social learning theory is the notion of self-efficacy. Self-efficacy is
an individual's belief and expectancies about his or her ability to accomplish a specific
task effectively. Individuals with high self-efficacy believe that they have the ability to
get things done, that they are capable of putting forth the effort to accomplish the task,
and that they can overcome any obstacles to their success. People with high levels of
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self-efficacy are more effective at learning than are those with low levels of self-efficacy.
According to Bandura, self-efficacy expectations may be enhanced through four means
as follows:
1.

Performance accomplishments (just do it!)

2.

Vicarious experiences (watch someone else do it)

3.

Verbal persuasion (be convinced by someone else to do it) or

4.

Emotional arousal (get excited about doing it)

15.8 PRINCIPLES OF REINFORCEMENT

Reinforcement has played a central role in learning. Most learning experts agree that
reinforcement is the single most important principle of learning. Yet, there is much
controversy over its theoretical explanation. The first major theoretical treatment given
to reinforcement in learning is Thorndike's classic law of effect. According to Thorndike,
"of several responses made to the same situation, those which are accompanied or
closely followed by satisfaction (reinforcement) will be more likely to recur;
those which are accompanied or closely followed by discomfort (punishment).
Will be less likely to occur". From a strictly empirical standpoint, most
behavioural scientists, generally accept the validity of this law. Therefore, reinforcement
is the attempt to develop or strengthen desirable behaviour by either bestowing positive
consequences or withholding negative consequences.
Reinforcement is the process by which certain types of behaviours are strengthened. It
is the attempt to develop or strengthen desirable behaviour by either bestowing positive
consequences or withholding negative consequences. Thus, a "reinforcer" is any stimulus
that causes certain behaviour to be repeated or inhibited. By introducing some rein forcers,
the organizations can maintain or increase the probability of such behaviours as quality
oriented performance, decision-making, high level of attendance and punctuality and so
on. There are four basic reinforcement strategies:
1.

Positive reinforcement

2.

Negative reinforcement

3.

Extinction

4.

Punishment

15.8.1 Positive Reinforcement

A positive reinforcement is a reward for a desired behaviour. The reward should be
sufficiently powerful and durable so that it increases the probability of occurrence of
desirable behaviour. Positive reinforcement results from the application of a positive
consequence following a desirable behaviour.
For example
(i)

Bonuses paid at the end of a successful business year are an example of positive
reinforcement

(ii)

Employees will work hard for a raise or a promotion

(iii) Salesmen will increase their efforts to get rewards and bonuses
(iv) Students will study to get good grades and
(v)

Children will throw temper tantrums to get candy or ice creams.

In these examples, the rises, promotions, awards, bonuses, good grades candy and ice
cream are positive reinforcers.
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15.8.2 Negative Reinforcers

Perception and Learning

Negative reinforcement also known as "escape conditioning" or "avoidance learning" it

is also a method of strengthening desired behaviour. Negative reinforcement results
from withholding a threatened negative consequence when a desired behaviour occurs.
For example students study hard, write term papers and do their homework on time to
avoid the consequences of failure in the examination.
Just as people engage in behaviours in order to get positive reinforcers, they also engage
in behaviours to avoid or escape unpleasant conditions. Terminating an unpleasant stimulus
in order to strengthen or increase the probability of a response is called negative
reinforcement. If people find that a response successfully ends an aversive condition,
they are likely to repeat it. For example, Heroin addicts will do almost anything to obtain
heroin to terminate their painful withdrawal symptoms.
Responses that end discomfort and those that are followed by rewards are likely to be
strengthened or repeated because both lead to a more desirable outcome. Some behaviour
is influenced by a combination of positive and negative reinforcement. For example, if
you eat a plateful of rather disgusting leftovers to relieve intense hunger then you are
eating solely to remove hunger, a negative reinforcer. But if your hunger is relieved by
dinner at a fine restaurant, both positive and negative reinforcement will have played a
role.

15.8.3 Extinction
(withholding reinforcers) - We have seen that responses followed by reinforcers tend to
be repeated and that responses no longer followed by reinforcers will occur less and less
frequently and eventually die out.
In humans, extinction can lead to frustration or even rage. Consider a child having a temper
tantrum. If whining and loud demands do not bring the reinforcer, the child may progress to
kicking and screaming. It is what we expect and don't get that makes us angry.
An alternative to punishing undesirable behaviour is extension - the attempt to weaken
behaviour by attaching no consequences (either positive or negative) to it. It is equivalent
to ignoring the behaviour. The rationale for using extinction is that a behaviour not followed
by any consequence is weakened. However, some patience and time may be needed for
it to be effective.
This type of reinforcement is applied to reduce undesirable behaviour, especially when
such behaviours were previously rewarded. This means that if rewards were removed
from behaviours that were previously reinforced, then such behaviours would become less
frequent and eventually die out. For example, if a student in the class is highly mischievous
and disturbs the class, he is probably asking for attention. If the attention is given to him, he
will continue to exhibit that behaviour. However, if he is continuously ignored and not
recognised, then such undesirable behaviour will vanish over a period of time.

15.8.4 Punishment
Punishment is the opposite of reinforcement. Punishment tends to lower the probability
of a response by following it with an aversive or unpleasant consequence. And punishment
can be accomplished either adding an unpleasant stimulus or removing a pleasant stimulus.
The added unpleasant stimulus might take the form of criticism, a scolding, a disapproving
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Principles of Management and

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look, a fine, or a prison sentence. The removal of a pleasant stimulus might consist of
withholding affection and attention, suspending a driver's license, or taking away a privilege
such as watching television.
We often confuse negative reinforcement and punishment. Unlike punishment, negative
reinforcement increases the probability of a desired response by removing an unpleasant
stimulus when the correct response is made.
Punishment is the attempt to eliminate or weaken undesirable behaviour. It is used in two
ways. One way to punish a person is through the application of a negative consequence
following an undesirable behaviour. The other way to punish a person is through the
withholding a positive consequence following an undesirable behaviour.
Punishment is the most controversial method of behaviour modification and involves
delivering an unpleasant consequence contingent upon the occurrence of an undesirable
behaviour.
The punishment process consists of "application" of an undesirable consequence or
"withdrawal" of a desirable consequence for an undesirable behaviour, which has never
been associated with reward before.
According to B. F. Skinner, punishment is still the most common technique of behaviour
control in today's life. When a child misbehaves, he is spanked. If a person does not
behave as the society or law wants him to behave, he is punished by arrest and jail.
Certain undesirable behaviours must be punished; otherwise, they will have far reaching
effects. Accordingly, in situations where punishment is desirable as a means of behaviour
modification, certain guidelines would make it more effective thus minimizing its
dysfunctional consequences.
(a)

Praise in public; punish in private.

(b)

Apply punishment before the undesirable behaviour has been strongly reinforced.
Thus, the punishment should immediately follow the undesirable behaviour.

(c)

The punishment should focus on the behaviour and not on the person.

One problem with punishment is that it may have unintended results. Because punishment
is discomforting to the individual being punished, the experience of punishment may
result in negative psychological, emotional, performance or behavioural consequences. For
example, the person being punished may become angry, hostile, depressed or despondent.
From an organizational standpoint, this result becomes important when the punished person
translates negative emotional and psychological responses into negative actions.
The figure below explains the reinforcement and punishment strategies.

Positive Consequences

Negative Consequences

244

Reinforcement

Punishment

(Desirable Behaviour)

(Undesirable Behaviour)

APPLY

WITHHOLD

WITHHOLD

APPLY

Figure 15.5: Reinforcement and Punishment Strategies

These four reinforcement strategies are illustrated below with the help of an example
when a superior advises his employee to come to work on time
Employee
Stimulus

Employee
Behaviour

Perception and Learning

Behaviour Modification
Strategy

Positive Reinforcement:
Superior praises the
employee and recommends
him for a raise

Employee is
consistently on
time
Negative Reinforcement:
Superior avoids harassing or
reprimanding employee

Employee is
requested to
avoid coming

Extinction:
Superior withholds praise and
does not recommend employee
for a raise

Employee is
consistently late
Punishment:
Superior reprimands
the employee

Figure 15.6: Reinforcement Strategies

15.8.5 Schedules of Reinforcement

Any analysis of reinforcement shows that it is not provided in a consistent manner. The
various ways by which the reinforcement can be administered can be categorized into
two groups. These are continuous and partial reinforcement schedules.
1.

Continuous reinforcement Schedule: A continuous schedule is that one in which the

desirable behaviour is reinforced every time it occurs and the reinforcement is immediate.
This results in fast acquisition of the desired response and the learning is rapid.
Continuous reinforcement strategy is not always feasible in the organizational
environment where continuous observation of behaviour is not possible due to time
constraints imposed upon management.
Reinforcing every correct response is known as continuous reinforcement. It is the
most efficient way to condition a new response. However, after a response has
been conditioned, partial or intermittent reinforcement is more effective in maintaining
or increasing the rate of response.

2.

Partial Reinforcement Schedule: A partial reinforcement schedule rewards

desirable behaviour at specific intervals. It is believed that "behaviour tends to be
persistent when it is learned under conditions of partial and delayed reinforcement.
There are four kinds of partial reinforcement schedule. These are:

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Principles of Management and

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(a)

Fixed Interval Schedule: In this type of schedule, a response is reinforced

at fixed intervals of time. Fixed-interval schedules produce an uneven pattern
of responses. The highest rate of response occurs fairly close to the time
when reinforcement occurs. For example, if there are two tests announced
at fixed intervals in a semester, you will see that the students will study harder
as the time of the test approaches because the test itself is a reinforcer and
the studying behaviour is reinforced by the opportunity to demonstrate your
knowledge and earn a good grade.

(b)

Variable Interval Schedule: In this type of schedule, the reinforcement is

administered at random times that cannot be predicted by the employee. For
example: "Surprise Quizzes" in the classroom is one of the examples of variableinterval schedules.

(c)

Fixed Ratio Schedules: In a fixed ratio schedule, the reinforcement is

administered only upon the completion of a given number of desirable
responses. Reward is consistently tied to the output. The individual soon
determines that reinforcement is based upon the number of responses and
performs the responses as quickly as possible in order to receive the reward.
For example, a professor may receive a promotion after a certain number of
research articles have been published.

(d)

Variable Ratio Schedules: It is similar to fixed ratio schedule except that the
number of responses required before reinforcement is determined, are not
fixed but vary from situation to situation. The variable ratio schedule elicits a
rapid rate of response. The value of the reward and its unpredictability keeps
the behaviour at high-level desirability.

Schedule
of
Reinforcement
Fixed Ratio

Variable Ratio

Fixed Interval

Variable Interval

REINFORCEMENT SCHEDULES COMPARED

Response
Pattern of Responses
Resistance to Extinction
Rate
Very high
Steady response with low ratio. The higher the ratio, the
Brief
pause
after
each more
resistance
to
reinforcement with very high extinction.
ratio
Highest
Constant response pattern,
Most
resistance
to
response
No pauses
extinction.
rate
Lowest
Long pause after reinforcement The longer the interval, the
response
followed by gradual acceleration more
resistance
to
rate
extinction.
Moderate
Stable, uniform response
More
resistance
to
extinction than fixed
interval schedule with same
average

Source: Samuel E Wood and Ellen Green Wood The World of Psychology (second edition) Allyn and Bacon, Boston (1996)
Page 185.

Figure 15.7: Reinforcement Schedules Compared

15.9 LIMITATIONS OF BEHAVIOUR MODIFICATION

While in general, some of the behaviour modification techniques, as discussed previously
are effective in eliciting desirable behaviours from employees in work situations, there
are some limitations that make these techniques ineffective in certain situations:

246

(a)

Behaviour modification is an overall structure and ignores, individual difference.

People have different needs, desire, values and abilities. They cannot all respond to
the same stimuli in the same manner. For example, not all people value praise for
their performance as a desired reinforcement.

(b)

Behaviour modification programmes assume that extrinsic rewards are the key
factors in behaviour modification and they ignore the fact that employees can be

intrinsically motivated. The extrinsic rewards in the form of money and praise
primarily satisfy the lower level needs, while there are some people who strive for
higher level needs such as self esteem and self actualisation which are satisfied by
the nature of the job and pride in accomplishing such a job.
(c)

Perception and Learning

Behaviour modification ignores prevailing work-group norms. It is important for

the management to recognize the power of work-group norms. Most people working
together tend to be emotionally attached to each other, thus sympathising with each
other's needs. For example strike and protests.
Check Your Progress 2

1.

Explain the meaning of learning.

2.

What are the components of learning?

3.

What are the determinants of learning?

4.

Explain any two theories of learning.

5.

Explain the principles of reinforcement.

15.10 LEARNING CURVES

This principle of learning involves the time factor and the repeated effort in order to gradually
increase the strength of the response. This is especially true when the behaviours to be
learned are comparatively complex such as skills that are learned and improved by practice.
Learning curve is a diagrammatic presentation of the amount learned in relation to time.
There are 4 types of learning curves:
Diminishing-returns Learning Curve: In this type of learning, the "rate of
increase" in the degree of skill is higher in the beginning but decreases with time
until it reaches zero and the person has obtained the maximum skill. It indicates
that initially there is a spurt in learning, usually the graph levels at some stage
indicating the maximum performance has been achieved. This is because at the
beginning of the learning process, the learner is highly motivated to exhibit a
significant surge of effort.

Performance

1.

Time

Figure 15.8: Diminishing Return Learning Curve

Increasing Returns Learning Curve: Another type of learning curve is the "increasing-return
curve " which is just the opposite of "diminishing-return curve" in the sense that there are

247

certain learning skills where the rate of increased learning is slow in the beginning and then it
increases until the maximum potential for learning is reached. This usually occurs when a
person is learning a complex unfamiliar and new task.

Performance

Principles of Management and

Organisational Behaviour

Time

Figure 15.9: Increasing-Return Learning Curve

Performance

Increasing-Decreasing-Return Learning Curve: It is a combination both the

"diminishing-returns curve" and the "increasing-returns curve". It is an "s-Shaped curve".
If a person is totally new to the skill that he is learning, then all learning will probably
follow an S-shaped curve. The lower portion of the curve represent the initial stages of
acquiring a skill with very slow learning initially followed by successively greater returns,
eventually reaching the absolute limit.

Time

Figure 15.10: Increasing-Decreasing Return Learning Curve

A rather complex pattern of skill acquisition is shown in the following diagram:

Increasing
Returns

Plateau

Peak
Proficiency

Over Learning
Period

Performance

Slow
Learning

Time
Source: George Stareess and Leonard Sayles, "Personnel: The Human Problems of Management", Prentice Hall 1972,. 451.

248

Figure 15.11: Increasing -Decreasing-Return Leaning Curve (complex pattern)

The stages in the increasing-decreasing-return learning is explained below:

l

Slow Learning: The initial stage in the above curve is that of slow learning because
of the newness and difficulty of skill. Once the learner has acquired some basics of
his operations, he gains some confidence and this results in the second stage of
increasing returns.

Increasing Returns: The learner gains confidence in this stage. He has acquired
the required skill. This results in the third stage.

Plateau: When the learner feels that he has acquired the required skills, he reaches a
comparative plateau where no further gains in skills are acquired. However, this may
be a false plateau and the learner may be developing new ideas in improving efficiency.

Peak Proficiency: The development and application of new ideas may further
improve upon his skill until he reaches the peak inefficiency, beyond which the skill
becomes a kind of habit and an integral part of operations.

Over Learning: When the skill becomes a kind of habit, the period is termed as
over learning because the learning becomes automatic and unforgettable.

Perception and Learning

15.11 LEARNING AND BEHAVIOUR

Learning is considered vital for understanding human behaviour at work in organizations.
Let us try to understand in an orderly manner how learning helps managers change
human behaviour in different organizational situations such as:
(i)

Reducing absenteeism through learning: Learning can help managers evolve

programmes to reduce absenteeism. An example of such a programme may be
rewarding employees for their satisfactory attendance. The management of a private
software enterprise introduced lottery system to reward its employees with attractive
prizes. Only employees with perfect attendance were eligible to contest for prizes.
This lottery programme was a rousing success as it resulted in lower absence rates
(about 30%) among employees.

(ii)

Substituting well-pay for sick-pay: Paid sick leave is one of the fringe benefits
provided to salaried employees by most of the organizations. However, research
studies indicate that paid sick leave programmes reinforce the undesirable behaviour
that is, absence from work. The reality is that employees use sick leaves all up,
regardless of whether they are sick.

(iii) Improving employee discipline: Managers, at times, have to deal with employees'
undesirable behaviour, such as drinking at work place, insubordination, stealing
company property, arriving continuously late etc. Usually managers respond to
these with punishment like oral reprimands, written warnings and even suspension.
Punishment, however, provides only a short-term solution and has ill effect on the
punished employee.
(iv) Developing training programmes: Learning also helps managers develop effective
training programmes. Particularly social-learning theory serves as a guide for this
purpose. It suggests that the training programme should offer a model to grab the
trainee's attention, provide required motivational properties, provide adequate
opportunities to practice the new behaviours and also offer due reward to employees
for accomplishment of tasks.

15.12 LEARNING AND PERSONALITY DIFFERENCES

Our treatment of learning would not be complete without touching on Jung's theory of
personality differences. Two elements of Jung's theory have important implications for
learning.

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1.

2.

The first element is the distinction between introverted and extroverted people.
Introverts: The introvert is energized by time alone. Introverts prefer quiet for
concentration, and they like to think things through in private. They do not mind
working on a project for a long time and are careful with details. Introverts dislike
telephone interruptions, and they may have trouble recalling names and faces.
Introverts need quite time to study, concentrate and reflect on what they are learning.
They think best when they are alone.
Extroverts: The extravert is energized by interaction with other people. In work
settings, extroverts prefer variety and they do not mind the interruptions of the
phone or visits from co-workers. They communicate freely but may say things
they regret later. Extraverts need to interact with other people, learning through the
process of expressing and exchanging ideas with others. They think best in groups
and while they are talking.
The second element is the personality functions of intuition, sensing thinking and feeling.
Intuition: Intuiting is gathering information through "sixth sense" and focusing on
what could be rather than what actually exists. Inductors like solving new problems
and are impatient with routine details. They enjoy learning new skills more than
actually using them. Inductors tend to think about several things at once, and others
may see them as absentminded. They like figuring out how things work just for the
fun of it.
Sensing: Sensing is gathering information through the five senses and to what
actually exists. At work, sensors prefer specific answers to questions and can
become frustrated with vague instructions. They like jobs that yield tangible results,
and they enjoy using established skills more than learning new ones.
Thinking: The thinker makes decisions in a logical, objective fashion. Thinkers
tend to analyse decisions and try to be impersonal. In work setting, thinkers do not
show much emotion, and they may become uncomfortable with people who do.
They respond more readily to other people's thoughts. They are firm minded and
like putting things into a logical framework.
Feelings: Feeling is making decisions in a personal, value-oriented way. Feelers
are more comfortable with emotion in the workplace. They enjoy pleasing people
and need a lot of praise and encouragement.
The above-mentioned functions are given in the figure below, along with their
implications for learning by individuals.

Personality preference
Informing Gathering
Intuitors

Implications for learning by individuals

Sensors

Prefer specific, empirical data.

Look for practical applications.
Attempt to master details of a subject.
Look for what is realistic and doable.

Decision Making
Thinkers

Feelers

Prefer theoretical frameworks.

Look for the meaning in material.
Attempt to understand the grand scheme.
Look for possibilities and intentions.

Prefer analysis of data and information.

Work to be fair-minded and evenhanded.
Seeks logical, just conclusions.
Do not like to be too personally involved.
Prefer interpersonal involvement.
Work to be tender hearted and harmonious.
Seek subjective, merciful results.
Do not like objective, factual analysis.

Source: O. Kroeger and J. M Thuesen, "Type Talk: The 16 Personality Types that Determine How We Live,
Love and Work" Dell Publishing Company, New York (1988).
250

Figure 15.12: Personality Functions and Learning

The function of intuition and sensing determine the individual's preference for information
gathering. The functions of thinking and feeling determine though the individual evaluates
and makes decisions about newly acquired information. Each person has a preferred
mode of gathering information and a preferred mode of evaluating and making decisions
about that information.

Perception and Learning

Check Your Progress 3

1.

What is a learning curve?

2.

Explain the stages in the increasing-decreasing-return learning.

3.

Explain the relationship between learning and behaviour.

15.13 LET US SUM UP

Perception involves the way we view the world around us. It adds, meaning to information
gathered via the five senses of touch, smell, hearing, vision and taste. Perception is the
primary vehicle through which we come to understand our surroundings and ourselves.
A number of factors operate to shape and sometimes distort perception. Perceiving and
interpreting what others do is burdensome. As a result, individuals develop techniques
for making the task more manageable. People in organizations are always judging each
other. In many cases, these judgements have important consequences for the organizations.
Learning is a term frequently used by a great number of people in a wide variety of
contexts. Learning can be defined as a relatively permanent change in behaviour or
potential behaviour as a result of direct or indirect experience. Reinforcement has played
a central role in learning. Most learning experts agree that reinforcement is the single
most important principle of learning. Reinforcement has played a central role in learning.
Most learning experts agree that reinforcement is the single most important principle of
learning. Learning is considered vital for understanding human behaviour at work in
organizations.

15.14 LESSON END ACTIVITY

Any observable change in behaviour is prima facie evidence that learning has taken
place discuss.

15.15 KEYWORDS
Perception
Learning
Learning Curves
Behaviour

15.16 QUESTIONS FOR DISCUSSION

1.

What is learning? How does it take place?

2.

Define the terms learning, reinforcement, punishment and extinction.

3.

What are positive and negative consequences in shaping behaviour and how should
they be managed?

4.

Discuss the nature of classical conditioning and operant conditioning. How do they
differ from each other?

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5.

Contrast Classical conditioning, Operant conditioning and Social learning

6.

What are the major dimensions of social learning theory?

7.

Explain the concept of learning in detail and with examples. How learning differs
from the change in behaviour that occurs due to natural growing up such as a baby
learning to talk?

8.

How do you relate Pavlovs experiments with dogs to human behaviour?

9.

How can reinforcement be used to generate change in behaviour?

10. What factors should be considered when using punishment for behaviour
modification?
11.

Describe in detail the various types of learning curves. Give examples of diminishingreturn curves and increasing-return curves.

12. Does punishment strategy work in changing undesirable behaviour?

13. What are the limitations on behaviour modification? Is there any type of behaviour
that cannot be changed? If so give reasons and examples.
14. What are the purposes for conducting performance appraisals?
15. How can supervisors best provide useful performance feedback?

15.17 SUGGESTED READINGS

Aquinas P.G., Organizational Behaviour Concepts, Realities and Challenges,
Excel Books New Delhi (2005).
Boulding K.E., Conflict and Defence: A General Theory, Harper and Row, New
York (1962).
Bernard, M Bass and Edward C Ryterband, (1979) Organizational Psychology,
(2nd Ed.) Allyn and Bacon, Boston.
Boss R.W (1989), Organizational Development in Health Care, Addison-Wesley
Mass; Reading.
Chabra Ahuja and Jain, Managing People at Work, Dhanpat Rai and Sons, New
Delhi.
Davis P. and John Rohrbugh, Group Decision Process Effectiveness: A Competing
Value Approach, Group and Organization Studies, March 1990.
Harrel T.W., Industrial Psychology, Oxford and IBH, New Delhi (1972).
Marvin D Dunnette (1976), Handbook of Industrial and Organizational
Psychology, Rand McNally, Chicago.

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UNIT-V

LESSON

16
STRESS

CONTENTS
16.0 Aims and Objectives
16.1 Introduction
16.2 Meaning & Definition of Stress
16.3 The General Adaptation Syndrome (GAS)
16.3.1 Alarm Stage
16.3.2 Resistance
16.3.3 Exhaustion
16.4 Approaches to Stress
16.4.1 The Homeostatic / Medical Approach
16.4.2 The Cognitive Appraisal Approach
16.4.3 The Person-Environment Fit Approach
16.4.4 The Psychoanalytic Approach
16.5 The Causes of Stress
16.5.1 Internal Stimuli for Stress
16.5.2 Environmental Stressors
16.6 Individual Response to Stress (Influence of Personality)
16.7 Consequences of Stress
16.8 Managing Stress
16.9 Framework for Preventive Stress Management
16.10 Managerial Implications of Stress
16.11 Let us Sum up
16.12 Lesson-end Activities
16.13 Keywords
16.14 Questions for Discussion
16.15 Suggested Readings

16.0 AIMS AND OBJECTIVES

This lesson is intended to study the various aspects of stress at work. After studying this
lesson you will be able to:
(i)

explain the meaning and definition of stress.

(ii)

describe the general adaptation syndrome.

Principles of Management and

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(iii) understand four different approaches to stress.

(iv) explain the causes and consequences of work related stress.
(v)

understand stress management.

16.1 INTRODUCTION
Stress is an exceedingly complex concept that does not lend itself to a simple definition.
It can best be understood in terms of the internal and external conditions necessary for
its arousal and the symptoms by which it is identified. Its identifiable symptoms are both
psychological and physiological. Stress carries a negative connotation for some people,
as though it were something to be avoided. This is unfortunate, because stress is a great
asset in managing legitimate emergencies and achieving peak performance.

16.2 MEANING & DEFINITION OF STRESS

Some definitions of stress are given below:
According to J. C. Quick and J.D Quick, Stress, or the stress response, is the unconscious
preparation to fight or flee a person experiences when faced with any demand.
According to Mikhail A., Stress refers to a psychological and physiological state that
results when certain features of an individuals environment challenge that person, creating
an actual or perceived imbalance between demand and capability to adjust that results in
a non-specific response.

16.3 THE GENERAL ADAPTATION SYNDROME (GAS)

Hans Selye, the worlds foremost authority on stress, was the first to describe
systematically the changes through which the body passes to deal with a perceived
threat. He described what he called the General Adaptation Syndrome (GAS), an adaptive
response; that occurs in three phases: A, an alarm reaction; B, the stage of resistance;
and C, the stage of exhaustion. The figure below shows the course of the General
Adaptation Syndrome.

Level of Normal
Resistance
Alarm

Resistance

Exhaustion

Figure 16.1: A Stress Episode

This diagram shows the course of the General Adaptation Syndrome (GAS) describes
the psychological and physical response to stress - that is, the way a person tries to adapt
to a stressor. The syndrome is called "general" because the stress response occurs in
several areas of the body. GAS has 3 stages.

16.3.1 Alarm Stage

According to this model, the general adaptation syndrome begins when a person in
encounters a stressor and enters the alarm stage. A person in this stage wonders how to
256

cope and feels anxiety, even panic. The person breathes faster, blood pressure rises,
pupils dilate and muscles tense. At this stage, the person is coping ineffectively.

Stress

16.3.2 Resistance
Assuming the person can summon the resources to cope with the stressor, he or she
begin to feel more confident and to think of how to respond. During the second stage of
the general adaptation syndrome, "resistance", the person channels his or her energy and
uses it to resist the stressor's negative effects. The person tackles the problem, delegates
the challenge, or adjusts to the change. Resistance to the stressor is high, but the person's
resistance to other stressors may be low because the body's resources are being used
up. Evidence shows that a person's immune system function tends to decline during
periods of stress.

16.3.3 Exhaustion
Many stressors are short term - the person can solve the problem, or the situation ends
on its own. In such cases, the general adaptation syndrome ends during resistance stage.
But occasionally a stressor persists. In situations where stressors persist, the person
may enter the third stage: exhaustion. In this stage, the symptoms of the alarm stage
return and the person eventually uses up his or her adaptive energy.

16.4 APPROACHES TO STRESS

We will review four different approaches to defining stress:
1.

Homeostatic / Medical Approach.

2.

Cognitive Appraisal Approach.

3.

Person-environment fit Approach.

4.

Psychoanalytic Approach.

These four approaches to stress will give you a more complete understanding of what
stress really is.

16.4.1 The Homeostatic / Medical Approach

Walter B Cannon Was the medical psychologist who originally discovered stress and
called it "the emergency response" or "the militaristic response", arguing that it was
rooted in "the fighting emotions". According to Cannon, stress resulted when an external
environmental demand upset the person's natural steady-state balance referred to as
"homeostasis". He called the stress response the fight-or flight response. Cannon believed
the body was designed with natural defence mechanisms to keep it in homeostasis.

16.4.2 The Cognitive Appraisal Approach

According to Richard Lazarus (1977), "stress is a situation that someone regards as
threatening and as possibly exceeding his or her resources". Lazarus pointed out, that
the stress evoked by an event depends on how people interpret the event and what they
can do about it. For example, pregnancy may be much more stressful for a 16 year old
unmarried schoolgirl than it is for a 25 year old married woman.
The Figure 16.2 explains how we experience stress.

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Principles of Management and

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EVENT

EVALUATION OF
EVENT

EVENT IS
DISTURBING

EVENT IS NOT
DISTURBING

STRESS;
ACTIVATION
OF
SYMPATHETIC
SYSTEM

NO STRESS

Note: Lazarus believes that evaluation of some kind, conscious or unconscious, always precedes emotion. Thus
a given event may be highly stressful for one person, only slightly stressful or not at all for a second person.
Source: R.S Lazarus, "Psychological Stress and the Coping Process" McGraw-Hill, New York (1966).

Figure 16.2: Lazarus's Approach to Stress

Lazarus saw stress as a result of a person-environment interaction, and he emphasized

the person's cognitive appraisal in classifying persons or events as stressful or not.
Individual differ in their appraisal of events and people. What is stressful for one person
may not be stressful for another. Perception and cognitive appraisal are important
processes in determining what is stressful, and a person's organizational position can
shape such perception.
To the extent that stress is related to our interpretation of an event, not simply to the
event itself, people can learn to cope with potentially stressful events. They can learn to
deal with events actively instead of feeling threatened by them. Therefore, stress would
have to include not only the unpleasant events (hassles) that we have to deal with but
also the pleasant events (uplifts) that brighten our day and help to cancel out the unpleasant
events. The figure below lists ten most frequent hassles and uplifts
TEN M OST FREQUENT HASSLES AND UPLIFTS
HASSLES
1. Concerns about weight
2. Health of a family member
3. Raising prices of common goods.
4. Home maintenance.
5. Too many things to do.
6. Misplacing or losing things.
7. Yard
work
or
outside
home
maintenance.
8. Property, investment, or taxes.
9. Crime.
10. Physical appearance.

UPLIFTS
1. Relating well with your spouse or
lover.
2. Relating well with friends.
3. Completing a task.
4. Feeling healthy.
5. Getting enough sleep.
6. Eating out.
7. Meeting your responsibilities.
8. Visiting, phoning or writing someone.
9. Spending time with family.
10. Hone (inside) pleasing to you.

Source: Kanner, Coyne, Schaefer, and Lazarus (1981).

Figure 16.3: The Most Frequent Hassels and Uplifts

Thus, Lazarus introduced problem-focused and emotion-focused coping. Problem-focused

coping emphasizes managing the stressor, and emotion-focused coping emphasizes
managing your response.

16.4.3 The Person-Environment Fit Approach

258

Robert Kahn's approach emphasized how confusing and conflicting expectations of a

person in a social role create stress for the person. A good person-environment fit occurs
when a person's skills and abilities match a clearly defined, consistent set of roles

expectations. Stress occurs when the role expectations are confusing and conflicting or
when a person's skills and abilities are not able to meet the demands of the social role.
Thus, Kahn was concerned with the social psychology of stress.

Stress

16.4.4 The Psychoanalytic Approach

Harry Leveson believes that two elements of the personality interact to cause stress:(i)

Ego Ideal: is the first element, the embodiment of a person's perfect self.

(ii)

Self-Image: is the second element - how the person really sees himself or herself,
both positively and negatively.

Stress results from the discrepancy between the idealized self (ego ideal) and the real
self-image; the greater the discrepancy, the more stress a person experiencesPsychoanalytic theory helps us understand the role of unconscious personality factors as
causes of stress within a person.
Check Your Progress 1

1.

Define stress.

2.

What do you mean by General Adaptation syndrome?

3.

Explain the approaches to stress.

4.

Explain in detail the homeostatic approach to stress.

16.5 THE CAUSES OF STRESS

The causes of stress are found within the environment, the individual, and the interaction
between the two. The stress experienced by a given individual is seldom traceable to a
single source. Stress has become increasingly common in organizations, largely because
individuals experience increased job complexity and increased economic pressures. In
exploring the causes of stress it is important that a clear distinction be made between
stress and the stressor (the source of the stress). It is confusing and technically incorrect
to speak of a "stressful situation" as though anyone placed in that situation would
experience stress. For purposes of analysis and understanding, stressors are divided into
two classes:
(i)

Those that lie within the individual, and

(ii)

Those that are a part of the external environment.

16.5.1 Internal Stimuli for Stress

The internal sources of stress are complex and difficult to isolate. There are three internal
sources of stress. Each of these internal influences on stress is considered separately,
although they function in continual interaction.
1.

Inner Conflicts: For many people stress is a constant companion regardless of

how favourable or unfavourable external conditions may be. Non-specific fears,
anxiety and guilt feelings maintain the body in a state of readiness for emergency
action on a continuing basis.

2.

Perceptual Influences: Perception is influenced by a number of internal factors.

Certainly people with inner conflicts sufficient to cause stress are more likely than
self-confident people to perceive environmental conditions as threatening. Because
the environment is presumed to be full of danger, evidences of danger are perceived
everywhere. They are selectively perceived in exaggerated form.

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Principles of Management and

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3.

Thresholds of Stress: The threshold of stress is not independent of the two factors
just discussed. People who have few internal conflicts and a minimum of perceptual
distortion can withstand external conflict and pressure that weaken personalities
would find intolerable. People who have high thresholds for stress have high levels
of resistance to it.

4.

Motivational Level: People who are ambitious and highly motivated to achieve
are more likely to experience stress than are those who are content with their
career status. Persons whose self-expectations exceed their abilities and
opportunities are especially stress prone.

16.5.2 Environmental Stressors

Environmental and internal conditions that lie beyond an individual's control are called
environmental stressors. Such stressors can have a considerable impact on work
performance and adjustment. We can organize environmental stressors into the following
categories:
1.

Task Demands: Task demands are factors related to a person's job. They include
the design of the individual's job, working conditions, and the physical work layout.
Changes and lack of control are two of the most stressful demands people face at
work. Change leads to uncertainty, a lack of predictability in a person's daily tasks
and activities and may be caused by job insecurity related to difficult economic
times. Technology and technological innovation also create change and uncertainty
for many employees, requiring adjustments in training, education and skill
development.
Lack of control is a second major source of stress, especially in work environments
that are difficult and psychologically demanding. The lack of control may be caused
by inability to influence the timing of tasks and activities, to select tools or methods
for accomplishing the work, to make decisions that influence work outcomes, or to
exercise direct action to affect the work outcomes.

2.

260

Role Demands: The social-psychological demands of the work environment may

be every bit as stressful as task demands at work. Role demands relate to pressures
placed on a person as a function of the particular role he or she plays in the organization.
Role conflicts create expectations that may be hard to reconcile or satisfy. Role
conflict results from inconsistent or incompatible expectations communicated to a
person. The conflict may be an inter-role, intra-role or person-role conflict.
(a)

Inter-role Conflict: is caused by conflicting expectations related to two

separate roles, such as employee and parent. For example, the employee
with a major sales presentation on Monday and a sick child at home is likely
to experience inter-role conflict.

(b)

Intra-role Conflict: is caused by conflicting expectations related to a single

role, such as employee. For example, the manager who presses employees
for both vary fast work and high-quality work may be viewed at some point
as creating a conflict for employees.

(c)

Person-role Conflict: Ethics violations are likely to cause person-role conflicts.

Employees expected to behave in ways that violate personal values, beliefs
or principles experience conflict.

The second major cause of role stress is role ambiguity. Role ambiguity is created
when role expectations are not clearly understood and the employee is not sure
what he or she is to do. Role ambiguity is the confusion a person experiences
related to the expectations of others. Role ambiguity may be caused by not
understanding what is expected, not knowing how to do it, or not knowing the result
of failure to do it.

3.

4.

Inter-personal Demands: These are pressures created by other employees. Lack

of social support from colleagues and poor interpersonal relationships can cause
considerable stress, especially among employees with a high social need. Abrasive
personalities, sexual harassment and the leadership style in the organization are
interpersonal demands for people at work.
(a)

The Abrasive Person: May be an able and talented employee, but one who
creates emotional waves that others at work must accommodate.

(b)

Sexual Harassment: The vast majority of sexual harassment is directed at

women in the workplace, creating a stressful working environment for the
person being harassed, as well as for others.

(c)

Leadership Styles: Whether authoritarian or participative, create stress for

different personality types. Employees who feel secure with firm, directive
leadership may be anxious with an open, participative style. Those comfortable
with participative leadership may feel restrained by a directive style.

Stress

Physical Demands: Non-work demands create stress for people, which carry
over into the work environment or vice versa. Workers subject to family demands
related to marriage, child rearing and parental care may create role conflicts or
overloads that are difficult to manage. In addition to family demands, people have
personal demands related to non-work organizational commitments such as churches
and public service organizations. These demands become more or less stressful,
depending on their compatibility with the person's work and family life and their
capacity to provide alternative satisfactions for the person.

16.6 INDIVIDUAL RESPONSE TO STRESS (INFLUENCE

OF PERSONALITY)
The same stressful events may lead to distress and strain for one person and to excitement
and healthy results for another. Even when all employees agree that a source of stress is
negative, some will cope better than others. Individual differences play a central role in
the stress-strain relationship. Several factors that help explain these individual differences
are:
1.

Life Events: Some employees are affected by workplace stress because they
experience life events requiring change outside of work. The stress of coping with
the changes away from the workplace leaves these employees less able to cope
with work-related stressors. Dr. Thomas H Holmes and his colleagues have
developed a stress scale measured in life change units (LUC), and have predicted
that people whose LCU points exceed 300 run the risk of becoming seriously ill
within the next two years. The figure below lists a number of major life events
according to the degree of adjustment they require.

Social Readjustment Rating Scale

Rank
Life Event
1
Death of spouse
2.
Divorce
3.
Martial separation
4.
Jail term
5.
Death of close family member
6.
Personal injury or illness
7.
Marriage
8.
Fired at Work
9.
Material reconciliation
10.
Retirement
11.
Change in health of family member
12.
Pregnancy
13.
Sex Difficulties

Mean Value
100
73
65
63
63
53
50
47
45
45
44
40
39
Contd...

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Principles of Management and

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14.
15.
16.
17.
18.
19.
20.
21.
22.
23.
24.
25.
26.
27.
28.
29.
30.
31.
32.
33.
34.
35.
36.
37.
38.
39.
40.
41.
42.
43.

Gain of new family member

Business readjustment
Change in financial state
Death of close friend
Change to different line of work
Change in number of arguments with spouse
Mortgage over $10,000*
Foreclosure of mortgage or loan
Change in responsibilities at work
Son or daughter leaving home
Trouble with in-law
Outstanding personal achievement
Spouse beginning or stopping work
Beginning or ending school
Change in living conditions
Revision of personal habits
Trouble with boss
Change in work hours or conditions
Change in residence
Change in schools
Change in recreation
Change in Church activities
Change in social activities
Mortgage or loan less than $10,000*
Change in sleeping habits
Change in number of family get-togethers
Change in eating habits
Vacation
Christmas
Minor violations of the law

39
39
38
37
36
35
31
30
29
29
29
28
26
26
25
24
23
20
20
20
19
19
18
17
16
15
15
13
12
11

Note: To measure the amount of life stress a person has experienced in a given period of time, add the values
(shown in the right-hand column) associated with events the person has experienced during the target time
period.
In the 1990's average mortgages are much more than $10,000.
Source: Thomas H Holmes and Richard H Rahe, "The Social Readjustment Rating Scale", Journal of Psychomatic
Research (1967) Pages 213-218.

Figure 16.4: Holmes Scale of Stress Values.

If, in the course of a year, a person experiences life events whose points total 150 to 300,
that person has a 50% chance of a serious health problem in the following year. The risk
rises to at least 70% among people whose total points exceed 300. In other words, life
events requiring readjustment appear to be a source of stress.
2.

Type A Behaviour Pattern: Type A behaviour pattern is a complex of personality

and behavioural characteristics, including competitiveness, time urgency, social status
insecurity, aggression hostility and a quest for achievements. Type A people set
high standards, push themselves to achieve and worry about time pressure. They
try to get more and more done in less and less time.
Type A behaviour pattern is summarized in the figure below:

Impatience
Aggressiveness
Irritability; hostility
Restlessness; excess energy
Devotion to work
Feeling of intense time pressure
Attempts to accomplish several things at once.
Competitiveness, emphasis on measurable accomplishments
Source: Patrick M Wright, Raymond A Noe Management of Organizations Irwin McGraw Hill, Boston (1996) page 706.

262

Figure 16.5: Type A Behaviour Pattern

According to M Friedman and R. H Rosenman, Type A individual is "aggressively involved

in a chronic, incessant struggle to achieve more and more in less and less time, and if
required to do so, against the opposing efforts of other things or other persons". These
characteristics tend to be highly prized and positively associated with ambition and the
successful acquisition of material goods.

Stress

The medical advice to hard-working Type As is to slow down and learns to relax.
Organizations face ethical and practical challenges in managing these individuals. The
need to accomplish work and the Type A person's need to achieve might suggest that
managers should assign Type A employees to difficult projects. Type A behaviour has been
linked to high performance in academic settings, but the evidence for such a link in other
settings has been mixed. So far, the research literature does not provide firm conclusions to
help managers resolve this ethical dilemma. Other things being equal, it might be best to
select Type A employees for the less complex jobs or at least to notify them of the risks.
3.

Type B Behaviour Pattern: The alternative to the type A behaviour pattern is the
Type B behaviour pattern. According to M Friedman and R. H Rosenman, Type B's
are "rarely harried by the desire to obtain a wildly increasing number of things or participate
in an endless growing series of events in an ever decreasing amount of time".

Type B's behaviour pattern is

l

Never suffer from a sense of time urgency with its accompanying impatience;

Feel no need to display or discuss either their achievements or accomplishments

unless such exposure is demanded by the situation;

Play for fun and relaxation, rather than to exhibit their superiority at any cost; and

Can relax without guilt.

Type B people are less coronary prone, but if they do have a heart attack, they do not
appear to recover as well as those with type A personalities.
Organizations can also be characterized as Type A or Type B organizations. Type A
individuals in Type B organizations and Type B individuals in Type A organizations
experience stress related to a misfit between their personality type and the predominant
type of the organization. However, preliminary evidence suggests that Type A individuals
in Type A organizations are most at risk of health disorders.
Type A or Type B characteristics reflect an individual's desire for achievement,
perfectionism, competitiveness, and ability to relax, as reflected in the figure below.
Circle the number of the continuum (the verbal descriptions represent endpoints) that best represents
your behavior for each dimension.
Am casual about appointments
12345678
Am never late
Am not competitive
12345678
Am very competitive
Never feel rushed, even under pressure
12345678
Always feel rushed
Take things one at a time
12345678
Try to do many things at once;
Think about what I am going
to do next
Do things slowly
12345678
Do things fast
(eating, walking, etc.)
Express feelings
12345678
sit on feelings
Have many interests
12345678
Have few interests outside work
Now score your responses by totalling the numbers circled. Then multiply the total by 3. The
interpretation of your score is as follows:
Number of Points
Type of Personality
Less than 90
B
90 to 99
B+
100 to 105
A106 to 119
A
120 or more
A+
Source: R. W Bortner, "A short rating scale as a potential measure of pattern: A behaviour", Journal of Chronic
Diseases 22 (1966) pages 87 - 91.

Figure 16.6: Excerpt from Type A - Type B scale

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4.

Personality Hardiness: Instead of looking for what makes people susceptible to

the effects of stress, some psychologists have focused on identifying and describing
people. Who resist illness when exposed to stressors. This view considers people's
appraisal to stressors as well as the stressors themselves. People who have
personality hardiness resist strain reactions when subjected to stressful events more
effectively than do people who are not hardy. The components of personality
hardiness are
l

Commitment (versus alienation)

Control (versus powerlessness) and

Challenge (versus threat).

Commitment: Commitment is a curiosity and engagement with one's environment

that leads to the experience of activities as interesting and enjoyable. Commitment
therefore refers to a person's belief in the truth, importance and interest value of
self and work.
Control: Control is a person's belief that he or she can influence events, coupled with
the tendency to act accordingly. Control therefore is an ability to influence the process
and outcomes of events that lead to the experience of activities as personal choices.
Challenge: Challenge is the belief that people seek change rather than routine and
stability.
The hardy personality appears to use these three components actively to engage in
transformational coping is actively changing an event into something less subjectively
stressful by viewing it in a broader life perspective, by altering the course and outcome
of the event through action and / or by achieving greater understanding of the process.
The alternative to transformational coping is regressive coping, a much less healthy form
of coping with stressful events characterized by a passive avoidance of events by
decreasing interaction with the environment. Regressive coping may lead to short-term
stress reduction at the cost of long-term healthy life adjustment.
People experiencing significant stressors are less likely to become mentally or physically
ill if they have a high level of hardiness. These people are likely to use such coping
strategies as keeping the stressors in perspective, knowing that they have the resources
to cope, and seeing stressors as opportunities rather than threats.

264

5.

Negative Affectivity: A person who is high in negative affectivity has a mood

state characterized by anger, fear and depression. This type of person tends to
focus on the negative side of life, including the bad traits of self and others. People
with negative affectivity tend to perceive themselves as being under stress and in
poor health. Organizational attempts to alleviate stress may have relatively little
impact on employees with negative affectivity.

6.

Self-Reliance: Self-reliance is a personality attribute related to how people form

and maintain supportive attachments with others. Self-reliance is a healthy secure,
interdependent pattern of behaviour. It may appear paradoxical because a person
appears independent while maintaining a host of supportive attachments.
l

Self-reliant people respond to stressful, threatening situations by reaching out

to others appropriately.

Self-reliance is a flexible, responsive strategy of forming and maintaining

multiple, diverse relationships.

Self-reliant people are confident, enthusiastic and persistent in facing

challenges.

Self-reliance results in a secure pattern of attachment and interdependent behaviour.

The two insecure patterns of attachment are counter dependence and over dependence.

Counter dependence: Counter dependence is an unhealthy, insecure pattern of behaviour

that leads to separation in relationships with other people. Counter dependence may be
characterized as a rigid, dismissing, denial of the need for other people in difficult and
stressful times. Counter dependent people exhibit a fearless, aggressive and actively
powerful response to challenges.

Stress

Over dependence: Over dependence is also an unhealthy, insecure pattern of behaviour.

Over dependence may be characterized as a desperate, preoccupied attempt to achieve
a sense of security through relationships. Over dependence prevents a person from
being able to organize and maintain healthy relationships and thus creates much distress.
7.

Social Support: Social support system is the circle of people who care about the
individual. A person's resistance to stress also may be strengthened by his or her
social support system. A strong social support system provides a place to share
problems and put them in perspective. To make the social support system effective,
the person must perceive that the support system enhances self-esteem, is available
when needed and provides relationships that are satisfying. A person's social support
system includes spouse, relatives and friends.

16.7 CONSEQUENCES OF STRESS

An individual who is experiencing a high level of stress may develop high blood pressure,
ulcers, loss of appetite etc. Stress shows itself in a number of ways. All the consequences
need not be negative. The consequences of healthy, normal stress (called eustress, for
"euphoria + stress") include a number of performance and health benefits to be added to
the more commonly known costs of stress listed above known as distress. The figure
below lists the benefits of Eustress and costs of Distress.
BENEFITS OF EUSTRESS
PERFORMANCE
Increased Arousal
Bursts of Physical Strength
INDIVIDUAL
Psychological disorders
Medical illnesses
Behavioural problems

HEALTH
Cardiovascular Efficiency
Enhanced Focus in an Emergency
COSTS OF DISTRESS
ORGANIZATIONAL
Participation problems
Performance decrements
Compensation awards

Source: Debra L Nelson, James Campbell Quick Organizational Behaviour Foundations, Realities and Challenges (second
edition). West Publishing Company, Minneapolis (1997) page 195.

Figure 16.7: Benefits of Eustress and Costs of Distress.

The three consequences of stress are explained below:

1.

Performance and Health benefits of stress: The stress response is not inherently
bad or destructive. Performance and health benefits of stress indicate that stress
leads to improved performance up to an optimum point. Beyond the optimum point,
further stress and arousal have a detrimental effect on performance. Therefore,
healthy amounts of eustress are desirable to improve performance by arousing a
person to action. The stress response does provide momentary strength and physical
force for brief periods, thus providing a basis for peak performance.
The various individual and organizational forms of distress often associated with the
word stress are the result of prolonged activation of the stress response, mismanagement
of the energy induced by the response, or unique vulnerabilities in a person.

2.

Individual Distress: In general, individual distress usually takes one of the three
basic forms 265

Principles of Management and

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(a)

Physiological symptoms

(b)

Psychological symptoms and

(c)

Behavioural symptoms.

(a)

Physiological Symptoms: A number of medical illnesses have a stress-related

component. The most significant medical illnesses of this form are heart
disease and strokes, backaches, peptic ulcers, and headaches. Most of the
early concern with stress was directed at physiological symptoms. This was
primarily because specialists in the health and medical sciences researched
the topic. The link between stress and particular physiological symptoms is
not clear. There is no clear evidence that stress is a direct causal agent.
However, stress may play an indirect role in the progression of disease. For
example, an extreme preoccupation with work may result in acute individual
distress, such as the unique Japanese phenomenon of "Karoshi" (death by
overwork).

(b)

Psychological Symptoms: The most common types of psychological distress

are depression, burnout, and psychogenic disorders. In the early stages,
depression and burnout result in decline in efficiency; diminished interest in
work; fatigue; and an exhausted run-down feeling. Psychogenic disorders
are physical disorders with a genesis (beginning) in the psyche (mind). For
example, the intense stress of public speaking may result in a psychogenic
speech disorder; that is, the person is under so much stress that the mind
literally will not allow speech to occur.

(c)

Behavioural Symptoms: Behavioural problems are the third form of individual

distress. These problems include violence, substance abuse of various kinds
and accidents. Behaviourally related stress symptoms include changes in
productivity, absence and turnover as well as changes in eating habits, increased
smoking or consumption of alcohol, rapid speech, fidgeting and sleep disorders.
Accidents, both on and off the job, are another behavioural form of distress
that can sometimes be traced to work-related stressors. For example, an
unresolved problem at work may continue to preoccupy or distract an
employee driving home and result in the employee having an automobile
accident.

These three forms of individual distress cause a burden of personal suffering.

3.

Organizational Distress: The University of Michigan studies on organizational

stress identified a variety of indirect costs of mismanaged stress for the organization,
such as low morale, dissatisfaction, breakdowns in communication and disruption
of working relationships. The problems caused by organizational distress are: (a)

Participation problems: Participation problems are the costs associated with

absenteeism, tardiness, strikes and work stoppages and turnover.

(b)

Performance decrements: Performance decrements are the costs resulting

from poor quality or low quality of production, grievances and unscheduled
machine downtime and repair.

(c)

Compensation awards: Compensation awards are a third organizational cost

resulting from court awards for job distress.

16.8 MANAGING STRESS

266

Stress is an inevitable feature of work and personal life. As organizations and their
employees have come to perceive the consequences of stress as serious, they have tried
to manage it. Some of these efforts have sought to limit the amount of stress employees

experience; most are directed at improving employees' coping ability. Both kinds of
efforts may be conducted at the individual level and at the organizational level.
1.

Stress

Individual Level: An employee can take personal responsibility for reducing his
or her stress level. At the individual level stress management usually focuses on
becoming more able to cope with stress. Individual strategies that have proven
effective include implementing time-management techniques, increasing physical
exercise, relaxation training and expanding the social support network.
(A) Time Management: A practical way to manage stress is to better control
your use of time. Many people manage their time poorly. The well-organized
employee, can often accomplish twice as much as the person who is poorly
organized. The basic principle beyond time management is to decide what
tasks are most important, then do those things first. So an understanding and
utilization of basic time-management principles can help individuals better
cope with tensions created by job demands. A few of the more well-known
time-management principles are: l

Make daily or weekly lists of activities to be accomplished.

Prioritising activities by importance and urgency. Therefore you must

rate them A (must be performed) B (should be performed) or C
(optional).

Scheduling activities according to the priorities set. You then structure

your time to ensure you do the A-level items. If time remains, you
devote it to the B-level items and then the C-level items.

Knowing your daily cycle and handling the most demanding parts of
your job during the high part of your cycle when you are most alert and
productive.

To be truly effective, time management should include making sure you are
clear about what is expected of you and saying no to activities that are not
required or that you feel you cannot fit into your schedule. This requires being
realistic about making promises. Improving time management skills can give
people a greater sense of control. Furthermore, because time management
emphasizes focusing on the most important task, it provides the satisfaction
of accomplishing worthwhile goals.
(B) Non-Competitive Physical Exercise: Employees can seek to improve their
physical health by exercising regularly. Non-competitive physical exercise
such as aerobics, walking, jogging, swimming and riding a bicycle have long
been recommended by physicians as a way to deal with excessive stress
levels. When people exercise regularly, they improve their physical health. In
addition, they tend to feel more confident, more optimistic and less stressed.
These forms of physical exercise increase heart capacity, lower at-rest, provide
a mental diversion from work pressures, and offer a means to let off steam.
(C) Relaxation and Biofeedback: Individuals can teach themselves to reduce
tension through relaxation techniques such as meditation, hypnosis, and
biofeedback. People can also benefit from a variety of tactics that helps them
slow down.
l

Relaxation decreases muscle tension, lowers heart rate and blood

pressure and slows breathing. The objective is to reach a state of deep
relaxation, where one feels physically relaxed, somewhat detached from
the immediate environment and detached from body sensations. 15 to
20 minutes a day of deep relaxation releases tension and provides a
person with a pronounced sense of peacefulness.

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Meditation provides the conditions for relaxation: a quite environment,

closed eyes, comfortable posture, and a word or phrase to repeat silently
or aloud.

Simply taking regular vacations is a basic but important part of relaxation.

Biofeedback or monitoring physiological responses such as brain waves,

heart rate, muscle tension, and blood pressure, then using the information
to control those responses. In this way, biofeedback helps people relax.
It also helps with stress management by showing people they have
some control over their bodies.

(D) Development of Social Support Systems: Having friends, family or work

colleagues to talk to provide an outlet when stress levels become excessive.
Developing a social support system to help with the routine stress of
organizational life requires committing time to family and friends. Regularly
laughing, crying or discussing problems, help people blow off steam before
problems become intolerable. Research also demonstrates that social support
moderates the stress-burnout relationship. That is, high support reduces the
likelihood that heavy work stress will result in job burnout.
(E) Adjustment of Perceptions: Effective stress management may require
conscious adjustment of your thinking because perceptions of a stressor play
a role in the way the stressor is experienced. A basic type of looking at the
stressor is to view yourself as facing challenges rather than problems.
(F) Learned Optimism: Optimism and pessimism are two different thinking styles
people use to explain the good and bad events in their lives to themselves.
Pessimism is an explanatory style leading to depression, physical health
problems and low levels of achievement. Optimism is an alternative explanatory
style that enhances physical health and achievement and averts susceptibility
to depression. Optimistic people avoid distress by understanding the bad events
and difficult times in their lives as temporary, limited and caused by something
other than themselves. Learned optimism begins with identifying pessimistic
thoughts and them distracting oneself from these thoughts or disputing them
with evidence and alternative thoughts. These explanatory styles are habits
of thinking learned over time, not inborn attributes. Learned optimism is nonnegative thinking.
(G) Leisure Time Activities: Leisure time activities provide employees an
opportunity for rest and recovery from strenuous activities either at home or
at work. Leisure is increasingly a luxury among working people. The key to
the effective use of leisure time is enjoyment. Leisure time can be used for
spontaneity, joy and connection with others in our lives.
(H) Diet: Diet may play an indirect role in stress and stress management. Good
dietary practises contribute to a person's overall health, making the person
less vulnerable to distress.
(I)

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Opening Up: Everyone experiences a traumatic stressful or painful event in

life at one time or another. One of the most therapeutic, curative responses to
such an event is to confide in another person. Confession need not be through
personal relationship with friends. It may occur through a private diary. For
example, a person might write each evening about all of his or her most
troubling thoughts, feelings and emotions during the course of the day.
Confession and opening up may occur through professional helping
relationships. The process of opening up and confessing appears to counter
the detrimental effects of stress.

2.

Organizational Level: Management controls several of the factors that cause

stress -particularly task and role demands, and organization structure. As such,
they can be modified or changed. In some cases, organizations recognize that they
can improve performance by reducing the amount of work-related stress employees'
experience. Ways to do this include improving the work environment and clarifying
roles. In addition, the organization can support employees' efforts to cope with
stress by offering wellness programmes and it can foster a supportive organizational
culture.

Stress

(A) Job Redesigning: Redesigning jobs to give employees more responsibility,

more meaningful work, more autonomy, and increased feedback can reduce
stress because these factors give the employee greater control over work
activities and lessen dependence on others. Job redesign to increase worker
control is one strategy of preventive stress management. It can be
accomplished in a number of ways, the most common being to increase job
decision latitude. Increased job decision latitude might include greater decision
authority over the sequencing of work activities, the timing of work schedules,
the selection and sequencing of work tools, or the selection of work teams. A
second objective of job redesign should be to reduce uncertainty and increase
predictability in the workplace. Uncertainty is a major stressor.
(B) Goal Setting: Organizational preventive stress management can also be
achieved through goal-setting activities. These activities are designed to
increase task motivation, while reducing the degree of role conflict and
ambiguity to which people at work are subject.
(C) Role Negotiation: Role negotiation begins with the definition of a specific
role, called the focal role, within its organizational context. The person in the
focal role then identifies the expectations understood for that role, and key
organizational members specify their expectations of the person in the focal
role. The actual negotiation follows from the comparison of the role incumbent's
expectations and key members' expectations. The point of confusion and
conflict are opportunities for clarification and resolution. The final result of
the role negotiation process should be a clear well-defined focal role with
which the incumbent and organizational members are both comfortable.
(D) Organizational Communication: Increasing formal organizational
communication with employees reduces uncertainty by lessening role ambiguity
and role conflict. Given the importance that perception play in moderating the
stress-response relationship, management can also use effective
communications as a means to shape employee perceptions.
(E) Employee Wellness Programmes: Organizations may sponsor wellness
programmes, which are designed to promote employee health and well-being.
Evidence suggests that wellness programme make economic sense.
Employees have access to exercise equipment and may participate in
educational programmes. An ethical issue with regard to wellness programmes
is whether the employer has the right to have input in what employees eat,
whether they smoke and how much they exercise. Often, some employees
are not receptive to involvement in wellness programme. This implies that
employees who could most benefit from a wellness programme are least
likely to benefit from it.
(F) Social Support System at the Work Place: Team building, is one way to
develop supportive social relationship in the work place. However, team building
is primarily task oriented, not socio-emotional in nature. Although employees
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Principles of Management and

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may receive much of their socio-emotional support form personal relationships

outside the workplace, some socio-emotional support within the workplace is
also necessary for psychological well-being. Social support system can be
enhanced through the work environment in a number of ways. These relations
provide emotional caring, information, evaluative feedback, modelling and
instrumental support.
(G) Organizational Culture: The organization's culture can help employees manage
stress by limiting stress, strengthening coping skills and providing shared values
and beliefs. Such a culture recognizes that employees are human beings in
need of rest, social support, and a good laugh once in a while.
Employee Stress Isn't a Management Problem
The recent attention given to employee stress by behavioral scientists has blown totally
out of proportion. Undoubtedly, a small proportion of the working population suffers from
stress. These people have ongoing headaches, ulcers, high blood pressure and the like.
They may even turn to alcohol and drugs as an outlet to deal with their stress. But if there
is a problem, it's a medical one. It's not a management problem. In support of this position,
I argue that: (1) stress is not that important because human beings are highly adaptive; (2)
most stress that employees experience is of the positive type; and (3) even if the first two
points were't relevant, a good portion of what causes excessive work stress tends to be
uncontrollable by management anyway.
Those who seem to be so concerned about employee stress forget that people are more
adaptable than we traditionally give them credit for. Individuals are amazingly resilient.
Most successfully adjust to illnesses, misfortune, and other changes in their lives. All
through their school years, they adapted to the demands that dozens of teachers put on
them. They survived the trials of puberty, dating, beginning and ending relationships, and
leaving home - to name a few of the more potentially stressful times we have all gone
thrrough. By the time individuals enter the work force, they have experienced many difficult
situations and, for the most part, they have adjusted to each. There is no reason to believe
this ability to adapt to changing or uncomfortable conditions breaks down once people
begin their working careers.
Stress, like conflict, has a positive as well as a negative side. But that positive side tends to
be overshadowed by concern with the negative. A life without stress is a life without
challenge, stimulation, or change. Many positive and exciting life events - marriage, the
birth of a child, inheriting a large sum of money, buying a new home, a job promotion,
vacations - have been found to create stress. Does that mean these positive events should
be avoided? The answer is obviously "No". Unfortunately, when most people talk about
stress and the need to reduce it, they tend to overlook its positive side.
Finally, there is the reality that many sources of employee stress are outside the control of
management. Management can't control environmental factors. If stress is due to an inherent
personality characteristic, here again, the source lies outside management's control. Most
other individual factors, too, are outside management's influence. Even if stresses created
by such individual factors as family and economic problems can be influenced by managerial
actions, there remains the ethical question: Does management have the right to interfere in
an employee's personal life? Undoubtedly, a good portion of any employee's total stress
level is created by factors that are uncontrollable by management - martial problems, divorce,
children who get into trouble, poor personal financial management, uncertainty over the
economy, societal norms to achieve and acquire material symbols of success, pressures of
living in a fast-paced, urban world, and the like. The actions of management didn't create
these stressors. Most are just part of modern living. More importantly, employers can do
little to lessen these stressors without extending their influence beyond the organization
and into the employee's personal life. That's something most of us would agree is outside
the province of the employer-employee relationship.
Source: Stephen P Robbins "Organizational Behaviour - concepts, controversies and applications" (seventh edition) Prentice
.Hall, Englewood Cliffs, NJ507632 (1996).

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16.9 FRAMEWORK FOR PREVENTIVE STRESS

MANAGEMENT

Stress

Stress is an inevitable feature of work and personal life. Individual and organizational
distress are not inevitable. A framework for understanding preventive stress management
is presented in the Figure 16.8

Organizational Context
Organizational Stressors
Task Demands
Role Demands
Physical
Demands
Interpersonal
Demands

Stress Responses
Individual
Responses
Organizational
Responses

Preventive Medicine Context

Primary Prevention
Stressor Directed

Secondary Prevention

HEALTH RISK
FACTORS

ASYMPTOMATIC
DISEASE

Response Directed

Distress
Individual

Behavioural
Problems
Psychological
Problems
Medical
Problems

Tertiary Prevention
Symptom Directed

SYMPTOMATIC
DISEASE

Organizational

Direct Costs
Indirect Costs

Source: J. D. Quick, R.S Horn and J. S Quick, "Health Consequences of Stress" Journal of Organizational
Behaviour Management 8, No 2, figure 1 (fall 1986), 21.

Figure 16.8: A Framework for Preventive Stress Management

The above figure explains that the three stages of prevention are primary, secondary and
tertiary prevention.
Primary Prevention: Primary prevention is intended to reduce, modify or eliminate the
demand or stressor causing stress. True organizational stress prevention is largely primary
in nature, because it changes and shapes the demands the organization places on people
at work.
Secondary Prevention: Secondary prevention is intended to alter or modify the individual's
response to a demand or stressor. People must learn to manage the inevitable.
Tertiary Prevention: Tertiary prevention is intended to heal the individual of symptoms
of distress and strain. Tertiary prevention is therapeutic, aimed at arresting distress and
healing the individual.
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16.10 MANAGERIAL IMPLICATIONS OF STRESS

Stress is an inevitable result of work and personal life. Managers must learn how to
create healthy stress for employees to facilitate performance and well being without
distress. They should be sensitive to early signs of distress at work, such as employee
fatigue or changes in work habits, in order to avoid serious forms of distress. Distress is
important to the organization because of the costs associated with turnover and
absenteeism, as well as poor-quality production. Managers can use the principles and
methods of preventive stress management to create healthier work environments. They
can practice several forms of individual stress prevention to create healthier lifestyles
for themselves, and they can encourage employees to do the same.
Check Your Progress 2

1.

What are the causes of stress?

2.

Explain the various environmental stressors.

3.

How do individuals respond to stress?

4.

Explain the consequences to stress.

16.11 LET US SUM UP

Stress carries a negative connotation for some people, as though it were something to be
avoided. This is unfortunate, because stress is a great asset in managing legitimate
emergencies and achieving peak performance. The causes of stress are found within
the environment, the individual, and the interaction between the two. Hans Selye described
the General Adaptation Syndrome (GAS), an adaptive response that occurs in three
phases: A, an alarm reaction. B, the stage of resistance; and C, the stage of exhaustion.
Stress is an inevitable feature of work and personal life. As organizations and their
employees have come to perceive the consequences of stress as serious, they have tried
to manage it. Some of these efforts have sought to limit the amount of stress employees
experience; most are directed at improving employees' coping ability. Managers can use
the principles and methods of preventive stress management to create healthier work
environments. They can practice several forms of individual stress prevention to create
healthier lifestyles for themselves, and they can encourage employees to do the same.

16.12 LESSON END ACTIVITY

Describe the sources of potential stress. Which of these are controllable by management?

16.13 KEYWORDS
Stress
GAS
Homeostatic Approach
Psycho Analytic Approach
Stressors

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16.14 QUESTIONS FOR DISCUSSION

1.

Define stress.

2.

Describe the four approaches to understanding stress.

3.

Explain the benefits of Eustress and the costs Distress.

4.

Why should organizations help individuals to manage stress?

5.

Why should organizations be concerned about stress at work? What are the costs
of distress to organizations?

6.

What physiological changes occur in the alarm phase of the General Adaptation
Syndrome? How is each change adaptive to organizations?

7.

Describe the relationship between stress and performance.

8.

What personality characterises or traits are likely to contribute to a high threshold

of resistance to stress?

9.

What can organizations do to reduce stress?

Stress

10. How do the type A behaviour pattern, personality hardiness and self-reliance
moderate the relationship between stress and strain?
11.

Describe the individual preventive stress management methods.

12. Describe the major organizational stress prevention methods.

13. What is primary prevention, secondary prevention and tertiary prevention of stress.

16.15 SUGGESTED READINGS

Aquinas P.G., Organizational Behaviour Concepts. Realities and Challenges,
Excel Books New Delhi (2005).
Boulding K.E., Conflict and Defence: A General Theory, Harper and Row, New
York (1962).
Bernard, M. Bass and Edward C. Ryterband (1979), Organizational Psychology,
(2nd Ed.) Allyn and Bacon, Boston.
Boss R.W (1989), Organizational Development in Health Care Addison-Wesley
Mass; Reading.
Chabra Ahuja and Jain, Managing People at Work, Dhanpat Rai and Sons, New
Delhi.
Davis P. and John Rohrbugh, Group Decision Process Effectiveness: A Competing
Value Approach, Group and Organization Studies, March 1990.
Harrel T.W, Industrial Psychology, Oxford and IBH, New Delhi (1972).
Marvin D. Dunnette (1976), Handbook of Industrial and Organizational
Psychology, Rand McNally, Chicago.

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LESSON

17
FOUNDATION OF GROUP BEHAVIOUR

CONTENTS
17.0 Aims and Objectives
17.1 Introduction
17.2 Definition of Groups
17.3 Reasons for Forming Groups
17.4 Stages of Group Development
17.5 Characteristics of Groups
17.5.1 Characteristics of Mature Groups
17.5.2 External Conditions Imposed on the Group
17.6 Group Structure
17.6.1 Characteristics of Roles
17.6.2 Types of Norms
17.6.3 Factors Influencing Conformance to Norms
17.7 Group Decision Making
17.8 Understanding Work Teams
17.9 Let us Sum up
17.10 Lesson-end Activity
17.11 Keywords
17.12 Questions for Discussion
17.13 Suggested Readings

17.0 AIMS AND OBJECTIVES

In previous lessons we have studied about the individual behaviour. In this lesson we will
study about group behaviour. After studying this lesson you will be able to:

274

(1)

describe meaning and types of group.

(2)

explain the reasons for which people and organisations form groups.

(3)

understand characteristics of groups.

(4)

discuss various structure of groups.

(5)

know the techniques of group-decision making.

(6)

describe meaning, objectives and types of teams.

17.1 INTRODUCTION

Foundation of Group
Behaviour

We define "group" as more than two employees who have an ongoing relationship in
which they interact and influence one another's behaviour and performance. The behaviour
of individuals in groups is something more than the sum total of each acting in his or her
own way. Learning capabilities represent the set of core competencies, which are defined
as the special knowledge, skills, and technological know-how that differentiate an individual
or an organisation from his/its competitors and enable them to adapt to their environment.
Learning capacities are the fuel for individuals or organisational success.

17.2 DEFINITION OF GROUPS

We define "group" as more than two employees who have an ongoing relationship in
which they interact and influence one another's behaviour and performance. The behaviour
of individuals in groups is something more than the sum total of each acting in his or her
own way. In other words, when individuals are in groups, they act differently than they
do when they are alone.
Groups can be either formal or informal.
1.

2.

Formal Groups: A formal group is set up by the organization to carry out work in
support of the organization's goals. In formal groups, the behaviours that one should
engage in are stipulated by and directed toward organizational goals. Examples
include a bookkeeping department, an executive committee, and a product
development team. Formal group may be command groups or task groups.
(i)

Command Group: A command group consists of a manager and the

employees who report to him or her. Thus, it is defined in terms of the
organization's hierarchy. Membership in the group arises from each employee's
position on the organizational chart.

(ii)

Task Group: A task group is made up of employees who work together to

complete a particular task or project. A task group's boundaries are not limited
to its immediate hierarchical superior. It can cross command relationships. A
employee's membership in the group arises from the responsibilities delegated
to the employee - that is, the employee's responsibility to carry out particular
activities. Task group may be temporary with an established life span, or they
may be open ended.

Informal Groups: An organization's informal groups are groups that evolve to

meet social or affiliation needs by bringing people together based on shared interests
or friendship. Thus, informal groups are alliances that are neither formally structured
nor organizationally determined. These groups are natural formations in the work
environment that appear in response to the need for social contact. Many factors
explain why people are attracted to one another. One explanation is simply proximity;
when people work near one another every day, they are likely to form friendships.
That likelihood is even greater when people also share similar attitudes, personalities,
or economic status.
(i)

Friendship Groups: Groups often develop because the individual members

have one or more common characteristics. We call these formations friendship
groups. Social alliances, which frequently extend outside the work situation,
can be based on similar age, hold same political view, attended the same
college etc.

(ii)

Interest Groups: People who may or may not be aligned into common
command or task groups may affiliate to attain a specific objective with which
each is concerned. This is an interest group.

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(iii) Reference Groups: Sometimes, people use a group as a basis for comparison
in making decisions or forming opinions. When a group is used in this way, it
is a reference group. Employees have reference groups inside or outside the
organization where they work. For most people, the family is the most important
reference groups. Other important reference groups typically include coworkers, friends, and members of the person's religious organization. The
employee need not admire a group for it to serve as a reference group. Some
reference groups serve as a negative reference; the employee tries to be
unlike members of these groups.
(iv) Membership Groups: When a person does belong to a group (formal and
informal groups to which employees actually belong) the group is called a
membership group (or affiliation group) for that person. Members of a group
have some collection of benefits and responsibilities that go beyond the group
serving as a reference point. In a membership group, each member would be
expected to contribute to the group's well being and would enjoy the benefit
arising from the group member's friendship.

17.3 REASONS FOR FORMING GROUPS

Formal and informal groups form in organizations for different reasons. Formal groups
are sometimes called official or assigned groups and informal groups may be called
unofficial or emergent groups. Organizations routinely form groups. If we assume
management decisions are rational, groups must benefit organizations in some way.
Presumably, the use of groups can contribute to achieving and maintaining a sustainable
competitive advantage. Groups can do this if they enable an organization to fully tap the
abilities and energy of its human resources. Furthermore, with regard to informal groups,
people form groups to meet their individual needs.

Why do People Join Groups?

1

2
3

Security
By joining a group, individuals can reduce the insecurity of standing alone. People feel stronger, have
fewer self-doubts, and are more resistant to threats when they are part of a group.
Status
Inclusion in a group that is viewed as important by others provides recognition and status for its members.
Self-Esteem
Groups can provide people with feelings of self-worth. That is, in addition to conveying status to those
outside the group, membership can also give increased feelings of worth to the group members themselves.
Affiliation
Groups can fulfill social needs. People enjoy the regular interaction that comes with group membership.
For many people, these on-the-job interactions are their primary source for fulfilling their needs for
affiliation.
Power
What cannot be achieved individually often becomes possible through group action. There is power in
numbers.
Goal Achievement
There are times when it takes more than one person to accomplish a particular task there is a need to pool
talents, knowledge, or power in order to get a job completed. In such instances, management will rely on
the use of a formal group.

Figure 17.1:Why do People Join Groups?

(1)

(2)
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Performance: Group effort can be more efficient and effective than individual
efforts because they enable employees to specialize and contribute a variety of
strengths.Organizations structure employees into functional and task groups so
that they can develop and apply expertise in particular functions, products, problems
or customers. The other factor contributing to performance is motivation, and groups
can enhance this as well. When employees work in groups, the group is an important
force for creating and enforcing standards for behaviour.
Cooperation: Carrying out an organization's mission is something no single person
can do alone. However, for several people to accomplish a mutual goal, they must
cooperate. Group dynamics and characteristics can enhance cooperation among

(3)

employees, especially when members identify themselves as group and are rewarded
for group success.
Satisfaction: If satisfaction improves motivation (and therefore performance),
organizations as well as individual employees can benefit from employees' satisfaction
derived from group membership. A major source of this satisfaction is that people
have needs for being with others and being liked by them. The way people satisfy this
category of needs is participating in groups focusing on social activity. Group
membership may also be a means for satisfying needs for security, power and esteem.

Foundation of Group
Behaviour

CATALYTICA
Were like a growing organism, says Richard B. Levy, president and CEO of Catalytica, a
California-based firm that is now developing technologies to help manufacturers reduce or
eliminate pollution from manufacturing processes. Its a hot idea, with potentially significant
profits, and several large competitors (such as Exxon, Mobil, and Hoechst) are already nipping at
Catalyticas heels. But in Levys statement about his organization lies a philosophy that could
help keep Catalytica, a $10 million company with 120 employees, ahead of the big guys.
Catelytica relies on groups in two main ways. First, as many other companies do, Catalytica
uses task groups to do everything from research in lab to interviewing job candidates. Second,
the organization views itself as a single, cohesive group or growing organism.
When a potential new employee arrives at Catalytica for an interview, he or she is met by Levy
and a group of interview, he or she is met by Levy and a group of interviewers who ask the
candidate simply to talk for about half an hour on any topic of interest. Then the interview group
breaks into smaller groups to converse with the candidate, and later the whole team reconvenes
to discuss the candidates suitability. This includes determining whether the candidate will
adhere to the organizations norms. During the interview process, certain rigors, ethical
standards, diligence, caring characteristics come through, explains Levy. As the company
keeps growing, the next tiers of employees have in them those basic ethical and personal
frameworks.
Groups are also an important part of research at Catalytica. Research often works in task groups
that are only loosely hierarchical (the leader changes with every project). Most such companies
set up a separate laboratory for each project. But at Catalytica, researchers work in a large, open
area with individual bays for each project that are still accessible to any one on the research area.
It creates continuity and cross-fertilization, says Levy. If somebody has something exciting
happening n one place, others feel it. Instead of creating production blocking, this use of space
seems to foster productivity and interaction among researchers.
Though the use of groups and its view of itself as a group Catalytica says focused on its
goals. Were very focused on what we need to achieve, remarks Levy. Indeed, the little
Catalytica organism may be more dynamic than its larger more complex competitors.
Source: Steve Perlstein, Catalyst for Growth, Business Ethics, January-February 1994, page 13.

Figure 17.2: Organizations to Admire

17.4 STAGES OF GROUP DEVELOPMENT

In interpreting behaviour of a particular group, it is important to recognize not only a
broad pattern of development but also the unique characteristics of the particular group
and the circumstances that contribute to (or detract from) its development. The way in
which a particular group develops depends in part on such variables as the frequency
with which group members interact and personal characteristics of group members.
However, it was believed groups pass through a standard sequence of five stages.
(1)

Forming: When a group is initially formed, its members cannot accomplish much
until they agree on what their purpose is, how they will work together and so on.
Answering such questions brings group members face to face with the first obstacle
to maturity: uncertainty, anxiety, and disagreement over power and authority. In
this stage, the focus is on the interpersonal relations among the members. Members
assess one another with regard to trustworthiness, emotional comfort, and evaluative
acceptance. Thus, the forming stage is characterized by a great deal of uncertainty
about the group's purpose, structure and leadership. Members are testing the waters
to determine that type of behaviour is acceptable. This stage is complete when
members have begun to think of themselves as part of a group.

(2)

Storming: The storming stage is one of inter-group conflict. Members accept the
existence of the group, but resist the constraints the group imposes on individuality.
Further, there is conflict over who will control the group. After a group leader has
emerged, the remaining group members must sort out where they fit in the group.
Even if all the group members must sort out where they fit in the group. Even if all
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the group members accept the leader, the group enters a phase of conflict and
challenge. One or more followers may test the leader. The group may split into
factions supporting and opposing the leader. If the group gets stuck in this phase of
development, group members may engage in battles over turf and expend their
energies on a variety of political tactics. When this stage is complete, a relatively
clear hierarchy of leadership exists within the group.
(3)

Norming: In this stage, close relationships develop and the group demonstrates
cohesiveness. Entering and conducting the cohesion phase requires intervention by
a group member who is emotionally unaffected by power and authority issues.
Typically, such a person encourages group members to confront these issues openly.
If the group engages in this process, the cohesion phase usually passes quickly.
Group members recognize where they fit in, and the group agrees on how it will
operate. A new leader may emerge, or the existing leader may become more aware
of how much others in the group contribute. The norming stage is complete when
the group structure solidifies and the group has assimilated a common set of
expectations of what defines correct member behaviour.

(4)

Performing: The fourth stage is performing. The structure at this point is fully
functional and accepted. Group energy has moved from getting to know and
understand each other to performing the task at hand. Members' attention is directed
to self-motivation and the motivation of other group members for task
accomplishment. Some members focus on the task function of initiating activity
and ensure that the work of the group really gets moving. Other members contribute
to motivation and commitment within the group through maintenance functions
such as supporting, encouraging and recognizing the contributions of members or
through establishing the standards that the group may use in evaluating its
performance.

(5)

Adjourning: For permanent work groups, performing is the last stage in their
development. However for temporary groups, there is an adjourning stage. In this
stage, the group prepares for its disbandment. High task performance is no longer
the group's top priority. Instead, attention is directed toward wrapping up activities.

17.5 CHARACTERISTICS OF GROUPS

Groups in organizations are more than collections of individual employees. We can
distinguish effective groups in terms of role structures, norms, cohesiveness, leadership,
status, tasks and size. These characteristics act as a means of understanding why some
groups perform better than others.
1.

Role Structures: Each person in a group has a role, or a pattern of expected

behaviours associated with a certain position in the group. Each group member's
role is a part of the group's overall role structure, that is the set of roles and
relationships among roles that has been defined and accepted by group members.
Roles develop through a combination of group processes and individual processes.
(i)

Group members have an expected role for each individual. In formal groups,
the organization has expectations for what employees in each position should
do.

(ii)

Through verbal and behavioural messages, group members communicate their

expectations: a sent role. For expected roles in formal groups, the organization
often spells out its expectations in job descriptions.

(iii) The individual group member's perceptions of these communication results in

a perceived role.
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(iv) The group member's response, acting out (or not acting out) the perceived
role is the enacted role. The way the role is enacted influences the group's
future role expectations.

Foundation of Group
Behaviour

A group is most likely to be effective if its members understand and accept roles that are
consistent with high perform.
2.

Norms: The standards that a work group uses to evaluate the behaviour of its
members are its norms of behaviour. These norms may be written or unwritten,
verbalized or not verbalized, implicit or explicit. So long as individual members of
the group should do, or they may specify what members of a group should not do.
Norms may exist in any aspect of work group life. They may evolve informally or
unconsciously within a group, or they may arise in response to challenges.
Norms reflect the culture of the particular group, so they vary from one group to
another. When the group's norms are consistent with the organization's goals, they
can contribute to organizational effectiveness. The degree to which norms have an
impact depends on the extent to which group members comply with them and the
group's enforcement of them.

Individual Adjustment: The degree to which group members accept norms is called
individual adjustment. The impact of individual adjustment on the group depends on
whether norms are pivotal or peripheral. Pivotal norms define behaviour that is absolutely
required for continued membership in the group. Peripheral norms define behaviour that
is desirable - but not essential - for continued group membership. Combining these types
of norms with the choice of whether to accept them results in four possible levels of
individual adjustment:
(i)

Acceptance of both kinds of norms is "conformity" to the group.

(ii)

Rejection of both kinds of norms results in "open revolution".

(iii) Accepting only pivotal norms amounts to "creative individualism".

(iv) Accepting only peripheral norms amounts to "subversive rebellion".
Enforcement of Norms: To function effectively, groups enforce their norms in various ways.
(i)

The group may increase communication with a non-conforming member.

(ii)

If that does not work, the group may ignore the non-conforming member and
exclude him or her from activities.

(iii) In extreme cases, group members may resort to physical coercion or expulsion.
3.

Cohesiveness: The commitment of members to a group and the strength of their

desire to remain in the group constituted the group's cohesiveness. It is the
"interpersonal glue" that makes the members of a group stick together is group
cohesion. Group cohesion can enhance job satisfaction for members and improve
organizational productivity. Highly cohesive groups at work may not have many
interpersonal exchanges away from the workplace. However, they are able to
control and manage their membership better than work groups low in cohesion.
This is due to the strong motivation in highly cohesive groups to maintain good,
close relationships with other members.

Factors Affecting Cohesiveness: Individuals tend to consider a group attractive if it

meets the following conditions:
l

The group's goals are clear and compatible with members' goals.

The group has a charismatic leader.

The group has a reputation for successfully accomplishing its task.

The group is small enough that members can air their opinions and have them evaluated.

The members support one another and help each other overcome barriers to growth
and development.

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Furthermore, cohesiveness may be easier to establish in a group whose membership is

homogeneous. Groups also tend to be highly cohesive when they perceive a threat that
gives group members a "common enemy".
4.

Leadership: A key role in determining the success of the group is the role of the
leader. Effective leadership can shape a group into a powerful force for
accomplishing what individual members could not or would not do alone.
Organizations need to cultivate effective group leaders whose goals support the
organization's objectives.

5.

Status: Status is the degree of worth and respects that other members of the group
accord individual group members. Status may arise from the person's job or behaviour
in the group. Often, a group member's status is linked to the person's position in the
organization. Someone near the top of the organizations hierarchy has a higher
status. Status may also be based on age, gender, education level, seniority, race or
other characteristics.
The status of group members can enhance effectiveness if the high-status members
have the most to contribute to the group's objectives. However, if status causes a
person to have influence beyond his or her ability to contribute to group goals, the
group's effectiveness will suffer.

6.

Tasks: The productivity and satisfaction of group members also depend on the
kinds of tasks the group carries out. Major ways to describe group tasks are in
terms of type and performance requirements.
(i)

(ii)

Task Type: The type of task carried out by a group is defined by the major
kinds of activity involved. Tasks may be classified as follows:
l

Production tasks: Tasks requiring the group to produce and present

ideas, images or arrangements.

Discussion tasks: tasks requiring the group to evaluate issues and

Problem-solving tasks: Tasks requiring the group to decide on a course

of action for resolving a particular problem.

Performing Requirements: The performing requirements of a task may be

of following types:
l

Disjunctive Tasks: Tasks that can be completed through individual

efforts of group members.

Conjunctive Tasks: These are tasks where each person's efforts are
tightly linked to the efforts of others. Group members are highly
interdependent.

Additive Tasks: Are tasks where productivity is measured by adding

together the output of each group member.

EFFECTIVE GROUPS
The atmosphere tends to be relaxed, comfortable, and informal
The groups task is well understood and accepted by the members.
The members listen well to one another; most members participate in a good deal o
relevant discussion.
People express both their feelings and their ideas.
Conflict ad disagreements are present and centered around ideas or methods, not pe
or people.
The group is aware and conscious of its own operation and function.
Decisions are usually based on consensus, not majority vote.
When actions are decided, clear assignments are made and accepted by members o

Source: Debra L Nelson and James Campbell Quick Organizational Behaviour Foundations, Realities, and Challenges (second ed
Publishing Company, Minneapolis (1997) page 252.

280

Figure 17.3: Characteristics of a Well-Functioning, Effective Group

17.5.1 Characteristics of Mature Groups

Foundation of Group
Behaviour

The description of a well-functioning effective groups in the figure above characterises

a mature group. Such a group has four distinguishing characteristics:
1.

Purpose and Mission: The purpose and mission may be assigned to a group or
may emerge from within the group. Even in the case of an assigned mission, the
group may re-examine, modify, revise, or question the mission. It may also embrace
the mission as stated. The mission statement is converted into a specific agenda,
clear goals, and a set of critical success factors. Stating the purpose and mission in
the form of specific goals enhances productivity over and above any performance
benefits achieved through individual goal setting.

2.

Behavioural Norms: Behavioural norms, which evolve over a period of time, are
well-understood standards of behaviour within a group. They are benchmarks against
which team members are evaluated and judged by other group members. Some
behavioural norms become written rules while other norms remain informal, although
they are no less well understood by group members.

3.

Group Cohesion: It enables a group to exercise effective control over its members
in relationship to its behavioural norms and standards. Goal conflict in a group,
unpleasant experiences, and domination of a subgroup are among the threats to a
group's cohesion. Groups with low levels of cohesion have greater difficulty
exercising control over their members and enforcing their standards of behaviour.
Group cohesion is influenced by a number of factors, most notably time, size, the
prestige of the team, external pressure, and internal competition. Group cohesion
evolves gradually over time through a group's normal development.

4.

Status Structure: Status structure is the set of authority and task relations among
a group's members. The status structure may be hierarchical or egalitarian
(democratic), depending on the group. Successful resolution of the authority issue
within a team results in a well-understood status structure of leader-follower
relationship. Where leadership problems arise, it is important to find solutions and
build team leader effectiveness.

17.5.2 External Conditions Imposed on the Group

Groups are a subset of a larger organization system. Therefore, the organization will
impose some conditions on the group. These external conditions are: 1.

Authority Structures: Organizations have authority structures that define who

reports to whom, who makes decisions, and what decisions individuals or groups
are empowered to make. So, while someone who emerges informally from within
the group might lead a work group, the formally designated leader (appointed by
management) has authority that others in the group don't have.

2.

Organizational Culture: Every organization has an unwritten culture that defines

standards of acceptable and unacceptable behaviour for employees. Members of
work groups have to accept the standards implied in the organization's dominant
culture if they are to remain in good standing.

3.

Formal Regulations: Organizations create rules, procedures, policies and other

forms of regulations to standardize employee behaviour. The more formal regulations
that the organization imposes on all its employees, the more the behaviour of work
group members are consistent and predictable.

4.

Organizational Resources: When organizations have limited resources, so do

their work groups. What a group actually accomplishes is, to a large degree,
determined by what it is capable of accomplishing. The presence or absence of
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resources such as money, time, raw materials and equipment which are allocated
to the group by the organization has a large bearing on the group's behaviour.
5.

Physical Work Setting: The physical work setting imposed on the group by eternal
parties has an important bearing on work group behaviour. They physical setting
creates both barriers and opportunities for work group interaction. Workers will
not be able to waste time if their superiors work close to them.

6.

Reward System: Since work groups are part of the larger organizational system,
group members will be influenced by how the organization evaluates performance
and what behaviours are rewarded.

17.6 GROUP STRUCTURE

Work groups are not unorganised mobs. They have a structure that shapes the behaviour of
members and makes it possible to explain and predict a large portion of individual behaviour
within the group as well as the performance of the group itself. Group structure includes: (1)

Leadership: A major responsibility in working with groups is the recognition of

leadership forces. Almost every work group has a formal leader. This leader can
play an important part in the group's success. He is appointed by management and
can exercise legitimate sanctioned power. The formal leader possesses the power
to discipline and/or fire members of his work group. Informal leaders, on the other
hand, tend to emerge gradually as group members interact. They emerge from
within the group according to the nature of the situation at hand.
The primary function of a leader (informal / formal) is to facilitate the accomplishment
of group goals. He aids the group in accomplishing its goals. To survive, the group
must gear its efforts to achieve its primary goals. Leader, constantly evaluates,
directs and motivates member behaviour towards overall goals.

(2)

Roles: A role is a set of activities expected of a person occupying a particular position

within the group. It is a pattern of behaviour that is expected of an individual when he
interacts with others. The understanding of role behaviour would be dramatically
simplified if each of us chose one role and play it out regularly and constantly. However,
Individuals play multiple roles adjusting their roles to the group in which they are. So
different groups impose different role requirements on individuals.

17.6.1 Characteristics of Roles

(i)

Roles are impersonal. It is the position that determines the expectations not the
individual.

(ii)

An organizational role is the set of expected behaviours for a particular position

vis--vis a particular job.

(iii) It is fairly difficult to pin down roles in exact terms. It is the most complex organized
response pattern the human being is capable of making.
(iv) Roles are learned quickly and can result in major changes in behaviour.
Role Identity: Role identity is certain attitudes and behaviour consistent with a role.
People have the ability to shift roles rapidly when they recognize that the situation and its
demands clearly require major changes. For example, when a worker holds a position in
a workers union is promoted as supervisor, his attitude will change from pro-union to
pro-management.
Role Perception: Role perception is an individual's view of how he or she is supposed to
act in a given situation. Based on an interpretation of how we believe we are supposed
to behave, we engage in certain types of behaviour.
282

Role Expectations: Role expectations are defined as how others believe you should act
in a given situation. How you behave is determined to a large extent by the role defined
in the context in which you are acting.

Foundation of Group
Behaviour

Role Conflict: Role conflict is a situation in which an individual is confronted by divergent

role expectations. Role conflict, like other forms of conflict, can be a major source of
stress. Excessive stress can cause problems for individual employees and for the
organizations that employ them.
(3)

Norms: Norms are shared ways of looking at the world. Groups control members
through the use of norms. A norm is a rule of conduct that has been established by
group members to maintain consistency in behaviour. Norms tell members what
they ought and ought not to do under certain circumstances. From an individual's
standpoint they tell what is expected of you in certain situations. Norms differ
among groups, communities, and societies, but they all have norms.
According to Hackman, Norms have five characteristics: (i)

Norms summarize and simplify group influence processes. They resolve

impersonal differences in a group and ensure uniformity of action.

(ii)

Norms apply only to behaviour not to private thoughts and feelings.

(iii) Norms are usually developed gradually, but the process can be shortened if
members so desire.
(iv) Not all norms apply to everyone. High status members often enjoy more
freedom to deviate from the "letter of the law" than do other members.

17.6.2 Types of Norms

A work group's norms are unique to each work group. Yet there are some common
classes of norms that appear in most work groups.
(i)

Performance-related processes: Work groups typically provide their members

with explicit cues on how hard they should work, how to get the job done, their
level of output etc. These norms deal with performance-related processes and are
extremely powerful in affecting an individual employee's performance.

(ii)

Appearance Factors: Some organizations have formal dress codes. However,

even in their absence, norms frequently develop to dictate the kind of clothing that
should be worn to work.

(iii) Allocation of Resources: These norms cover pay, assignment of difficult jobs, and
allocation of new tools and equipment.
(iv) Informal Social arrangement: These norms can originate in the group or in the
organization and cover pay assignment of difficult jobs, and allocation of new tools
and equipment.

17.6.3 Factors Influencing Conformance to Norms

As a member of a group, you desire acceptance by the group. Because of your desire
for acceptance, you are susceptible to conforming to the group's norms. Considerable
evidence shows that groups can place strong pressures on individual members to change
their attitudes and behaviours to conform to the group's standard. However, conformity
to norms is not automatic it depends on the following factors:
(i)

Personality Factors: Research on personality factors suggests that the more

intelligent are less likely to conform than the less intelligent. Again, in unusual
situations where decisions must be taken on unclear items, there is a greater tendency
to conform to the group's norms. Under conditions of crisis, conformity to group
norms is highly probable.

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(ii)

Situational Factors: Group size, communication patterns, degree of group unanimity

etc., are the situational factors influencing the conformity to norms.

(iii) Intra-group Relationships: A group that is seen as being creditable will evoke
more compliance than a group that is not.
(iv) Compatible Goals: When individual goals coincide with group goals, people are
more willing to adhere to group norms.
(4)

Status: Status is a socially defined position or rank given to groups or group members
by others. Individual group members are also distinguished by the amount of status
they have within the group, that is, the degree of worth and respect they are accorded
by group members. Status is an important factor in understanding human behaviour
because it is a significant motivator and has major behavioural consequences when
individuals perceive a disparity between what they believe their status to be and
what others perceive it to be.
Formal Status: Status may be formally imposed by organizations through position
and titles. We are all familiar with the trappings of high organizational status - large
offices with impressive views, fancy titles, high pay etc.
Informal Status: Status may be informally acquired by such characteristics as
education, age, gender, skill and experience. Anything can have status value if
others in the group evaluate it as status conferring.
Status is an important characteristic of groups because it affects group structure
and dynamics. Status figures in the allocation of roles among group members. In
general, high-status group members get high status roles such as group leader or
expert, whereas low-status group members get low-status roles. Furthermore, group
members tend to pay more attention to input from high-status group members,
including their contributions to group decisions.

5.

Size: The size of a group can have profound implications on how the group behaves
internally and with regard to other groups. It is an important factor determining the
number of interactions of individuals in a group. In a small group face-to-face
interaction is quite easy and uncomplicated. Members can easily communicate
with other group members. Research evidence confirms the fact that small groups
are effective. On the other hand, in large groups members have a better chance of
finding people they like to work with. The potential for greater variety of talents is
also greater. But the disadvantages of size are more than offset its advantages.
Larger group offer greater opportunities for differences between and among
individuals.

Composition: Most group activities require a variety of skills and knowledge. Given this
requirement, it would be reasonable to conclude that heterogeneous groups would be
more likely to have diverse abilities and information and should be more effective. When
a group is heterogeneous in terms of gender, personalities, opinions, abilities, skills and
perspectives, there is an increased probability that the group will possess the needed
characteristics to complete its tasks effectively. The group may be more conflict laden
and less expedient as diverse positions are introduced and assimilated, but the evidence
generally supports the conclusion that heterogeneous groups perform more effectively
than do those that are homogeneous
Conclusion: In interpreting behaviour of a particular group, it is important to recognize not
only a broad pattern of development but also the unique characteristics of the particular
group and the circumstances that contribute to (or detract from) its development. The
behaviour of individuals in groups is something more than the sum total of each acting in his
or her own way. Groups help in building synergy is necessary for an organisation's success.
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17.7 GROUP DECISION MAKING

Foundation of Group
Behaviour

Managers like to believe that they are accomplished in such group activities like group
decision making, goal setting and problem solving. However-their ability to implement
such techniques is often hindered by their lack of understanding of the dynamics of
group-decision making processes. As a result, these managers often end up perpetuating
problems that they themselves create through their insensitivity to the needs of other
group members. Hence, instead of achieving a consensus, such managers take decision
by the use of their authority. Sometimes, they lead the group towards decision making by
minority rule or by majority rule. The better way to achieve consensus would be for
them to track how decisions are made and ensure that they are achieved by consultations
with group members. The various methods of group decision making are given below:
1.

Decision by Lack of Response: The most common group decision-making method

is the decision by lack of response. In this method, someone suggest an idea and
before anyone else has said anything about it, without any deliberations it is rejected.
In other words, all ideas that have been simply bypassed have in a sense been
rejected by the group. The idea has been rejected because the 'rejections' is a
simply a common decision not to support the idea. This method is also called the
'plop' method because the suggestion of the proposer has been 'plopped'.

2.

Decision by Authority Rule: Many groups have a power structure that makes it
clear that the leader (chairman or someone in authority) will make the ultimate
decision. In this case the group can generate ideas and hold free discussion, but the
chairman or the leader may say that he has heard the discussion and has decided
upon a given plan. The authority rule method produces a bare minimum of
involvement by the group and unless the leader is very proficient he will not be able
to take good decisions.

3.

Decision by Minority Rule: A single person can enforce a decision, particularly if

he is the chairman and does not give in to the opposition. A common form of
minority rule is for two or more members to come to a quick and powerful agreement
on a course of action and implement it through the chairman or other powerful
members of the group. Usually in the decision by minority rule, one, two or three
people employ the tactics that produce action and therefore must be considered
decisions but which are taken without the consent of the majority.

4.

Decision by Majority Rule: Under this system, it is felt that if the majority of
participants feels the same way, it is often assumed that, that decision is the best.
On the surface, this method seems completely sound but often it turns out that
decisions made by this method are not well implemented, even by the group that
made the decision. This is so because of two kinds of psychological barriers:
l

The minority feels that there was an insufficient discussion or that their point
of view were not properly understood and they may therefore feel
misunderstood and sometimes resentful.

The minority members feel that voting (done to understand majority

preference) has resulted in two camps and that their camp has lost.

As there are time constraints in coming to a group decision and because there is not
perfect system, a decision by consensus is one of the most effective methods. This
method is time consuming. Recognising the several types of group decision-making is
only part of the process. Managers must be specific in their approach to the one that is
best in their own situation.
Techniques for Group Decision Making: - The most common form of group decisionmaking takes place in face-to-face interacting groups. Interacting groups often censor
themselves and pressure individual members toward conformity of opinion. Once a

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manager has determined the technique that a group decision approach should be used,
he or she can determine the technique best suited to the decision situation. Seven
techniques are summarized below:
1.

Brainstorming: Brainstorming is a good technique for generating alternatives.

The idea behind brainstorming is to generate as many ideas as possible, suspending
evaluation until all of the ideas have been suggested. Participations are encouraged
to build upon the suggestions of others, and imagination is emphasized. Brainstorming
is meant to overcome pressures for conformity in the interacting group that retard
the development of creative alternatives. Groups that use brainstorming have been
shown to produce significantly more ideas than groups that do not.
In typical brainstorming session, about 6 to 10 people sit and discuss the problem.
The group leader states the problem in a clear manner so that all participants
understand it. No criticism is allowed, and all the alternatives are recorded for later
discussion and analysis.
One recent trend is the use of electronic brainstorming instead of verbal brainstorming
in groups. Electronic brainstorming overcomes two common problems that can
produce group-brainstorming failure:
(i)

Production Blocking: While listening to others, individuals are distracted

from their own ideas. This is referred to as production blocking.

(ii)

Evaluation Apprehension: Some individuals suffer from evaluation

apprehension in brainstorming groups. They fear that others might respond
negatively to their ideas.

Brainstorming, however, is merely a process for generating ideas.

2.

Nominal Group Technique (NGT): The nominal group technique restricts

discussion or interpersonal communication during the decision-making process, hence
the term nominal. Group members are all physically present, as in a traditional
committee meeting, but members operate independently. NGT has the following
discrete steps:
(i)

Individuals silently list their ideas.

(ii)

Ideas are written on a chart one at a time until all ideas are listed.

(iii) Discussion is permitted, but only to clarify the ideas. No criticism is allowed.
(iv) A written vote is taken
NGT is a good technique to use in a situation where group members fear criticism
from others. The chief advantage of the NGT method is that it permits the group to
meet formally but does not restrict independent thinking, as does the interacting group.
3.

286

Delphi Technique: The Delphi technique originated at the Rand Corporation to

gather the judgements of experts for use in decision-making. Delphi method is
similar to the nominal group technique except it does not require the physical presence
of the group's members. Experts at remote locations respond to a questionnaire. A
coordinator summarizes the responses to the questionnaire, and the summary is
sent back to the experts. The experts then rate the various alternatives generated,
and the coordinator tabulates the results. The following steps characterize the Delphi
technique:
(i)

The problem is identified and members are asked to provide potential solutions
through a series of carefully designed questionnaire.

(ii)

Each member anonymously and independently completes the questionnaire.

(iii) Results of the questionnaire are compiled at a central location, transcribed,

and reproduced.

(iv) Each member receives a copy of the results.

(v)

Foundation of Group
Behaviour

After viewing the results, members are again asked for their solutions.

The advantages of the Delphi Technique are as follows:

(i)

The Delphi technique is valuable in its ability to generate a number of independent

judgements without the requirement of a face-to-face meeting.

(ii)

The Delphi technique can be used for decision making among geographically
scattered groups.

(iii) The cost of bringing experts together at a central location is avoided.

The Disadvantages of the Delphi Technique are mentioned below:
(i)

The Delphi technique is extremely time consuming, it is frequently not applicable

where a speedy decision is necessary.

(ii)

The method may not develop the rich array of alternatives as the interacting of
nominal group technique does.

(iii) Ideas that might surface from the heat of face-to-face interaction may never arise.
4.

Electronic Meetings: This method, blends the nominal group technique with
sophisticated computer technology. Issues are presented to participants and they
type their responses onto their computer screen. Individual comments, as well as
aggregate votes, are displayed on a projection screen.

The advantages of electronic meetings are

(i)

Participants can anonymously type any message they want and it flashes on the
screen for all to see at the push of a participant's keyboard.

(ii)

It allows people to be brutally honest without penalty.

(iii) It is fast because discussions don't go off the point and many participants can "talk"
at once.
The disadvantages of electronic meetings are
(i)

Those who can type fast can outshine those who are verbally eloquent but poor
typists;

(ii)

Those with the best ideas don't get credit for them; and

(iii) The process lacks the information richness of face-to-face oral communication.
5.

Quality Circles and Quality Teams: Quality circles are small groups that
voluntarily meet to provide input for solving quality or production problems. Quality
circles are often generated from the bottom up; that is, they provide advice to
managers, who still retain decision-making authority. As such, quality circles are
not empowered to implement their own recommendations. They operate in parallel
fashion to the organization's structure, and they rely on voluntary participation.
Quality teams, in contrast, are included in total quality management and other quality
improvement efforts as part of a change in the organization's structure. Quality
teams are generated from the top down and are empowered to act on their own
recommendations.
Quality Circles and quality teams are methods for using groups in the decisionmaking process. The next method, self-managed teams take the concept of
participation one step further.

6.

Self-Managed Teams: Self-managed teams make many of the decisions that

were once reserved for managers, such as work scheduling, job assignments and

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staffing. Unlike quality circles, whose role is an advisory one, self-managed teams
are delegated authority in the organization's decision-making process.
Before choosing a group decision-making technique, the manager carefully evaluates
the group members and the decision situation. Then the best method for
accomplishing the objectives of the group decision-making process can be selected.
For example: a.

The need for expert input would be best facilitated by the Delphi Technique.

b.

If the goal is generating a large number of alternatives.

c.

Decisions that concern quality or production would benefit from advice of

quality circles.

d.

If group members were reluctant to contribute ideas, the nominal group

technique would be appropriate.

e.

A manager who wants to provide total empowerment of a group should consider

self-managed.

17.8 UNDERSTANDING WORK TEAMS

A team is a relatively permanent work group whose members must coordinate their
activities to achieve one or more common objectives. The objectives might include advising
others in the organization, producing goods or services, and carrying out a project. Because
achievement of the team's objectives requires coordination, team members depend on
one another and must interact regularly. A work team generates positive synergy through
coordinated effort. Their individual efforts result in a level of performance that is greater
than the sum of those individual inputs. Teams have far-reaching impact in the today's
workplace. They have become an essential part of the way business is being done.
Teams imply a high degree of coordination among their members, along with a shared
belief that winning (achieving team goals) is not only desirable but the very reason for
the team's existence. Any team is therefore a group, but only some groups have the high
degree of interdependence and commitment to success we associate with a team.
Although the desire to achieve high levels of commitment and coordination is common
among organizations using teamwork, the nature of specific teams varies considerably.
Two major dimensions along which teams differ are differentiation of team roles and
integration into the organization.
(i)

Differentiation: is the extent to which team members are specialized relative to

others in the organization.

(ii)

Integration: is the degree to which the team must coordinate with managers,
employees, suppliers and customers outside the team.

Types of Teams
Based on their objectives teams may be classified as problem-solving teams, self-managed
teams and cross-functional teams.
1.

288

Problem-Solving Teams: Problem-solving teams consists of groups of 5 - 10

employees from the same department who meet for a few hours each week to
discuss ways of improving quality, efficiency and the work environment. These
members share ideas or offer suggestions on how work processes and methods
can be improved. Problem-solving teams meet regularly to discuss their quality
problems, investigate causes of the problems recommend solutions and take
corrective actions.

2.

Self-Managed Work Teams: A self-managed team includes collective control

over the pace of work, determination of work assignments, organization of breaks,
and collective choice of inspection procedures. Fully self-managed work teams
even select their own members and have the members evaluate each other's
performance. As a result, supervisory positions take on decreased importance and
may even be eliminated. These teams do their own scheduling, rotate jobs on their
own, establish production targets, set pay scales that are linked to skills, fire coworkers and do the hiring.

3.

Cross-Functional Teams: Cross-functional teams are made up of employees from

about the same hierarchical level, but from different work areas, who come together
to accomplish a task. Cross-functional teams are an effective way to allow people
from diverse areas within an organization (or even between organization) to exchange
information, develop new ideas and solve problems and coordinate complex projects.
These teams are not easy to manage. Their early stages of development are often
very time consuming as members learn to work with diversity and complexity. It
takes time to build trust and teamwork, especially among people from different
backgrounds, with different experiences and perspectives. There are two types of
cross-functional teams. They are: -

Foundation of Group
Behaviour

Task force - It is nothing other than a temporary cross-functional team.

Committees - Composed of groups made up of members from across departmental
lines.
Check Your Progress

1.

What are the various methods of group decision-making?

2.

What are techniques for Group Decision Making?

3.

What are the different types of Teams?

17.9 LET US SUM UP

We define "group" as more than two employees who have an ongoing relationship in
which they interact and influence one another's behaviour and performance. The behaviour
of individuals in groups is something more than the sum total of each acting in his or her
own way. When individuals are in groups, they act differently than they do when they
are alone. Formal and informal groups are formed in organizations for different reasons.
The way in which a particular group develops depends in part on such variables as the
frequency with which group members interact and personal characteristics of group
members. It is therefore important for us to understand in an orderly manner how groups
help managers change human behaviour in different organizational situations.

17.10 LESSON END ACTIVITY

Delphi method is similar to nominal group technique except that it does not require the
physical presence of the group members. Explain.

17.11 KEYWORDS
Groups
Formal Groups
Informal Groups
Cohesiveness

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17.12 QUESTIONS FOR DISCUSION

1.

Define groups. Explain the different types of groups.

2.

Explain the reasons for forming groups.

3.

What are the stages in the development of groups?

4.

Explain the characteristics of groups.

5.

Describe a well-functioning group. What are the characteristics of a mature group?

6.

Explain the external conditions imposed on a group.

17.13 SUGGESTED READINGS

Ahmed Abad (1972), "Management and Organisation Development", Rachna
Prakashan, New Delhi.
Arnold and Feidman, "Organisation behaviour", McGraw Hill International, New York.
Apple White, Phillip B. (1965), "Organisational Behaviour", Prentice Hall, Englewood
Cliffs.
Argyris C (1957), "Personality and Organization", Harper and Raw, New York.
Bechkard Richard (1969), "Organization Development: Strategies and Model" Addison
Wesley Publishing Company.
Chabra Ahuja and Jain, Managing People at Work, Dhanpat Rai and Sons,
New Delhi.
Davis Keith and Scott William G. (1969), "Human Relations and Organisational
Behaviour: Readings and Comments", McGraw Hill, New York.
French W. L. and Hellreigal Don (1971), "Personnel Management and Organizational
Development: Fields in Transition", Houghton Mifflin Boston.
Harrell T. W. (1972), "Industrial Psychology", Oxford and IBH, New Delhi.
Likert R. (1961), "The Human Organisation" McGraw Hill, New York
Mitzberg H. (1973), "The Nature of Managerial Work", Harper and Row, New York.
Woodward J. (Ed.) (1970),"Industrial Organisations: Behaviour and Control",
Oxford University Press, Oxford.
P.G. Aquinas, Organizational Behaviour, Excel Books, New Delhi.
Case:

SELF DIRECTED WORK TEAMS

It's hard to think of the Internal Revenue Service as a service organization, let alone on that
has customers. But for the last decade or so, the IRS has actually devoted itself to customer
service - in fact, the agency considers customer service to be a strategic business objective.
Realizing that the only way to achieve better service was through its employees, former IRS
commissioner Larry Gibbs turned to the human resource department for help. In conjunction
with the union, the HR department instituted a quality improvement process with more than
400 formal task groups to identify and solve problems, then move to a strategy of continuous
improvement in service.
Initially, the IRS formed four task groups (called "impact teams") that could be monitored
closely for their effectiveness. Each group was small, about twenty members. A manager
was assigned as the leader. The groups were aligned by function, such as tax collection or
criminal investigation, and tasks were specific and measurable, within the realm of each
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Contd...

group's own work processes. Groups were required to use a structured decision-making
model, and though consensus was encouraged, it was not a high priority.

Foundation of Group
Behaviour

Even with a rigid, closely monitored structure, the groups had to go through stages of
development. Leaders and facilitators (who had separate roles within the groups) first
completed special training sessions on small-group dynamics. But as the groups actually
got going, members often discovered the theories weren't necessarily applicable because
opportunities to practice them didn't always arise. So the groups had to find their own
paths of development.
Eight months after the impact teams began working together, the IRS administered a
questionnaire designed to measure their progress in effective small-group dynamics and
communication. It seemed that three of the four groups were pleased with the way they had
evolved, and most members had developed mutual acceptance, trust, and an ability to
communicate and make decisions together. They said they valued being able to ask each
other questions.
How productive were the groups? Those that tackled small, concrete projects first did the
best. For instance, one team that was located in an area that served a high volume of
taxpayers decided that service could be improved by ensuring that lunch and other breaks
were taken on schedule - so they synchronized the office clocks every two weeks. Later, as
the program expanded, different groups achieved the following; one created an automated
database program that identified taxpayers who were liable for federal taxes so that state
benefits could be withheld; one wrote a step-by-step employee handbook for preparing tax
adjustments; and one made changes in a single tax form that reduced the taxpayer's time to
complete it by nearly half. If we as taxpayers consider ourselves customers of the IRS, we
can say that we are better served by an agency that has embraced groups to improve
quality.
Questions:
1.

Why is it just as important for a government agency like the IRS as it is for a commercial
business firm to rely on productivity groups to benefit the organization as a whole?

2.

Do you think the rigid structure and close monitoring of the initial impact teams
inhibited their development? Why or why not?

3.

What characteristics of an effective group did the IRS impact teams have?

Source: Mathew J Ferrero, "Self-Directed Work Teams Untax the IRS," Personnel Journal, July 1994, pages 66 - 71.

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LESSON

18
ORGANISATIONAL CHANGE

CONTENTS
18.0 Aims and Objectives
18.1 Introduction
18.2 Managing Change in the Organisational Context
18.3 Forces for Change in Organization
18.4 Forms of Change
18.5 The Role of Change Agents
18.6 Resistance to Change
18.7 Managing Resistance to Change
18.8 Let us Sum up
18.9 Lesson-end Activity
18.10 Keywords
18.11 Questions for Discussion
18.12 Suggested Readings

18.0 AIMS AND OBJECTIVES

This lesson is intended to discuss integrative approach to organisation change. After
studying this lesson you will be able to:
(i) understand meaning and forms of organisation change.
(ii) explain various forces of change.
(iii) know how to manage organisational change.
(iv) describe the role of change agents.
(v) identify the reasons for resistance to change.

18.1 INTRODUCTION

292

There is nothing permanent except change. It has become an inescapable fact of life; a
fundamental aspect of historical evolution. Change is inevitable in a progressive culture.
Change in fact, is accelerating in our society. Revolutions are taking place in political,
scientific, technological and institutional areas. Organizations cannot completely buffer
themselves from this environmental instability. Change is induced by the internal and
external forces. Meeting this challenge of change is the primary responsibility of
management. An organization lacking adaptability to change has no future. Adaptability
to change is a necessary quality of good management. Modern managers have the
responsibility to device the management practices to meet the new challenges and make
use of the opportunities for the growth of the organization.

18.2 MANAGING CHANGE IN THE ORGANISATIONAL

CONTEXT

Organisational Change

The topic of managing change is one that comes closest to describe the totality of a
manager's job. Practically everything a manager does is in some way concerned with
implementing change.
l

Hiring a new employee

- Changing the work group

Purchasing a new piece of equipment

- Changing work methods

Rearranging work station

- Changing work flows

All require knowledge of how to manage change effectively.

Organizational change refers to a modification or transformation of the organization's
structure, processes or goods. Flexibility requires that organizations be open to change in
all areas, including the structure of the organization itself. In a flexible organization, employees
can't think of their roles in terms of a job description. They often have to change the tasks
they perform and learn new skills. The most flexible organizations have a culture that
values change and managers who know how to implement changes effectively.

18.3 FORCES FOR CHANGE IN ORGANIZATION

More and more organizations today face a dynamic and changing environment that, in
turn requires these organizations to adapt. Change has become the norm in most
organizations. Plant closing, business failures, mergers and acquisitions, and downsizing
have become common experiences for most organizations. Adaptiveness, flexibility and
responsiveness are terms used to describe the organizations that will succeed in meeting
the competitive challenges that businesses face. In the past, organizations could succeed
by claiming excellence in one area quality, reliability or cost. But this is not the case
today. The current environment demands excellence in all areas.
The figure below summarizes six specific forces that are acting as stimulants for change.
Force
Nature of the workforce

Examples
More cultural diversity
Increase in professionals
Many new entrants with inadequate
skills

More computers and automation

TQM programs
Reengineering programs

Competition

Security market crashes

Interest rate fluctuations
Foreign currency fluctuations

Social trends

Global competitors
Mergers and consolidations
Growth of specialty retailers

World politics

Increase in college attendance

Delayed marriages by young people
Increase in divorce rate

Collapse of Soviet Union

Iraqs invasion of Kuwait
Overthrow of Haitian dictator

Technology

Economic shocks

Source: Stephen P Robbins "Organizational Behaviour - Concepts, Controversies, Applications" (7th Edition)
Prentice Hall, Englewood Cliffs, NJ (1996) page 717.

Figure 18.1: Forces for Change

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Why is organizational change so important?

From outside and inside the organization a variety of forces press for change. "We live in
the midst of constant change" has become a well-worn but relevant clich. Pressures
for change are created from both inside and outside the organization. Organization must
forge ahead on these forces to survive. Some of these are external, arising from outside
the company, whereas others are internal arising from sources within the organization.
1.

External Forces: When the organization's general or task environment changes,

the organization's success often rides on its ability and willingness to change as
well. Modern manager is change-conscious and operating in the constantly changing
environment. Many external changes bombard the modern organizations and make
change inevitable. The general environment has social, economic, legal and political
and technological dimensions. Any of these can introduce the need for change. In
recent years, far-reaching forces for change have included developments in
information technology, the globalization of competition, and demands that
organizations take greater responsibility for their impact on the environment. These
forces are discussed below:
(a)

Technological Change: Rapid technological innovation is a major force for

change in organizations, and those who fail to keep pace can quickly fall
behind. It is perhaps the greatest factor that organizations reckon with.
According to C. Handy "the rate of technological changes is greater today
than any time in the past and technological changes are responsible for changing
the nature of jobs performed at all levels in the organization". For example,
the substitution of computer control for direct supervision is resulting in wider
spans of control for managers and flatter organizations.
Technological innovations bring about profound change because they are not
just changes in the way work is performed. Instead, the innovation process
promotes associated changes in work relationships and organizational
structures. Sophisticated information technology is also making organizations
more responsive. The team approach adopted by many organizations, leads
to flatter structures, decentralized decision making and more open
communication between leaders and team members.

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(b)

Globalization: The global economy means competitors are likely to come

from across the ocean. The power players in the global market are the
multinational and trans-national organizations. This has led companies to
think globally. There are no mental distinctions between domestic and foreign
operations. Globalization, for an organization, means rethinking the most
efficient ways to use resources, disseminate and gather information and
develop people. It requires not only structural changes but also changes in
the minds of employees. Successful organizations will be the ones that can
change in response to the competition. They will be fast on their feet, capable
of developing new products rapidly and getting them to market quickly.

(c)

Social and Political Changes: A firm's fate is also influenced by such

environmental pressures as social and political changes. Many new legal
provisions in the corporate sector get introduced every time that affects the
organizations.

(d)

Workforce Diversity: Related to globalization is the challenge of workforce

diversity. Workforce diversity is a powerful force for change in organization.
The demographic trends contributing to workforce diversity are
l

The workforce will see increased participation form females, as the

majority of new workers will be female.

The workforce will be more culturally diverse than ever (part of this is
attributable to globalization).

(e)

The workforce is aging. There will be fewer young workers and more
middle aged working.

Organisational Change

Managing Ethical Behaviour: Employees face ethical dilemmas in their

daily work lives. The need to manage ethical behaviour has brought about
several changes in organizations. Most centre on the idea that an organization
must create a culture that encourages ethical behaviour. Society expects
organizations to maintain ethical behaviour both internally and in relationships
with other organizations. Ethical behaviour is expected in relationships with
customers, environment and society. These expectations may be informal or
they may come in the form of increased legal requirements.
These challenges are forces that place pressures to change on organizations.
Organizations cannot afford to be rigid and inflexible in the wake of
environmental pressures, they must be rather dynamic and viable so that they
survive.
Corporate Insights

New Force for Change

For Tata Iron and Steel Company, foreign investors (suppliers of capital) are a new
force for change. In the past, Tata emphasized the creation of jobs in its
community of Jamshedpur, a city in eastern India. Tatas 78,000 workers receive
lifetime employment, along with free housing, education and medical care. The
company, in turn has benefited from a complete lack of strikes in 60 years. But
investors interested in Tata have asked how the company might improve its profit
margin of only 3.7 percent. Notes Tatas managing director, Jamshed Irani, we
will now be forced to balance loyalty against productivity.
Source: Pete Engardio and Shekhar Hattangadi, Indias Mr. Business, Business Week, April 18, 1994
pages 100-101.

2.

Internal Forces: Besides reacting to or anticipating changes on the outside, an

organization may change because someone on the inside thinks a new way of
doing things will be beneficial or even necessary. Pressures for change that originate
inside the organization are generally recognizable in the form of signals indicating
that something needs to be altered. These internal forces are discussed below:
(a)

Changes in Managerial Personnel: One of the most frequent reasons for

major changes in an organization is the change of executives at the top. No
two managers have the same styles, skills or managerial philosophies.
Managerial behaviour is always selective so that a newly appointed manager
might favour different organizational design, objectives procedures and policies
than a predecessor. Changes in the managerial personnel are thus a constant
pressure for change.

(b)

Declining Effectiveness: Declining effectiveness is a pressure to change.

A company that experiences losses is undoubtedly motivated to do something
about it. Some companies react by instituting layoffs and massive cost cutting
programmes, whereas others view the loss as symptomatic of an underlying
problem, and seek out the cause of the problem.

(c)

Changes in Work Climate: Changes in the work climate at an organization

can also stimulate change. A workforce that seems lethargic, unmotivated,
and dissatisfied is a symptom that must be addressed. This symptom is

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common in organizations that have experienced layoffs. Workers who have

escaped a layoff may find it hard to continue to be productive. They may
fear that they will be laid off as well and may feel insecure in their jobs.
(d)

Deficiencies in the Existing System: Another internal pressure for

organizational change is the loopholes in the system. These loopholes may be
unmanageable spans of control, lack of coordination between departments,
lack of uniformity in politics, non-cooperation between line and staff etc.

(e)

Crisis: A crisis may also stimulate change in an organization. Strikes or

walkouts may lead management to change the wage structure. The resignation
of a key decision maker is one crisis that causes the company to rethink the
composition of its management team and its role in the organization.

(f)

Employees, Expectations: Changes in employees expectations can also

trigger change in organizations. These forces may be:l

Employees' desire to share in decision-making.

Employees' demand for effective organizational mechanism.

Higher employees expectation for satisfying jobs and work environment.

Employees' desire for higher wage payment.

All these forces necessitate change in organizations. Besides these forces, a company
that hires a group of young newcomers may be met with a set of expectations very
different from those expressed by older workers.
Although organizational changes are important, managers should try to institute changes
only when they make strategic sense. A major change or two every year can be
overwhelming to employees and create confusion about priorities. A logical conclusion
is that managers should evaluate internal forces for change with as much care as they
evaluate external forces.

18.4 FORMS OF CHANGE

Change has become the norm in most organizations. Adaptiveness, flexibility and
responsiveness are terms used to describe the organizations that will succeed in two
basic forms of change in organizations that will succeed in meeting the competitive
challenges that businesses face. There are two basic forms of change in organizations:
Planned change and unplanned change.
(a)

(b)

Planned Change: Planned change is a change resulting from a deliberate decision

to alter the organization. It is an intentional, goal-oriented activity. The goals of
planned change are:
l

First it seeks to improve the ability of the organization to adapt to changes in

its environment.

Second, it seeks to change the behaviour of its employees.

Unplanned Change: Not all change is planned. Unplanned change is imposed on the
organization and is often unforeseen. Responsiveness to unplanned change requires
tremendous flexibility and adaptability on the part of organizations. Examples of
unplanned changes are changes in government regulations and changes in the economy.

18.5 THE ROLE OF CHANGE AGENTS

296

Change in organizations is inevitable, but change is a process that can be managed. The
individual or group who undertakes the task of introducing and managing a change in an
organization is known as a change agent. Change agents can be of two types:

(a)

Internal Change Agents: Change agents can be internal such as managers or

employees who are appointed to oversee the change process.

Organisational Change

Internal change agents have certain advantages in managing the change process.
They are:
l

They know the organization's past history, its political system, and its culture.

Internal change agents are likely to be very careful about managing change
because they must live with the results of their change efforts.

There are also disadvantages of using internal change agents. They are:

(b)

They may be associated with certain factions within the organization and
may easily be accused of favouritism.

Internal change agents may be too close to the situation to have an objective
view of what needs to be done.

External Change Agents: Change agents can also be external, such as outside
consultants. They bring an outsider's objective view to the organization.
External change agents have certain advantages:
l

They may be preferred by employees because of their impartiality.

They have more power in directing changes if employees perceive the change
agents as being trustworthy, possessing important expertise, having a track
record that establishes credibility.

There are also disadvantages of using external change agents. They are:
l

External change agents face certain problems, including their limited knowledge
of the organization's history.

They may be viewed with suspicion by organization members.

Reorganization as Rebirth

Like many organizations in the 1980's St. Francis Regional Medical Center of Wichita,
Kansas, tried downsizing. A layoff of 400 people was a horrible experience, both for those
who left and for those who stayed. The 1990's brought a change in the health care
environment, and the hospital's administration needed to change the structure and culture
in order to remain competitive.
The management team remapped the ideal management structure to run things without
regard to the structure that was actually in place. To make such radical changes without
regard to the structure that was actually in place. To make such radial change work, they
defined specific job titles, but not specific people. They dissolved the old organizational
chart and created a new one, unveiling a chart that had all the new titles on it with no names.
Those who wanted to be part of the new organization had to apply for whatever position
they felt they were most qualified to fill. Imaging having to apply for whatever position
they felt they were qualified to fill. Imaging having to apply to a company you'd been with
for fifteen years! The restructuring also meant are thinking of corporate culture. An
examination of culture revealed that making decisions at the hospital become bogged down
by management and dictated by policy.
Eliminating old policies allowed the team to look at things as possibilities rather than
restrictions. Two task forces were formed to look at service lines and functional realignment.
A consulting firm was called in to help the hospital make the transition. The consulting firm
helped strategize and create a time line for the changes.

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At the reorganization meeting, each employee was given an 80-page bound booklet complete
with vision statement, the organizational chart, timetable, reorganization fact sheet, copies
of all position descriptions, and a question and answer section. The result was terror,
confusion, upheaval, and little by little, understanding cooperation and success. Instead
of approaching the reorganization as a shameful secret, the task forces highlighted the
changes in the new culture and tied the internal changes to the changes in the health care
industry. Each week "The Grapevine: Reorganization Update" was distributed. In the first
official day of the new organization, employees were given flowers and a message stating
"Today starts a new beginning focused on you".
The new corporate culture involves management by contract. The new VPs walk the
hallways and touch base constantly with what's going on. The result of the reorganization
is decision making at lower levels, which results in faster actions. No more ideas die
because e of red tape. The reorganization is fluid and ongoing with employees and managers
still incorporating the new management philosophy and corporate culture into their daily
work lives.
Source: M.S. Egan, "Reorganization as Rebirth," HR Magazine (January 1995), Pages 84 - 88.

Check Your Progress 1

1.

How do you manage change in an organizational context?

2.

Explain the forces of change.

3.

What are the forms of change?

4.

Explain the role of change agents to foster change.

18.6 RESISTANCE TO CHANGE

As the manager contemplates and initiates change in the organization one phenomenon
that is quite likely to emerge anytime in the change process is the resistance to change.
People often resist change in a rational response based on self-interest. Resistance to
change doesn't necessarily surface in standardized ways. Resistance can be overt,
implicit, immediate, or deferred. It is easiest for management to deal with resistance
when it is overt and immediate. The greater challenge is managing resistance that is
implicit or deferred.
The sources of resistance to change can be categorized into two sources: individual and
organizational.
1.

Individual Resistance: One aspect of mankind that has remained more or less
constant is his innate resistance to change. Individuals resist change because they
attach great preference to maintain status quo. Individual sources of resistance to
change reside in basic human characteristics such as perceptions, personalities
and needs. The following are the reasons:(a)

298

Economic Reasons: The economic reasons to fear change usually focus on

one or more of the following:
l

Fear of technological unemployment.

Fear of reduced work hours and consequently less pay.

Fear of demotion and thus reduced wages.

Fear of speed-up and reduced incentive wages.

Changes in job tasks or established work routines can also arouse economic fears
if people are concerned they won't be able to perform the new tasks or routines
to their previous standards, especially when pay is closely tied to productivity.

2.

(b)

Fear of the Unknown: Change often bring with it substantial uncertainty.

Employees facing a technological change, such as the introduction of a new
computer system, may resist the change simply because it introduces ambiguity
into what was once a comfortable situation for them. This is especially a
problem when there has been a lack of communication about the change.

(c)

Fear of Loss: When a change is impending, some employees may fear losing
their jobs, particularly when an advanced technology is introduced. Employees
may also fear losing their status because of a change. Another common fear
is that changes may diminish the positive qualities the individual enjoys in the
job. For example, computerizing the customer service positions, threaten the
autonomy that sales representatives previously enjoyed.

(d)

Security: People with a high need for security are likely to resist change
because it threatens their feeling of safety.

(e)

Status quo: Perhaps the biggest and most sound reason for the resistance to
change is the status quo. As human beings, we are creatures of habit.
Change may pose disturbance to the existing comforts of status quo. When
confronted with change, this tendency to respond in our accustomed ways
becomes a source of resistance. Change means they will have to find new
ways of managing them and their environment the ways that might not be
successful as those currently used.

(f)

Peer Pressure: Individual employees may be prepared to accept change but

refuse to accept it for the sake of the group. Whenever change is unwilling
to the peers, they force the individuals who want to accept change to resist
change.

(g)

Disruption of Interpersonal Relationships: Employees may resist change

that threatens to limit meaningful interpersonal relationships on the job.

(h)

Social Displacement: Introduction of change often results in disturbance of

the existing social relationships. Change may also result in breaking up of
work groups. Thus when social relationships develop, people try to maintain
them and fight social displacement by resisting change.

Organisational Change

Organizational Resistance: Organizations, by their very nature are conservative.

They actively resist change. Some of the organizational resistances are explained
below:
(a)

Resource Constraints: Resources are major constraints for many

organizations. The necessary financial, material and human resources may
not be available to the organization to make the needed changes. Further,
those groups in organization that control sizable resources often see change
as a threat. They tend to be content with the way things are.

(b)

Structural Inertia: Some organizational structures have in-built mechanism

for resistance to change. For example, in a bureaucratic structure where
jobs are narrowly defined, lines of authority are clearly spelled out change
would be difficult. This is so because formalization provides job descriptions,
rules, and procedures for employees to follow. The people who are hired into
an organization are chose for fit; they are then shaped and directed to behave
in certain ways. When an organization is confronted with change, this
structural inertia acts as a counterbalance to sustain stability.

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(c)

Sunk Costs: Some organizations invest a huge amount of capital in fixed

assets. If an organization wishes to introduce change then difficulty arises
because of these sunk costs.

(d)

Politics: Organizational change may also shift the existing balance of power
in organization. Individuals or groups who hold power under the current
arrangement may be threatened with losing these political advantages in the
advent of change.

(e)

Threat to established power relationships: Any redistribution of decisionmaking authority can threaten long established power relationships within the
organization. Managers may therefore resist change that introduces
participative decision making because they feel threatened.

(f)

Threat to expertise: Change in organizational pattern may threaten the

expertise of specialized groups. Therefore specialist usually resists change.

(g)

Group Inertia: Even if individuals want to change their behaviour, group

norms may act as a constraint. For example, if union norms dictate resistance
any unilateral change made by management, an individual member of the
union who may otherwise be willing to accept the changes may resist it.
Oop! Let's Do That Again!

One of the reasons why managing change is so difficult is because change is so final. That
is, once a change is made one cannot go back to the original conditions. The reason for
this can be explained by the diagram below.
Original State

Change State

New State

Each of the boxes describes a state of nature. A is the situation as it exists prior to a change.
State B is the state after change. Assume that after state B it is decided that the change was
a poor idea and we wish to go back to state A. This is impossible because A did not include
having experienced state B. Therefore, the only possibility is to move on to State C, a new
state of nature. The lessons here are: (1) when a change is made it should be thought out
carefully because the conditions before the change will never exist again; and (2) to overcome
a mistake in managing change usually means that new changes must be made (state C)
rather than trying to go back to where everything started.
Source: Jerry L Gray and Frederick A Starke "Organizational Behaviour - Concepts and Applications (3rd Edition) Charles E.
Merrill Publishing Company Columbus (1984) Page 556.

18.7 MANAGING RESISTANCE TO CHANGE

Although resistance to change is a common phenomenon in organizations, it must be
noted that not all changes are resisted. In fact, if we look at any organization closely we
would probably find that far more changes are accepted than resisted. The traditional
view of resistance to change treated it as something to be overcome, and many
organizational attempts to reduce the resistance have only served to intensify it. The
contemporary view holds that resistance is simply a form of feedback and that this
feedback can be sued very productively to manage the change process. One key to
managing resistance is to plan for it and to be ready with a variety of strategies for using
the resistance as feedback and helping employees negotiate the transition. Some tactics
have been suggested for sue in dealing with resistance to change.
(a)

300

Education and Communication: Communication about impending change is

essential if employees are to adjust effectively. The details of the change should
be provided, but equally important is the rationale behind the change. Employees

want to know why change is needed. If there is no good reason for it, why should
they favour the change? Providing accurate and timely information about the change
can help prevent unfounded fears and potentially damaging rumours from developing.
It is also beneficial to inform people about the potential consequences of the change.
Educating employees on new work procedures is often helpful.
(b)

Participation: It is difficult for individuals to resist a change decision in which they

participated. Prior to making a change, those opposed can be brought into the
decision process. When employees are allowed to participate, they are more
committed to the change.

(c)

Empathy and Support: Another strategy for managing resistance is providing

empathy and support to employees who have trouble dealing with the change.
Active listening is an excellent tool for identifying the reasons behind resistance
and for uncovering fears. An expression of concerns about the change can provide
important feedback that managers can use to improve the change process.

(d)

Negotiation: Another way to deal with potential resistance to change is to exchange

something of value for a lessening of the resistance. Where some persons in a
group clearly lose out in a change, and where groups have considerable power to
resist, negotiation and agreements are helpful. It becomes relatively easy to avoid
major resistance through negotiation. Negotiation as a tactic may be necessary
when resistance comes from a powerful source.

(e)

Manipulation and cooperation: Manipulation refers to covert influence attempts.

Twisting and distorting facts to make them appear more attractive, withholding
undesirable information and creating false rumours to get employees to accept a
change are all examples of manipulation. It involves giving individuals a desirable
role in design or implementation of change.

(f)

Coercion: Coercion is the application of direct threats or force on the resisters.

They essentially force people to accept a change by explicitly or implicitly threatening
them with the loss of their jobs, promotion possibilities and transferring them. Coercion
is mostly applied where speed is essential in implementing change and the change
initiator possesses considerable power.

Organisational Change

A Change Readily Accepted

As noted in the text, not all changes are resisted. If we examine a change readily accepted,
we can learn some important principles of how to manage change effectively. The authors'
place of residence is not noted for its mild winters. In fact, it can get downright miserable,
notwithstanding the many days of sunshine we get and the many winter activities available.
Temperatures can reach 40 below zero and if the wind blows, the wind blows, the wind-chill
factor can hit 60 or 70 below. Any winter day will see hundreds, perhaps thousands of
Winnipeggers at the airport boarding flights to various places such as Mexico, Florida, the
Bahamas, or California. All of these people are going through a major change process:
Change of physical location (which often means a major cultural change as well), change in
daily habits, manner of dress, and social contacts. By any measure, these are major changes.
Yet, not only are they not resisting the change, they are even paying large sums for the
privilege!
A simple analysis of this change shows the following reasons why there is no resistance:
1.

It is their choice to experience the change.

2.

Each agrees the change is for the better.

3.

The change satisfies an important need for them.

4.

Each person is fully informed about the change.

Contd...

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Principles of Management and

Organisational Behaviour

5.

The change is planned in advance.

6.

Each person anticipates having a positive experience with the change.

If these principles could be incorporated into organizational changes, perhaps resistance

to change would be reduced.
Source: Jerry L Gray and Frederick A Starke "Organizational Behaviour - Concepts and Applications (3rd Edition) Charles
E. Merrill Publishing Company Columbus (1984) Page 556.

Check Your Progress 2

1.

Why do people resist change?

2.

How do we manage resistance to change?

18.8 LET US SUM UP

Change in fact, is accelerating in our society. Meeting this challenge of change is the
primary responsibility of management. An organization lacking adaptability to change
has no future. Adaptability to change is a necessary quality of good management.
Practically everything a manager does is in some way concerned with implementing
change. Although organizational changes are important, managers should try to institute
changes only when they make strategic sense. Adaptability to change is a necessary
quality of good management practice.

18.9 LESSON END ACTIVITY

Visit any organisation of your choice and discuss the change management strategies
incorporated by that organisation.

18.10 KEYWORDS
Managing Change
Change Agents
Resistance to Change

18.11 QUESTIONS FOR DISCUSSION

1.

What are the major reasons individuals resist change? How can organizations deal
with resistance?

2.

What are the major external and internal forces for change in organizations?

3.

What is a change agent? Who plays this role?

4.

What can change agents affect?

5.

Why is participation considered such an effective technique for lessening resistance

to change?

6.

"Resistance to change is an irrational response". Do you agree or disagree? Explain.

18.12 SUGGESTED READINGS

Ashburner L. (1990) "Impact of Technological and Organizational Change",
Personnel Review U.K.
302

Boss R.W. (1989) "Organizational development in Health care", Addison-Wesley

Mass; Reading.

Organisational Change

Burke W. W. (1989) Organisation Development: A Normative View", Addison-Wesley

Mass; Reading.
Clement R.W. (1992) "The Changing Face of Organization Development: Views of
a manager - turned-Academic". Business Horizons.
Cole R.L. and Pace L.A. (1991) "Power to Change: The Case of TVA", Training and
Development.
Cummings T.G.. and Huse E.F. (1989) "Organization Development and Change", St.
Paul, Minn: West.
Darcy T. and Kleiner B.H. (1991) "Leadership for Change in a Turbulent
Environment", Leadership and Organizational Development Journal.
John B. Nicholas, (1982) "The Comparative Impact of Organization Development
Interventions on Hard Criteria Measures", Academy of Management Review, October
1982.
Howe M.A. (1989) "Using Imagery to Facilitate Organisational Development and
Change". Group and Organization studies.
Ricardo R.J. (1991) "The What, Why, and How of Change Management".
Manufacturing Systems.
Varney G..H. (1989) "Building Productive Teams", Jossey-Bass, San Francisco.
William G. Dyer (1989) "Team Building: A Microcosm of the Past, Present, and
Future of O.D". Academy of Management OD Newsletter, winter 1989.
P.G. Aquinas, Organizational Behaviour, Excel Books, New Delhi.

Case

Microsoft: Bill Gate's Own Culture Club

It all comes from the top, Microsofters say over and over again, when speaking of Bill Gates
and his influence on the organization. "He wants to be Henry Ford, Andrew Carnegie, and
the Rockefellers all rolled together," claims a critic. In a way, Gates deserves to be the
arrogant dictator. He's the one who understood the value of the little program called DOS
(Disk Operating System) and licensed it to IBM. Now he's the second richest man in the
United States. He expects his employees to have the same guts, drive, and dedication that
he does. He creates an excitement that his workers find alluring. "It feels really good to be
around really bright people, to be part of the energy, the growth, all that money," observes
Ray Bily, a former microsofter.
Part of the culture - the Microsoft way - is hiring the right people, those who share Microsoft
assumptions and values. Gates likes them young; half his employees are now hired right
from college, and he'd like to increase that to 80 per cent. (The original Microsoft staff is
now aging into its thirties.) Since the company has recently experienced some serious
challenge from the competition, the new twenty something employees are even more driven,
a lot less informal than the oldsters. As the organization grows larger (15000 employees in
all), it gets harder to control exactly what type of people are hired. Karen Fries notes,
"We've just grown so fast. The real challenge is to find people who have the religion."
To instill the religion, Microsoft sends new hires such as marketing staff to Marketing
Managers Boot Camp, a three week training camp in the Microsoft Way. One employee
who lasted only three months recalls, "It was like camp. You all wear company T-Shirts; go
through brainwashing on the Way." Rites and rituals, systems and procedures, even stories
and myths are clearly part of the way.
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How does Microsoft use its culture to create a sustained competitive advantage? First, as
a leader Gates is never satisfied with being No. 2 in any arena Microsoft enters. He uses
small, young, aggressive teams to get jobs done. And he maintains a vision: a computer in
every home (with, of course, Microsoft products). Second, Microsoft is not shy about
imbuing its employees with strong shared assumptions and values, which strengthen their
productivity as individuals and as a whole. Finally, the company responds quickly to
change because it values flexibility as an important factor in doing business. Certainly
there are obstacles along the Information Highway. But Microsoft is likely to find a way
around them, or through them. If not, the company will redefine them.
1.

Do you believe the technique of brainwashing employees is ethically correct? Discuss.

2.

"The Company responds quickly to change because its values are flexible" - Discuss.

Source: Michael Meyer, "Culture Club," Newsweek, July 11, 1994, pages 38 - 44.

304

LESSON

19
ORGANISATIONAL DEVELOPMENT

CONTENTS
19.0 Aims and Objectives
19.1 Introduction
19.2 Organization Development: An Introduction
19.3 Definition of Organization Development (OD)
19.4 Objectives of OD Programmes
19.5 Basic Assumptions of OD
19.6 Types of OD Activities
19.6.1 OD for the Individual
19.6.2 OD for Two or Three People
19.6.3 OD for Terms and Groups
19.7 Values OD
19.7.1 Importance of Values
19.7.2 Formation of Values
19.7.3 Types of Values
19.8 OD Interventions or Techniques
19.9 Change Management
19.9.1 Nature of Change
19.9.2 Causes for Resistance to Change
19.9.3 Planned Organizational Change
19.10 Let us Sum up
19.11 Lesson-end Activity
19.12 Keywords
19.13 Questions for Discussion
19.14 Suggested Readings

19.0 AIMS AND OBJECTIVES

After studying this lesson you will be able to:
(i)

understand meaning, objectives and types of organisational development.

(ii)

describe role of values in organisational development.

(iii) explain techniques of organisational development.

Principles of Management and

Organisational Behaviour

19.1 INTRODUCTION
The term "Organization Development" (OD) was coined by Richard Beckhard in the
mid 1950s, as a response to the need for integrating organizational needs with individual
needs. OD came into prominence in the 1960s. OD arose in response to needs.
Organizational development is an intervention strategy that uses group processes to
focus on the whole culture of an organization in order to bring about planned change.
According to Harold M. F. Rush, OD "seeks to change beliefs, attitudes, values, structures,
and practices so that the organization can better adapt to technology and live with the
fast pace of change". It seeks to use behavioural science knowledge to help organization
and to adjust more rapidly to change.

19.2 ORGANIZATION DEVELOPMENT: AN

INTRODUCTION
Organizational development is an intervention strategy that uses group processes to
focus on the whole culture of an organizational development in order to bring about a
planned change. It makes heavy uses of laboratory training approaches such as role
playing, gaming and sensitivity training. It is important from the points of view of society,
customers and workers themselves because overall costs are reduced that may be a
result of reduction of wastage of human efforts and machine etc. In addition to that
quality of the product improves and more effective organizational climate is developed.
Wendell L. French and Cecil H. Bell Jr., traces the development of OD to the pioneering
effort of The National Training Laboratories and Esso Standard Oil Company who began
working on the problem of building better organizations and eventually OD evolved from
their effort. There are mainly two causes that made OD necessary:
1.

The reward structure on the job did not adequately reinforce conventional training,
so it often failed to carry over to the job.

2.

The second cause is the fast pace of change itself, which requires organizations to
be extremely effective in order to survive and prosper.

OD attempts to develop the whole organization so that it can respond to change more
uniformly and capable. OD is not without its shortfall Beckhard described the dilemma
of integrating organizational needs with individual needs in the following words:*
"If we are talking about the basic dilemma of managing work, the management
problem has two horns, one horn is, how do you take all that human energy and
channel it towards the organization's mission? The other horn is , how do you
organize the work, the communication patterns, the decision-making, the norms
and values, the ground rules so that people's individual needs for self-worth,
achievement, satisfaction and so on are significantly met at the work place?
A great deal of attention has been given to the second horn of the dilemma. But
that alone does not solve the problem any more than the other way around. So the
dilemma is, how do you manage the dilemma and not how you manage one horn of
it. OD tries to work out and organize the interaction between the two".

19.3 DEFINITION OF ORGANIZATION DEVELOPMENT (OD)

According to Wendell L. French and Cecil H. Bell, Jr. "Organization Development is a
systematic process for applying behavioural science principles and practices in
organizations to increase individual and organizational effectiveness".

306

Beckhard, Richard, "Organizational Development: Strategies and Models", Addison Wesley, 1969.

According to Cummings and Worly - Organization Development is "a systematic

application of behavioural science knowledge to the planned development and
reinforcement of organizational strategies, structures, and processes for improving an
organization's effectiveness."

Organisational Development

In the words of Burke "Organization development is a planned process of change in an

organization's culture through the utilization of behavioural science technologies research
and theory".
According to Schmuck and Miles "OD can be defined as a planned and sustained effort
to apply behavioural science for system improvement, using reflexive, self-analytic
methods".
According to Burk and Hornstien "Organization development is a process of planned
change - change of an organization's culture from one which avoids an examination of
social processes (especially decision making, planning and communication) to one which
institutionalizes and legitimizes this examination".
According to Warren Bennis - "Organization development is a response to change, a
complex educational strategy intended to change the beliefs, attitudes and structure of
organization so that they can better adapt to new technologies, markets and challenges".
American Society for Training and Development, defined OD as, "An effort (a) planned,
(b) organization wide, (c) managed from the top, in order to (d) increase organizational
effectiveness and health, through (e) planned intervention in the organizations "processes"
using behavioural science knowledge".
From the above definitions we can say that organization development is an organizational
improvement strategy. The term "Organization Development" (OD) may be defined as a
technique for bringing change in the entire organization.
In the late 1950s and early 1960s it emerged out of insights from group dynamics and
from the theory and practice of planned change. Organization development is about how
people and organizations function and how to get them to function better. OD programmes
are long-term, planned, sustained efforts. It is based on knowledge from behavioural
science disciplines such as psychology, social psychology, sociology, anthropology, systems
theory, organizational behaviour, organization theory and management. The two major
goals of OD programmes are:
(i)

To improve the functioning of individuals, teams and the total organization, and

(ii)

To teach organization members how to continuously improve their own functioning.

It is a modern approach to the management of change and the development of human

resource. It is an organization wide planned change for improvement through the use of
behavioural science techniques. Organizational Development programmes lead to
improved organization performance through an improved decision making climate.

19.4 OBJECTIVES OF OD PROGRAMMES

The objectives of OD as given by Wendell French are given below:1.

To build and enhance interpersonal trust, communication, co-operation and support

among all individuals and group through the organization.

2.

To encourage an analytical problem solving approach in a team spirit.

3.

To enhance the sense of belonging of individuals to the organization so that the

individual and organizational goals are synchronized.

4.

To extend the process of decision making to the lowest operational level.

5.

To increase personal responsibility for planning and implementing the plan.

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Box 19.1: Distinguishing Characteristics of Organization Development

1.

OD focuses on culture and processes.

2.

Specifically, OD encourages collaboration between organization leaders and members

in managing culture and processes.

3.

Teams of all kinds are particularly important for accomplishing tasks and are targets
for OD activities.

4.

OD focuses on the human and social side of the organization and in so doing also
intervenes in the technological and structural sides.

5.

Participation and involvement in problem solving and decision making by all levels of
the organization are hallmarks of OD.

6.

OD focuses on total system change and views organizations as complex social systems.

7.

OD practitioners are facilitators, collaborators, and co-learners with the client system.

8.

An overarching goal is to make the client system able to solve its problems on its own
by teaching the skills and knowledge of continuous learning through self-analytical
methods. OD views organization improvement as an ongoing process in the context
of a constantly changing environment.

9.

OD relies on an action research model with extensive participation by client system members.

10.

OD takes a developmental view that seeks the betterment of both individuals and the
organization. Attempting to create "Win-win" solutions is standard practice in OD
programmes.

Source: Wendell L. French, Cecil H. Bell, Jr., "Organization Development - Behavioural Science Interventions for Organization
Improvement" (6th Edition) Prentice Hall of India (P) Ltd. (2003) Page 29.

19.5 BASIC ASSUMPTIONS OF OD

The assumptions underlying OD programmes are:
1.

2.

308

Assumptions of dealing with Individuals: The two basic assumptions about

individuals in organizations are:(a)

Most individuals have drives towards personal growth and development. They
want to develop their potential and therefore should be provided with an
environment that is both supportive and challenging. In other words, individuals
want personal growth and development, which can be attained in a supportive
and challenging work situation.

(b)

Most people desire to make, and are capable of making, a greater contribution
to attain organization goals than most organizational environments permit.
The implication of this assumption is that people are experts. Organizations
must remove obstacles and barriers and reward success.

Assumptions of dealing with Groups: These assumptions relate to the importance

of work teams.
(a)

The most psychologically relevant reference groups for most people are the
work group. The work group greatly influences feelings of satisfaction and
competence. Therefore, individual goals should be integrated with group goals.

(b)

Most people interact co-operatively with at least one small reference group.

(c)

Work groups are the best way to satisfy social and emotional needs at work.
Therefore, the growth of individual members is facilitated by relationships,
which are open, supportive and trusting.

(d)

The suppression of feelings adversely affects problem solving personal growth

and satisfaction with one's work. Attitudinal and motivational problems in
organizations require interactive and transactional solutions. Such problems have
the greatest chance of constructive solution if all parties in the system alter their
mutual relationship, co-operation is always more effective than conflict.

3.

Assumptions for designing Organizations: These assumptions relate to the

importance of designing organizations.
(a)

Traditional hierarchical forms of organizations are obsolete. Therefore,

experimenting with new organizational structures and new forms of authority
is imperative (very important/ essential). Creating cooperative rather than
competitive organizational dynamics is a primary task of the organization.

(b)

An optimistic, developmental set of assumptions about people is likely to reap

rewards beneficial to both the organization and its members. Co-operation is
always more beneficial.

(c)

People are an organization's most important resource. They are the source of
productivity and profits and should be treated with care. An organization can
achieve higher productivity only when the individual goals are integrated with
organizational goals.

Organisational Development

Goals of Organization Development

Edwin B. Flippo has given the following seven specific goals of OD. They are:1. Decision-making on the basis of competence rather than authority.
2. Creatively resolving conflicts through confrontation designed to replace win-lose
situations with win-win types.
3. Reducing dysfunctional competition and maximizing collaboration.
4. Increasing commitment and a sense of "ownership" of organizational objectives
throughout the work force.
5. Increasing the degree of interpersonal trust and support.
6. Creating a climate in which an growth, development and renewal are a natural part
of the enterprise's daily operation.
7. Developing a communication system characterized by mutual openness and condor
in solving organizational problems.
Box 19.2: Tools and Methods for applying Organizational Development Strategies
DIAGNOSTIC STRATEGIES
CONSTANTS

This strategy consists of bringing in objective outsiders (consultants to

analyze and conduct audits of existing policies, procedures, and problems.
Consultants can be individuals or groups and may act as change agents as
well.

SURVEYS

Surveys consist of interviews or questionnaires used to assess the attitudes,

complaints, problems and unmet needs of employees. Surveys are usually
conducted by outsiders and guarantee anonymity to participants.

GROUP
DISCUSSIONS

Group discussions are periodic meetings conducted by managers to uncover

problems and sources of their subordinates discomfort and dissatisfaction.

TRAINING
PROGRAMMES

Training programs are ongoing or special efforts to improve or increase skill

levels change or install attitudes, or increase the knowledge needed to
perform present jobs more effectively and efficiently.

MEETINGS AND
SEMINARS

As change strategies, meetings or seminars are gatherings help to explore

mutual problems and seek mutually agreeable solutions. Such group
sessions may be chaired by insiders or outsiders and may be used to prepare
people for changes in advance of implementation.

GRID OD

Grid OD is a six-phase program based on the leadership grid. Its purpose is

management and organizational development. The first two phases focus on
management development.
The last four phases are devoted to
organizational development. The six phases are laboratory training, team
development, inter-group development, organizational goal setting, goal
attainment, and stabilization.

CHANGE STRATEGIES

Source: Warren R Plunkett, Raymond F Attner, Gemmy S Allen "Management - Meeting and Exceeding
Customer Expectations" South-Western Thomson Learning, Australia (Seventh Edition) page 325.

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Principles of Management and

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The choice depends on the circumstances. Restrictions the managers have to take into
account including limits on time and money and lack of skill at implementing a strategy. The
choice of a strategy usually results from conferences and discussions involving those who
will be most directly affected. The experiences, feelings and perceptions of conference
participants help determine if their parts of the organization are ready for change and for
OD techniques. The success of OD depends on a high level of receptiveness to change.

Purpose of Organizational Development

The main purpose of OD according to Burton is "to bring about a system of organizational
renewal that can effectively cope with environmental changes. In doing so, OD strives
to maximize organizational effectiveness as well as individual work satisfaction".
Organizational development is the most comprehensive strategy for intervention. It involves
all the activities and levels of management in ongoing problems that respond to external
and internal sources. The OD process is cyclic as shown in the figure below:
FORCES
FOR
CHANGE

ORGANIZATIONAL
DIGNOSIS

FEEDBACK

IDENTIFICATION
OF ALTERNATIVE
STRATEGIES

MEASURMENT
AND
EVALUATION

DEVELOPMENT OF
THE CHANGE
STRATEGY

IMPLEMENTATION
OF THE CHANGE
STRATEGY

Source: Gene F. Burton, "Organizational Development - A Systematic Process", Management World (March 1975).

Figure 19.1: OD Process Cycle

Check Your Progress 1

1.

Define OD.

2.

What are the objectives of a OD programme?

3.

Explain the basic assumptions of OD.

4.

What are the goals of OD?

5.

Explain the purpose of OD.

19.6 TYPES OF OD ACTIVITIES

The different types of OD activities may be divided into the following classification:

310

(a)

For the Individual

(b)

OD for two or three people

(c)

OD for Teams or Groups

(d)

OD for Inter-group Relations

(e)

OD for the total organization

19.6.1 OD for the Individual

Organisational Development

Sensitivity Training: Sensitivity training was an early and fairly widespread OD

technique. The purpose of sensitivity training sessions or T-groups (T for training) is to
change the behaviour of the people through unstructured group interactions. In "T" groups,
about ten participants are guided by a trained leader to increase their sensitivity and skills
in handling interpersonal relationships. Members are brought together in a free and open
environment, away from work places, in which participants discuss freely, aided by
facilitator. No formal agenda is provided. The role of the facilitator is to create an
opportunity for members to express their ideas, beliefs, and attitudes.
The objectives of sensitivity training are to provide the participants with increased
awareness of their own behaviour and greater sensitivity to the behaviour of others.
Sensitivity training is less frequently used by organizations nowadays, and participants
are usually screened to make sure that they can withstand the anxiety raised by a T
group. Precautions are also taken to ensure that attendance is truly voluntary.

19.6.2 OD for Two or Three People

Transactional Analysis (TA): When two people interact with each other there results a
social transaction. TA was pioneered by Eric Berne. TA encourages people to recognize the
context of their communications. It encourages people to be more open and honest and to
address the context of their messages. TA was popularised by Thomas Harris in the 1960s.
Transactional Analysis concentrates on styles and content of communication (transactions or
messages) between people. It teaches people to send messages that are clear and responsible.
Transactional analysis attempts to reduce destructive communication habits or "games" in
which the intent or full meaning of messages is obscured.
TA has found its acceptance everywhere because of several advantages associated with it.
Box 19.3: Advantages and Disadvantages of Transactional Analysis

Advantages of Transactional Analysis

l

The bases of TA are simple to learn.

The validity of TA is demonstrable.

It provides a means for reducing the amount of bad feelings experienced by an

individual.

It increases efficient use of time.

Helps to promote effective communication.

It reinforces and implements other management development activities, including

communication, leadership, brainstorming, management by objective, job enrichment,
conflict resolution, and the like.

Disadvantages of Transactional Analysis:

l

Few scientific studies of its outcome are available.

Ego states, basic to understand and utilize TA, are difficult to define.

If inappropriately applied, TA tends to encourage "amateur psychologising."

TA jargon may lead to more "cuteness" than insight into human encounter.

It can be used to put down, or a discount, in inter-personal relations.

Source: Morrison and O'Hearne, "Practical Transactional Analysis in Management", Wiley Publishing
Company, California (1977) page 1.

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Eric Berne uses simple day-to-day language to explain the dynamics of personality and
its application for human development. His theory has the following components:
Structural Analysis: A personality according to Berne consists of three ego states. He
defines an ego state as "a consistent pattern of feeling and experience directly related to
a corresponding consistent pattern of behaviour". Berne calls these three ego states as:
Parent, Adult, and Child.
The parent ego-state - is "a set of feelings attitudes and behaviour patterns which resemble
those of the parental figure". The parent ego state is authoritative, dogmatic, overprotective,
controlling, nurturing, critical, and righteous.
The Adult ego-state - is "an autonomous set of feelings, attitudes and behaviour patterns
which are adapted to the current reality". The adult is the "thinking" ego state. In dealing
with other people the adult state is characterised by fairness and objectivity.
The Child ego-state - is "a set of feelings, attitudes and behaviour patterns which are
relics of the individual's own childhood". The child ego state represents the childish,
dependent, and immature part of a person's personality.
(i) Transactional Analysis: A transaction is the act of communication or interaction
between two people. A transaction starts with a stimulus and ends with a response
to the stimulus. Since each individual involved in the transaction has three egostates; the transactions are between the various ego-states.
Depending on the kinds of ego states involved, the interaction can be complimentary,
crossed or ulterior.
(ii) Complimentary Transactions: These occur when the message sent or the
behaviour exhibited by one person's ego state receives the appropriate or expected
response from the other person's ego state. Since, these transactions meet the
needs and expectations of the initiators, communications flow freely, interactions
will continue as inter-personal relations will improve. There is, therefore, no scope
for conflict in complimentary transactions. Examples of complimentary transactions
are parent-parent, adult-adult, parent-adult, and child-child transactions.
(iii) Crossed Transactions: Crossed transactions are the source of much inter-personal
conflict in organization. The result can be hurt feelings and frustrations on the part
of the parties involved and possible dysfunctional consequences for the organization.
(iv) Ulterior Transactions: A message sent may have two targets (ego states). There
may be an overt message (open and expressed), but it may also contain a covert
message (a hidden one). Transactions with such messages are called ulterior
transactions. Ulterior transactions cause much damage to inter-personal relations.
(i) Life-position Analysis: Life position comprises certain deeply ingrained
convictions about the worth of the self and others. A person's conviction
about himself/herself may either be 'I'm OK' or "I'm not OK'. Similarly he/
she may look at others and think: 'You're OK' or "You're not OK'. Combining
these, we have four life positions:

Positive

Negative

I am OK
You are not OK

I am OK
You are OK

I am not OK
You are not OK

I am not OK
You are OK

Negative
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Figure 19.2: Life Positions

Positive

"I'm OK, you're OK". This is the healthy position.

"I'm OK, you're not OK". This is the paranoid position.

I'm not OK, you're OK". This is the depressive position.

I'm not OK, you're not OK". This is the futility position.

Organisational Development

Of the four life positions, the ideal one is I am OK, you are OK. It
shows healthy acceptance of self and others. This life position can be
learnt. The other life positions are less psychologically mature and less
effective. They have potential for interpersonal conflict.
(ii)

Games Analysis: A game is "a series of ulterior transactions with a

gimmick, leading to a well-defined pay-off". Bern's in his book "Games
People Play" describes more than 30 games people habitually play.

(iii) Script Analysis: Script analysis is detailing of specific life dramas that
people compulsively play out. Script analysis is a sophisticated and
complex part of TA. The following four most popular elements in the
script apparatus is discussed below:
Pay-off or curse: This is the way the parents tell the child to end its
life. According to Berne, the script pay-off will not take effect unless it
is accepted by the child.
Stoppers: Stoppers are injunctions or unfair negative commend from
the parent.
Counter script: Counter script messages are in the forms of slogans;
proverbs for example, work hard. These counter scripts determine the
person's style.
Programme: Programme is what the parent teaches the child to do in
order to live out the script.

19.6.3 OD for Teams and Groups

In process consultation, a consultant works with organizations members to help them
understand the dynamics of their working relationships in group or team situations. The
consultant helps the group members to change the ways they work together and to develop
the diagnostic and problem-solving skills they need for more effective problem solving.
Teams: Teams are also known by other terms such as empowered teams, self directed
teams and self management teams. Katzenbach and Smith have defined a team as "a
small number of people with complimentary skills who are committed to a common
purpose, common performance goals, and an approach for which they held themselves
mutually accountable". The most common types of teams are work teams, problemsolving teams, management teams and virtual teams.
Work teams: Work teams are primarily concerned with the work done by the organization.
Their principal focus is on using the organization's resources effectively.
Problem-solving teams: Problem-solving teams are temporary teams established to
attack specific problems in the work place. These teams generally offer recommendations
for others to implement. In problem solving teams, members share ideas or offer
suggestions on how work processes and methods can be improved.
Management teams: The primary job of management teams is to coach and counsel
other teams to be self managing by making decisions within the teams. These teams
consist of managers from various areas and coordinate work teams.
Virtual teams: Virtual teams are the teams that may never actually meet together in the
same room their activities take place on the computer via teleconferencing and other
electronic information systems. Virtual teams use computer technology to tie together
physically dispersed members in order to achieve a common goal.

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Groups: A work group is a group that interacts primarily to share information and to
make decisions to help each member perform within his or her area of responsibility.
The work group is an even stronger source of satisfaction when members have similar
attitudes and values. The work group provides group members with opportunities for
interaction with each other.
Check Your Progress 2

1.

State the different types of OD.

2.

What are the advantages and disadvantages of Transactional Analysis?

Team Building: Team building utilizes high-interaction group activities to increase trust
and openness among team members. Team building is a process of diagnosing and
improving the effectiveness of a work group with particular attention to work procedures
and inter-personal relationship within it.
A related approach, analyzes the activities, resource allocations, and relationships of a
group or team to improve its effectiveness. This technique can be used, for example, to
develop a sense of unity among members of a new committee. Team building can be
directed at two different types of teams or working groups: an existing or permanent team
made up of a manager and his or her employees, often called a family group; or a new
group that either has been formed to solve a specific problem or has been created through
a merger or other structural change in the organization, which we will call a special group.
For both kinds of groups, team-building activities aim at diagnosing barriers to effective
team performance, improving task accomplishment, improving relationship between team
members, and improving processes operative in the team, such as communication and task
assignment. The table below summarizes these activities for both family and special groups.
Table 19.1: Team Building Activities
Activity

Family group

Special group

D iagnosis

D iagnostic meetings:
H ow are we doing?

Diagnostic meetings:
W here would you like to go?

T ask
accomplishment

Problem solving, decisionmaking, role clarification,

goal setting, etc.

Special problems, role and goal

clarification, resource utilisation,
etc.

B uilding and
maintaining
relationships

Focus on effective interpersonal relationships,

including boss-subordinate
and peer.

Focus on inter-personal or interunit conflict and underutilisation

of other team members as
resources.

M anagement of
group processes

Focus on understanding
group processes and group
culture.

Focus on communication, decisionmaking, and task allocations.

Role analysis and

role negotiations

T echniques used for

clarification and definition

T echniques used for role

clarification and definition.

Source: Wendell L French and Cecil H Bell Jr., Organization Development: Behavioural Science Interventions
for Organization Improvement Prentice Hall, Englewood Cliffs, N.J Page 104.

314

Diagnostic meetings may involve the total group or several subgroups and require only
a brief time a day or less to identify strengths and problem areas. Actual team
building requires a subsequent longer meeting, ideally held away from the workplace.
The consultant interviews participants beforehand and organizes the meetings around
common themes. The group proceeds to examine the issues, rank them in order of

importance, study their underlying dynamics, and decide on a course of action to bring
about those changes perceived as necessary. A follow-up meeting at a later time may
then evaluate the success of the action steps.

Organisational Development

Box 19.4: Eight Tasks of Transition Management

TEAM IN LEADING CHANGES

1. Establishing context for change and providing guidelines.
2. Stimulate conversation.
3. Provide appropriate resources.
4. Co-ordinate and align projects.
5. Ensure congruence of messages, activities, policies and behaviour.
6. Provide opportunities for joint creations.
7. Anticipate, identify, and address peoples problems.
8. Prepare the critical mass.
Source: - Jeanne D. Duck, Managing Change: The Art of Balancing. Harvard Business Review.
Nov\Dec (1993) Pages 109-118.

19.6.4 OD for Inter-group Relations

Inter-group development seeks to change the attitudes, stereotypes and perceptions that
groups have of each other. Such stereotypes can have an obviously negative impact on
the coordinative efforts between the departments. To permit an organizations managers
to assess the health of the organization and set up plans of action for improving it, the
confrontation meeting may be used. This is a one-day meeting of all of an organizations
managers in which they discuss problems, analyze the underlying causes, and plan remedial
actions. The confrontation meeting is typically used after a major organizational change,
such as a merger or the introduction of a new technology.
Although there are several approaches for improving inter-group relations, the most
sought after method is problem solving. In this method, each group meets independently
to develop lists of its perception of itself, the other group and how it believes the other
group perceives it. Differences are clearly articulated, and the groups look for the causes
of disparities. Subgroups, with members from each of the conflicting groups, can now be
created for further diagnosis and to begin to formulate possible alternative actions that
will improve relations.

19.6.5 OD for the Total Organization

OD attempts to develop the whole organization so that it can respond to change effectively.
Change is so abundant in modern society that organizations need all their parts working
together in order to solve problems. OD is a comprehensive programme that is intended
to assure that all parts of the organization are well coordinated.
The survey feedback technique can be used to improve the operations of the total
organization. It involves conducting attitude and other surveys and systematically reporting
the results to organization members. Members then determine what actions need to be
taken to solve the problems and exploit the opportunities uncovered in the surveys.
Everyone in an organization can participate in survey feedback. The data from the survey
feedback is collected through a questionnaire and tabulated. The data so collected then
become the springboard for identifying problems and clarifying issues that may be creating
difficulties for people.

19.7 VALUES OD
Another source of individual differences is value. Values exist at a deeper level than
attitudes and are more general and basic in nature. We use them to evaluate our own
behaviour and that of others. Value is an enduring belief that a specific mode of conducts

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or end state of existence is personally and socially preferable to the alternative modes of
conduct or end states of existence. Once it is internalised it becomes consciously or
unconsciously, a standard or criterion for guiding action, for developing and maintaining
attitudes toward relevant objects and situation, for justifying ones own and others actions
and attitudes for morally judging oneself and others and for comparing oneself with
others. Value, therefore, is a standard or yardstick to guide actions, attitudes, evaluations
and justifications of the self and others.
Ronald D White and David A Bednar have defined value as a concept of the desirable,
an internalised criterion or standard of evaluation a person possesses. Such concepts
and standards are relatively few and determine or guide an individuals evaluations of
the many objects encountered in everyday life.
Values are tinged with moral flavour, involving an individuals judgement of what is right,
good or desirable. Thus values:
l

Provide standards of competence and morality.

Are fewer in number than attitudes.

Transcend specific objects, situations or persons.

Are relatively permanent and resistant to change, and

Are more central to the core of a person.

Individuals learn values as they grow and mature. They may change over the life span of
an individual develops a sense of self. Cultures, societies, and organizations shape values.

19.7.1 Importance of Values

Values are important to the study of organizational behaviour because they lay the
foundation for the understanding of attitudes and motivation and because they influence
out perceptions. Individuals enter an organization with preconceived notions of what
ought and what ought not to be. For example, If Jeevan enters IG Ferns and Curtains
with a view that salary on piece-rate system is right and on time-rate basis is wrong. He
is likely to be disappointed if the company allocates salary on time-rate basis. His
disappointment is likely to breed his job dissatisfaction. This will, in turn, adversely affect
his performance, his attitude and in turn, behaviour would be different if his values are
aligned with the companys reward/pay policy.

19.7.2 Formation of Values

Values are learned and acquired primarily through experiences with people and institutions.
Parents, for example, will have substantial influence on their childrens values. A parents
reaction to everyday events demonstrates what is good and bad, acceptable and
unacceptable and important and unimportant. Values are also taught and reinforced in
schools, religious organizations, and social groups. As we grow and develop, each source
of influence contributes to our definition what is important in life. Cultural mores have
influence of the formation of values. Basic convictions of what is good or bad are derived
from ones own culture.

19.7.3 Types of Values

Allport and his associates categorized values into six types.

316

1.

Theoretical: Interested in the discovery of truth through reasoning and systematic

thinking.

2.

Economic: Interest in usefulness and practicality, including the accumulation of

wealth.

3.

Aesthetic: Interest in beauty, form and artistic harmony.

4.

Social: Interest in people and love as a human relationship.

5.

Political: Interest in graining power and influencing people.

6.

Religious: Interest in unity and understanding the cosmos as a whole

Organisational Development

Instrumental and Terminal Values: Rokeach distinguishes between two types of values:
Instrumental and Terminal.
Instrumental Value: Instrumental values reflect the means to achieving goals; that is,
they represent the acceptable behaviour to be used in achieving some end state.
Instrumental values identified by Rokeach include ambition, honesty, self-sufficiency
and courageousness.
Instrumental value refers to a single belief that always takes the form: I believe that such
and such a mode of conduct (example Honesty, courage, etc.) is personally and socially
preferable in all situations with respect to all objects. An instrumental value is a tool or
means for acquiring a terminal value.
Terminal Value: Terminal values, in contrast, represent the goals to be achieved, or the
end states of existence. Rokeach identified happiness, love, pleasure, self-respect, and
freedom among the terminal values.
Terminal value takes a comparable form: I believe that such and such an end state of
existence (example salvation, or world at peace etc.) is personally and socially worth
striving for. A terminal value is an ultimate goal in a desired status or outcome.
Work Values: Work values are important because they affect how individuals behave
on their jobs in terms of what is right and wrong. The work values most relevant to
individuals are: 1.

Achievement: Achievement is a concern for the advancement of ones career.

This is shown in such behaviours as working hard and seeking opportunities to
develop new skills.

2.

Concern for Others: Concern for others reflects caring, compassionate behaviour
such as encouraging other employees or helping others work on difficult tasks.
These behaviours constitute organizational citizenship.

3.

Honesty: Honesty is accurately providing information and refusing to mislead others

for personal gain.

4.

Fairness: Fairness emphasizes impartiality and recognises different points of view.

19.8 OD INTERVENTIONS OR TECHNIQUES

OD interventions are sets of structured activities in which selected organizational units
(target groups or individuals) engage in a task or a sequence of tasks with the goals of
organizational improvement and individual development. The term organizational
development (OD) essentially focuses on techniques or programmes to change people
and the nature and quality of interpersonal work relationships. The most popular OD
techniques are described in the figure hereunder:

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Principles of Management and

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A method of changing behaviour
behavior through
unstructured group interaction

A technique for assessing attitudes

and perceptions, identifying
discrepancies in these, and resolving
the differences by using survey
information in feedback groups.

Sensitivity
Training
Team
Building

Survey
Feedback

An outside consultant helps

the manager understand
how interpersonal
processes are affecting the
way work is being done

Activities that help

team members learn
how each member
things and works

MORE EFFECTIVE
INTERPERSONAL
WORK
RELATIONSHIPS

Process
Consultation

Inter-group
Development

Changing the attitudes,

stereotypes and
perceptions that work
groups have about each
other

Source: Stephen P Robbins and Mary Coulter Management (Seventh Edition) Prentice Hall of India (Private) Limited, New Delhi
(2003) Page 345.

Figure 19.3: Organizational Development Techniques

The common thread in these techniques is that each seeks to bring about changes in or
among organizations peoples. Some of the O.D interventions are explained below:1.

Sensitivity Training: Sensitivity training is also known as laboratory training,

encounter groups, and T-groups. It is a method of changing behaviour through
unstructured group interaction. If individuals lack awareness of how others perceive
them, then the successful T-group can affect more realistic self-perceptions, greater
group cohesiveness, and a reduction in dysfunctional interpersonal conflicts.

2.

Survey Feedback: Survey feedback makes use of questionnaires to identify

discrepancies among member perceptions and attempts to solve these differences.

3.

Process Consultation: The purpose of process consultation is for an outside

consultant to assist a client (usually a manager) to perceive, understand and act
upon process events. The consultant gives a client insight into what is going on
around him (the client), within him, and between him and other people. The consultant
then goes to identify the processes that need improvement.

4.

Team Building: Team building utilizes high-interaction group activities to increase

trust and openness among team members. Team building can be applied within
groups or at the inter-group level where activities are interdependent.
Table 19.2: Contrast of Sensitivity Training and Team Development

Characteristic
Participants
Location
Subject
Structure
Trainer
Feedback

Sensitivity training
Strangers
Isolated
Here and now
Little or none
Yes
Honest

Team development
Fellow Workers
Isolated
Company Problems
Some
Yes
Somewhat honest

Source: - Edwin B. Flippo Personnel Management (Sixth Edition) McGraw-Hill Book Company, New York (1984) page 220.

5.

318

Inter-group Development: Inter-group development seeks to change the attitudes,

stereotypes, and perceptions that groups have of each other.

Evaluating the Effectiveness of OD: Since OD requires an ongoing, long-term effort

to bring about lasting change in an organizations technology, structure and people, a

successful OD programme takes a significant investment of money and time. Both are
needed for managers to adequately diagnose the problem, select the strategy, and evaluate
the effectiveness of the programme.

Organisational Development

Managers can measure the effectiveness by comparing the results of the programme to
the goals before it was implemented. Were the goals met? If not, why not? Perhaps they
were too rigid and too hard to achieve. Perhaps the problems were inadequately defined,
and the inadequate definition resulted in the choice of an inappropriate solution. Perhaps
managers tried to institute changes before people were prepared for them. Regardless
of the cause, the results of the OD analysis will provide feedback needed for later
changes.
OD is an expression of managers efforts to stay flexible. Managers recognize that
events inside and outside the organization can happen quite suddenly and can create
pressure for change. OD provides the personnel and mechanism to deal with change;
control its evolution; and direct its impact on organizational structure, technology, and
people.
The Future and OD: The environment in which organizations operate is increasingly
turbulent in an era if global, national and regional commercial competitiveness. Yesterdays
strategies are not likely to work in tomorrows workplaces. Top-down autocratically
directed, rigidly hierarchical, fear-generating organizations are giving way to something
new. Increasingly, organizations will be flatter, with smaller groups and units. OD will be
a major player in assisting organizations to shift to and sustain this new paradigm which
proclaims that the most innovative and successful organizations will be those that derive
their strength and vitality from adaptable, committed team players. Thus, the OD process
should include:
l

Careful tuning in to the perceptions and feelings of people.

Creating safe conditions for surfacing perceptions and feelings.

Involving people in diagnosing the strengths and weaknesses of their organizations

and making action plans for improvement.

Using qualified third parties consultants.

Redesigning work so that it is more meaningful and motivating.

Focusing on team work.

Check Your Progress 3

1.

Explain the different types of team building activities.

2.

What is sensitive training?

3.

Explain the future of OD.

19.9 CHANGE MANAGEMENT

There is nothing permanent expect change. Change is induced by the internal and external
forces. Meeting this challenge of change is the primary responsibility of management.
An organization lacking adaptability to change has no future. Adaptability to change is a
necessary quality of good management. Modern managers have the responsibility to
devise the management practices to meet the new challenges and make use of the
opportunities for the growth of the organization.
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19.9.1 Nature of Change

The environment of every business unit is influenced by two main factors:
(i) Internal Factors: Internal factors are activities that can be controlled by the
management. Internal factors may be sub-divided into six categories:
l
Managerial changes
l
Operational changes
l
Growth changes
l
Plant changes
l
Process changes and
l
Design changes
(ii) External Factors: External factors are activities that are uncontrollable. The
success of an organization depends upon the adaptability of the firm to these factors.
External changes may be sub-divided into five categories.
l
Economic change
l
Sociological change
l
Governmental change
l
Locational change
l
Technological change.
Change may be warranted either by external stimuli or by an internal need. External
change cannot be forecasted and may not be conducive to achieve the corporate goals.
External changes are accepted with less resistance. In case of internal changes, the
likelihood of resistance of all those affected by the proposed change is more.

19.9.2 Causes for Resistance to Change

Change is an important feature of modern organizations. Significant changes take place
every day in social, technological, political and other aspects of modern world. Changes
may be perceived by people as threats to their jobs, the size of their incomes, promotion
and so on. People strongly resist deprivation of what they possess, whether possession
was justified or not in the first place. The important causes for resistance to change are:

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1.

Social Causes: People value established inter-personal relationship and their roles
as group members. Establishment of new social equations necessitated by
acceptance to change may be a painful and slow process. People would not like to
experience such changes. Resistance to change develops among people if they
believe that such change is likely to mean disruption of existing social relationships
with which they are familiar.

2.

Psychological Causes: In course of their working life, people get used to certain
routines and ways of doing things. They develop familiarity and a measure of
equilibrium with their established routines. A sort of inertia develops which induces
them to disfavour changes. Therefore, people tend to behave in a rather
conservative manner in relation to some types of changes. Resistance also springs
from lack of trust and faith in those who initiate changes and due to inadequate
information, knowledge and understanding.

3.

Economic Causes: People meet their physical needs from their salary. They work
because they need economic security. They tend to attach highest priority to
protection of their jobs and income. If these are threatened by technological and
other changes initiated by management, people naturally resist them.

4.

Environmental Causes: Business environment have an impact on the growth of

the organization. Change in government policy, entry of rivals in the market etc.,
will affect the growth of the organization. Many of the environmental factors are
uncontrollable and therefore, organizations must visualize them and adapt to the
changed circumstances.

5.

Personal Reasons: Employees resist change for a variety of personal reasons.

They are:
(i)

The proposed change may lead to greater specialization resulting in boredom.

(ii)

They may not fully understand the implications of the change.

Organisational Development

(iii) They may fear that the number of jobs may be reduced resulting in
retrenchment.

19.9.3 Planned Organizational Change

Organizational change may be planned well in advance, or it may come as a quick
reaction to an unexpected event in the business environment. Organizational change
calls for a change in the individual behaviour of the employees. Any organizational change
whether introduced through a new structural design or new technology or new training
programme, basically attempts to make employees change their behaviour. But
behavioural changes are the most difficult and marathon exercise. A commonly accepted
model for bringing about change in people was suggested by Kurt Lewen in terms of
three-phase process
The figure below explains the changing process.

THE MANAGERS TASK

Create a felt need for change

Phase I
Unfreezing

THIS IS DONE BY
(i)
Establishing a good
relationship with the people
involved.
(ii)
Helping others realize that
present behaviours are not
effective.
(iii)
Minimizing expressed
resistance to change

THE MANAGERS TASK:

Implement Changes

Phase II
Changing

THIS IS DONE BY
1. Identifying new, more effective
ways of behaving
2. Choosing appropriate change in
tasks, people, culture, technology
and/or structure.
3. Taking action to put these
changes into place

THE MANAGERS TASK:

Stabilize Change

Phase III
Refreezing

THIS IS DONE BY
1. Creating acceptance and
continuity for the new behaviours
2. Providing any necessary resource
support using performancecontingent rewards and
3. Positive reinforcement

Figure 19.4: The Three Phases in the Changing Process Suggested by Kurt Lewin

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1.

Unfreezing: It refers to making individuals aware that the present behaviour is

inappropriate, irrelevant, inadequate and hence unsuitable to the changing demands
of the present situation. According to Lewing, the first step in the change process
is unfreezing, or preparing the situation for change by creating a felt-need for it. It
is important to make sure that everyone understands that present behaviours are
simply not effective. This action will minimize expressed resistance to the change
process. Edgar Schien outlines the following elements which are vitally necessary
during this unfreezing phase.
v

The physical removal of the individuals being changed from their accustomed
routines, sources of information and social relationships.

The undermining and destruction of social support.

Demeaning and humiliating experience to help individuals being changed to

see their old attitudes or behaviour as unworthy and then to be motivated to
change.

The consistent linking of reward with willingness to change and to punishment

with unwillingness to change
The essence of this unfreezing phase is that the individual is made to realize
that his beliefs, feelings and behaviour are no longer appropriate or relevant
to the current situation in the organization.

2.

Changing: During the changing phase, the actual change is implemented. It is the
phase where new learning occurs. In order to change, it is not enough to sense that
the current behaviour is inadequate. The necessary condition is that various
alternatives of behaviour must also be made available in order to fill the vacuum
created by the unfreezing phase. In the process it is critical for management to
carefully identify the new, more effective behaviours to be followed as well as the
associated changes in tasks, people, culture, technology and structure. During the
changing phase, individuals learn to behave in new ways; the individuals are provided
with alternatives out of which they choose the best one. Kelman explains the
changing phase in terms of compliance, identification and internalisations.
v

Compliance: Compliance or force occurs when individuals are forced to

change either by rewards or by punishment.

Internalisation: Internalisation occurs when individuals are forced to

encounter a situation that calls for a new behaviour.

Identification: It occurs when individuals recognize one among various

models provided in the environment that is most suitable to their personality.
The changing process follows good problem diagnoses and careful
consideration of appropriate alternatives.

3.

Refreezing: In this stage, the change is stabilized by rewarding appropriate new

behaviours. During this phase, individuals internalise the new beliefs, feelings and
behaviour learned in the Changing phase. It is also necessary that management
provides the required resource support for the change. Performance - contingent
rewards and positive reinforcement can be used to refreeze the new behaviour so
that it is not easily forgotten or abandoned. It is very important for the manager
concerned with the introducing change to visualize that the new behaviour is not
extinguishable soon.
Management of Change: It is the responsibility of management to handle change
in such a way that the employees resistance is reduced to the least. Three methods
available to management to cause people to accept change are:

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Alteration in the environmental forces affecting the employees.

Alteration in the persons perception of the forces which surround him.

Alteration in the basic value system of the persons involved in the change.

Organisational Development

Check Your Progress 4

1.

What are the causes for resistance to change?

2.

Explain the methods used for reducing resistance to change.

3.

Explain the steps involved in planned organizational change.

19.10 LET US SUM UP

Organizational development is an intervention strategy that uses group processes to
focus on the whole culture of an organizational development in order to bring about a
planned change. OD strives to maximize organizational effectiveness as well as individual
work satisfaction. Organizational development is the most comprehensive strategy
for intervention. It involves all the activities and levels of management in ongoing
problems that respond to external and internal sources. OD interventions are sets of
structured activities in which selected organizational units (target groups or individuals)
engage in a task or a sequence of tasks with the goals of organizational improvement
and individual development. The term organizational development (OD) essentially
focuses on techniques or programmes to change people and the nature and quality of
interpersonal work relationships. The environment in which organizations operate is
increasingly turbulent in an era of global, national and regional commercial
competitiveness. OD will be a major player in assisting organizations to shift to and
sustain this new paradigm, which proclaims that the most innovative and successful
organizations will be those that derive their strength and vitality from adaptable,
committed team players.

19.11 LESSON END ACTIVITY

What are the other alternative plans you can think of for implementing organisational
development?

19.12 KEYWORDS
Organisation Development (OD)
Transactional Analysis (TA)
Team Building
Sensitive Training

19.13 QUESTIONS FOR DISCUSSION

1.

Define OD and explain the various elements of the definition.

2.

Define Organizational Development. What are its techniques?

3.

Why do organizations adopt an organizational development programme?

4.

Describe in detail the objectives of OD programs.

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5.

What do you mean by OD intervention? Explain.

6.

What are the conditions for a successful OD effort?

7.

Explain the various team building activities.

8.

Explain the future of OD.

19.14 SUGGESTED READINGS

Boss R.W. (1989) Organizational Development in Health care, Addison-Wesley
Mass; Reading.
Burke W. W. (1989) Organisation Development: A Normative View, Addison-Wesley
Mass; Reading.
Cummings T.G. and Huse E.F. (1989) Organization development and Change,
St. Paul, Minn: West.
Darcy T. and Kleiner B.H. (1991) Leadership for Change in a Turbulent
Environment, Leadership and Organizational Development Journal.
John B. Nicholas, (1982) The Comparative Impact of Organization Development
Interventions on Hard Criteria Measures, Academy of Management Review, October
1982.
Howe M.A. (1989) Using Imagery to Facilitate Organisational Development and
Change. Group and Organization studies. John B. Nicholas, (1982) The Comparative
Impact of Organization Development Interventions on Hard Criteria Measures, Academy
of Management Review, October 1982.
P.G. Aquinas, Organizational Behaviour, Excel Books, New Delhi.

Case

A Leggy Problem

Prakesh is the project manager of a group of engineers at Toto Engineering Services Ltd.
His dilemma is what to do about Smitha, a relatively new and extremely capable engineer.
TES Ltd. was founded for the purpose of providing engineering services. A group of
engineering and support personnel with valuable knowledge and experience was assembled.
All engineers and technicians were male.
The company acquired another small firm which included six male and one female engineer.
The reorganized company had one vice-president (Prakesh was promoted as VP in the
merged company) and two project managers, Santhosh from TES and Raman from the
acquired firm. These employees from the acquired firm had to be absorbed into the two
project teams.
Santhosh coming from the acquiring company naturally wanted the very best engineers to
be in his team. Among the engineers coming from the acquired company Smitha was
technically more capable. She had excellent recommendations from her previous manager.
Santhosh felt that Smitha was the best choice. Though she was the only women in the
project, she seemed to get along well with the other engineers. Her manager had only good
reports from the customers as well as from her associates. All her evaluations were
outstanding.
Santhosh therefore asked for Smitha to be put into his team. The other members came from TES Ltd.
The TES team until now had only males. The boys spent a great deal of their day in each
others office working together on a proposal for customer or developing the best
engineering approach to a problem. They were a close-knit group very loyal to the company.
They sometimes engaged in sexy jokes or used language that might be considered crude by
324

Contd...

the general population, but they confined it to their own inner circle of fellow engineers.
There is no harm intended, and it is all in the spirit of fun.

Organisational Development

Smitha felt that very often the men acted inappropriately in her presence. She didnt appreciate
the joke telling and she felt that some of her fellow engineers made comments that were
degrading to women. Smitha kept her feelings to herself, thinking that she had to avoid
making waves in order to get along in a male-dominated profession. Smitha was disappointed
in herself for compromising her strongly held beliefs about appropriate behaviour at the
workplace. She vowed to herself that she would never again let a single questionable act or
remark go unchallenged.
The engineers working in Santhoshs group welcomed Smitha warmly. They knew from
talking with her former colleagues that Smitha was a good engineer. Smitha jumped into her
new job with enthusiasm and high spirits until she saw the pictures of skimply dressed girls
on the desk of one of the engineers. She immediately marched into Prakeshs office and
complained about the pictures. Prakesh saw to it that the pictures were promptly removed.
Three days later, Smitha overheard a group of engineers joking around in their customary
crude manner, and she reported to Prakesh that she was offended. Before Prakesh could
address this complaint, Smitha was back in her office. This time she was extremely upset
with the comments from her project manager Santhosh who told her you did a great job
getting those photos Baby. I never have such luck. It must be because you are a female. You
can just show a little leg and get what you want Prakesh had to address this problem.
Questions:
1.

If you were Prakesh how would you address this serious problem?

2.

Do you feel that comments like the one made by Santhosh is justified?

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LESSON

20
ORGANISATIONAL CULTURE

CONTENTS
20.0 Aims and Objectives
20.1 Introduction
20.2 Culture Defined
20.3 Basic Elements of Culture
20.4 Characteristics of Organizational Culture
20.5 Creating and Sustaining Culture
20.5.1 How Organizational Culture Begins?
20.5.2 Sustaining a Culture
20.6 How Employees Learn Culture?
20.7 Successful Organizational Culture
20.7.1 Corporate Culture and Organizational Success
20.7.2 Changing Organizational Culture
20.8 Let us Sum up
20.9 Lesson-end Activity
20.10 Keywords
20.11 Questions for Discussion
20.12 Suggested Readings

20.0 AIMS AND OBJECTIVES

After studying this lesson you will be able to:
(i)

understand the relation between organisational culture and corporate context.

(ii)

describe contribution of organisational culture to the management of change.

(iii) analyse elements of organisational culture.

(iv) review cultural types in organisations.

20.1 INTRODUCTION
When we talk about culture, we are typically referring to the pattern of development
reflected in a society's system of knowledge, ideology, values, laws, social norms and
day-to-day rituals. Accordingly, culture varies from one society to another. The word
"culture" has been derived metaphorically from the idea of "cultivation" the process of
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tilling and developing land. Thus, culture can be considered as a constellation of factors
that are learned through our interaction with the environment.

Organisational Culture

20.2 CULTURE DEFINED

The organizational culture is a system of shared beliefs and attitudes that develop within
an organization and guides the behaviour of its members. There are clear-cut guidelines
as to how employees are to behave generally within organization. The employees need
to learn how the particular enterprise does things.
A few definitions on the term organizational culture are given below:According to Larry Senn, The corporate culture consists of the norms, values and
unwritten rules of conduct of an organization as well as management styles, priorities,
beliefs and inter-personal behaviour that prevail. Together they create a climate that
influences how well people communicate, plan and make decisions.
Joanne Martin defines cultures in organization in the following words As individuals
come into contact with organizations, they come into contact with dress norms the
organizations formal rules and procedures, its formal codes of behaviour rituals . And
so on. These elements are some of the manifestations of organizational culture.
Edgar Schein defines organizational culture as a pattern of basic assumptions invented,
discovered or developed by a given group as it learns to cope with its problems of
external adaptation and internal integration that has worked well enough to be considered
valuable and, therefore to be taught to new members as the correct way to perceive,
think and fell in relation to those problems.
According to Hersey, Blanchard and Johnson Organizational culture is itself a complex
phenomenon with many interpretations organizational culture is shared basic
assumptions, or beliefs, about how to cope with the two fundamental problems that all
groups and organizations face : survival and adaptation to the external environment and
the internal integration and coordination of organizational functioning.
From the above definitions, culture may be considered as the general pattern of behaviour,
shared beliefs, and values that organizational members have in common. Culture involves
the learning and transmitting of knowledge, beliefs and patterns of behaviour over a
period of time. Culture can be inferred from what people say, do, and think within an
organizational setting. It often sets tight tone for the organization and establishes implied
rules for the way people should behave. It is important to recognize that culture is learned
and helps people in their efforts to interact and communicate with others in the society.
When placed in a culture where values and beliefs are different, some people have a
great deal of difficulty in adjusting.

20.3 BASIC ELEMENTS OF CULTURE

From the above definitions it is clear that culture is how an organization has learned to
deal with its environment. It is a complex mixture of assumptions, behaviours, myths and
other ideas that fit together to define what it means to work in a particular organization.
Edgar H Schein suggests that culture exists on three levels: artefacts, espoused values
and underlying assumptions. The Figure 20.1 explains the three levels:

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ARTIFACTS

ESPOUSED
VALUES

BASIC
UNDERLYING
ASSUMPTIONS

Visible organizational structures and processes (hard to

decipher)

Strategies, goals, philosophies (espoused justification)

Unconscious, taken-for-granted beliefs, perceptions,

thoughts, and feelings (ultimate source of values)

Source: Edgar H Schein, Organizational Culture and Leadership (2nd Edition) Jossey-Bass Publishers, San Francisco (1992)
page 17.

Figure 20.1: Scheins Levels of Culture

1.

Artefacts: According to Schein, Artefacts are the first level of organizational culture.
Artefacts are the things that come together to define a culture and reveal what the
culture is about to those who pay attention to them. They include products, services,
and even behaviour patterns of the members of an organization. Schein has defined
Artefacts as things that one sees, hears, and feels when one encounters a new
group with an unfamiliar culture.

2.

Espoused Values: Espoused values are the second level of organizational culture.
Values are things worth doing, or the reasons for doing what we do. Values are the
answers to the why questions. For examples, why are you reading this book? To
know more about Organization Behaviour. Why is that Important? To be a better
HR Manager. Why do you need more money? To fulfil my wifes desire to own a
farm house. Such questions go on and on, until you reach the point where you no
longer want something for the sake of something else. At this point, we have arrived
at a value. Corporations have values, such as size, profitability, or making a quality
product.
Espoused values are the reasons that we give for doing what we do. Schein argues
that most organizational cultures can trace their espoused values back to the founders
of the culture.

3.

Basic Assumptions: The third level of organizational culture, are the beliefs that
organization members take for granted. Culture prescribes the right way to do
things at an organization, often through unspoken assumptions.

The influence of the leader on Organization Culture: Managers, especially top

managers, create the climate for the enterprise. Their values influence the direction of
the firm. Although the tern value is used differently, a value can be defined as a fairly
permanent belief about what is appropriate and what is not that guides the actions and
behaviour of employees in fulfilling the organizations aims. Values can be thought of as
forming an ideology that permeates every day decisions. In many successful companies,
value-driven corporate leaders serve as role models, set the standards for performance,
motivate employees, make the company special, and are a symbol to the external
environment.
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Organisational Culture

How to Create A Value-based Organization

Hatim Tyabji was the founding chairman and CEO of VeriFone, Inc. from 1986 to 1988 when he
established Saraide, a highly respected company in the telecommunication industry. At the
national meeting of the Academy of Management in Toronto in 2000, Mr. Tyabji shared his
experience in creating an organization based on ethical values. On one occasion, it was brought to
his attention that manager with excellent performance figures was engaged in malfeasance.
Revealing this information, however, would have had a very negative effect on the companys
share price. Instead of hiding this information until the next quarterly reporting, Mr Tyabji after
checking carefully the facts, approached the manager who was in charge of a foreign operation,
and fired him on the spot. Impressed by this decision, the associates worked especially hard so that
the quarterly projection was still achieved. What effect did Mr Tyabjis decision communicated to
the employees of the company? This is a company with a culture in which performance, no matter
how impressive, cannot be achieved by unethical behaviour.
Source: David A. Whither and Andre L. Delbecq, Saraides Chairman Hatim Tyabji on creating
and sustaining a value-based organizational culture, Academy of Management Executive,
November 2000. Pages 32 40.

20.4 CHARACTERISTICS OF ORGANIZATIONAL CULTURE

Organizational culture has a number of important characteristics. Fred Luthans has given
six characteristics which is given below:

Organizational Culture: Important Characteristics

Observed behavioral regularities. When organizational participants interact with one
another, they use common language, terminology, and rituals related to deference and
demeanor.
2. Norms. Standards of behavior exist, including guidelines on how much work to do,
which in many organizations come down to Do not do too much; do not do too little.
3. Dominant values. There are major values that the organization advocated and expects
the participants to share. Typical examples are high product quality, low absenteeism,
and high efficiency.
4. Philosophy. There are policies that set forth the organizations beliefs about how
employees and/or customers are to be treated.
5. Rules. There are strict guidelines related to getting along in the organization.
Newcomers must learn those ropes in order to be accepted as full-fledged members of
the group.
6. Organizational climate. This is an overall feeling that is conveyed by the physical
layout, the way participants interact, and the way members of the organization conduct
themselves with customers or other outsiders.
Source: Fred Luthans Organizational Behavior (9th Eedition) McGraw-Hill International
Edition, Boston (2002) page 123.
1.

Check Your Progress 1

1.

Define culture?

2.

What are the basic elements of culture?

3.

Explain the influence of a leader on organisation culture.

4.

Explain the characteristics of Organisational Culture.

20.5 CREATING AND SUSTAINING CULTURE

20.5.1 How Organizational Culture Begins?
An organizations current customs, traditions and general way of doing things are largely
due to what it has done before and the degree of success it has had with those endeavours.

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The original source of an organizations culture usually reflects the vision or mission of
the organizations founders. Because the founders had the original idea, they also may
have biases on how to carry out the idea. Their focus might be on aggressiveness or it
might be on treating employees as family. The small size of most new organizations
helps the founders instil their vision in all organizational members. Organizational cultures
can develop in a number of different ways, these steps are explained below:1.

A single person (founder) has an idea for a new enterprise: Some organizational
cultures may be the direct, or at least, indirect, result of actions taken by the founders.
The founders of an organization traditionally have a major impact on that
organizations early culture. They have a vision of what the organization should be.

2.

Founders creation of a core group: The founder brings in one or more other key
people and creates a core group that shares a common vision with the founder.
The founders only hire and keep employees who think and feel the way they do.
These employees who form the core group believe that the idea is a good one, is
worth the investment of time, money and energy. Sometimes founders create weak
cultures, and if the organization is to survive, a new top manager must be installed
who will sow the seeds for the necessary strong culture.

3.

Indoctrinate and Socialize: The founding core group begins to act in concert to
create an organization by raising funds, obtaining patents, incorporating, locating
land, building infrastructure and so on. The core group indoctrinate and socialize
employees to their way of thinking and feeling.

4.

Build a Common History: The founders own behaviour acts as a role model that
encourages employees to identify with them and thereby internalize their beliefs,
values, and assumptions. At this point, others are brought into the organization, and
a common history begins to be built. When the organization succeeds, the founders
vision becomes seen as a primary determinant of that success. At this point, the
founders entire personalities become embedded in the culture of the organization.
Most of todays successful organizations follow the vision of their founders.

20.5.2 Sustaining a Culture

Once a culture is in place, there are practices within the organization that act to maintain
it by giving employees a set of similar experiences. Sustaining a culture depends on three
forces. These forces are explained below:
1.

Selection: The goal of the selection process is to identify and hire individuals
who could make the organization successful through their services. Therefore
candidates who believe in the values of the organizational have to be selected.
Thus, the selection process attempt to ensure a proper match in the hiring of
people who have values essentially consistent with those of the organization
or at least a good portion of those values cherished by the organization. In this
way, the selection process sustains an organizations culture by selecting those
individuals who will fit into the organizations core values.

2.

Top Management: Top management have a important role to play in sustaining

the organizations culture. It is the top management who establish norms that
filter down through the organization. It is they through their conduct both
implicit and explicit that shows what is desirable. They do this through pay
raises, promotions and other rewards.

3.

Socialization: Socialization is the process that adapts employees to the

organizations culture. Organization wants to help new employees adapt to its
culture. The adaptation is done through the process of socialization.
Socialization is made up of three stages:
(a)

330

The Pre-arrival Stage: This stage encompasses all the learning that occurs
before a new member joins the organization. The socialization process covers
both the work to be done and the organization. The pre-arrival stage is the

period of learning in the socialization process that occurs before a new employee
joins the organization. For example, when students join a business school to
pursue their MBA degree, they are socialized to have attitudes and behaviours
that business firms want. This is so because the success depends on the degree
to which the student has correctly anticipated the expectations and desires of
those in the business school.
(b)

Encounter Stage: In this stage of the socialization process, the new

employee sees what the organization is really like and confronts the
possibility that expectations and reality may diverge. In expectations
prove to have been more or less accurate, the encounter stage merely
provides a reaffirmation of the perceptions gained during the pre-arrival
stage. Those employees who fail to learn the essential or pivotal role
behaviours risk being labelled as rebels and face the risk of expulsion.
This further contributes to sustaining the culture.

(c)

Metamorphosis Stage: Metamorphosis stage is the stage in the

socialization process in which a new employee changes and adjusts to
the job, work group and organization. In this stage relatively long-lasting
changes take place. The employee masters the skill required for his or
her job, successfully performs his or her new roles, and makes the
adjustments to his or her work groups values and norms. The
metamorphosis stage completes the socialization process. The new
employee internalizes the norms of the organization and his work groups
and understands and accepts the norms of the organization and his
work group. The success of this stage have a positive impact on the
new employees productivity and his commitment to the organization.

Degree to which
employees are
encouraged to
innovative and to take
risk

Degree to which employees are

expected to exhibit precision,
analysis, and attention to detail

Attention
to Detail

Organisational Culture

Degree to which
managers focus on results
or outcomes rather than
on how these outcomes
are achieved.

High Low
Innovation and
Risk-taking

Low.High

Degree to which
organizational
decisions and
actions emphasize
maintaining the
status quo

Outcome
orientation

ORGANIZATIONAL
CULTURE

Low .High

People orientation

Stability

Low High
Low .High

Aggressiveness

Low .High

Degree to which employees

are aggressive and competitive
rather than cooperative

Team Orientation

Low .. High

Degree to which
management
decisions take into
account the effects
on people in the
organization

Degree to which work is organized around

teams rather than individuals

Note: - Strong versus Weak Cultures

Strong Cultures are cultures in which the key values are deeply held and widely shared and have
a greater influence on employees than do weak cultures.
The more that employee accept the organizations key values and the greater their commitment
to those values, the stronger the culture is.
Whether an organizations culture is strong, weak or somewhere in between depends on factors
such as (i) the size of the organization (ii) how long it has been around (iii) how much turnover
there has been among employees, and (iv) the intensity with which the culture was originated.

Source: Stephen P Robbins and Mary Coulter Management (seventh edition) Prentice Hall of India
Private Limited, New Delhi (2003) Page 59.

Figure 20.2: Dimensions of Organizational Culture

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20.6 HOW EMPLOYEES LEARN CULTURE?

Culture is transmitted to employees in a number of ways. The most significant are stories,
rituals, symbols, and language.
Stories: Organizational stories typically contain a narrative of significant events or people
including such things as the organizations founders, rules breaking, reactions to past mistakes,
and so forth. Lavinson and Rosenthal suggest that stories and myths about organizations
heroes are powerful tools to reinforce cultural values throughout the organization and specially
in orienting new employees. These stories provide prime examples that people can learn
from. Stories and myths are often filtered through a cultural network and remind
employees as to why we do things in a certain way. To help employees learn the culture,
organizational stories anchor the present in the past, provide explanations and legitimacy
for current practices, and exemplify what is important to the organization.
Rituals and Ceremonies: Corporate rituals are repetitive sequences of activates that
express and reinforce the values of the organization, what goals are most important, and
which people are important and which ones are superfluous. Ceremonies and rituals
reflect such activities that are enacted repeatedly on important occasions. Members of
the organization who have achieved success are recognized and rewarded on such
occasions. For example, awards given to employees on founders day, Gold medals
given to students on graduation day are reflections of culture of that institution.
Material / Cultural Symbols: Symbols communicate organizational culture by unspoken
messages. When you walk into different businesses, do you get a feel for the place
formal, casual, fun, serious, and so forth? These feelings you get demonstrate the power
of material symbols in creating an organizations personality. Material artefacts created
by an organization also speak of its cultural orientation and make a statement about the
company. These material symbols convey to employees who is important, the degree of
equality desired by top management and the kind of behaviour that are expected and
appropriate. Examples: - assigned parking space for senior executives in the company
premises, large offices given to senior managers, luxury automobiles given to senior or
successful officers of the organization.
Organizational Heroes: Top Management and prominent leaders of the organization
become the role models and a personification of an organizations culture. Their behaviour
and example become a reflection of the organizations philosophy and helps to mould the
behaviour of organizational members.
Language: - Many organizations and units within organizations use language as a way
to identify members of a culture. By learning this language, members attest to their
acceptance of the culture and their willingness to help to preserve it.
Managerial Decisions affected by culture: For any organization to grow and prosper,
it is important that its mission and its philosophy be respected and adhered to by all
members of the organization. Here managers play a significant role in building the culture
of the organization. The manager plays continuous attention to maintaining the established
standards and send clear signals to all the employees as to what is expected of them.
Cultural consistency and strong adherence to cultural values become easy when the
mangers themselves play strong role models. Good managers are able to support and
reinforce an existing strong culture by being strong role models and by handling situations
that may result into cultural deviations. The figure below shows the major areas of a
managers job are influenced by culture.
How the Environment Affects Managers: The environment affects managers

332

(i)

Through the degree of environmental uncertainty

(ii)

Through the various stakeholders relationships.

1.

Environmental Uncertainty:-The environmental uncertainty is the degree of

change and complexity in an organizations environment.

Organisational Culture

Degree of Change: - If the components in an organizations environment changes to a

minimum, we call it a stable environment. A stable environment is characterises by
l
No new technological breakthroughs by current competitors.
l
No new competitors
l
Little activity by pressure groups to influence the organization
We call it a dynamic environment, if the components in an organizations environment
change frequently.
Degree of Complexity: - The degree of complexity refers to the number of components
in an organizations environment and the extent of the knowledge that the organization
has about those components.
The figure below explains the environmental uncertainty.
DEGREE OF CHANGE

SIMPLE

DEGREE OF COMPLEXITY

STABLE

DYNAMIC

CELL 1
Stable and predictable environment

CELL 2
Dynamic and unpredictable
environment

Few components in environment

Few components in environment

Components are somewhat similar and

remain basically the same

Components are somewhat similar

but are in continual process of change
Minimal need for sophisticated
knowledge of components

Minimal need for sophisticated

knowledge of components

CELL 4
Dynamic and unpredictable
environment
Many components in environment

CELL 3
Stable and predictable environment
Many components in environment
COMPLEX

Components are not similar to one

another and remain basically the same

Components are not similar to one

another and are in continual process
of change

High need for sophisticated

High need for sophisticated knowledge of knowledge of components
components

Source: Stephen P Robbins and Mary Coulter "Management" (7th Edition) Prentice Hall of India Private Limited, New Delhi (2003)
Page 73.

Figure 20.3: Environmental Uncertainty

Managers try to minimize uncertainty because it is a threat to organizations effectiveness.

Given the choice, managers would prefer to operate in an environment which is simple
and stable. However, managers rarely have full control over that choice.
Stakeholders Relationship: - Stakeholders are any constituencies in the organizations
external environment that are affected by the organizations decisions and actions.
The figure below identifies the various organizational stakeholders.
Employees

Customers

Unions

Shareholders

Social and Political

Action Groups

ORGANIZATION

Competitors

Communities
Trade and Industry
Associations

Suppliers
Media

P R bbi

dM

Governments

(7th Edi i

)P

H ll f I di

Source: Stephen P Robbins and Mary Coulter Management (7th Edition) Prentice Hall of India Private Limited, New Delhi (2003)
Page 75.

Figure 20.4: Various Organizational Stakeholders

333

Principles of Management and

Organisational Behaviour

The few of the organizational stakeholders are explained below:

l

Stockholders: The shareholders are the persons who provide the funds to the
business enterprise. The business should be managed efficiently so as to provide a
fair return on the investments of the shareholders. They should be provided with
comprehensive reports giving full information about its working. In the same way,
the shareholders should also meet the obligations of the business enterprise by
supporting the efforts of the business so that continuous development of the
enterprise is possible. They should encourage the business to follow a dynamic
policy and to plough back profit for the purpose of development and expansion.

Customers: Customers satisfaction is the ultimate aim of all economic activity.

This involves more than the offer of products at the lowest possible price. Adulteration
of goods, poor quality, failure to give fair service, misleading advertising etc. are
some of the violation by business towards its customers. A business enterprise has
positive responsibility towards the consumers of its products. It has to provide
quality goods to customers at the right time, right place, and at right price.

Employees: Employees should be treated as human beings and their cooperation

must be achieved for the realization of the business enterprises goals. The
responsibilities of the business enterprises to its employees are the security of
employment with fair wages, equal opportunity for growth and development within
the organization, fair promotions, employee welfare, social security and profit sharing.
Further, the business enterprise should also provide the employee welfare, social
security and profit sharing. Further, the business enterprise should also provide the
employees scope for improvement of educational qualification, training and upgrading
of skills so that they may get a chance to improve their prospects.
Workers are poor and hence they cannot afford to remain without job for a long
period. Most of them are ignorant and require advice and guidance from persons
who have the genuine interest of the workers at heart. Each worker by himself is
unable to fight against the injustice done to him. As such all the economists have
recognized the right of the workers to organize themselves. As a group they can
settle terms with the employers in a better way. In other words, the workers have
been granted the right to bargain collectively.
With a view to self-protection and self -help labour has organized itself under
employee associations and unions. The associations formed by workers have come
to be known as Trade Unions.

334

Suppliers: An important force in the environment of a business enterprise is the

suppliers who supply the enterprise with inputs like raw materials and components.
The importance of reliable source of supply is indispensable for the smooth functioning
of a business enterprise. It is very risky to depend on a single supplier because the
problems with that supplier are bound to seriously affect the business organization.
Therefore, multiple sources of supply are often helpful. A business organization
should deal with the suppliers judiciously. It should try for fair terms and conditions
regarding price, quality, delivery of goods and payment. The dealings with the
suppliers should be based on integrity and courtesy. The business must create
healthy relations with its suppliers.

Competitors: A firms competitors include not only the other firms that market the
same or similar products but also those who compete for the discretionary income
of the consumers. Thus, competition among the different business organization
should be such that the customer is helped to satisfy his desires and is better of
buying the enterprises goods and services.

Government: The business enterprise should take responsibility for providing

amenities in the locality where it is located. It should pay the taxes to the government

regularly and honestly, so that the funds may be spent by the State for welfare
activities. It should take measures to avoid bad effluent, fouling the air and condition
of slum and congestion.

Organisational Culture

The business enterprise should extend full support to the Government in implementing
its policies and programmes relating to the solving of the national problems such as
the unemployment problem, food problem, wide disparity in income levels of the
different sections of the society, regional imbalance in the economic development
etc. It should also help the Government in the equitable distribution of commodities
which are in scarce supply, in controlling prices and inflationary trend in the country
and in the implementation of various development schemes of the Government.
The business enterprise should realize that it cannot function without the support of
the Government. If there is any difference between itself and the Government the
same should be settled by mutual exchange of ideas and suggestions and not by
restoring to non-cooperation with the Government.
From the above discussion, it is clear that the interest of the various Stakeholders
interacting with the business enterprise is not identical. They are inflicting conflicting.
The owners want highest dividend, the financial institutions want the highest interest,
the workers the highest possible wages, the Government wants the highest possible
revenue and the consumers want the lowest possible price. It is, therefore, the duty
of the business enterprise to bring about a compromise among the interests of
various groups. The enterprise is an arbiter among the various groups. It should
endeavour to provide a fair dividend to the shareholders, fair pay and working
conditions to the workers, good quality products at reasonable prices to the
customers.
Stakeholders have a stake in or are significantly influenced by what the organization
does. In turn, these groups can influence that organization. There are many reasons
why managers should care about managing stakeholders relationships. Some of
the reasons are given below:1.

It can lead to other organizational outcomes such as improved predictability

of environmental changes, more successful innovations, greater degree of
trust among stakeholders, and greater organizational flexibility to reduce the
impact of change.

2.

An organization depends on these external groups as sources of inputs

(resources) and as outlets for outputs (goods and services) and
organizations should consider their interests as they make decisions and
take actions.
Steps in Managing External Stakeholders Relationships:- There are four steps in
managing external stakeholder relationships.
1. Identifying who the organizations stakeholders are. Those external groups that
are to influence organizational decisions and be influenced by organizational decisions
are stakeholders.
2. Determine that particular interests or concerns these stakeholders might have. For
example
l
Customers product quality.
l
Shareholders financial issues
l
Employees safety/working conditions.
3. Decide how critical each stakeholder is to the organizations decisions and actions.
For example, some stakeholders are more critical to the organizations decisions
and actions than others.
4. Determine what specific approach they should use to manage the external
stakeholder relationship. The more critical the stakeholder, the more uncertain the
environment.

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Principles of Management and

Organisational Behaviour

20.7 SUCCESSFUL ORGANIZATIONAL CULTURE

Research conducted by D.R Denison and A.K Mishra, show that organizational culture
is related to organizational success. Organizational culture is a framework that guides
day-to-day behaviour and decision making for employees and directs their actions toward
completion of organizational goals. Culture is what gives birth to and defines the
organizational goals. Culture must be aligned with the other parts of organizational actions,
such as planning, organizing, leading, and controlling; indeed, if culture is not aligned with
these tasks, then the organization is in for difficult times.
The figure below shows that culture based on adaptability, involvement, a clear mission
and consistency can help companies achieve higher sales growth, return on assets, profits,
quality and employee satisfaction.

ADAPTABILITY

INVOLVEMENT
CONSISTENCY

CLEAR MISSION

Source: D.R Denison and A.K Mishra, "Toward a Theory of Organizational Culture and Effectiveness", Organization Science Vol. 6
(1995) Pages 204 - 223.

Figure 20.5: Successful Organizational Cultures

Note:l

Adaptability: is the ability to notice and respond to changes in the organizations environment.

Involvement: In cultures that promote higher levels of employment in decision-making employees

feel a greater sense of ownership and responsibility.

Clear Mission: Mission is a companys purpose or reason for existing. In organizational cultures in
which there is a clear organizational vision, the organizations strategic purpose and direction are
apparent to everyone in the company.

Consistency: In consistent organizational cultures, the company actively defines and teaches
organizational values, beliefs and attitudes. Consistent organizational cultures are also called strong
cultures, because the core beliefs and widely shared and strongly held.

Organizational cultures are important to a firms success for several reasons.

336

1.

They give an organizational identity to employees a defining vision of what the

organization represents. When managers are uncertain about their business
environments, the vision helps guide the discussions, decisions, and behaviour of
the people in the company.

2.

Organizational culture are an important source of stability and continuity to the

organization, which provide a sense of security to its members.

3.

Knowledge of the organizational culture helps newer employees interpret what

goes on inside the organization, by providing an important context for events that
would otherwise seem confusing.

4.

Culture helps to stimulate employee enthusiasm for their tasks by recognizing and
rewarding high-producing and creative individuals, thereby identifying them as role
models to emulate.

Organisational Culture

Corporate Insights

Culture built around several values

Jack Welch, former CEO of General Electric, led that company to an outstanding level of success
for more than twenty years. He has been referred to as the most successful Chief Executive ever,
by many business magazines and corporate observers. He achieved his results by defining,
emphasizing, and rewarding a corporate culture built around several valued principles:
Removing boundaries that inhibit the flow of ideas.
Increasing speed and simplicity by delayering the organization.
Setting stretch goals for employees and rewarding their achievement.
Following a six sigma program for improving quality and performance.
Emphasizing the importance of customer satisfaction.
Creating a learning culture that stresses high morals, open exchange of ideas, and high
levels of contributions from
form each employee.
Source: Robert
Slater,
Jack Jack
Welch and
the GE
McGraw
New York
(1998).
- Robert
Slater,
Welch
andway,
the GE
way,Hill,
McGraw
Hill
New York (1998).
Source:

Check Your Progress 2

1. How does organisational culture begun?

2. How can we sustain culture?
3. How do employees learn culture?

20.7.1 Corporate Culture and Organizational Success

Artefacts, espoused values, and basic assumptions form the basics of understanding
organizational culture. Organizational culture is a framework that guides day-to-day behaviour
of employees. Culture is what gives birth to and defines the organizational goals. John
Kotter and James Heskett, researchers of Harvard Business School, tried to determine
which factors make some organizational cultures more successful than others.
Fig 20.6

Kotter and Hesketts Two Levels of Culture

Culture in an Organization

Shared Values
Invisible

Important concerns and goals that are shared by most of the

people in a group, that tend to shape group behavior and that
often persist over time even with the changes in group
memberships.
Examples: - The managers care about customers; executives
like long-term debt.

Harder to Change

Group Behavior Norms

Visible

Common or pervasive ways of acting that are found in a

group and that persist because group members tend to
behave in ways that teach these practices (as well as their
shared values) to new members, rewarding those that fit in
and sanctioning those that do not

Easier to Change

Source: John P Kotter and James L Heskett, "Corporate Culture and Performance" The Free Press, New York
(1992) page 5.

Figure 20.6: Corporate Culture and Performance

Kotter ahd Heskett identified two levels of culture.

1. Visible Level: are the behaviour patterns and styles of the employees.
2. Invisible Level: are the shared values and assumptions that are held over a long
period of time.
Kotter and Heskett, argue that changes in the visible level (i.e., in behaviour patterns and
styles) overtime can lead to change in the invisible level (i.e., more deeply held beliefs).
The study had four main conclusions:

337

Principles of Management and

Organisational Behaviour

1.

Corporate culture can have a significant impact on a firms long-term economic

performance.
2. Corporate culture will probably be an even more important factor in determining
the success or failure of firms in the next decade.
3. Corporate cultures that inhibit strong long-term financial performance are not rare;
they develop easily, even in firms that are full of reasonable and intelligent people.
4. Although tough to change, corporate cultures can be made more performance enhancing.
The Harvard Researchers, Kotter and Heskett discovered in their research that some
corporate cultures are good at adapting to changes and preserving the performance of
the organization, while others are not. They distinguished between adaptive and unadaptive corporate cultures, which is summarized in the figure below:-

CORE
VALUES

COMMON
BEHAVIOR

ADAPTIVE CORPORATE
CULUTRE
Most managers care deeply about
customers,
stockholders,
and
employees. They also strongly value
people and processes that can create
useful change (e.g., leadership up
and
down
the
management
hierarchy)
Managers pay close attention to all
their
constituencies,
especially
customers, and initiate change when
needed to serve their legitimate
interests, even if that entails taking
some risks

UN-ADAPTIVE CORPORATE
CULTURE
Most managers care mainly about
themselves, their immediate work group
or some product (or technology)
associated with that work group. They
value the orderly and risk-reducing
management process much more highly
than leadership initiatives
Managers tend to behave somewhat
insularly, politically and bureaucratically.
As a result, they do not change their
strategies quickly to adjust to or take
advantages of changes in their business
environment

Figure 20.7: Adaptive vs Un-adaptive Corporate Cultures

20.7.2 Changing Organizational Culture

If organizations are to consciously create and manage their cultures they must be able to
take their employees into consideration. There are problems that managers face when
they go about the business of changing organizational culture. Changing organizational
culture takes patience, vigilance, and a focus on changing the parts of an organizational
culture that managers can control:
1.

2.

Behaviours: one way of changing a corporate culture is to use behavioural addition

or behavioural substitution to establish new patterns of behaviour among employees.
(a)

Behavioural Addition: Behavioural Addition is the process of having

managers and employees perform new behaviours that are central to and
symbolic of the new organizational culture that a company wants to create.

(b)

Behavioural Substitution: Behavioural substitution is the process of having

managers and employees perform new behaviours central to the new
organizational culture in place of behaviours that were central; to the old
organizational culture.

Visible Artefacts: Another way in which managers can begin to change corporate
culture is to change visible artefacts of their old culture. Visible artefacts are visible
signs of an organizations culture, such as the office design and layout, company
dress codes, and company benefits and perks like stock options, personal parking
spaces, etc. These need to change keeping the new corporate culture in mind.

20.8 LET US SUM UP

338

Corporate cultures are very difficult to change. Consequently, there is no guarantee that behavioursubstitution, behavioural addition or changing visible artefacts will change a companys
organizational culture. Clearly, an open display of top management commitment and support for
the new values and beliefs is critically important to enable employees to change.

20.9 LESSON END ACTIVITY

Organisational Culture

Cultural systems may be considered as products of action as well as the conditioning

elements of future action. Do You think this is true? Develop an argument to justify your
answer.

20.10 KEYWORDS
Organisational culture
Stakeholders
Rituals
Symbols

20.11 QUESTIONS FOR DISCUSSION

1.

What is organizational culture?

2.

Describe the seven dimensions of organizational culture.

3.

What is the source of an organizations culture?

4.

Describe how stories, rituals, material symbols, and language shape an organizations
culture.

5.

Who are stakeholders? What are the reasons for managers to care about managing
their relationship?

6.

Describe the four different ways for managers to manage stakeholders

relationships.

7.

What are the major elements of organizational culture, and where do they come
from?

8.

What are the major elements of organizational culture, and where do they come
from?

9.

Explain in detail Kottar and Heskette study on organizational culture.

10. How can managers change organizational culture?

20.12 SUGGESTED READINGS

Argyris C. (1962) Interpersonal competence and Organisational Effectiveness,
Irwin, Homewood III
Ashburner L. (1990) Impact of Technological and Organizational Change,
Personnel Review U.K.
Bernard M. Bass and Edward C. Ryterband (1979) Organizational Psychology,
(2nd Ed) Allyn and Bacon, Boston.
Boss R.W. (1989) Organizational development in Health care, Addison-Wesley
Mass; Reading.
French W. and Bell C. (1978) Organisation development, (2nd Edition) Prentice
Hall Englewood Cliffs N.J.
George J.M. (1990) Personality Effect, and Behaviour in Groups, Journal of Applied
Psychology, vol. 75.
Marvin D. Dunnette (1976) Handbook of Industrial and Organizational
Psychology, Rand McNally, Chicago.

339

Principles of Management and

Organisational Behaviour

Marvin E. Shaw (1981)Group Dynamics: The Psychology of Small Group Behavior,

(3rd Edition) McGraw-Hill New, York.
Osborne J.E., (1992) Turning to Teambuilding to Tackle Tough Times, Supervisory
Management May 1992.
Howe M.A. (1989) Using Imagery to Facilitate Organisational Development and
Change, Group and Organization studies.
Varney G. H (1989) Building Productive Teams, Jossey-Bass, San Francisco.
William G. Dyer (1989) Team Building: A Microcosm of the Past, Present, and
Future of O.D, Academy of Management OD Newsletter, winter 1989.
P.G.. Aquinas, Organizational Behaviour, Excel Books, New Delhi.

Case I

Gossip on Dolly!!

Dolly DSouza was an IV semester MBA student from Aloysius Institute of Management,
Mangalore. She was specializing in Marketing and had to do a summer project as part
fulfilment of the MBA degree programme. Mr. Rohan Vas is Marketing Manager of Mangalore
Chemicals Limited (MCL). Her seniors had told her many stories of Mr. Rohan and the way
he was intimately involved with girl students. The grapevine also indicated that Rohan
sought relationship with two girls last year and ditched them after sexually abusing them.
The manager of the accounting department who is Dollys neighbour had warned her to be
careful of Mr. Rohan.
Dolly was extremely apprehensive to meet Mr. Rohan after hearing all these rumours about
him. But she had to get the project done and therefore decided that she will go and discuss
the project with him. On the first day she met Mr. Rohan, he was extremely warm and kind to
her. He explained things out to her and urged her to come to him any time with questions,
problems or concerns.
It was three months now and Dolly had found that Mr. Rohan was an extremely warm and
kind human being. She was going to thank him for all the help he had extended to her during
her summer project. Dolly was pleasantly surprised when Mr. Rohan offered her a job as
marketing executive in the company. Dolly was delighted at the offer as she had not got any
offer of employment and that her MBA programme was over and she was awaiting results.
Dolly thanked Mr. Rohan as she wanted to be independent and not depend on her parents
for money moreover and she could save some thing for her marriage expense instead of
being a burden on her parents. She was extremely thankful to Mr. Rohan and warmly shook
hands with him. Mr. Rohan was extremely warm and told Dolly that he was impressed by her
credentials. He also promised to make her permanent within 6 months and an unequalled
career progress.
Dolly decided that she would keep her relationship with Mr. Rohan strictly businesslike.
She would work very hard at her marketing assignments, but would keep the relationship
cool and impersonal.
After about 4 months at the job, Dolly had become more and more comfortable with her
relationship with Mr. Rohan. Mr. Rohan had now started asking her to accompany him for
lunch. On several occasions in the past, she had refused but today she had reluctantly
agreed. As they were having lunch, Mr. Rohan hinted at the prospects of making her a
permanent staff of the company within 2 months. Dolly was delighted and Mr. Rohan
used this opportunity to touch her on her at inappropriate way. Though Dolly attempted to
deal with that by keeping her physical distance and pushing him mildly when he came too
close, she was afraid of telling him directly as she could loose the chance of getting conformed
on the job.
Mr. Rohan had invited her to accompany him on a two-day trip for a presentation of a
marketing plan at the ooty branch. Though she wanted to refuse, it was an important
340

Contd...

assignment and there were others in the department who would be too willing to go if she
dropped out. Though Dolly had her concerns, she decided to go feeling that if Mr. Rohan
acted funny, she would point blank tell him that she was totally uninterested in any kind of
intimate relationship.

Organisational Culture

After coming back to Mangalore Dolly was shattered as there were rumours in the company
that she had an affair with Rohan and was projected as a very cheap girl who will go any
extent to get a permanent job.
Questions:
1.

Are the cultural factors responsible for putting Dolly in the situation that she finds
herself in today?

2.

Given the Indian culture what do you predict will happen next. Why?

Case II

Cross-Cultural Management

Bill Evans, Managing Director of English Foods Ltd., Cardiff was very unhappy after he
received a call from the Home Office. He was asked to explain about the discrimination,
racial intolerance and harassment meted out to his Indian employees. It all started about 3
weeks ago when an Indian employee Miras bangle got caught in the machine and cut her
wrist. The safety committee then decided that no one will be allowed to bangles, finger
rings, earrings, or necklaces at work. The order was passed with immediate effect. Almost all
girls Asian, African and English wore bangles. After the order, the English and African
girls had taken the bangles off. However, most of the Asian girls continued to ware bangles
even after the ban.
The supervisor in the food processing unit, Mr. Jack Straw tried to explain to one of his
employees Sheila why she should remove her bangles. The conversation went on as follows:Jack: - Sheila, you must have heard about the accident last week when Miras bangle got
caught in the machine and she cut her wrist. I am afraid that you will have to take off your
bangles.
Sheila: - I am sorry, but I cannot take off my bangles; I am a Hindu wife; the bangles are
important to my religion.
Jack:-There is an order and I am afraid that you will have to take it off.
Sheila: - I will have to ask my husband.
Jack: - Come on, Sheila, dont make a fuss. I had to shout at Saroja, and Elena to take off their bangles.
Sheila could see that Jack was very angry, so almost in tears, she removed the bangles.
That evening, the conversation among the Indian girls was about bangles. Girls from Africa
thought that it was a lot of fuss about nothing. However, many of the girls were very
worried.
After going home Sheila spoke to her husband.
Raman Singh was a close friend of the regional race relations employment advisor, Mr.
Major and he decided to explain things out to him. Mr Singh explained that the bangles are
not only a mark of marriage but also of the esteem in which a wife is held by her husband.
The more the bangles and the greater their value, the higher her esteem and the greater her
social standing. The most sentimental part of the whole problem is that women remove their
bangle if they are widowed and some fear that the removal of bangles might lead to their
husbands, death.
Contd...

341

Principles of Management and

Organisational Behaviour

The next week was an anxious time for Sheila. She wore a single bangle every day. Sometimes
the supervisor made her take it off. Sheila was sure that she would have to lose her job, and
her husband supported her even though her income was needed.
After several weeks of consultations with workers unions and supervisors, Mr. Evens
decided that the ban on the wearing of bangles and dangling exterior jewellery would have
to be enforced. It was however decided to permit the wearing of wedding rings and nose
rings.
Soon after the ban was imposed, Sheila and her husband attended a meeting held by an
organization called the Asian Advisory Committee (AAC). This organization was set up to
help members of the Asian Community.
Within a few days Sheilas connection with Mr. Major and the AAC helped her to present
her case before the Home Office alleging discrimination regarding race, intolerance and
harassment. Mr. Bill Evens, Managing Director, English Foods Ltd was summoned before
the select committee of the Home Office where he had lot of explanation to do.
Questions:

342

1.

If you were Bill Evens, how would you have handled this case?

2.

Do you feel that English Foods Ltd discriminated against its Indian workers? Give
reasons.

3.

If you were the MD of English Foods Ltd., how would you explain the matter to the
Home Office?