Lecture 1 (20.9.

2016)

Morphosyntax: Words and Their Arrangement

Form and Function of the English Clause
"grammar" - many meanings - the "correct" way to speak or write
- the inflections (the word endings) common in many languages
- how humans organize ideas into words
- describes how we choose and arrange our words
- is about how units of language are sequenced
- the fundamental building blocks of language - words
grammarian
observed the language data (by noticing the unusual words in their contexts),
collected a few pertinent facts (by noticing that several words were placed near function
words like the or of and by noticing word endings like -s or -ing, clues to how the strange
words functioned in those clauses),
made and tested a hypothesis (by rereading a sentence after revising mentally to add the
information you collected by noticing the word's position and endings), and
reached a conclusion (that your hypothesis was correct because the paragraph made more
sense).
fundamental concepts of grammar categories - recognize that several of the unfamiliar words
belong to a word category eg.'noun.'
- constituency - recognize that several unusual sequences of
words in the first paragraph (such as Bog And All His Holy
Angels And Saints or Korova Milkbar) must be single units,
despite the fact that they are odd sequences of words
- metafunctions - to recognize several additional facts about
that paragraph (eg. sentences are statements, main theme)
production and perception of language:

the context of the language situation

meaning (semantics)
wording (grammar)
sound patterns (phonology and phonetics)

grammatical constituents of language categories

how those constituents combine at different levels - constituency
how those combinations of constituents can create meaning -metafunction

Which sentence goes with which situation below?

Sentence

Situation

Pardon me, sir, but would you mind

opening the window? request in a form
of a question, permission to speak (pardon
me), vocative (sir)

i Doing homework with your girl-/boyfriend.

Open the window, will ya buddy?

ii Baby-sitting your snotty younger brother.

Open the window NOW.

iii Meeting with the dean in his office.

Gee, it's hot in here. statement, hot is

iv Sitting on a bus next to a man dressed in
ambiguous in this context, gee indicate the
work clothes.
speakers discomfort

Form and Function of the Clause in English

words and phrases - the constituents of the clause rank
we can categorize the constituents of that clause into the appropriate phrase type

each phrase can be subcategorized into its constituent parts consitutents forms (also serve
functions)

eight functional constituents, grouped into five categories:

Functional Categories

Eight Clause Functions

(1) Subject

[1] Subject (S)

(2) Verb

[2] Verb (V)

(3) Objects

[3] Direct Object (DO)

[4] Indirect Object (IO)

(4) Complements

[5] Object Complement (OC)

[6] Subject Complement (SC)
[7] Adverbial Complement
(AC)

(5) Adverbials

[8] Adverbial (A)

clause patterns that are possible in English:
1. Liz (S) is resting (V) quietly (A) in the other room (A).
2. The mind (S) is (V) immensely complex (SC).
3. The children (S) were (V) here (AC) all morning (A).
4. Emily (S) is playing (V) cards (O) with her sister (A).
5. Early next week (A), the President (S) will send (V) Congress (IO) his budget (DO).
6. Clearly (A), the committee (S) considers (V) her (DO) the best (OC).
7. Once again (A), I (S) will put (V) the book (DO) away (AC).
the functions of subject and verb the 'central' functions
objects, complements, and adverbials are the 'peripheral' functions
adverbials are 'optional' when compared to the other clause constituents
Some Examples of the Seven Clause Patterns in English
S
SV

Liz

IO

DO

SC

OC

AC

is resting

SVC

The mind is

SVA

The kids

were

SVO

Emily

is playing

complex
here
cards

SVOO Clinton

will send

Congress

his budget

SVOC We

consider

her

SVOA I

will put

the book

the best
away

three main types of verbs:

intransitive verbs, followed by no obligatory constituents, as in SV pattern above;
copular verbs, followed by a SC or AC, as in the SVC and SVA patterns above; and
transitive verbs, followed by an object, as in the SVO, SVOO, SVOC, and SVOA patterns
above.

The Subject

central constituent in the clause

- 'governs' many of the gramm. choices to be made within the clause
- determines agreement between itself and the verb
- governs the person, number, case, and gender, where relevant, of several other constituents within
the clause.
- share a number of properties that serve to identify them within a clause - form, position,
agreement, pronouns, and voice.
Form. The subject is usually a noun phrase or clause.
That guy (S) is the one.

What I don't know (S) can hurt me.

Position. The subject is usually positioned before the verb in the indicative mood, after the
auxiliary in the interrogative mood, and absent but implied in the imperative mood.

Sandy (S) fell asleep. [indicative mood]

Go home! [imperative mood]

Did I (S) win? [interrogative mood]

Agreement. Subjects usually determine the number (singular or plural) and person (first, second,
third) of other constituents in the clause. The subject determines the number and person, where
relevant, of the verb in finite clauses.
Liz (S) works (V) hard. [singular, third person]
Emily and Liz (S) work (V) hard. [Plural]

The subject determines the number and person, where relevant, of any noun phrase functioning
as the subject complement.
Frank (S) is my nephew (SC) Frank, Mike, and Paul (S) are my nephews (SC)

The subject also determines the number, person, and gender, where relevant, of 'reflexive' pronouns
pronouns ending with the -self or -selves inflections.
I (S) cut myself.

They (S) cut themselves.

The subject determines the number, person, and gender, where relevant, of the emphatic pronoun
own in structures such as my own or their own.
I (S) cut myself with my own knife.
They (S) cut themselves with their own knives.

Pronouns. The subject determines the case, where relevant, of any pronoun in subject function;
that is, the subject function requires the subjective form of the pronoun.
I (S) like her.
She (S) likes me.
Voice. There is a systematic relationship between the subject of a clause and voice (active or
passive). The active voice subject corresponds to an adverbial (beginning with the preposition by)
in the passive voice.
Emily (S) likes Liz. [active voice]
Liz is liked by Emily (A) [passive voice].

The Verb

The function of verb is the least ambiguous in English since only one category (the verb phrase)
fills this function. Nonetheless, the verb is recognizable by a combination of formal and functional
properties. These are form, position, agreement, tense, modality, aspect, and voice.
Form. The verb is composed of a main verb with or without
auxiliaries. Frank reads (V) quickly.
Frank must have been reading (V) quickly.
Position. The verb usually occurs after the subject in the indicative mood, around the subject in
the interrogative mood, and at the beginning of the clause in the imperative mood.
Sandy fell (V) asleep. [indicative mood]
Did I win (V)? [interrogative mood]
Go (V) home! [imperative mood]
Agreement. The verb corresponds in number (singular or plural) with the subject in finite clauses.
Liz (S) works (V) hard. [singular, third person]
Emily and Liz (S) work (V) hard. [plural]
Tense. The verb of a finite clause is marked for tense (present or past).
Mike likes (V) Nintendo. [present]
Mike liked (V) Nintendo. [past]
Modality. The verb can be marked as predicating something other than simple fact (modal).
Paul might do (V) it. [modal]
Paul ought to do (V) it. [semi-modal]
Aspect. The verb can be marked as completing or continuing the process indicated by the main verb
(perfect and/or progressive).
Paul has done (V) it. [perfect]
Paul is doing (V) it. [progressive]
Paul has been doing (V) it for a long time. [perfect and progressive]
Voice. The verb is marked for voice (active or passive).
Emily likes (V) Liz. [active voice]

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Liz is liked (V) by Emily. [passive voice]

The Direct Object

The direct object is identifiable by its formal and functional properties. These are form,

position, pronouns, and voice.

Form. The direct object usually has the form of a noun phrase or clause.
The cat chased the mouse (DO).
I know that she will be here soon (DO).

Position. Direct objects usually occur after the subject and verb, as in the examples above.
Pronouns. If the subject and the object of a clause refer to the same entity, then the object will be in
the form of a reflexive pronoun. The reflexive pronoun will agree with the subject in number,
person, and gender, where relevant.
You (S) should see yourself (DO).
We (S) rewarded ourselves (DO) with a treat.
All other pronouns assuming object function will take the objective form.
I like her (DO).
She likes me (DO).
Voice. There is also a systematic relationship between the object of an active voice clause and the
subject of a passive voice clause. The object of the active voice clause corresponds to the subject
in the passive voice equivalent.
Emily likes Liz (DO). [active voice]
Liz (S) is liked by Emily [passive voice]

The Indirect Object

The indirect object is identifiable by all of the criteria of the direct object with a few unique

characteristics of its own in form and position.

Form. Although both objects usually occur either as noun phrases or as clauses in form, the indirect
object is restricted to the relative clause form.
I sent whoever wants it (IO) copies of a receipt.
Position. The indirect object can occur only when the direct object is also represented in the clause.
(Here we use the asterisk [*] to represent ungrammatical forms in a language.)
We gave her (IO) everything (DO).
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*We gave her (IO).

The indirect object also occurs only between the verb and the direct object.
We gave (V) her (IO) everything (DO).
*We gave (V) everything (DO) her (IO).

Moreover, only the indirect object can be paraphrased by a prepositional phrase functioning as an
adverbial, beginning with either to or for. The choice of the preposition is governed by the
main verb of the clause.
We gave her (IO) everything (DO).
We gave everything (DO) to her (A).

Finally, the indirect object can be omitted without affecting the semantic relationships of the
remaining constituents of the clause.
We (S) gave (V) her (IO) everything (DO).
We (S) gave (V) everything (DO).

The Object Complement

The object complement completes a reference and/or an implication suggested by the object of the
clause. The object complement is identifiable by its form, position, reference, and agreement.
Form. Object complements are most usually noun phrases or adjective phrases, although a
clause may assume this function on occasion.
They elected her Chair of the department (OC).
We find this music most pleasant (OC).
Position. Object complements only occur if there is an object in the clause and then occur normally
after that object.
They elected her Chair of the department (OC).
*They elected Chair of the department (OC).
*They elected Chair of the department (OC) her.

And unlike objects themselves, object complements do not have any passive voice
corresponding clauses, in which the complement appears in the subject position.
*Chair of the department was elected her by them.

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Reference. Since all complements imply a reference, object complements complete a reference to the
object of the clause. There is in effect a copular relation that exists between the object and its
complement, in that the object and its complement can be paraphrased by a SVC structure, like this:

They elected her (O) Chair of the department (C).

She (S) is Chair of the department (C).
Agreement. Object complements usually agree with the object in number (singular or plural).
She made Liz and Emily (DO) her assistants (OC).
She made Frank (DO) her assistant (OC).

The Subject Complement

The subject complement completes a reference to and/or an implication suggested by the subject of
the clause. It shares many of the properties of the object complement, notably form and agreement,
as described above under the 'Subject' and 'Object Complement' subheadings. Yet it has a few
properties unique to itself, such as position.
Position. The subject complement always occurs after a copular verb in the SVC clause pattern. The
most common copular verb in English is the verb be used as a main verb, although other verbs that
relate to perception also serve in this category, such as appear, seem, look, sound, feel, etc.

The Adverbial and Adverbial Complement

Another functional constituent that suggests a copular relationship with some other clause
constituent is the adverbial complement. It occurs only in explicit copular relationships referring to
the subject, as in
Liz (S) is in the park (AC).
or in implicit copular relationships referring to the object, as in
I put the cookies (DO) in the pantry (AC).

The adverbial complement referring to the object can be paraphrased in a SVC clause, as in
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The cookies (S) are in the pantry (AC).

Adverbial complements occur only in those two positions. Adverbials on the other hand are not
usually as restricted in position or in reference.

To understand more about these last two functions, we should learn to identify adverbials

in general by their form, position, and meaning.

Form. The adverbial is normally an adverb phrase, prepositional phrase, or a clause. Occasionally,
a noun phrase can function as an adverbial.
Later (A), I will finish the book.
In the afternoon (A), I will finish the book.
When I get home (A), I will finish the book.
Next week (A), I will finish the book.
Position. As we have seen above, the adverbial can occur in many different positions with a clause.
The adverbial may be at the beginning (clause-initial), in the middle (clause-medial), or at the end
(clause-final). Indeed, even its clause-medial position reveals an enormous degree of "flexibility."

Frankly (A), John was disappointed. [initial]

John, frankly (A), was disappointed. [medial]
John was, frankly (A), disappointed. [medial]
John was disappointed, frankly (A). [Final]
(By contrast, we know that the adverbial complement is restricted in its position to follow either
a copular verb or an object.)

Further we should note that not all the adverbials in English are as "mobile" as the example above.
Though, generally speaking, adverbials do give the speaker the greatest degree of positional
choice of all the clause constituents.
Meaning. The adverbial conveys a definable, but wide-ranging, set of meanings.
Yesterday (A), Ted left. [time]
If possible (A), ring me later. [contingency]
The book fell on the floor (A). [place]
If it rains (A), we'll leave later. [condition]
Although he's young (A), he's good. [concession]

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While she slept (A), I worked. [contrast]

I would go, except I can't (A). [exception]
Knowing her (A), I chose a red one. [reason]
To open the lock (A), tug on the door. [purpose]
I fed the stray, to gain its trust (A). [result]
The dog obeyed, as instructed (A). [comparison]
I would fight, rather than quit (A). [preference]
Ankara, I believe (A), is the capital. [comment]

Finally, we should remember one last, but important, difference between the adverbial and all other
functional constituents: the adverbial is the optional constituent; it can be left out of the clause;
all others are obligatory.

Having completed this brief survey of the clause, we should always remember, one, that there is
always much more to be said than this meager outline can cover and, two, that there is always a
much greater variety of grammatical structure in the world's language than this chapter could ever
hope to show (cf. Curme 1931 and Quirk et al. 1985).

Nonetheless, before we end this discussion, we need to talk about a few more points.
Grammatical Ambiguity

Words, as we know, often have more than one meaning, and that is the classic instance of
ambiguity. Ambiguity has another sense, however. Occasionally, phrases and clauses create
ambiguity because their structures may be interpreted in more than one way, leading to different
meanings for the sentence as a whole. Such ambiguity is called 'grammatical ambiguity.'

(1) An example of grammatical ambiguity at the phrase rank, interpreting her duck as a
noun phrase
EXAMPLE
FORM

saw her
duck.
Determiner Noun
Pronoun Verb [Noun
Phrase]

FUNCTION Subject Verb

Object

Compare tables (1) and (2) for an example of grammatical ambiguity.

(2) An example of grammatical ambiguity at the phrase rank, interpreting duck as
a subordinate clause
EXAMPLE

saw her

duck.
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FORM

Pronoun Verb Pronoun

Infinitive Verb

FUNCTION Subject Verb Direct Object Subordinate Clause

At the clause rank, ambiguity arises when clause constituents can be interpreted as having two or
more functions. Consider the clause They found me a good worker, where the functions of the
last two constituents can vary, creating two different meanings. Compare tables (3) and (4).
(3) An example of grammatical ambiguity at the clause rank, interpreting me as an
indirect object (meaning "They found a good worker for me")
EXAMPLE

They

found me

a good worker.

FUNCTION Subject Verb Indirect Object Direct Object

Now compare example (4).
(4) An example of grammatical ambiguity at the clause rank, interpreting me as a direct
object ( meaning They found me a good worker)

EXAMPLE They
found me
FUNCTION Subject Verb Direct Object

a good worker.
Object Compliment

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The Noun Phrase

Like all phrases, the constituents of the English noun phrase can be analyzed into both functional
constituents and formal constituents. From a functional point of view, the noun phrase has four
major components, occurring in a fixed order:
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Depending on the context of situation, we choose determiners and modifiers according to our
needs in identifying and specifying the referent of the NP. Sometimes we need several determiners
and modifiers to clarify the referent (all my books in that box); sometimes we need none at all (Liz).

That diagram is one way to represent the dual nature of a phrase. Each phrase, remember, is a
merger of both form and function, and, as complex as it looks, the diagram illustrates only some
of the complexities of the noun phrase in English. (For a more thorough treatment, see Halliday
1994 and Quirk et al. 1985.) Another way to illustrate some of the possible arrangements of form
and function in the noun phrase is presented in the table below.

Table above: Some Examples of the Noun Phrase in English FUNCTION Determiner
Premodifier Head Postmodifier (a)lionsE(b)theyoungX(c)theinformationageA(d)eachof
the childrenM(e)somebadly neededtimewith the familyP(f)thisconclusionto the
storyL(g)all mychildrenE(h)severalnew mysterybookswhich we recently enjoyedS(i)such
amarvelousdata bankfilled with information(j)abetterpersonthan I FORMS Pronoun
Participle Noun Prepositional Phrase Article Noun Adjective Relative Clause Quantifier
Adjective Phrase Pronoun Nonfinite Clause Complementation

Notice that several forms classes can be "reused." For example, in the noun phrase it is possible to
use quantifiers to function as pre-determiners or as post-determiners. This kind of "recycling" is
known as recursion. Notice also that phrases and even whole clauses can be "recycled" into the
noun phrase. This process of placing a phrase of clause within another phrase or clause is called
embedding. It is through the processes of recursion and embedding that we are able to take a finite
number of forms (words and phrases) and construct an infinite number of expressions. Furthermore,
embedding also allows us to construct an infinitely long structure, in theory anyway.

For example, the nursery rhyme "The House That Jack Built" plays on the process of embedding in
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English noun phrases. The nursery rhyme is one sentence that continuously grows by embedding
more and more relative clauses as postmodifiers in the noun phrase that ends the sentence:

This is the house that Jack built.

This is the malt that lay in the house that Jack built.
This is the mouse that ate the malt that lay in the house that Jack built.
This is the cat that scared the mouse that ate the malt hat lay in the
house that Jack built.
This is the dog that chased the cat that scared the mouse that ate the
malt that lay in the house that Jack built.
This is the boy who loves the dog that chased the cat that scared the
mouse that ate the malt that lay in the house that Jack built.

And so on. In theory, we could go on forever because language relies so heavily on embedding.

The Verb Phrase

The verb phrase (VP) in English has a noticeably different structure, since the information it carries
about mood, tense, modality, aspect, and voice is quite different from the information carried by a
noun phrase. The verb phrase has two functional parts,
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the auxiliary, a grammatical morpheme carrying information about mood,

tense, modality, and voice; and
the main verb, a lexical morpheme carrying its lexical information and,
usually, an inflection.

The mood system in English is divided into four subcategories.

The indicative mood 'indicates;' that is, it conveys to the listener/reader that the speaker/writer is
making a statement, referring to the real world in an honest, direct, relevant way. The majority of
our expressions are indicative in mood. Speakers signal the indicative mood by using word order:
when the auxiliaries take their "usual" position following the 'subject,' we interpret the clause as
being in the indicative mood.

Philosophers of language, like H. P. Grice, have done some of the most interesting linguistics of
recent years, explicating the meanings of the indicative mood in English by examining how people
use language in conversation. After studying a series of conversations in different contexts, he
developed the following generalizations or "rules of conversation" that help explain much about
how we interpret our language in the indicative mood. Grice (1975) pointed out the participants in
a conversation expect each other to be cooperative, to say something true and to the point, and not
to be withholding any relevant information.

Specifically, Grice's maxims, or "rules," are the following:

MAXIM OF QUANTITY
a. Make your contribution as informative as is required.
b. Do not make your contribution more informative than is required.
MAXIM OF QUALITY
c. Do not say what you believe to be false.
d. Do not say that for which you lack adequate evidence.
MAXIM OF RELATION
e. Be relevant.
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MAXIM OF MANNER
f. Avoid obscurity of expression.
g. Avoid ambiguity.
h. Be brief.
i. Be orderly.

L ook at the conversation between A and B below. The maxims of quantity and relation are at
work in B's response, like principles guiding our indicative interpretation of the fragment.
A: When will you stop by?
B: Sometime after dinner.

What maxims are at work in the following conversations between C and D?

C: I'm hungry.
D: I've got five dollars.

T he reply D makes is only sensible if we assume that D is following the maxim of relation (that
D is being relevant to C's statement of hunger) and the maxim of manner (that D being brief).

The interrogative mood signals the speakers' desire for information, that they are asking a question,
that they are 'interrogating' the listeners. The interrogative is marked by starting a clause with
an auxiliary verb or an interrogative pronoun.
(1) Can Liz do that?
(2) What will Liz do?

The imperative mood express the speakers' sense of a command, request, or exhortation - an
imperative. Speakers signal the imperative mood by using a base form of the verb in clauseinitial position.
(3) Do that!
(4) Be here by 8:00 pm.

The subjunctive mood express the speakers' sense of the unlikely, a wish, a prayer, a hope. The
subjunctive describes the state of affairs as speakers wish or hope them to be. It describes
hypothetical situations, "some other world," the irreal. Speakers signal the subjunctive by
beginning subordinate clauses with an auxiliary or by using subordinators that overtly mark
hypothetical conditions.
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(5) Had I known you were coming, I'd have baked a cake.
(6) If I were a millionaire, I'd endow an award in your honor.

The subjunctive is also marked in the verb phrase by the use of subject-verb concord, as in (6),
where the singular subject I is matched with the plural verb were. Base forms of verbs can also
signal the subjunctive.
(7) I suggest that Ms. Jones reconsider her decision.
(8) The administration insists that no one be exempted from the
placement exams.

Finally, the base form is also used in several older, formulaic subjunctive expressions that have
survived in the modern language.
(9) God save the King.

(10) Heaven forbid it should snow again.

Tense systems mark time. Tense is an inflection on the verb that indicates the time reference of the
expression. In English, tense is marked on the first verb of the verb phrase. All verbs marked for
tense are called 'finite' verbs, while verb forms that do not carry a tense inflection (such as
participles) are called 'nonfinite' verbs.

English has two tenses, really. On most English verbs, the -s inflection marks the present tense, and
the -ed inflection marks the past tense. Verbs using both the -s and -ed forms are known as 'regular'
verbs in that those verbs employ the most common, most 'productive' inflection to mark time, as in
helps/helped, hopes/hoped, loves/loved. 'Irregular verbs,' on the other hand, fall into seven
subcategories, employing a number of inflections (such as -en for the participle inflection as in
written, taken, stolen) or in some classes employing no participle inflections at all (such as put or
cut as in Liz cuts the cake/Liz cut the cake/Liz has cut the cake).

It is really better to refer to the present tense in English as the 'nonpast,' since English uses the
present tense to refer to many different time frames. Consider the sentences below, for example,
where all the verbs are marked for the present tense, but the time reference varies considerably
from example to example:
(11) Emily is tired today.
(12) Emily is leaving soon.
(13) Emily is clever.

Sentence (11) indeed does refer to the present time frame, but sentence (12) seems to refer to the
near future, although it is marked for "present" tense. Sentence (13) is altogether different: its
time frame is expansive, referring to the past, present, and future simultaneously.

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What people commonly call the 'future' in English is really part of the modality system of the
language. English speakers use modal auxiliary verbs (like will) or phrasal verbs (like is going to often phonologically reduced to gonna) to refer to the future.

The modality system expresses the speakers' sense of obligation, volition, probability, permission,
and ability. Modality is signaled by the use of a modal auxiliary verb and the use of a base verb,
modal + base.
(14) Liz {must/should} go. ("obligation")
(15) Liz will stop that immediately! ("volition")
(16) Liz {may/might} go. ("probability")
(17) Liz {can/may} go. ("permission")
(18) Liz {can/could} do it ("ability")

The modal will also expresses a 'future' sense. (19)

Liz will do it tomorrow. ("future")

The modality system also includes a class of auxiliary verbs called semi-auxiliaries (or semimodals or quasi-modals). These idiomatic verbs and phrasal verbs express modal (and sometimes
aspectual) meaning. They often (but not always) take the form of BE+PARTICIPLE+to. These
semi-auxiliaries resemble auxiliaries in that they have some equivalence of meaning. Syntactically,
the semi-auxiliaries are a mixed group. The semi-auxiliaries starting with be do not need dosupport in negation or question formation, but most of the others do employ do-support for those
syntactic processes. (See the discussion of do-support below.)

Aspect signals either the completion or the continuation of the process indicated by the verb in
English. The perfect aspect expresses the speakers' sense of completion, the speakers' sense that the
process expressed by the verb has been "perfected," to use the older sense of the word. The perfect
aspect is signaled by the use of a form of the auxiliary have and the -ed participle, have + V-ed.
(Remember that some verbs are irregular, with irregular participle

forms.) (20) Liz has gone already.

The progressive aspect expresses the speakers' sense that the process expressed by the verb
continues, covers a period of time, and is in some way relevant to the present moment. The
progressive aspect is signaled by the use of a form of the auxiliary be and the -ing participle, be +
V-ing.
(21) Liz is doing the best work ever.

Voice systems allows speakers to view the action of the sentence in different ways without
changing the facts involved. English has two voices, active and passive. In the examples below, it is
possible to see the event from the perspective of the 'agent' (the conscious "doer" of the action - that

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is active voice), as in (22), or from the perspective of the 'goal' (the "receiver" of the action - that is
passive voice), as in (23).
(22) Liz encourages Emily. (active)
(23) Emily is encouraged by Liz. (passive)

The passive voice is signaled by the use of a form of be and the -ed participle, be + V-ed.
Lastly, English also employs the verb do to function as a supporting auxiliary in verb phrases that
require an auxiliary for certain grammatical processes but which lack some other auxiliary already
discussed. Consider (24) for example where it would be impossible to signal the interrogative
mood without the support of the do auxiliary, as in (25).
(24) Emily sleeps well at night.
(25)

Does Emily sleep well at night?

To signal the interrogative mood, remember, the auxiliary verb occurs in clause-initial position.
However, if the clause has no auxiliary verb, as (24) does not, then do-support provides the
necessary auxiliary, as in (25). Notice too that do has all the hallmarks of an auxiliary: not only does
it occur in clause-initial position as other auxiliaries do in the interrogative mood, but it also is
marked for tense like all first verbs in the finite English verb phrase.

Another way to illustrate some of the relationships between form and function in the verb phrase
is presented in the table below.
Some Examples of the Verb Phrase in English

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