Biol 2213

09/22/2016

INTRO
Physiology the study of how living things function (normally, in
homeostasis).

Pathophysiology the study of diseased states of the body

(abnormal).
o When something in the body is NOT in homeostasis
objective: define physiology vs. pathophysiology
CELL DIFFERENTIATION
There are at least 200 distinct cell types in the human body, each
with its own unique structure and function.
These 200 cell types are broadly categorized as either:
o Muscle cells
o Neurons (nerve cells)
o Epithelial cells
o Connective tissue cells
while in utero stem cells eventually start to specialize to the
different functions and structures of the body
MUSCLE CELLS AND TISSUE
Generate mechanical force
3 types:
o skeletal voluntary
o cardiac involuntary
o smooth involuntary
involuntary = cannot consciously control their activities

objective: list the four basic tissue types and describe their
locations and specialized functions
NEURON AND NERVOUS TISSUE
Neuron: specialized cell to initiate, integrate, and conduct electrical
signals to other cells
Make up the:
o Brain
o Spinal cord
o Nerves
Major means of control
objective: list the four basic cell and tissue types and describe their
locations and specialized functions
EPITHELIAL CELLS AND TISSUE
Linings and coverings of organs and cavities
Specialized for:
o Secretion and absorption
o Protection
Two sides of the cell:
o Basolateral anchored to basement membrane (and anchor
tissue)
o Apical faces the interior (lumen) of a structure
objective: list the four basic cell and tissue types and describe
their locations and specialized functions
CONNECTIVE CELLS AND TISSUE
Connect, anchor, and support structures in the body
o Bone

o Cartilage
o Adipose tissue (fat storing)
o Blood
Important function of connective cells: form extracellular matrix
ECM function:
o Provide scaffold for cellular attachment
o Communicate via chemical messengers to cells
other: ligaments, tendons
objective: list the four basic cell and tissue types and describe
their locations and specialized functions
HIERARCHY

Tissues
o An aggregate of similar cells
Organs
o Composed of two or more tissue types
o Some are made up of functional units
Organ systems
o Collection of organs that work TOGETHER to form overall
function
humans: cells tissues organs organ systems
objective: recall the organizational hierarchy of humans
BODY FLUIDS
Watery solution of- dissolved oxygen, nutrients, waste

2 compartments for the fluid

o intracellular fluids = (cytoplasm) 67% of ALL fluid
o extracellular fluids
plasma (20-25% of ECF) Red blood cells are suspended
in this
interstitial fluid (75-80%) of ECF
objective: discuss the distribution of total body water into
intracellular fluid and extracellular fluid (ECF), and the two
components of the ECF.
HOMEOSTASIS
Different for each variable of the body
o Often a dramatic change in one variable means other
variables become non-homeostatic as well
The dynamic consistency of conditions found in organisms
environment.
o All this means is that conditions may change in the short term
in response to prevailing conditions, but are
predictable/constant over the long term.
Examples (all operate within predictable ranges):
o Blood pressure
o Glucose

objective: define homeostasis

draw out dynamic vs. static so students understand terms
HOMEOSTATIC CONTROL SYSTEMS
All activities of cells and tissues are integrated- any change initiates
a reaction to correct that change.
Maintains physiological variables near a set point (balance
between inputs and outputs)

o Note set points CAN change!

Negative and Positive Feedback systems
Feedforward regulation
objective: define homeostatic control systems: negative
feedback, positive feedback systems, Feedforward regulation.
EXAMPLE OF NEGATIVE FEEDBACK
Correction in opposite direction of deviation move it back to set
point
Think of body temperature as another example

define homeostatic control systems: negative feedback,

positive feedback, Feedforward regulation
POSITIVE FEEDBACK: ACCELERATES A PROCESS
Step 1 stimulus causes deviation from set point
Step 2 cellular response exacerbates deviation
Step 3 further deviation leads to additional cellular response
Step 4 further exacerbates deviation
Step 5 and so on and so on until stimulus stops
o Far less common compared to negative feedback

oxytocin if in labor cervix is dilating, this hormone continues

to piggy back continue the contractions until baby is born
Objective: define homeostatic control systems: negative
feedback, positive feedback, Feedforward regulation
FEEDFOWARD REGULATION
Bodily responses are activated BEFORE a change in a variable
occurs.
o Similar to negative feedback, but response is anticipatory and
no deviation from set point must occur.
Examples:
o Skin feels cold and causes shivering BEFORE body
temperature drops
o Smell of food causes release to stomach enzymes BEFORE
food gets there.

Objective: define homeostatic control systems: negative

feedback, positive feedback, Feedforward regulation
SET POINTS
How can it change? External environment temporarily resets a set
point
Example:
o Fever (get the chills first as body generates heat to reset the
body temperature to a higher temp- to fight off pathogen)
Some set points are reset diurnally (temp varies day and night)
For ex: body temperature has been reset higher to inhibit the
continual growth and spread of the pathogen, to generate the heat
to reach this new temp the body shivers. Then you record a
temperature letting you know your body temp is now higher as you
fight off the pathogen and will return to normal (often with some
sweating to cool you back down) temperature when the pathogen is
gone.
objective: recognize that the set points for regulated variables
can be reset under different physiological conditions
REFLEXES
Reflex: a specific response to a particular stimulus
Examples
o Glands sweating
o Muscles removing your hand off a hot surface

muscles and glands are major effectors

pathway, integrating center, efferent pathway, effectors,

response- and how they interact

REFLEXES- BASIC VS LEARNED

Most reflexes are subject to learning: learned reflex
Example
o Stopping your car at a red light
Objective: mention/distinguish between a basic reflex and a
learned reflex
THREE CATEGORIES OF CHEMICAL MESSENGERS

Hormones
o Communicate with target cells
o Transported by blood
o Hormones produced in endocrine glands
o Important functions in many systems
Neurotransmitters
o Released from neurons to communicate with other neurons,
muscle cells, or gland cells
o Transported by diffusing through extracellular fluid separating
neuron and target cell
Paracrine or Autocrine substances
o Synthesized and released into extracellular fluid for cell to cell
communication (paracrine)
o Synthesized and released into extracellular fluid for cell
communicating with its self (autocrine)
o Usually inactivated after performing their functions
In some cases, a chemical messenger may act on all three
o Example: Norepinephrine is a neurotransmitter AND a
hormone

Objective: compare and define hormones (endocrine agents),

neurotransmitters, paracrine substances, and autocrine substances.
CELL COMMUNICATION VIA INTERCELLULAR MESSENGER

HOMEOSTATIC CONTROL MECHANISM CAN EITHER REFLECT

ADAPTATION OR ACLIMATIZATION

Adaptation denotes a heritable characteristic that favors survival

in specific environments.
o Ex the diverse beaks of Darwins finches are an adaptation
to local food resources in the Galapagos Islands
Acclimatization refers to a change in function based on an
environmental change.
o Ex the salt-regulating gill cells of salmon change orientation
when moving from the salty ocean to freshwater streams.
*In an individual, acclimatization are reversible; adaptations are
not.

Objective: compare and contrast adaptation and

acclimatization
another way to say adaptation is: to improve the function of
that species.

CIRCADIAN RYTHYMS- A BIOLOGICAL RHYTHM

Wake/sleep cycle

o Light/dark is the most important environmental time cue in

our lives
A Feedforward system: enables homeostatic mechanisms to be
utilized before a situation occurs
o Example: metabolism slows during inactive time (sleep),
increases during active times (daytime)
Pacemaker
o hypothalamus keeps time despite external environmental
cues
o external input is sent here and neural signals then distribute
from here
Objective: relate circadian rhythms to Feedforward regulatory
mechanisms; name the location and function of the pacemaker (aka
internal clock; hypothalamus gets info from eyes and other nervous
system parts, then send signals to the brain after it processes this
info)
- organ systems coordinate with each other
-most functions are controlled by multiple regulatory systems:
work in opposition of each other to maintain fine control of the body
-structure and function go together
MEMBRANES
The body guard/doorman
Functions of membrane:
o A selective barrier to passage of molecules
o Detecting chemical signals from other cells
o Anchoring cells to adjacent cells and to the extracellular
matrix of connective-tissue proteins
Objective: describe the structure and functions of the plasma
membrane and organelle membranes
think both plasma membrane of cells and of the organelles in
cells: barriers in two locations often have to be crossed to process
information/transport something/ etc.
MEMBRANE STRUCTURE

all membranes consist of a double layer (phospholipid) containing

embedded proteins.
How is a phospholipid organized?

o Bilayer of nonpolar fatty acid chains in the middle, polar

heads oriented outward as a result of their attraction to the
polar water molecules in the extracellular fluid and cytosol.

the membrane is:

o flexible
o restrictive to substances trying to pass through
o contains proteins that allow substances in and out or act as
enzymes

Objective: describe the structure and functions of the plasma

membrane and organelle membranes
MEMBRANE JUNCTIONS
Many cells are physically joint by types of junctions:
o Desmosomes
o Tight junctions
o Gap junctions
Integrins are transmembrane proteins in the plasma membrane
which bind to specific proteins in the extracellular matrix and link
them to membrane proteins on adjacent cells
o How we get tissues
o This differs from peripheral proteins who only lie on one side
of the membrane
o The fluidity of the membrane allow proteins to move
DESMOSOMES, TIGHT JUNCTIONS, GAP JUNCTIONS

Desmosomes: accumulation of proteins known as dense plaques

along the cytoplasmic surface of the plasma membrane and hold
adjacent cells firmly together
o Ex: skin

Tight junctions: extracellular surfaces of two adjacent plasma

membranes join together so that no extracellular space remains
between them.
o Ex: epithelial cells in small intestine: forces nutrients to go
through cells.

Gap junctions: protein channels link the cytosols of adjacent cells.

o Allow small ions Na+ and K+ and not large proteins
o Ex: muscle cells of the heart

Objective: define the types of membrane junctions.

Cadherins: link and bind adjacent cells, extend as shown in
graphic
BINDING

A ligand is any molecule or ion that is bound to a protein by one of

the following forces:
o Electrical attractions between oppositely charged ionic or
polarized groups on the ligand and the protein.
o Weaker attractions due to hydrophobic forces between
nonpolar regions on the two molecules
The region of protein to which a ligand binds is known as a binding
site.
o One protein may have multiple binding sites for multiple
ligands OR one ligand
When a ligand binds to a protein the proteins specific function may
either be activated or inhibited.

PROTEIN BINDING: CHEMICAL SPECIFICITY

In order to bind properly, proteins must have the right

conformational shape.
The ability of a protein binding site to bind specific ligands is known
as chemical specificity because the binding site determines the
type of chemical that is bound.
Some sites only bind one ligand while others can bind many
ligands.

o Why the shape of the proteins so important

o Example: drugs. The more sites a drug binds to, the higher
the chance of unwanted side effects.
The more specific a drug can be for the ligand to bind to a
specific protein, the better the effect of the drug can have and less
side effects, as other proteins are not bound by the drug ligand the
more specific it is. The effect of the drug can be inhibitory or
exhitatory.
CHEMICAL SPECIFICITY

Protein X can accept multiple ligand shapes

Protein Y is very specific to Ligand C

Depending on the type of drug you may want lots of receptors

bound, so protein x is good but you may risk more side effects. I you
want only select effects and to limit side effects you want the perfect
match represented by protein y and ligand c.
PROTEIN BINDING: AFFINITY
The strength of ligand-protein is a property of the binding site
known as affinity.
The affinity of a binding site for a ligand determines how likely it is
that a bound ligand will leave the protein surface and return to its
unbound state.

Specificity depends only on SHAPE of binding site, affinity depends

on STRENGTH OF ATTRACTION in binding site of protein.

example of affinity: drugs of high affinity at the binding site

means only a small amount of the drug is needed, since
binding will easily occur- reduces side effects.

SATURATION

The term saturation refers to the fraction of total binding sites

that are occupied at any given time.
The percent of a binding site depends upon two factors:
o The concentration of an unbound ligand in the solution (point
D in figure)
o The affinity of the binding site for the ligand (high affinity =
high saturation); Once bound, they dont want to part.

AGONIST VS ANTAGONIST

Competition: the presence of multiple ligands able to bind to the

same site
o The effects of one affects the other: drugs often compete with
natural ligands for binding sites- who wins the competition
affects you!
Agonist binds and triggers response as the natural ligand would;
(mimics)
o ex: decongestant- mimic epinephrine but on a subtype
receptor of epi
Antagonist molecule that does not activate as the natural ligand
would. Basically occupies the site so the natural ligand and its
effects does not occur.
o ex: antihistamine- a histamine blocker by occupying those
binding sites.
o Ex2: blood vessels contract, opening up nasal passages.

Ch. 5 covers receptors and the terms we discussed over binding. It will
be a good review as we visit receptors again over the course.
Objective: define the terms binding site and ligand and
describe the forces that bind ligands and binding sites.
define the terms specifically, affinity and saturation and apply
each term to an example.

discuss how the shape of the binding site determines which

molecules can bind and thus determines the chemical specificity of
that protein.
Describe how two ligands can compete for a binding site.
Differentiate between agonist and antagonist.
PHYSICS REMINDERS

Metabolism: synthesis and breakdown of organic molecules ( a

chemical process )
Chemical reactions involve breaking of chemical bonds into
reactants and the making of new chemical bonds in products
Energy is added or released, doesnt disappear!
o Catalase
2H202 2H2 + 02
o equation shows hydrogen peroxide broken down to water and
oxygen.

Energy is neither created nor destroyed

Objective: describe how reactant concentrations, activation

energy, temperature, and the presence of a catalyst affect the rate
of a chemical reaction.
BACKGROUND ON ENZYMES

Enzyme can be defined as protein catalyst.

Catalyst: increases the rate of reaction, itself is unchanged
Enzymes end in -ase
o Ex- carbonic anhydrase

Other important notes

o A single catalyst molecule can act over and over again
catalyze many reactions
o Some enzymes require coenzymes (a travel partner)
Here a few atoms are either removed from or added to
a substrate

ENZYMES CATALYZE BIOLOGICAL REACTIONS

Most come into contact with reactants-substrates

Shape of active site provides basis for enzymes specificity
After the end of the reaction, the enzyme can undergo the same
reaction again

MORE ON ENZYMES
Cofactors
o Substance that binds to enzyme
o Is necessary for enzyme activity
o In other words, cofactors alter the enzyme so it can do its
function
Ex: trace metal ( Mg, Cu, Zn )
Coenzyme
o Organic molecule participates in reaction
o Work on reactions needing to remove or add a few atoms to a
substrate
o Can act over again to transfer molecule fragments from one
reaction to another
Ex: vitamins
Objective: define enzyme, substrate, catalyze, and active site
and understand how enzymes and named.

describe how cofactors and coenzymes are needed to

activate some enzymes

ENERGY PATHWAYS OF CELLS

Metabolic pathways: a sequence of enzyme-mediated reactions
leading to the formation of a particular product.
Three pathways to transfer energy from molecules to ATP:
o Glycolysis
o Krebs cycle
o Oxidative phosphorylation
Energy inputs for these processes: carbohydrates, fat and proteins,
all can be used as a source of energy (ATP) by breaking inputs
down into glucose.
GLYCOLYSIS
Glycolysis: converts glucose to 2, 3 carbon pyruvate
o **net gain for each glucose molecule: 2 ATP, 4 Hydrogen-2
for NAD, 2 released
o pyruvate moves on to enter Krebs cycle under aerobic
conditions or be converted under anaerobic to lactate (a
different type of energy source).
o ATP amt. produced is small
Exception: erythrocytes which have no mitochondria
(required for other 2 processes) get all ATP from
glycolysis
KREBS CYCLE
Krebs: sets up next process mostly
o Produces CO2, Hydrogen, small amt ATP
o Hydrogens move on to next pathway
o Operates only under aerobic conditions
o Main role- hydrogen atoms must be transferred to coenzymes
and used in oxidative phosphorylation so large amounts of
ATP can be made.
OXIDATIVE PHOSPHORYLATION
Operates only under aerobic conditions
Most ATP formed here!
o Derived from H combing with O to form water, releases
energy
o H comes from NADH + H and FADH2

FIGURE 3.41
Objective: Briefly describe the three metabolic pathways that
transfer energy to ATP
summarize the process of glycolysis by stating the reactants
and products.
discuss the two fates of pyruvates: further oxidation by the
Krebs Cycle if oxygen is not present.
summarize the Krebs Cycle by stating the reactants and
products.
Discuss the importance of the coenzymes NADH and FADH2
in linking Krebs Cycle and oxidative phosphorylation.
summarize oxidative phosphorylation
TRANSPORT ACROSS MEMBRANE (CHAPT 4)
DIFFUSION

Our cells must _____ receive nourishment and release waste

_____, they do this through the extracellular environment
Therefore the movement of materials across membranes in and out
of the extracellular environment becomes crucial to physiology
Important terms: solute, solvent, solution

MAGNITUDE AND DIRECTION OF DIFFUSION

o Flux: the amount of material crossing a surface per unit time.

o Concentration difference is the determinant.

o Molecules are always moving

Net flux always greater from regions of higher concentration

lower concentration, the greater the difference in concentration the
greater the net flux.
Concentration determines the magnitude.

DIFFUSION

Random thermal motion of molecules from high low.

Affected by: temperature, surface area, air vs. fluid, distance and
Mass/charge of molecule.

Examples:
o Oxygen
o Nutrients across blood vessels
Mass = larger molecules move slower, surface area- more area =
more space for diffusion = faster net flux

Objective: Define simple diffusion and variables that affect it.

Describe why the net flux of molecules between two

compartments is always from the region of higher concentration to
the region of lower concentration.
Predict how temperature, mass of the molecule, surface area,
and the diffusion medium affect the net flux across a membrane.
Identify the hydrophobic region of the phospholipid bilayer as
the greatest barrier to the diffusion of polar and ionic solutes.

CONTINUING CHAPTER 4
FICKS EQUATION
Magnitude of net flux= J
Difference in concentration outside vs. inside cell ( Co - Ci )
Surface area of membrane = A
Membrane permeability = P, this varies depending on molecule and
temp
J = PA ( Co + Ci )
[How to understand moving molecules from one side to another]
Rate of diffusion
Membranes by design slow down diffusion
The equation will show the different rates different molecules diffuse
Note- many cells of the body are close to capillaries diffusion occurs
quickly over short distances
DIFFUSION THROUGH MEMBRANES
Semipermeable: some materials allowed through, others not
Nonpolar molecules diffuse rapidly
Lipophilic (lipid-loving) substances move through easily
Steroid hormones, o2, co2, fatty acids, etc
Polar molecules and hydrophilic (water-loving) do not diffuse readily
through the membrane w/o the help of special mlcls

Objective: Define simple diffusion and variables that affect it.

Describe why the net flux of molecules between two
compartments is always from the region of higher concentration to
the region of lower concentration.
Predict how temperature, mass of the molecule, surface area,
and the diffusion medium affect the net flux across a membrane.
Identify the hydrophobic region of the phospholipid bilayer as
the greatest barrier to the diffusion of polar and ionic solutes.

DIFFUSION OF IONS
Remember ions are charged particles
A simple artificial lipid bilayer is practically impermeable to ions
But cells have a solution- Ion channels
Integral membrane proteins form channels through with ions can
freely diffuse according to the electrochemical gradient
These small channels can be specific and allow the diffusion of certain
ions at certain times.
(this mean some channels are always open, some have gates)
Objective: Discuss the role of integral membrane proteins in
allowing polar molecules and ions to permeate the cell.

MEMBRANE POTENTIAL (EM)

slide 11 *really important factor in diffusion of charged particles

*note negative charges- intracellular, positive extracellular
an unequal distribution of charges exists across the membrane,
leaving the inside cell negatively charged compared to the outside Anions
(negative ions) are fixed within a cell, they ATTRACT cations like K+**
net movement (+ in, - out) occurs even if ion concentration is equal
Charges, ions of positive are attracted into cell, negative out of
cell

ELECTROCHEMICAL GRADIENT
Concentration difference and electrical diff (EM)
The magnitude of each of these also matters in instances where and
ion is moved in one direction by membrane potential and the opposite by
concentration difference.

Objective: Define electrochemical gradient.

Magnitudes of differing forces, larger magnitude means more
ions will move that way.

REGULATION OF DIFFUSION THROUGH ION CHANNELS

Ligand gated (lock and key) influenced by chemical messengers
Voltage gated (electrical signal)
Mechanically gated (physical force)
Note: a single ion could pass through different types of channels
Add: All organisms have channels for Na+, K+, and ClMembrane transport of these ions is important for:
Osmotic balance
Signal transduction
Membrane potential

LIGAND GATED CHENNELS

*specific molecule binds to change the shape of protein
(conformational change)

Objective: Distinguish between ligand-gated channels, voltagegated channels, and mechanically- gated channels.
VOLTAGE GATED CHANNELS
Membrane potential moves charged areas on proteins

Objective: Distinguish between ligand-gated channels, voltagegated channels, and mechanically- gated channels.

MECHANICALLY GATED CHANNELS

Physically changing shape of protein
Respond to mechanical stimulation (touch, or stretch)
(not a huge deal in the body)

S/N*when you have any stimuli coming into open the gate, it is
slightly changing the shape of the channel to allow that ion to go through.
Constant changes if multiple ions.
Objective: Distinguish between ligand-gated channels, voltagegated channels, and mechanically- gated channels.

WHAT HAPPENS WHEN A MOLECULE CANT DIFFUSE OR PASS

THROUGH AN ION CHANNEL?
Mediated transport via transport/carrier proteins
Conformational changes in transport proteins each time a co crosses
Makes the process much slower and moves fewer ions compared to
simple diffusion ion channels

Objective: Describe how proteins involved with mediatedtransport systems move molecules from one side of the membrane
to another.

TRANSPORTER: TWO TO BEAM UP!

Two types of mediated transport:

Facilitated diffusion
No energy is required and movements are diffusional (high low)
Active transport

Energy (ATP) is required, and can move molecules against their

concentration gradient (low high)

FACILITATED DIFFUSION
Ex: glucose: polar molecule that needs a transporter
ACTIVE TRANSPORT (*PUMPS)
Involves the use of energy to pump a molecule against the gradient
As a mechanism of mediated transport, AT is molecules specific, and
limited by saturation and the rate of conformations change (shape)
There are two types of AT:
Primary uses ATP
Secondary uses electrochemical gradient across membrane

Objective: Compare and contrast facilitated diffusion, simple

diffusion, primary active transport and secondary active transport
and identify an example of each.
Distinguish between primary active transport and secondary
active transport, including the mechanisms of coupling energy to the
transporters.
Distinguish between cotransport and countertransport of
solutes coupled to Na+.

PRIMARY ACTIVE TRANSPORT

(Uses every in the form of ATP to pump against gradient)
Na/K ATPase pump
Moves sodium to extracellular fluid, potassium to intracellular.
both against concentration gradient
maintains distribution of high intracellular K and low Na
found in every cell!
Shape of transporter changes

sodium-potassium pump step 1-3

(step 1)Transporter high affinity for Na
(2 and 3)Reduces affinity for Na and affinity is now for K switching the
protein to open back to extracellular side
Comparing concentrations to extracellular
Normally have higher K amounts in cell, thats why it is moving
against the gradient

OTHER EXAMPLES FOUND IN MOST CELLS

Ca+ -ATPase aids in homeostasis
H+ -ATPase aids in pH balance of cells

H/K+ -ATPase aids in digestion of proteins

SECONDARY ACTIVE TRANSPORT
The movement of a molecule (Na+) with its electrochemical gradient is
coupled with the movement of a molecule (solute x) against its gradient
Requires that transporters have two binding sites (one for each
molecule)
*transported molecules can be moved in the same or opposite
directions

image: solute Xsolute to be cotransported

(can I catch a ride with you?)
Objective: Compare and contrast facilitated diffusion, simple
diffusion, primary active transport and secondary active transport
and identify an example of each.
Distinguish between primary active transport and secondary
active transport, including the mechanisms of coupling energy to the
transporters.
Distinguish between cotransport and countertransport of
solutes coupled to Na
COMMON MEDIATED TRANSPORT MECHAINISMS

Poll each definition here: diffusion, primary, active, facilitated

diffusion

OSMOSIS
The net diffusion of water across a membrane, now worry about the
solvent and not the solute
Facilitated by channel proteins called AQUAPORINS (= WATER)
note some cells always have aquaporins, others add them in, in
response to regulatory molecules
during osmosis:
a difference in concentration of solutes exists on either side of the
membrane
membrane must be impermeable to the solute, making the water
move
Ex epithelial cells of kidneys have lots of aquaporins, varies slightly
depending on water balance in body

OSMOLALITY
Total solute concentration of a solution = OSMOLARITY
The # of solutes matter, not what they are. 1 osm. = 1 solute
Glucose= 1
Sodium chloride =2
Ex: during dehydration, plasma osmolality increases. This stimulates
osmoreceptors, you become thirsty, hormones act on the kidneys to retain
water
Lets us focus on ratio of solute to water molecules
Draw a figure to show numbers on water and solute
concentrations, figure 4.16 p 106

Osmolarity vs. osmolality

Osmolarity: # of solutes (total solute concentration, higher the
osmolarity means less water concentration because there are lots of
solutes)
Osmolality: # moles of solute/kilograms (total concentration of the
solution)
*Tie in point:
Multiple systems worked together here: endocrine and renal
Our chain of events represents negative feedback
Ex: act of retaining water in kidneys = negative feedback to return to
equilibrium
**know examples, dont worry about calculations**
COMMON IONS AND SEMIPERMEABLE MEMBRANE

Na+: pumped actively out of the cell and enters cell during secondary
active transport
Cl-: enters during secondary active transport, electrical potential sends
it back out
Both of these ions act as non penetrating into the cell
K+: major solute inside cell, actively pumped out of cell
acts as a non penetrating
Objective: Define osmosis and the role of aquaporins.
Recognize that the concentration of water in a solution
decreases as solute concentration (i.e., osmolarity) increases.
Describe how the osmolarity of a solution depends upon the
total number of solute particles in solution, regardless of their
chemical composition.
Describe the importance of a semipermeable membrane in
osmosis.

SOLUTION TERMS

Tonicity effect of solution on osmotic movement

Isotonic solution have the SAME concentration of NONPENETRATING

solutes as normal extracellular fluid
Hypotonic solution have a LOWER concentration as normal
extracellular fluid. The cell will SWELL (lyse). Water moves into cell toward
the area of higher concentration of solutes
Hypertonic solution have a HIGHER concentration as normal
extracellular fluid. The cell will SHRINK (Crenate). As water moves out of the
cell into area of higher concentration of solutes
***KNOW THAT WATER MOVES, NOT SOLUTES!!!
CAN OSMOSIS BE STOPPED?
Osmosis can be prevented by osmotic pressure, an opposing force
When water enters a cell expands (lyse). Plant cells have a cell wall
offering an opposing force, we as animals do not have this opposing force
As more and more water cones into the cell and it expands, what
eventually happens?
Pure water coming into the human body eventually causes cells
to burst and the human to die

COMPARE AND CONTRAST (DIFFUSION VS OSMOSIS)

Diffusion
Solutes move
Some molecules require proteins/gates/channels
Many substances move directly across plasma membrane
Osmosis
Water moves
Water (polar) moves through aquaporins
Moves through a semipermeable membrane-permeable to water not
solutes
BOTH
Look to put solutions into equilibrium
ENDOCYTOSIS & EXOCYTOSIS

FORMS OF ENDOCYTOSIS
(ENTER cell)
pinocytosis
endocytotic vesicle engulfs extracellular fluid
non-specific any small molecule in the ECF eill enter
receptor mediated endocytosis
designed to take up SPECIFIC molecules needed by the cell
phagocytosis
cells engulf large particles and even other cells
pseudopodia fold out from the membrane
forms a phagosome (large internal vesicle)
for special cells found in the IMMUNE SYSTEM

be able to look at images/diagrams of different forms and

recognize (slide 35)
*phagosome: mainly in immune
EXOCYTOSIS
(EXIT cell)
ex: the way hormones are released
important in releasing membrane-impermeable molecules produced by
the cell
ex: protein hormones
also replenishes the portions of the membrane lost in endocytosis
**most common communication path of neurons!
Basically- lots of communication is done

Objective: Compare and contrast endocytosis and exocytosis

and their functions.
Recognize that endocytosis consists of pinocytosis and
receptor-mediated endocytosis, which are common to most cells,
and phagocytosis, which is a specialty of certain cells in the immune
system.
Describe the two functions of exocytosisto replace portions of
the plasma membrane that are removed during endocytosis and to
provide a means for the secretion of large polar molecules such as
protein hormones into the extracellular fluid.

EPITHELIAL TRANSPORT
(apical membrane vs. basolateral membrane)
cells that line hollow organs and regulate absorption or secretion of
substances
ex: movements of substances between kidney and blood
Na+ movement an active process- see the pumps!

s/n you can have different, multiple kinds of pumps around cell
may be trans-cellular (through the cell) or para-cellular ( in between
two epithelial cells)
tight junctions limit amount of ions and water that can diffuse

Na lumen to blood in absorption process, blood to lumen in

secretion
Objective: Distinguish between the apical and basolateral
surfaces of an epithelial cell and describe how tight junctions exist
between adjacent epithelial cells.
Name examples: kidneys, small intestine, tubular structures
Objective: Distinguish between the paracellular and
transcellular pathways of epithelial transport.
Allows the cells to further mitigate what comes and goes
Para or trans cellular is just location of where substance is
crossing

EPITHELIAL Na TRANSPORT
Moves by active transport, sometimes secondary active transport
Changes Na concentration, which changes water concentration
Water will move with the Na (same direction)
This is important in our renal and digestive systems!
(when we move Na, water likes to follow it)

Objective: Describe how Na+ is transported across an

epithelium.

EXAM 1
CHAPTER 1, 3, 4

Blue scantron for exams:

Last name, First name
Student ID
Version #
Bring ID, pencil, and scantron
NOTHING ELSE
Chapt 1, 3-2, 8, 11, 14, and all of 4

CHAPTER 6 - NUEROPHYSIOLOGY
Two major divisions
CNS

o
o
PNS
o
o

Central nervous system

Brain and spinal cord

Peripheral nervous system

Connects CNS to bodys muscles, glands, sensory organs,
tissues
Structure/fn of neuron
(neurons generate electrical signals)
cell body- contains the nucleus and most machinery for protein
synthesis (aka somo)
dendrites receive inputs from peripheral and nervous tissue
dendritic spines- contain some protein machinery and are thought
to play a role in learning and memory

axon- carries outgoing nervous signals

o hillock/initial segment- electrical signals are generated here
axon terminal- interact with target tissues and nerve synapse
(where neurotransmitters are released)

three different set ups for neurons, look at pic, third is most
common

most common shape

Objective: Identify the basic unit of the nervous system, a
neuron, which is capable of transmitting electrical signals that lead
to the release of chemical neurotransmitters.
Identify the parts found on most neurons and describe the
direction of flow of information in neurons.

Axon transport

Look at cell video..

Kinesin: cell body to axon terminal (anterograde)
o Moves nutrients, enzymes, other organelles
Dynein: opposite direction (retrograde)
o Moves recycled vesicles, chemical signals for the cell body
o Also the route of harmful invaders

Objecitve: Describe how microtubules and motor proteins

function to provide for axonal transport.

Glial cells of the CNS

Constitutes about half of the cells in the CNS
CAN DIVIDE unlike neurons
Provide physical and metabolic support
TYPES
o Oligodendrocyte forms myelin
o Astrocytes regulate extracellular fluid and stimulate the
formation of blood brain barrier among other duties
o Microglia immune function
o Ependymal cells cells regulate spinal fluid?

Astrocytes: aid in neurons during development of embryo, have

receptors and channels
o May do more than we know (unsure of magnitude of
functions)

Myelin
Myelin sheaths speed up conduction of electrical signals along axon
(similar to rolled up carpet)
o Myelin forming cells called Oligodendrocytes (type of glial cell)
o In CNS
o Called Schwann cells in PNS

Objective: Name the myelin-forming cells in the CNS and PNS.

Classes of neurons (table 6/1)

Afferent- from sensory receptors
o Towards the CNS
Efferent- away from the CNS
Interneurons- connect tissues
o Interneurons are most numerous, lie entirely in the CNS
o Note the locations differ: cell body of afferent in PNS, Effector
cell body in CNS (look at image on ppt)

Groups of afferent and efferent neurons, with blood and tissue,

form nerves therefore nerves are bundle of axons

Objective: Identify and explain features of the three functional

classes of neurons: afferent, efferent, and interneurons.
State where the cell bodies and axons for each class of neuron
are located.

Reflex Arc

MEMORIZE GRAPHIC GIVEN!

o KNOW ALL THE PARTS

Reflex responses to stimuli is a multi-step process

A stimulus occurs at the receptor cell or sensory neuron. This is
sent along the afferent neuron as a nervous impulse and is received
by the CNS for processing.
o Some reflexes require many association areas and
interneurons in the brain, others

Number is not important as long as you know each step. Sometimes few
interneurons are used, sometimes stimulus and receptors are considered one step.

The interneuron makes connection to the motor neuron or efferent

neuron. The motor neuron transmits the impulse to the effector
organ.

Objective: Define a reflex and list the components of the reflex

arcstimulus, receptor, afferent pathway, integrating center,
efferent pathway, effectors, response.
Reflex arc- involuntary
Ex- lifting hand off tack
Some processes link afferent and efferent neurons directly together,
like the knee jerk reflex

Reflex arc- learned

Still a reaction to a stimulus, but you have consciously controlled
the motor response.
o Ex- driving car responses, stopping at a red light
Partner example- shoving hand in partners face = blink and/or move

Objecitve: Distinguish between a basic reflex and a learned

reflex.

Electrical potentials a neuron

Electrical potential- separated electrical charges of the opposite

charge have the ability to do work if allowed to com together
(potential to do work- physics)
The potential is measure in Volts, mV in human body

Ohms Law = I = V/R

o Understanding the electrical properties of current, voltage and
resistance

Membrane potential

Aka electrical potential

ECF- Voltage reference point, resting potential = -70

o Charge difference ECF and ICF is -70 mV, excess neg inside
Most cells -65 to -85 mV

Objecitve: Recognize that in all body cells under resting

conditions there is a potential difference across the membrane such
that the inside is negative with respect to the outside.
State that the membrane potential is a result of two factors:
(1) the uneven distribution of (primarily) Na+ and K+ across
the plasma membrane and (2) the unequal permeabilities of
membranes to those ions.
State that the resting membrane potential of cells is much
closer to the equilibrium potential for K+ than to the
equilibrium potential for Na+.

Resting membrane potential

Highest ion concentrations: Na, K, Cl

o Membrane is most permeable to K, therefore a chance in K
will have the greatest effect
Magnitude depends ono Differences in specific ion concentration

o Differences in membrane permeabilities to different ions

How does Na+ -- K+ generate resting potential?
a. Concentration gradient and leak channels
i. Movement of K out of cell down concentration gradient through
leak K channels
ii. K channels come in two types: leak and gated, gated are
closed at resting, leak are open
b. Ion Pumps
i. Number of ions moved through Na-K pump equals what is
leaked and actually contributes to the negative intracellular
charge
ii. 3 Na out of cell for every 2 K brought in
Na-K pump
You know:
o 3 na out and 2 K in
o the membrane is much more permeable to k compared to no
remember higher concentration of k in cell, higher
concentration of na outside of cell
need the pup to go against gradient
leaks go with gradient

more permeable to K+ because there are more K+ leak channels

Objective: Discuss the importance of the Na+/K+-ATPase in

maintaining the concentration gradients for Na+ and K+ and
establishing the resting membrane potential.
Discuss how leak channels are involved in the resting potential

Graded and action potentials

Cells that produce electrical signals:
o All neurons and muscle cells
o Some endocrine, immune, reproductive
These cells have gated channels:
o Located in cell membrane
o Open or closed through mechanical, electrical or chemical
stimuli
o Na+ channels are all gated and closed during resting potential
define the terms depolarize, repolarize, and hyperpolarize.
define and give three examples of graded potentials.

describe how the magnitude of the graded potential is affected by

the magnitude of the stimulus, the distance the potential has
traveled, and summation.
describe an action potential and identify the types of cells with
excitable membranes capable of generating action potentials.
discuss the importance of ligand-gated channels and mechanicallygated channels to the initiation of an action potential and the
importance of voltage-gated channels to the excitability of the
membrane.
explain why the threshold potential must be reached in order for a
neuron to generate an action potential.
explain why action potentials are said to be all-or-none.
define the absolute and relative refractory periods. Understand the
ionic basis of these periods.
describe the mechanism by which action potentials are propagated.
Differentiate between action potential propagation in myelinated
axons and in unmyelinated ones.
compare and contrast graded potentials and action potentials.

Directional changes in the membrane potential

Before we look at a electrical signal. Lets look at the possible

changes the electrical signal could cause

Graded potentials
Potentials confined to small region of the membrane
magnitude can vary
short distances
can be summed
no threshold, no refractory period

Objective: List the characteristics of graded potentials.

Describe how the magnitude of the graded potential is

affected by the magnitude of the stimulus, the distance the
potential has traveled, and summation.
Channels

Ligand gated- binding of signaling molecules

Mechanical gated- open when physical deformation to membrane
occurs (like stretching)
o Often these two start graded potentials
Voltage gated- ability to undergo action potential, specific to an ion
o Action potentials can arise from graded potentials or
spontaneously so essential from any of the three gates

Objectives: Discuss the importance of ligand-gated channels and

mechanically-gated channels to the initiation of an action potential
and the importance of voltage-gated channels to the excitability of
the membrane.

Action potentials

Primary mechanism to the nervous system uses to communicate

over large distances
Voltage gated channels allow ability for action potentials
o Generated by graded potentials to threshold or spontaneous
change in membrane potential
Large change in the membrane potential
Frequent and often fast
All or non depolarization of the membrane
Has a threshold of -55mV and a refractory period
Moves Na+ into the cell, K+ out of the cell via diffusion through the
gates

Objective: Draw, label and describe an action potential.

Reproduce an action potential as membrane potential vs. time
and label its various parts in terms of being depolarized,
repolarizing, and after-hyperpolarized. Superimpose the changing
patterns of Na+ and K+ permeabilities on the action potential.
Explain why the threshold potential must be reached in order
for a neuron to generate an action potential.

Image slide
#2 positive feedback Na triggers depolarization, triggers more Na
channels to open

Na+ channels respond faster to changes in voltage- thats why

they open first. Inactivation gate limits flux of Na+
K+ channels are slower to open and close
When threshold is reached action potential fires. Once hit this point
stimulus strength DOESNT matter

*action potentials continue to flood in as long as stimuli is being

applied

voltage-gated Na+ and K+ channels- STUDY UNTIL YOU GET IT,

SHIT IS HARD

(BLUE) inactivated as membrane potential reaches its peak, this

breaks the positive feedback loop for Na
(RED) a return to the negative potential causes channels to close

Objective: Draw, label and describe an action potential.

Reproduce an action potential as membrane potential vs. time
and label its various parts in terms of being depolarized,
repolarizing, and after-hyperpolarized. Superimpose the changing
patterns of Na+ and K+ permeabilities on the action potential.
Explain why the threshold potential must be reached in order
for a neuron to generate an action potential.

Drug facts
Local anesthetics ( eg novacaine, lidocaine) bind to Na+ channels
and therefore block response to initial depolarization- the channels
do NOT open.
o Other ex:
Cocaine
Epidural
Graded potentials vs action potentials

Graded
Local. Confined to a small region
The magnitude of the change in potential varies ( is graded)
Magnitude decreases with distance

Action
Occur over large distances
Rapid and large fluctuation in potential
All or nothing (threshold)

Both
o Involve a change in potential
o Used in cell communication

Refractory Period

Absolute: A second stimulus will NOT produce an action potential

o Why?
o Na+ channels already open or in inactivated stage
o As soon as inactivation in removed and Na+ are closed the
channel can reopen to second stimulus

Relative: second action potential can happen only if stimulus

strength is greater than usual
o Why can it occur here?
Some of the Na+ channels have returned to resting and
some K+ channels still open
Magnitude of the potential will be reduced

Objective: define the absolute and relative refractory periods.

Action Potential Propagation

Action potential sets off a new action potential in the region just
ahead of it
Therefore
o Positive feedback of Na+ allows the action potential to be
nearly identical when it reaches the end
Positive feedback: accelerates a process

Refractory periods push the propagation in one direction-away

from where it has just been active
Most neurons action potentials start at one end and propagate to
other end

Propagate in any direction as long as its not in refractory, muscles

typically go two directions away from the middle where AP takes
place, in neurons AP typically starts at one end, ends at the other

Objective: describe the mechanism by which action potentials

are propagated.
differentiate between action potential propagation in
myelinated axons and in unmyelinated ones.
Stationary Conduction

AP is regenerated at each node as moves down the axon

AP conduct without decrement (decrease) in amplitude
Larger fibers offer less resistance to moving current and AP moves
faster
Myelinated axons also allow AP to move faster

Action Potential Propagation and Myelination

More charge arrives at nodes due to myelin insulation preventing
charge to leak out, therefore, action potential moves faster along
myelinated axons than non.
Due to ions pumping only at the nodes and restoring fewer ions,
this creates less work for the pumps saving energy.

Objective: Describe the mechanism by which action potentials

are propogated.
Differentiate between action potential propagation in
myelinated axons and in unmyelinated ones.
CHAPTER 6 (cont.) NERVOUS SYSTEM
Synapse
Synapses can use both chemical and electrical stimuli to pass
information
Synapses can also be inhibitory or excitatory depending on the
neurotransmitter (chemical signal) being transmitted.
Most synapses occur between axon terminals and dendrite or cell
body of a second neuron.

Presynaptic- where we are.. conducting signal toward synapse

Postsynaptic- where we are going

Functional Anatomy of Synapse

Electrical
o Pre- and post- synaptic cells are connected by gap junctions
o Current flow continues across the gaps
o Found in cardiac, smooth muscle and in the CNS

Chemical
o Axon terminals hold synaptic vesicles
o Pre-synaptic neurons release neurotransmitter from their
axon terminals
o Neurotransmitter is a messenger that travels across the space
and binds to receptors on post-synaptic neurons

Mechanisms of Neurotransmitter Release

Calcium ions trigger a change in the SNARE proteins that lead to

the fusion & release of the neurotransmitter
Voltage gated channels open when action potential arrives

Analogy to help understand what is going on

o Think of it like planes docking @ the airport terminal

o Then Ca+ ions allow the airplanes to fuse to the terminal
(the gate at the airport)
At the Post-synapse

Neurotransmitters come in large amounts to ensure binding to a

post synaptic receptor, unused are transported away from the site
Neurotransmitters may bind to ion channels: IONATROPIC
OR

Receptors may influence ion channels through a G

Protein/secondary messenger: METABOTROPIC

Either way binding causes the ligand-gated ion channel to open or

close

Postsynaptic Response can be EXCITATORY (post synaptic potential) or

INHIBITORY

Open Na+ and K+ channels moving lots of Na+ in and small

amount of K+ out: net movement is + into the cell
Brings postsynaptic membrane closer to threshold (depolarizing).
Is a graded potential

Objective: explain what happens at a synapse in one sentence

Postsynaptic Response can be Excitatory or Inhibitory

Open Cl- or K+ channels
o Cl- in NEGATIVE
o K+ out NEGATIVE
Nrings postsynaptic membrane further from threshold
(hyperpolarizing)
Decreasing the likelihood of an action potential

Summation
Temporal summation: signals arrive at different times

Spatial: signals occur at different locations on the cell from two

different neurons

Little or no change occurs when we stimulate both an excitatory

and inhibitory synapse

Variability at the Synapse

Presynaptic

During frequent stimulation Ca+ removal does not keep up

(normally pumped out of cell after AP) lots of Ca+ left in the axon
terminal.
Decreased Ca+ reduces number of vesicles, therefore less
neurotransmitter is released.

Variability at the Synapse

Post-synaptic

Receptor types and number

Receptor desensitization:
o Normal response to neurotransmitter but over time ceases

Drugs
Interfere or stimulate normal processes in neurotransmitter
synthesis, storage, release, and receptor activation.
Drug classifications:
o Agonist drugs that bind to a receptor and produce a
response similar to activation of that receptor
o Antagonists drugs that bind to the receptor but are unable
to activate it, only occupy it preventing any binding
EPSP = depolarizing
IPSP = hyperpolarizing
Receptors for Neurotransmitter Ach
Nicotinic Ach receptors
o Ach binds at post synaptic cell
Ex: skeletal muscle cells (how muscles contract)
Agonist: nicotine
Antagonist: curare (South American tree residue)
Muscarinic Ach Receptors
o Ach binds at post synaptic cell
Ex: digestive cells or cardio cells
Agonist: muscarine
Antagonist: atropine

**These channels are ligand gated (take Ach) to open a channel for
ions to move. So in this case you open a channel so ions move to
depolarize the post synaptic cell to give us a EPSP
Inactivate the Ach to stop activity of the postsynaptic cell

Neurotransmitters

Acetylcholine
o Synthesized from choline: a neuron releasing Ach is called a
cholinergic neuron.
o After activating post-synapse, enzyme deactivates it- which
releases choline ( that can be used over and over again ).
o Major player in the PNS: where motor neurons connect to
skeletal muscle
o Some Ach receptors respond to Nicotine.
Nicotinic receptors are important in cognitive functions
and behavior.
The presence of these receptors in certain areas of the
brain associated with reward explain why tobacco is so
addictive.

Biogenic amines
o Synthesized from amino acids
After activating their receptors they are transported
back into axon terminal or broken down by enzymes.
o Examples: dopamine, norepinephrine, epinephrine (not
common), all three called catecholamines
o Neurons releasing catecholamines located in the CNS:
regulate mood, attention, hormone release, states of
consciousness and more
o To treat depression, a monoamine oxidase inhibitors may be
used. It inhibits the process of breaking down the
catecholamine by enzymes therefore increasing the
concentration of dopamine and norepinephrine at a synapse.

(dont have to know the entire list in the book for exam 2)
Structure of the Nervous System

Terms that mean the same but are different?

CNS has pathways:
PNS has nerves: a group of many axons traveling from or to the
same place
Nuclei: groups of neuron cell bodies in the CNS
Ganglion: groups of neuron cell bodies in the PNS
Central Nervous System- Brain

Forebrain cerebral hemisphere cerebral cortex

Corpus calosum bundle of nerves that connects the cortex layers
of the left and right hemispheres
Know: forebrain, high brain, midbrain
Gap: corpus calosum

Cerebral Cortex
White matter contains myelinated nerve fiber tracts running
information to or from the brain
Grey matter primarily cell bodies, lots of interneurons

Basal Nuclei (or Ganglia): collection of neuron cell bodies that

control voluntary actions.

Areas of cerebral cortex that control movement send axons to this

spot, neurotransmitters are released and eventually a motor circuit
is complete allowing intentional movements and preventing
unintentional ones.

Forebrain: Cerebral Cortex

Must complete integrating areas of the nervous system

Collects afferent info processing it into perceptual images

Lots of direction control as input fibers connect here and deliver info
about the environment, direct attention to certain stimuli, etc.

Cerebral Hemispheres: Cerebral Lobes

Frontal:
Voluntary motor control of skeletal muscles, higher
intellectual processes, etc.
Includes the Motor Cortex
Parietal:
Understanding speech, interpretation, somatesthetic
interpretation
Temporal:
Memory, auditory/visual experiences
Occipital:
Integration of movements of the eye

In each, motor cortex & somatosensory cortex, body regions are

represented by the largest area depending on the highest density of
receptors (more in ch. 7)

Forebrain
Thalamus:
Integrating center: allows you to focus in on ME and filter out
the other senses bombarding you right now (whispers,
writing, etc)
Relay center for sensory info
Hypothalamus:
Master command center for neural and endocrine
coordination, regulates pituitary gland
Key to homeostasis regulation
Why? Controls what you need to survive: earing,
drinking, regulation of body temp, etc.
Epithalamus:
Includes the pineal gland- regulates circadian rhythms

Hindbrain: Cerebellum

Controls posture and balance and complex motor skills

Receives info from areas of the muscles and joints (proprioceptors),
skin, eyes
o Midbrain: motor control, maintains connections from
cerebrum to cerebellum.

Medulla Oblongata

Vital centers: cardio and respiratory

Nuclei process info from 10 of the 12 cranial nerves
From the brainstem through the medulla, pons, and midbrain runs
the reticular formation- essential for life
o Receives input from all regions of CNS
o Involved in motor functions, sleep/wake cycle, amine
neurotransmitters released from here

CNS: Spinal Cord

Consists of:
o Gray matter
Interneurons, cell bodies of efferent neurons, axons of
afferent neurons, glial cells
Shape gives rise to dorsal horn and ventral horn
Afferent: connect to the dorsal horn: called
dorsal roots
Efferent: leaves from area of the ventral horn:
called ventral roots
o White Matter

Myelinated axons or ascending/descending tracts

Name implies where the tract synapses in the brain or
descends from
Ex: (wm) spinothalamic: carries impulses from touch
and pressure to the thalamus, on ascending tract
(spinal descending tract coricospinal cerebral cortex to
spinal cord)

PNS Nerves: Cranial Nerves

Peripheral nerves that innervate:_________________________

We would not hear, tast or smell or see without these guys.
12 pairs, some only containing efferent OR afferent fibers

PNS Nerves: Spinal Nerves

All contain afferent and efferent fibers

31 pairs of spinal nerves
o 8 C-cervical

o
o
o
o

12 T-thoracic
5 L-lumbar
5 S-sacral
1 Coccygeal

AFFERENT AND EFFERENT REFRESHER

Afferent Division- conveys info from sensory receptors to CNS

Efferent Division- carry signals from CNS to muscles or glands

Efferent Division: motor neurons

AUTONOMIC DIVISIONS

Parasympathetic, Sympathetic, Enteric

Enteric: nerves innervate walls of the GI tract

SYMPATHETIC AND PARASYMPATHETIC BOTH

Have pre- and post- ganglion neurons

Have fibers that innervate many organs, muscles, and glands
(called dual innervation)
Have cell bodies located within the CNS

Sympathetic and Parasympathetic

upon activation this

one set releases
hormones.

Post ganglionic

Ganglia close
to the CNS.
* Ganglia close to organ/gland in parasympathetic division.
Sympathetic and Parasympathetic Differ

Pre-ganglionic fibers exit @ different spinal locations

Note again the location of the ganglia and their proximity to the
CNS and their proximity to the CNS
o Sympathetic on either side of the spinal cord first ganglia,
second also close
o Parasympathetic ganglia located next to or in the organ

Called paravertebral ganglia:

Sympathetic chain of ganglia,
note fibers below the
diaphragm are passing
through - not synaptic here.
Examples

Sympathetic
o Increases heart rate
o Dilates and constricts veins
o Contracts bladder sphincter

Parasympathetic
o Decreases heart rate
o Releases bladder sphincter

often opposite effects

these examples occur without conscious control except the last one.
Which is why autonomic could almost be called
involuntary/automatic. Some responses can be learned-like control
of bladder
see more on Table 6.11 page 181

FIGHT OR FIGHT

Divergence of impulses to ganglia of the sympathetic systems and

convergence of impulse within ganglia can result in mass activationincreasing activity in response to fight or flight situations
Sympathetic system example you should know:
o Heart rate and blood pressure increases
o Bloodlines increases to skeletal muscles, heart, and brain: the
essentials you need in that moment.
o Pupils dilate
Note: the parasympathetic division is not normally activated as a
whole. In other words there is NO mass activation of this division

FLUIDS AND MEMBRANES OF THE CNS

a. Meninges- membranes
i. Located between neural tissue and skull
ii. Function: to protect & support
b. CSF
i. Located between the membranes of the meninges
c. Blood brain barrier

CSF- Cerebrospinal Fluid

Produced by: Choroid Plexus (located in the brain stem)

o Circulates and replenished about 3 times per day
Cushions/Floats the brain and spinal cord

THE BLOOD BRAIN BARRIER

Formed by smallest blood vessels in the brain

Tight junctions & transport systems in the cells lining blood vessels
of the brain offer control
Restricts movement of certain substances into and out of CNS ECF
a more selective barrier.
o Lipid soluble components enter brain quickly
o Substances combined with membrane transport proteins
enter quickly (glucose and substrates).
Some psychoactive drugs (e.g. barbiturates, nicotine, alcohol, and
heroin) only work so well because they have a high lipid solubilityenter the brain quickly.

CHAPTER 7- SENSORY NEURONS

SENSORY NEURONS

Sensory neurons have an end to receive sensory stimuli and

produce the nerve impulse and the other delivers impulse to
synapses in the CNS. The cell body is located in the middle.

SENSORY SYSTEM

Information from the sensory system does not always lead to

conscious awareness of the stimulus
o If it does, sensation and perception occur: feeling the
awareness through perception.
Sensory receptors are specialized cells that generate graded
potentials called receptor potential in response to a stimulus.
o Stimulus: energy or chemical activating a sensory receptor.

SENSORY RECEPTORS

There are five major divisions of these sensory receptors based on

stimuli that they respond to:
i. Mechanoreceptors physical
ii. Thermoreceptors heat/thermal

iii. Photoreceptors light

iv. Chemoreceptors chemical composition
v. Nociceptors contained in many locations

Contained in many locations.

THE RECEPTOR POTENTIAL

AP is generated by ion channels allowing ions to move, this occurs

on afferent neurons and make a graded potential.
Once action potentials are generated, the pattern of AP provides
location, intensity, information on the stimulus

Factors controlling AP include:

o Stimulus strength- increases the frequency of AP
o Temporal summation- which is a decrease in receptor
sensitivity

Definitions to Know

Coding: Conversion of a stimulus into a signal that is conveyed to

the CNS.
o Important info to code- type of input, intensity, location of the
body affected.
Sensory unit: on afferent neuron and all its receptor endings
Receptive field: area leading to activity in an afferent neuron.

TYPE OF INPUT & OVERLAPING

Stimulation of a single point may activated several overlapping

sensory units stimulated to varying degrees depending on the
location of the stimulus
One receptor responds to one modality ( stimulating its receptors)
and all receptors on one neuron are sensitive to that stimulus
o This is due to synaptic pathways within the brain activated by
the sensory neuron.

Due to modalities overlapping could get multiple sensations

o Ex. Pain and touch
o modality means stimulus type

STIMULUS INTENSITY

Frequency of AP based on strength of stimulus

Stronger stimuli often affect a large area, recruiting more receptors
& neurons.

STIMULUS LOCATION

Each receptor is linked to a pathway to the CNS for that modality

and body location
Acuity : location of one stimulus depends on amount of
convergence of input along pathways.

Overlap

Also depends on :
Size of receptor fields,
density of sensory
units, and amount of
overlap.

STIMULUS LOCATION

Greatest density ( # of receptors )is at the center of a receptive

field meaning greatest response will occur there.
What affects AP in generated by a stimulus?
o Frequency
o Density receptors
o Lateral inhibitions
o Receptor field overlap

LATERAL INHIBITION

Lateral inhibition for some sensory systems.

In lateral inhibition, information from afferent neurons whose
receptors are at the edge of stimulus.

Lateral inhibition enhances the contrast between the center and

periphery of stimulated regions, thereby increasing the brains
ability to localize a sensory input.
o Exact localization is possible because lateral inhibition
removes the information from the peripheral regions.

Lots of modification occurs to the AP generated at receptors on its

way to and from the CNS.

NEURAL PATHWAYS IN SENSORY SYSTEMS

Most pathways convey information on a single type of sensory

information ( ex. Mechanoreceptors )
Specific ascending pathways cross to opposite side of CNS from the
sensory receptors
Specific ascending pathways transmit information to somatosensory
(cortex) from somatic receptors: skin, skeletal muscle, bone,
tendons, joints

NEURAL PATHWAYS IN SENSORY SYSTEMS

Information from eyes:

o Visual cortex
Information from ears:
o Auditory cortex

Etc.
Information (the coded AP) then moves to the association area of
the cerebral cortex.
Nonspecific pathways also reach the cerebral cortex in areas
controlling alertness
Primary sensory areas:

Complex integration occurs at these cortical association areas

o i.e. this is where perception occurs along with emotional or
varying factors that will affect perception.

FACTORS THAT AFFECT PERCEPTION

a. Receptor adaptation and afferent processing
b. Emotions and experiences
c. Not all stimuli give rise to a conscious sensation
i. Ex: stretch receptors monitor blood pressure in several large
arteries
d. Lack of receptors for certain stimuli
i. Ex: radio waves
e. Damaged neural pathways
i. Ex: phantom limbs
f. Drugs- hallucinogens
g. Mental illness

THE SENSES

Somatic sensation
o Touch, temperature, etc
Visual
o Light
Auditory
o Sound
o Vestibular: sense of balance
Smell and taste
o Chemoreception

SOMATIC SENSATION

Sensation from the skin, muscles, bones, tendons, joints, or

somatic sensation, is initiated by a variety of sensory receptors
collectively called: Somatic Receptors
These respond to..
o Touch/pressure
o Sense of posture and movement
o Temperature
o Pain

MECHANORECEPTORS IN SKIN

Respond to touch and pressure

About half adapt rapidly- respond to changing stimuli
Other half are slow to adapt
Some have large receptive fields
o Ex. Palm of your hand
Others have small well defined receptive fields
o Ex. Fingertips

TEMPERATURE AND PAIN

Thermoreceptors
o Ion channels that open in response to thermal cues
o Some chemicals can open channels as well

Nociceptors
o Respond to intense mechanical deformation, extreme
temperatures and chemicals that bind to ion Nociceptors

* more COLD receptors than warm.

Painful heat or painful cold stimulates a whole different set of
channels to open in the membrane called: transient receptor
potential channels

REFFERED PAIN

Occurs due to both visceral and somatic afferent neurons in the

spinal cord. Brain refers to somatic source.
Common areas of pain felt even through pain is in an internal
organ.

PAIN IS JUST DIFFERENT

After initial AP:

o Changes can occur that may increase or decrease sensitivity

to pain
o Pain can last after original stimulus is gone
o Pain can be altered by past experiences, emotions and
simultaneous activation of other senses
Ex: phantom limb

Analgesia: suppresses pain without affecting other sensations (such

as consciousness).
o Inhibition occurs at synapse from nociceptor neurons to
ascending pathway

THE SOMATOSENSORY CORTEX LOCATION OF PATHWAY

TERMINATION

Sensory neurons enter CNS and cross sides ( L R, and R L )

Head and face enter brain via cranial nerves
Most densely innervated areas have larger areas of the cortex: see
face & thumb.
o Overlap occurs and size can change
o If you lose a part, another area moves in over its place
making the new area larger
Ex: lose an arm and the face may take over

VISION

The eyes are composed of:

o An optical component, which focuses the visual image on the

receptor cells.
o A neural component, which transforms the visual image into a
pattern of graded and action potentials.
ANATOMY OF THE HUMAN EYE

3 layers:
o sclera ( outer )
o choroid ( middle )
o retina ( interior )

THE OPTIVS OF VISION: REFRACTION

a. refraction by the cornea and ( to much lesser extent ) the lens

allows us to focus an image onto the retina
b. results in image formation upside down and reversed right to left
c. brain puts it in its proper orientation

the shape of the lens, and thus the degree of refraction is controlled
by muscles.
Adjustments or accommodations to distance of objects occur as
lens change shapes