DRAFTING

AND

DESIGN
BA SICS FOR INTERIOR DE SIGN
T R AV I S K E L LY W I L S O N

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DRAFTING AND DESIGN

BASICS FOR INTERIOR DESIGN

TRAVIS KELLY WILSON, idec

Western Kentucky University
Bowling Green, Kentucky

FAIRCHILD BOOKS

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New York

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CONTENTS

ELEVATIONS

000

Chapter 10

SCHEDULES

000

Chapter 11

ELECTRICAL AND LIGHTING

000

000

Chapter 12

KITCHEN AND BATH DESIGN

000

UNDERSTANDING THE USE

Chapter 13

PRODUCT DESIGNING:

Acknowledgments 000

Chapter 1

WHY DO WE NEED TO LEARN

TO MANUALLY DRAFT?

Chapter 2

OF DESIGN EQUIPMENT
Chapter 3

CASE GOODS, LIGHTING,

000

FURNITURE, AND

MEASURING AND THE

SMALL FIXTURES

USE OF THE SCALE

000

Chapter 4

QUALITY DRAWING

000

Chapter 5

SYMBOLS, LETTERING, AND

Chapter 14

Chapter 6

PLANNING A BUILDING

Chapter 7

FLOOR PLANS

Chapter 8

SECTIONS

000

000

000

PROJECTION DRAWINGS
ON A 2-D SURFACE

TYPOGRAPHY IN DRAFTING

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Chapter 9

Preface 000

000

Chapter 15
000

000

PRESENTATION DRAWINGS

000

Abbreviations 000

Basic Metric Conversion Table 000

Glossary 000
Index 000

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PREFACE

The intent of this book is to provide a

ments of design from an architectural

The room within is the great

beginning for a designer who is learn-

view point. All designers are creating

fact about the building.

ing the basics of drafting and design.

architecture in one form or another. It

This is achieved through learning to

could be how the physical structure is

read drawings and use basic steps

designed or how the light reflects off

to create a design. It is simply learn-

of a dining room table. As designers,

ing what is needed to conceptualize

we work within the constraints of a plot

and develop a process that leads to a

of land, then a building, finally ending

final product. This is the method that

with a space inside a room; therefore,

has worked successfully in my office

this text refers to architectural elements

by helping the beginning designer

that are applied to the interior and ex-

understand that one drawing leads to

terior of a design. When the principles

another, creating a continuing educa-

and elements of design can be applied,

tional process for every project. The

I suggest sketching existing elements.

approach of copying a design to learn

This could be anything as long as there

drafting does require practice, but this

is a process to creating the design,

method allows designers to critically

breaking down the structure of an ob-

think through a project in a single step.

ject and defining all of its elements.

Being able to creatively design a project

while learning to draft is far more re-

understand measurements and learn

warding and meaningful than copying

to visualize sizes of objects on the cor-

someone elses work. Todays designers

rect scale. After a designer learn the

have more information available at a

basic sizes of standard objects, such

faster pace than ever before; therefore,

as doors and furniture, drafting will be

drafting education can be integrated

simplified. No need to constantly refer

into design as a single step with begin-

to a resource for standard information.

ning designers having the ability to take

However, a designer needs to apply

in more information and multitask.

their own creativity and not rely on ba-

sic designs when creating a structure or

The first objectives of the book

FRANK LLOYD WRIGHT

The next step to drawing is to

are learning what the profession is

space. Standards help frame the basic

about and conceptual development. I

structure, but creativity should guide

approach the basic principle and ele-

the design.

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xi

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xii
Preface
00_WILSON_FM.indd 12

The process of programming is a

lows for new thoughts through design

step that helps beginners clarify what

experimentation.

is required in a project. Limitations at

a beginner level allow the designer to

drawing the different components to

focus on what a client needs and not

create a set of presentation drawings.

becoming hindered by total conceptual

By drawing to a correct scale, the work

development. The intent is to learn the

can be quickly converted or redrawn

design process in small steps and not

for a final presentation. Throughout the

having to focus on completing every-

process, levels of refinement increase

thing at once. This can become over-

and the designer begins to see what

whelming to the beginning designer.

will work in a design. Every designers

first projects are always an education

When the programming basics are

The final steps of the process are

understood the actual designing of

in applying the principles of design

the structure can take place. Sketch-

to their work. However, the designer

ing a design is important because the

sees the process and understands

designer is visualizing what is being

the commitment to creating a quality

thought. Sketching the plan, eleva-

project. This is the purpose of drafting

tions, and sections teaches the new

and designinglearning to think like a

designer that lines have meaning and

designer and develop the skills required

are used to develop their ideas. It al-

to become a quality draftsperson.

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CHAPTER 1

WHY DO WE NEED TO
LEARN TO MANUALLY DRAFT?

After reading this chapter, you will understand why

[A designer is] an emerging

synthesis of artist, inventor,

drafting and manual drawing is important to the design

mechanic, objective economist

and evolutionary strategist.

process. You will also understand the differences among

BUCKMINSTER FULLER,
ARCHITECT, DESIGNER, INVENTOR

architecture, interior design, and drafting, as well as understand the principles of design. You will also learn the
best methods for designers to communicate design ideas.
DRAFTING
Why do we need to learn hand draft-

these basic concepts are understood,

ing when everything can be completed

the designer can then work toward

on a computer? This is the question

more complex design problems. A

that everyone thinks about as they

beginning designer must learn the

begin their design education. The

basics of drafting to understand how

idea that designing is inherent to an

to properly establish the process of a

individual is true to an extent. People

design.

have the ability to rationalize concepts

such as symmetry, spacing, and color

ing item placement or wall dimensions.

without significant help from others.

The design process is far more complex

However, having a particular point of

because the designer must work with

view and style aesthetic differs among

the most intricate creation on earth

individuals. It can be difficult for the

the human being. Clients have incred-

beginning designer to realize that cli-

ibly different tastes and emotional

ents may not have the same desire for

states that must be exploited during the

their style and point of view as others.

design process. Designers must learn to

This understanding is part of the edu-

work with the client, but also coordinate

cation process, and learning the basic

the designers own developed skills and

design concepts is the beginning. After

personal design characteristic.

01_WILSON_TXT.indd 1

There is more to design than learn-

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2
Why Do We Need to Learn to Manually Draft?

{1.1}

First floor plan showing

the creation of space according to the

dimensions, living area,

needs of a program. The program is the

WHAT ARE THE PRINCIPLES

BEHIND ARCHITECTURAL AND
INTERIOR DESIGN DRAWING?

first tool that a designer creates with a

First, the designer must understand the

client to layout the requirements of the

occupations of architects and interior

project. A design is then created, and a

designers. Architecture is a broad term

drafter draws the design according to

that applies to all design and con-

the specifications presented. (See Figure

struction. The architect is the overall

1.1.) A designer organizes an existing

encompassing designer of the struc-

drawing for production of a project. A de-

ture. Traditionally, the architect was the

signer is an individual with two respon-

designer and administrator of construc-

sibilitiesthe creator and the drafter.

tion, which meant that he created the

Therefore, designers must learn to

entire structure from the ground up and

think through a problem and create the

then followed through the process of

final product. They must understand all

construction. In todays work environ-

aspects of the process to become profes-

ment the architect has specific roles

sionals. A designer must understand the

depending on the size of the firm. Many

process of developing an idea and the

architects specialize in one area of the

technical requirements for implementa-

building process: construction manage-

tion of a design. But what are the differ-

ment, specifications, interiors, lighting,

ences in designers? Not all drafters are

environmental controls, or building

designers, but all designers are drafters.

design. The roles are dependent on the

kitchen, master suite,

and garage.

01_WILSON_TXT.indd 2

Designers are trained to understand

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CHAPTER 2

UNDERSTANDING THE
USE OF DESIGN EQUIPMENT

After reading this chapter, you will be able to use

To create architecture is

25

to put in order. Put what in

traditional drafting equipment in an effective manner.

order? Function and objects.

LE CORBUSIER, ARCHITECT

DRAFTING TOOLS
Pencils
Pencils are the key to producing qual-

ity drawings. Low-quality pencils pro-

portant because it helps with grip and

duce low-quality line work, and high-

overall performance. The comfort of

quality pencils produce high-quality

the pencil is important for the stamina

lines. The quality of lead, wood, and

of the designer. If using a poor-quality

coatings take the project in one

tool, the process can be tiresome and

direction or another. When drawing

require multiple corrections. Comfort is

conceptual and schematic design, any

an important part of producing quality

pencil type can be used. You should

projects.

always sketch with any available in-

strument because your first priority is

different feels, in part because of the

getting the idea onto paper. Quality is

different grades of graphite used. Try

secondary to creating an initial design

several brands to find one that fits your

concept sketch. Finding a pencil that

drawing style. Placement in the hand

sharpens well will improve the ease

along with a preferred lead type can

of use and the quality of the line. If a

make designing more pleasurable. When

pencil lead sharpens and then breaks

purchasing pencils generally choose a

constantly, the grade is normally low

British- or American-made pencil. The

and will have hard spots that can cre-

lead is smoother, the wood is more eas-

ate extra marks and cut the drawing

ily sharpened, and the nonsharpened

surface. These surface cuts are minor

end is capped. Woodless pencils are one

but may create issues if the drawing is

solid piece of graphite. These pencils

rendered. The small surface scratches

sharpen well and can be used to shade

cause the rendering medium to gather

with the side of the point. The drawbacks

and create a darker spot, causing an

of a woodless pencil are they are fragile

uneven rendering.

when dropped and susceptible to smear-

01_WILSON_TXT.indd 25

Having a comfortable feel is im-

Pencil leads can have a variety of

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37

The direction that a person

moves the pencil or pen
should be opposite of the
drawing hand to help keep the
object perpendicular to the
drawing surface.

TECHNIQUES OF EQUIPMENT USE

Benefits of Tracing and Not Redrawing

Using the Tools

One of the greatest benefits of manual

When using any of the tools, you

drafting is the ability to trace. Tracing an

should always use them as they

original work can help with refining and

were intended. The straight edge is

seeing other design solutions. When

used to draw lines and glide over the

drawing, you can become focused on

triangles. Many people use the scale

one avenue of design while forget-

as a straight edge, but this can

ting that other solutions could present

damage the scale and create marks

themselves. As a design evolves, new

that can cause mistakes in measuring.

concepts and solutions may arise. With

(See Figure 2.17.) One of the main

layering trace paper designers become

pieces of advice is to always be

more prone to draw several potential

comfortable. Tension will lead to

solutions. Throw that extra sheet down

mistakes.

and see where the design goes.

01_WILSON_TXT.indd 37

Understanding the Use of Design Equipment

{2.17}

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Design Scenario

Learning to use the equipment properly is the focus of this chapter. Learning to tear the tracing paper
with a straight edge to taping down the sheet is the goal.
EXERCISE ONE

Tape down an A-size sheet of paper and divide it into 6 spaces. With the straight edge, proceed to draw in
each box with pencil the following lines.
1. Horizontal lines

4. Diagonal lines starting from bottom left

2. Vertical lines

5. Diagonal lines starting from bottom right

3. Crosshatched lines

6. Diagonal crosshatched lines

Draw the next three sets of lines with pen. Be sure to use the 45-degree triangle for precision. (See Figure 2.18.)

{2.18}
Line exercise.

EXERCISE TWO

Draw two lines 1 inch apart across a sheet of paper. Starting with the highest H pencil, divide the lines
into seven boxes. In each of the boxes select a different pen and shade, starting with the highest H and
working to the highest B. Reference Figure 2.19 when selecting pencil hardness. You will have your own
scale based on the pressure applied when shading. (See Figure 2.20.)

{2.19} right
Lead hardness scale.

{2.20} below
Sample lead hardness exercise.

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CHAPTER 3

MEASURING AND
THE USE OF THE SCALE

After reading this chapter, you will be able to

The details are not the details.

41

They make the design.

measure, use a scale, and dimension a drawing.

CHARLES EAMES, ARCHITECT,

GRAPHIC AND INDUSTRIAL

WHAT IS SCALE?

DESIGN, FILMMAKER

Everything has a scale. It is what the

for humans. Therefore, what is scale?

object is scaled against that can change

It is a representation of an objects full

a persons perception. (See Figure 3.1.)

size.

Buildings are designed for humans and

human interaction. Designers work in

DIFFERENCES IN SCALES

a human scale; therefore, objects are

There are many different types of

designed for human use, focusing on

measuring devices, from the standard

reach, height, and comfort. Within this

school ruler to complex electronic rul-

realm of the design world, human bod-

ers. Most designers use a basic scale.

ies are the reference for sizing objects.

There are several types of scales pro-

Most designers reduce a scale down

duced for designers: architect, engineer,

to the basic elements and principles,

and metric. (See Figure 3.2.) Designers

but it must always be converted into a

use several models such as flat, double

scale for human habitation. This is why

beveled, and triangular. The triangular

we have forms of measurement. It is to

is the most common because it con-

create and understand how to design

tains 11 different measuring scales.

{3.1} opposite
Humans scale objects based on
their use. The house could be
at any scale without a person
to give it reference; however,
most buildings do have scale
such as doors and windows.
{3.2} left
Shapes of scales.

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Engineer Scale

Engineer scale is slightly different. It is

architects scale properly. When placing

The scale is located in the

designed around the civil engineering

the scale, count to the largest whole

left corner and is broken into

industry and represents feet divisible

foot unit. Then count back with the

by 10 instead of 12. (See Figure 3.5.)

graduation starting at zero to mark the

Drafters use this scale for land survey

inches. So from your original perpen-

drawings.

dicular line, you will be able to locate

the precise point to mark using feet and

20, 30, 40, 50, 60 divisions of an inch.

inches.

SI Metric Scale
The SI metric scale is based on units

USING STANDARD AND METRIC

IN THE UNITED STATES

divisible by 10. The unit of measure-

Because the construction industry

ment is the millimeter. The metric scale

uses the standard method of feet and

is based on ratios of millimeters. 1:10

inches, the interior design profession

scale could represent 1 mm = 10 mm,

must follow. This system of measure-

or 1:100 ratio is 1 mm = 100 mm.

ment is based on construction using

{3.5}

units of five to measure the

distance.

43
Measuring and the Use of the Scale

The scale is broken down into 10,

Precision is achieved by reading the

2-, 4-, 8-, and 10-foot increments.

Chart of Metric Scale

This has been a standard because

the industry has been slow to ac-

10 mm = 1 cm

cept the metric system. The National

1000 mm = 1 meter

Institute of Standards and Technology

(NIST) determines the usage of the

ACCURACY

metric system in the United States.

An important part of any job is accura-

As the metric system is implemented

cy. When preparing drawings a mistake

in the United States, the construc-

as minimal as sixteenth of an inch can

tion industry will eventually have to

be dramatic to a built project. Imagine

change. This will require training and

a drawing is off 1/8 of an inch. That 1/8

a complete overhaul of construction

inch in real life represents a foot. The

products within the building materials

construction crew builds the foundation

industry. Currently, most large-scale

by measuring your drawing. You entire

projects use the metric system in the

project is off 1 foot. Precision is at the

United States, and all federal govern-

utmost importance. Always measure

ment projects are required to include

once and double check again.

metric measurements.

01_WILSON_TXT.indd 43

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44
Measuring and the Use of the Scale

{3.6}

A plan with the

cult to do when using the standard sys-

A calculator conversion can be diffi-

working drawings is the slight variation

within the design industry. Interior de-

dimensions noted.

tem of feet and inches. Calculators are

sign is focused on drawing interior ele-

designed to work off a decimal system

ments such as plans, interior elevations,

of 10. However, the standard system

and interiors sections within a space.

is divisible by units of 12. Conversion

This gives interior designers a standard

can be achieved in a multiple of ways:

that is simple to follow and practical

using conversion formulas, memorizing

to understand. Because interior design

multipliers, or construction calcula-

is part of the architectural and con-

tors simplify the process. Construction

struction industry, most designers use

calculators are helpful when calculating

the same dimension standards, thus

materials and finishes in the industry.

allowing seamless transition between

Directly imputing feet and inches into

reading architecture and interior design

the calculator negates having to use a

plans. The main objective is to convey

decimal conversion.

accurate information in a logical manner. The main component of a dimen-

01_WILSON_TXT.indd 44

DIMENSIONS

sion is the dimension line, which is the

Dimensions are the actual measure-

actual distance between two point. The

ments for a given distance. (See Figure

dimension line is continuous and con-

3.6)Dimensions are required on draw-

nects the extension line. This creates an

ings for construction documents. These

exact point to measure between lines.

construction documents are called

The exact point is where the dimension

working drawings. The main issue with

and extension line cross. The exten-

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CHAPTER 4

QUALITY DRAWING

After reading this chapter, you will be able to plan and

Whether its fine arts or

55

music or architecture, the

execute drawings that are developed and refined and that

most compelling works are

finessed and manipulated

have a professional line quality.

so subtly that youre barely

aware of the artists hand.

ESSENTIAL ELEMENTS OF DRAWING

SCOTT JOHNSON, ARCHITECT,

Developing a quality drawing has as

need to keep your patience. Constantly

much to do with skill as it does design.

changing plans and making mistakes can

The essential elements of drawing are

build high levels of anxiety. Just stay pa-

forethought, planning, patience, and

tient and keep going. Mistakes happen,

practice. Forethought is the first step in

but with practice you can start recogniz-

creating quality work. You must always

ing those problems before they occur.

be thinking of the next line to help

Practice is the key to quality. Continued

prevent needless erasing and smudges.

drawing and using your equipment will

When using ink always be one step

teach you to avoid problems before they

ahead of your line. This will help reduce

arise. Practice, practice, practice. It is the

smears and smudges. Therefore, plan-

key to a quality product. (See Figure 4.1.)

ARCHITECTURAL DIGEST

ning your drawing is critical to developing a clean, final product. The simple

LINE WEIGHTS

step of drafting from one corner of the

To create a quality drawing, you need

sheet and working your way up the page

to learn the difference in line weights. A

reduces many potential errors. After de-

line weight is the width of a line. In pen-

veloping a layout and the initial outline

cil, drawing a lines width is measured

of the structure, you can plan on which

by the sharpness of the lead. With

sections will require the least amount

pencils, a variation can occur unless

of backtracking. This will reduce the

being diligent about keeping a sharp

amount of wear on the papers surface

lead. To resolve this many people use

from the straight edge and triangles.

mechanical pencils for the consistent

Every time you push a T-square over the

lead width. Keeping a consistent line

{4.1} opposite

paper, you drag debris over the surface

weight will improve the overall quality

A partial floor plan with a

and create extra lines. With this you still

of the work. Being able to distinguish

variety of line width and types.

01_WILSON_TXT.indd 55

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{4.2a}
An elevation that was drawn in
pencil smudges on the job site.

{4.2b}
The second drawing was
scanned and edited on the
computer and printed with ink.

01_WILSON_TXT.indd 56

the various lines is how the drawing

tion is to do preliminary design work

achieves visual depth. Pencil work must

with the hard pencil and then do pre-

be dark enough to be visible, but light

sentation with pens. Pens provide dark,

enough to be erased. Everyone makes

clean lines that scan and copy well. For

mistakes. The point is not to fret over

designing while drafting, a 4H lead pro-

small issues. When using pencils the

vides a great foundation drawing. The

intended purpose needs to be identi-

lead is hard enough to avoid smear-

fied. Pencils are great for initial design

ing and light enough to draw over. An

work. The problem comes when trying

HB lead can be drawn over with pen,

to copy or scan drawings. Much of the

but will erase the ink. A 4H or higher

detail is lost. Using a higher B lead will

lead can be inked and erased without

create a darker drawing, but may smear

destroying the line quality. Always test

and smudge. (See Figure 4.2a.) A 24H

the lead and ink before drawing the

pencil will provide a light clear crisp

final product. Leads and inks vary by

line, but does not copy well. The solu-

manufacture. (See Figure 4.2b)

1/10/11 2:21 PM

CHAPTER 5

SYMBOLS, LETTERING, AND

TYPOGRAPHY IN DRAFTING

After reading this chapter you will understand the

The essential function of the

65

(design) profession in our

importance of hand lettering and symbol use in drafting.

society is to enhance and cultivate communication toward:

THE IMPORTANCE
OF HAND LETTERING

Easier understanding of ideas

and complex problems, in the

Hand lettering is an art form, and those

text style provides professionalism and

shortest possible time and

who master it have the ability to merge

quality to the work. Adding notes that

higher visual and auditory

hand lettering into computer lettering

blend will look like additions rather

retention of data.

seamlessly. The predominate style of

than errors or omissions. Standard

architectural computer fonts mimic

lettering is always more refined than

traditional hand drafting styles Many

something scribbled in the drawings.

people have a difficult time interpreting

In addition, notations that are added

drawings, but quality lettering can make

by the contractor or subcontractor may

a drawing more easily understood.

cause the next reader to doubt that the

Being able to draw and legibly note the

designer understands the construction

important features is key for clarity. Re-

process; therefore, its important that

memberdrawings provide necessary

the designer always provide sufficient

information to convey an idea to others;

notation to any type of drawing.

the lettering fills in the gaps to provide

Freehand lettering is something that

more explanation. (See Figure 5.1.)

develops over time with practice. Being

able to write consistently in a specific

Hand lettering also provides a solu-

WILL BURTON,
GRAPHIC DESIGNER

tion for missing text in computerized

style adds a level of professionalism to

drawings. Mimicking a lettering font will

a drawing. (See Figure 5.2.) Making a

help when items are left out. When a fi-

sketch that has clean text identifies you

{5.1} opposite top

nal set of working drawings is complete

as a quality designer, so always strive

As clear as a drawing may

and printed, items may need further

to produce quality documents even if it

be to the drafter, the image

explanation. Many times, it is before

is a simple sketch.

may not be clear to the

the presentation or during the actual

builder until text is added.

construction process. This is a common

METHODS, TYPES, AND GUIDE LINES

{5.2} opposite bottom

occurrence after the final documents

When the lettering style has been

Freehand lettering requires

are drawn or printed. Adding a similar

chosen, the next task is to determine

practice and patience.

01_WILSON_TXT.indd 65

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67

skill. The best way to increase speed

{5.4}

an additional design element to a set

is by using the tools properly. Using a

Lettering advice.

of drawings. The extra lines provide a

straight edge for horizontal or vertical

light framework behind the titles, draw-

guide lines is a key to being consistent.

ings, and notations that ties everything

Moving the triangle across the parallel

together to create a system called

rule for verticals will provide precision

regulating lines. These lines provide a

and help you judge the visual spac-

reference between edges of the various

ing. Visual spacing is perceived equal

drawings on the sheet.

spacing. Mechanical spacing is based

on equal distances between letters. Me-

INCREASE SPEED
WITHOUT LOSS OF QUALITY

chanical spacing can appear static and

The elements that help with speed

are required they should be used only

and quality are guide lines, the use of

in titles not notations.

straight edges, and practice. Tape down

your drawing and then measure the

drawn by pulling, never pushing, the

area for the - or 1/8-inch guide lines.

pencil across the paper. Use smooth

(Hint: Make sure there is adequate

vertical strokes, followed by horizontal

space for the text. A common problem

and diagonal lines. A quality consis-

is judging how much room is required

tent line weight will also develop with

for lettering.) If the drawing is the final

practice. The main quality issue is being

product, make sure to use a light pencil

clean and crisp. A sharp 2H pencil is

for the initial layout. Everything is an

optimal for lettering. The pencil is hard

exercise in design, from the drawings

enough to not require constant sharp-

to the guide lines. Always approach

ening, but also dark enough for a copier

all parts of the process as if its a final

or scanner. The other main technical

presentation. Lettering can make a proj-

factor is the type of pencil. Although

ect better or worst, depending on the

pencils are appropriate for many drafts,

01_WILSON_TXT.indd 67

Symbols, Lettering, and Typography in Drafting

return to their use. Guide lines also add

require a larger area. If equal distances

As for application, letters should be

1/10/11 2:21 PM

NOTATION AND
SYMBOL USE IN PLANS
Notation and symbols are a mixture
of drawing and lettering. The intent of
both is to provide information that is

FPO

not conveyable on the drawing. Notations are simply textual support of the
drawings whereas symbols provide
standard information. Symbols are
mainly used to reference other information on the drawing or to other
drawings.

Most symbols corresponding to text

are used to reference where drawings

are located on the sheet. For example,

68

elevation symbols are a combination of

Symbols, Lettering, and Typography in Drafting

circles, arrows, and text.

Section symbols are can vary de-

{5.5}

pending on the firm and the creativity

Legend section symbol.

of the design. An arrow must point in

the direction that the section is viewed.
(See Figures 5.5 and 5.6.) This orients
the viewer to read the drawing from the
correct direction.

North arrows are graphic symbols

that are placed on the floor plan. This

is important because the understanding of orientation can provide solar
advantages to the interior design.
Using the solar orientation for light-

FPO

ing is critical to a quality design. Day

lighting is an important part of an
energy-efficient design. However, this
design feature may not be applicable
{5.6}

sometimes the best solution is to use

with the given site nor existing build-

Section symbol format.

a pen. The best solution is to use pen.

ing. If possible provide notations with

This will always provide a consistent

solar design features explained. It

dark line. If using a pen, first letter

gives the readers evidence that you

with a 6H to 9H pencil. Then rewrite to

are designing for a specific outcome.

resolve any potential errors. Pens are

(See Figures 5.7 and 5.8.)

great because drafters are slightly more

cautious by not making careless mis-

important because a drawing may be

takes. If using a lead holder the point

copied, reduced, and enlarged many

can become dull unless the user can

times, causing the scale to change. The

slightly roll the holder to keep the point

traditional scale with numerical conver-

consistent. Follow and practice these

sion is adequate for working drawings

basic rules to increase quality.

that are copied the same size; however,

01_WILSON_TXT.indd 68

The use of a graphic scale is

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CHAPTER 6

PLANNING A BUILDING

After reading this chapter and completing the design

Architecture is really about

75

well-being. I think the

scenario, you will be able to analyze a clients needs,

people want to feel good in a

space.... On the one hand

conceptualize a space, and create basic diagrams.

its about shelter, but its also

about pleasure.

QUALITY PLANNING

ZAHA HADID, ARCHITECT

Being an interior designer requires

construction techniques is an asset for

more than an understanding of build-

any designer, but knowing all aspects of

ing design. It requires an understand-

all these areas is impossible. Many de-

ing of people, types of spaces, and

signers, therefore, focus on one distinct

all the facets of human interaction.

area, such as residential, commercial,

Designers know how people interact in

merchandising, hospitality, and so on.

different settings. They study prox-

The fundamentals of how spaces work

imities, anthropometrics, barrier-free

together are similar, but have different

design, residential and commercial in-

requirements. Every project has dif-

teraction, and how all affect buildings.

ferent clients, needs, preferences, and

Using these and other simple tools will

requirements. (See Figure 6.1.)

help develop a quality plan and quality

product.

design. Every person is familiar with

homes and housing based on their own

Designers must develop a thorough

This chapter focuses on residential

understanding of building planning.

experiences. This is the best starting

This is the critical factor in making a

point. Everyone has likes and dislikes

space usable and livable. All buildings

based on growing up in a household.

and projects are different, so the de-

Using those experiences and relating

signers skills must accommodate this

the positive elements and principles to

variety of needs. The building program

a design project is the basis of residen-

is the essence of any project. What,

tial design.

when, where, and how the ideas work

{6.1} opposite
A designer should always work
with the requirements of the

together is the basis of creating quality

THE BUILDING PROGRAM

design. Developing a base knowledge

A basic overview of a building program

of creativity that is satisfying.

of building systems, materials, and

is required. This overview consists of:

(Illustration credit: Sheila Flener)

01_WILSON_TXT.indd 75

client, but design with a level

1/10/11 2:21 PM

SINGLE-FAMILY DWELLING
DESIGN FOR A FICTIONAL FAMILY
1. For the design scenario, develop
a series of sketches based on
a fictional family who wants
to design a new single-family
dwelling.
2. Draw a series of bubble diagrams to show the familys
relationships based on required
rooms. (See Figure 6.3.)
3. Create a parti and spatial
analysis chart that analyzes each
room for the family.

83

4. Using the bubble diagrams and

ing diagrams. (See Figure 6.4.)
5. Draw a simplistic diagram based

Comfort

{6.10}

on the typical sizes of spaces

The living and livability issues are

A bubble diagram that

chart.

concerns that are addressed in a

compares private and public

6. Study the typical sizes of spaces

variety of ways. Each individual has

and fixture. The fixtures are items

his or her own ideas about comfort. It

that are attached or fixed to a wall

could be natural lighting, a soft chair,

or floor and are not moved on a

or privacy from others. The ideas of

regular basis: kitchen appliances,

comfort and livability create the basic

sinks, washer/dryer, and so on.

functions of a project. These must be

7. Be sure to address furniture and

circulation within a home.

Planning a Building

spatial analysis chart create block-

defined in the program. A designer

fixtures in your spatial analysis

can then respond by creating a com-

chart.

fortable space.

8. Create an overlay of furniture

and fixtures using the blocking

Areas

diagram.

The classifications of rooms are based

on activities and the lifestyle of the

Living and livability are the basic

family. Many families develop the need

principles that create a quality space

for large open spaces in their environ-

for clients. Understanding humans and

ments. The living area may include a

their interaction is the key to creating

combined dining and kitchen to make

quality spaces. Living is how people

the space appear larger. Children need

live within an environment. Livability

spaces in bedrooms for play and study.

is the quality of life of the inhabitants.

Private activities that occur in bed-

Expanding on the concepts of comfort

rooms and bath require isolation from

and circulation, designers can enhance

the families public areas. Vehicular

client living conditions. The following

access areas need to be related to

section discusses simple principles of

kitchen and entrances. All of these

design and construction that can be ap-

simple concepts must be addressed.

plied to any type of project.

(See Figure 6.10.)

01_WILSON_TXT.indd 83

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{6.11}

Climatic Conditions

Materials

Diagram studying the sun

The effect of the sun is a major design

The selection of materials will vary some

exposure on a pod house.

consideration in the layout of a house.

from region to region. The uses of

Peoples preferences to live in sunny

interior and exterior spaces also help

spaces require areas to be brightly lit.

determine the wear that will occur to

This normally provides for a friendly

the building. The reduction of noise

atmosphere.

from living spaces and bedrooms can

be help with the selection of materials.

Lighting and weather can affect

peoples attitudes. Providing a balance

The color of materials can affect the

of natural and artificial light will help

activities. Childrens rooms use bright

enhance the space. Rain and snow

and cheerful colors whereas adults

is critical for material selection. Cold

may want wood tones for a sense of

winds will dictate the areas that have

maturity.

fewer windows. Study the layout of the

structure to maximize the potential of
the space. (See Figure 6.11.)

01_WILSON_TXT.indd 84

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CHAPTER 7

FLOOR PLANS

After reading this chapter, you will be able to use

Always design a thing by

91

considering it in its next

traditional drafting equipment to design and draw

larger contexta chair in a

room, a room in a house, a

floor plans.

house in an environment, an
environment in a city plan.

The process of developing relation-

BASIC OVERVIEW OF PLANS

ships with public and private spaces

What is a floor plan? Simply, it is a

is constantly evolving, and an archi-

drawing of the floor; however, the

tectural and interior designer should

floor plan is much more complex. This

always be thinking of the plan. The task

drawing type is the main design ele-

of the designer is to refine the plan

ment in any structure. It encompasses

so that it can be turned into a three-

all the human relationships with the

dimensional design. The floor plan is

structure and its fixtures and furnish-

the main source of developing space

ings. The floor plan is the feature that

planning. Space planning is a process

makes the building function. Without

of organizing functions related to use,

the plans, the layout of the structure

furnishing, and circulation for a design

is just a building without a purpose.

project. (See Figure 7.1.) Designers

With a plan the building has a purpose

have different involvements with a floor

and, therefore, has an identity that

plan. An architect draws the outside

satisfies the needs of a client. (See

{7.1} opposite top

and walls. The interior designer focuses

Figure 7.2.)

An analysis of a space

on non-load-bearing walls and space

planning. The drafters draw the plan

and designing. It is used for construct-

with the specifications and design de-

ing a building, planning a layout,

tails supplied by the architect or interior

organizing traffic patterns, measuring

designer. The floor plan is of critical

distances of travel, and so on. It is a

{7.2} opposite bottom

importance to the success of a project.

document that has endless possibili-

A narrow-lot floor plan with

With a well-developed plan, the design

ties. It is the tool for organizing spac-

of the exterior and interior will success-

es. (See Figure 7.3.) Architects create

fully accommodate the clients needs

the plan for construction whereas the

and preferences.

interior designer uses it for construc-

01_WILSON_TXT.indd 91

The floor plan is a key to building

ELIEL SAARINEN, ARCHITECT

focusing on interaction
within the facility.
(Illustration credit:
Sheila Flener)

an outside living space. This

project needed to meet the
setback requirements of
the property and the use of
an outdoor living area.

1/10/11 2:22 PM

tion, space planning, and analysis of

human traffic patterns. The interior
designer brings in the human element
to the spaces within the structure.
(See Figure 7.4)
Information on a Floor Plan
The floor plan is the major construction
and design document. The plan is what
gives the viewer the size of the building
and the room placement. Included in
the plan are various technical details.
Floor plans are separated in different
layers of information. The different
contractors will have separate plans for

92

their specific purpose. The following

Floor Plans

list provides a basic overview of what is

included on the various sheets of floor
plans.
{7.3}
Organizing space may take place in an existing plan. A bubble diagram may

Foundation plan or basement

clarify to a client how the rooms are organized within a space.

plan: This plan is a layout of where

columns and walls are needed to
support the structure being built.
Construction or structural plan: The
construction plan is the layout and

{7.4}

direction of structural components

Large-scale bubble diagram.

that make up the floor and roof of

(Illustration credit: Sheila Flener)

the building.
Electrical plan: The electrical plan
is the layout of the items that create the electrical, communication,
security, emergency, and lighting
networks.
Plumbing plan: The plumbing plan
shows the bath, kitchen, utility, and
other items that require water and
drains.

01_WILSON_TXT.indd 92

1/10/11 2:22 PM

Reflected ceiling plan: Lighting plans

are viewed as if there is no roof. The
information included is the lights,
electrical, receptacles, switches, and
circuit wiring. (See Figure 7.5.)
Roofing plan: This shows the slope
of the roof and the direction of
drainage.
Kitchen plan: An enlarged plan
provides the details of the layout
that focuses on the work triangle.
The enlarged plan may include

{7.5}

detailed information such as cabinet

Reflected ceiling plan.

nomenclature (the size and type of

cabinet). (See Figure 7.6.)
Bath plan: This enlarged plan provides the details of the bath.
HVAC plan: This plan is graphic in
nature, but does provide the central
heating system, return air, and registers for each space.
{7.6}

Furniture layout: This graphic plan

Kitchen plan with cabinet sizes noted.

is designed to show the space planning capabilities of the space. (See

Figure 7.7.)
Many of these plans are combined
depending on the scope and scale of the
project. Residential plans generally combine many of the services into one drawing. (See Figure 7.5.) As shown in the figure, an electrical plan is layered onto the
construction plan. These service plans
provide the general locations for many
items. Plumbing and HVAC plans provide
exact locations for equipment, return
vents, and registers, but may not be able
to locate precise placement of plumbing
and ventilation lines. The engineering
firm that handles the systems supplies

{7.7}

this type of information. The basic layout

Furniture layout.

is the main focus of the designer.

01_WILSON_TXT.indd 93

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CHAPTER 8

SECTIONS

After reading this chapter, you will understand the use of

Now architecture consists

section drawings, create sections from floor plans using

103

of order, which in Greek is

called taxis.... Order is the

typical sections and materials, interior specific sections

balanced adjustment of the

details of the work separately,

and conventions, typical kitchen and bath sections, and

and, as to the whole, the

arrangement of the proportion

stair construction.

with a view to a symmetrical

result.

SECTION DRAWING

VITRUVIUS, ENGINEER,

The section of a building is a main tool

structure. The height and relationship of

for the designer to understand the scale

each floor is directly viewed through the

of a space. A section drawing is a verti-

cut. A wall section is normally provided

cal cut through an object, revealing its

with the vertical section, and provides

interior. An interior designer uses this

the information on building materials

drawing to see heights and widths of

and construction methods. The wall sec-

areas. It is also the key to seeing the

tion shows the foundation up through

types of floor and ceiling structures.

the roof, providing the basis for con-

It reveals the thicknesses of walls and

structing the building. The wall section

provides a frame for the space be-

provides the details for the foundation

ing designed. The vertical plane cuts

such as wall size, anchors, drainage, and

through the building, showing the

waterproofing systems. (See Figure 8.2.)

building in relationship to human scale.

Doors, windows, and furniture can pro-

terial, wall insulation, exterior sheeting,

{8.1} opposite top

vide references if no humans are in the

interior surface, and exterior material.

People and objects within a

drawing. (See Figure 8.1.)

The roof generally shows the structural

section provide scale for the

system, overhang construction, insula-

building and its spaces.

ARCHITECT

The next area is the type of wall ma-

CONSTRUCTION KNOWLEDGE

tion, and roofing type. An important

The section drawing is a tool that shows

part of the wall section is the notations

vertical height of a building. The vertical

for the building. These notes describe

section provides the necessary informa-

the materials and methods used to

have memorized and could

tion as it relates to the exterior of the

construct the building.

sketch when confusion arises.

01_WILSON_TXT.indd 103

{8.2} opposite bottom

A typical section should be
a drawing that all designers

1/10/11 2:22 PM

DESIGN SCENARIO
SECTIONS FROM THE PLAN
Developing a building in section is
one method that many designers find
beneficial toward understanding the
space. They can scale room heights
and widths to visually accommodate
their concepts. Seeing a design in a
vertical form helps many people see
if the scale of the space fits the needs.
Having a living room with a greater
height than the bath is easy to design
on a floor plan, but need to be sensible
in the overall design. Drawing rooms at
various heights throughout the building

107

can create complex construction issues.

Sections

However, if well planned it will create

a wide variety emotional responses
between spaces. A simple way for
most designers to reflect an exterior
is through elevation and section with
the use of a human scale factor. The
human scale factor is a human placed
in a drawing giving a sense height
and width. Designing using the scale
method allows for the creation of
multiple heights, such as the American
split-level house. The housing type is
based on three levels within a two-story

{8.6}

house. Split-level homes give freedom

A section detail showing

to create various ceiling heights within

a roof overhang.

BOX 8.2 Punch List for Interior Section

Is the room a complete section

across a space?

Are the wall and ceiling con-

Windows and door placed.

All cabinets and built-in

struction methods represented?

BOX 8.3 Punch List for All Sections

Using the floor plan, check if

drawing is correct in length and

height.

Check if windows and doors

align correctly.

furnishings indicate door

Check if section symbols match

swings.

drawings.

01_WILSON_TXT.indd 107

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108
Sections

{8.7}

a traditional framework. Using the vari-

leaving an adequate opening for a later

A transverse section showing

ous ceiling heights changes the propor-

addition. The stairs can be a central

stairs and window heights.

tions of a space. Some spaces will have

focal point of the home while acting

a horizontal feel whereas others a sense

as the main transportation to the other

of verticality. A design concept will help

floors. Understanding the components

determine the feel that needs to be

of a staircase will help in the design

achieved. (See Figure 8.7.)

process.

STAIRS

Stairs are the main source of travel to

the upper and lower levels of a resi-

staircase.

dential building. This, in turn, requires

more emphasis as a design feature.

treat stairs as a secondary idea, simply

01_WILSON_TXT.indd 108

Rise: The vertical distance between

two floors.

the vertical movements are central

components to design. Many designers

Risers: The vertical portion under

each step that provides the height.

Because interior designers are concerned with the circulation of spaces,

Treads: The horizontal step of the

Run: The horizontal length of the

staircase.

Stringer: The structural component

that supports the treads and risers.

1/10/11 2:22 PM

CHAPTER 9

ELEVATIONS

After reading this chapter, you will be able to

Put very succinctly,

115

architectural effect depends

understand both exterior and interior elevations

upon a nice balance of

horizontal, vertical, and

and, dimensions of elevations and conventions; and

oblique. No rules can say

how much of each, so nothing

create elevations from the plan.

can really take the place of

feeling and good judgment.

UNDERSTANDING THE
IMPORTANCE OF ELEVATIONS

WILLIAM MORRIS,
DESIGNER, ARTIST

An elevation is a view that looks

ing type that illustrates the materials

straight at a structure or group of

of the design. Material selection is

objects. Many elevations are drawings

important to the visual character of a

created from the plan. The drawing

drawing. Using the proper symbols

is derived from the plan by using the

gives the drawing a sense of character.

features that provide width or height.

Without proper symbols, the elevation

Many drawing types are labeled as

loses it potential to be understood and

elevations an exterior view or an

possibly the original intent of the de-

interior detail. Identifying the scope

sign. This drawing type must be easily

and intent of the drawing will help

understood by anyone reading the

determine if a drawing is an elevation.

drawings. An elevation can also be the

A complete drawing could be an el-

main conveyance of the design intent

evation of a built-in wall unit, or even

to a client. It shows the balance of a

a view of the kitchen. The main differ-

space, proportion, and other design el-

ence between an elevation and section

ements as well as principles of design.

is that the elevation has no cuts into

(See Figure 9.1.)

the structure. Instead, it is a drawing

that looks straight at the structure or

The First Elevation Drawing

object.

To start a complete elevation, you must

Elevations are a key to under-

have a floor plan that shows the layout

standing the visual design intent of

of the space. The first elevation draw-

uses the plan for width and

a project. The elevation is the draw-

ing is a preliminary layout, consisting

locating of the door.

01_WILSON_TXT.indd 115

{9.1} opposite
A micro office elevation that

1/10/11 2:22 PM

119
Elevations

{9.6}

{9.7}

Materials symbols used in elevation.

An entry elevation using a variety of materials.

{9.8}
An interior wall design for a media center.

01_WILSON_TXT.indd 119

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DIMENSIONING ELEVATIONS

on every outside elevation. Other items

Exterior elevations require major

to note are the grade line of the ground,

features and an overall dimension. If a

floor line (FL), and roof pitch symbol

building is symmetrical, only one side

indicating the rise of the roof.

needs dimensions. If a building has var-

ious heights and different features, it is

be more complex. Because most interior

beneficial to dimension both sides. Al-

elevations are drawn for a distinct pur-

ways dimension from the ground up to

pose, many details must be dimensioned.

the floor line; next, dimension from the

A good rule of thumb is this: If it is un-

floor line to the ceiling. Then, dimen-

usual, provide dimensions. Kitchen and

sion from the ceiling to the top of the

bath elevations are normally drawn in an

roof. These are the dimensions impor-

enlarged form and require a higher level

tant to the bid process. When contrac-

of detail. (See Figure 9.9.). This level of

tors bid documents, they need to have

dimensioning is addressed in Chapter 12.

all heights noted for material selection.

For architectural drawings, however, a ba-

Most projects are complex and require

sic kitchen elevation requires a minimum

multiple lines of dimension. A second

amount of dimensions. Because cabinet

stage would be to include dimensions

and appliance dimensions are standard,

from floor line to bottom of the window

a simple sequence of dimensions is

seal; then continue up the building,

required. From finished floor (AFF ) to the

noting all important features. The roof

counter top is 3'-0". From the counter

overhang should also be included as a

top to the bottom of the lower cabinets is

separate drawing. Many designers pre-

1'-6". The next dimension is the height

fer to include the overhang dimension

of the upper cabinets, which is normally

scoping kitchen cabinets for

in a typical wall section; however, if the

2'-6". Provide an overall ceiling height to

wheelchair accessibility.

room is available attempt to include it

the outside. (See Figure 9.10.)

120
Elevations

{9.9}
Kitchen elevation with tele-

01_WILSON_TXT.indd 120

Interior elevation dimensioning can

1/10/11 2:22 PM

CHAPTER 10

SCHEDULES

After reading this chapter, you will be able to understand

Design is not making beauty,

125

beauty emerges from selection,

and create schedules for the design industry.

affinities, integration, love.

LOUIS KAHN, ARCHITECT

UNDERSTANDING THE
IMPORTANCE OF SCHEDULES
A schedule is a list of information that

such as typical sizes. This will allow

allows the document user to refer-

changes of manufactures and not the

ence specific details about a product.

structure. If a building has custom

Schedules traditionally have been

designs, the schedule would need to be

drawn onto the set of working draw-

more developed.

ings; however, most designers use

spreadsheets on a computer to create

DOOR SCHEDULE

booklets or appendices for construc-

Always approach schedules as if you

tion documents. The scale of the

are walking into a structure. Doors

project can determine if the schedule

are the first product a designer needs

should be drawn onto the project.

to specify because people encounter

In residential design, most people

the doors first. Doors are available in

include the schedule on the relevant

standard sizes, but the materials can

working drawings. Residential sched-

vary: metal, wood, and fiberglass.

ules normally focus on windows,

Glass in the door can be of various

doors, and finishes. Interior design-

shapes and sizes. Glass in the door is

ers develop schedules of furnishings,

specified in terms of lites, which are

fixtures, finishes. Fixtures can include

specified according to the number of

everything from toilets and lighting to

divided sections in the door. The list-

kitchen appliances.

ing should include the opening size,

Residential schedules should be

type of door frame, and the type of

simplistic in regards to the information

door. The first notation is to identify

that is provided. Much of the informa-

if it an exterior or interior door. Many

tion is provided by the manufacture

new designers do not understand

of the product selected. The schedule

the concept that doors have different

should include only basic information

levels of insulation. Metal-skinned

01_WILSON_TXT.indd 125

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WINDOW SCHEDULES
Windows are referenced with a pentagon and a number on the floor plan.
(See Figure 10.2 and Figure 10.3.) This
distinguishes the windows from the
doors and lessens confusion for contractors. A window schedule should list
basic information.

{10.2}
Sample window and door schedule. (Illustration credit: Sheila Flener)

127
Schedules

{10.3}
Symbols on a floor plan that relates to various schedules.

BOX 10.2 Window Punch List

1. Number identification: Pentagon surrounding a

number.

8. Window frame: Wood, aluminum, vinyl.

2. Rough opening (RO): Height in elevation.

9. Remarks: Designers should always leave a

3. Rough opening (RO): Width in elevation.

blank area for comments and additional

4. Actual window height:

information.

5. Actual window width:

6. Window type: Casement, double hung, awning,
etc.

01_WILSON_TXT.indd 127

7. Glazing: Low E, tinted, reflective.

10. Blanks: At the bottom of the schedule, provide

a series of blanks to add additional doors or list
changes that occur through the project.

1/10/11 2:22 PM

FINISH SCHEDULES

the schedule to lessen the amount of

The finish schedule provides the

written descriptions. (See Figure 10.4)

information for materials and finishes

Because space is limited, attempt to

needed for each room, such as surface

simplify the description unless the

coating and flooring for each space

information is not clear. The use of a

within a house. The complexity of the

legend to describe special materials

finish selection will determine if more

may be used. If using a legend, create

detail is needed. If rooms have differ-

a set of alphanumeric designations

ent materials for each wall, a separate

that can be referenced on the sched-

notation will need to be used to distin-

ule. Then place it on the plan by label-

guish the different selections. The use

ing rooms and walls to match. (See

of abbreviations or acronyms helps in

Figure 10.5.)

BOX 10.3 Finish Punch List

1. Room number:
2. Room name or type:
3. Flooring materials and type of finish:
4. Baseboard or base cove: Is the base a painted
wood, stained, or synthetic?
5. Wall finishes: Include the wall material along
with the finish product.

01_WILSON_TXT.indd 128

6. Ceiling finishes: Acoustical ceiling, painted,

popcorn.
7. Remarks: Designers should always leave a blank
area for comments and additional information.
8. Blanks: At the bottom of the schedule provide
a series of blanks to add additional doors or
changes that occur through the project.

1/10/11 2:22 PM

CHAPTER 11

ELECTRICAL AND LIGHTING

After reading this chapter, you will understand electrical

Were not trained to think

137

about time in a systematic

symbols and reflected ceiling plans.

way, as a design dimension.

But its everything to the

LIGHTING DESIGN

circadian system because it

Lighting system design involves many

the sensation of uneasiness whereas

matters when you give users

facets of the overall design process.

bright light gives the feeling of security.

the light, not just whether

Lighting design has a distinct purpose

Not all lighting design is intended for a

its blue or white. Design

and many implications. Lighting should

response. Much is planned for a distinct

professionals are not real

have the capabilities to alter the percep-

purpose. Reading areas require a differ-

comfortable with thinking in

tion of any space. Many designs are for

ent lighting than bathrooms; therefore,

the temporal dimension yet.

simple utility. The lighting is applied as a

the purpose should drive the type and

MARIANA FIGUERIO, ARCHITECT,

layer of light for general use. Light for this

amount of lighting required.

LIGHT RESEARCH CENTER

purpose generally is not a design feature.

A light placed in the center of a room is

UNDERSTANDING THE SYMBOLS

there to provide a general lighting for the

Lighting symbols and their application

purpose of traveling and safety within

can become confusing if a designer

the space. The intent is to maximize light

is not familiar with the varieties of

from a central location. There is an intent,

symbols. Many symbols have similar

but not in the realm of design. it is for the

appearances but may have a slight vari-

purpose of simple utility.

ation. Understanding the purpose of the

basic set will help in development of

An interior designer, on the other

hand, will create an emotional response

the reflected ceiling plan. The reflected

to the space and provide the utility

ceiling plan is an aerial view down into

function. What is an emotional re-

a space showing all the electrical com-

sponse? It is the sensation or feeling

ponents. Lighting, circuits, receptacles ,

one has when entering and using a

switches, fire, security, and communica-

space. A designer has the intent of

tions are normally shown on a reflected

creating a space to invoke a feeling

ceiling plan. (See Figure 11.1.)

or mode, and lighting is the simplest

method because people react to chang-

ity and wiring will help in the design

Residential reflected

es in light. Darkness generally causes

process; however, the responsibilities

ceiling plan.

01_WILSON_TXT.indd 137

A basic understanding of electric-

{11.1} opposite

1/10/11 2:22 PM

Determine how the light fixture will

mation is not too confusing to the

be mounted and then select the corre-

contractors.

sponding symbol. Note that each sym-

bol has a specific mounting method:

reflected ceiling plan is to determine

recessed, surface, and wall. Design

the ceiling type. A traditional ceiling in

the lighting around any key design

residential application is gypsum board;

features. Create a series of layers with

a traditional ceiling in a commercial

the lighting, and end with the utility

application is a suspended acoustic

lighting. This means that light is orga-

ceiling. A suspended ceiling is designed

nized so different levels of intensity can

to be flexible and easy to maintain.

create different effects. This layering is

Suspended ceilings can be used in resi-

achieved by ceiling heights, switching,

dential applications if a designed look

and fixtures. Specifying different types

is desired. Many basements in houses

of lighting at different heights, each for

use a suspended ceiling for easy access

its own purpose, will create lighting in

to plumbing and electrical for the upper

layers.

floors.

The second step is to determine

if you were looking down through the

what is included in the ceiling: lights,

ceiling and the roof was missing. This

HVAC (heating, ventilation, and air

plan will include lights, switching, and

conditioning) , security, and electrical.

electrical receptacles on a residen-

Residential plans are simple because

tial plan. A commercial or complex

of the requirements of the home. The

residential plan will be broken up into

receptacles are placed every 6 feet. Any

several drawings. One may be the

wall over 2 feet must have receptacle.

suspended ceiling with lighting and

Light switches are placed at the entry

circuits shown. The second drawing

of the door, the appliances must have

may show electrical, mechanical, and

proper power, and GFCI are located in

security. If the structure does not use

wet locations. Outside electrical must

a suspended ceiling, all the additional

be weatherproof. An interior designer

information may be shown on one

needs to learn and draft these basics of

drawing. This is as long as the infor-

electrical design.

139
Electrical and Lighting

Draw the reflected ceiling plan as

The first step in preparing the

BOX 11.1 Punch List for the Electrical/Reflected Ceiling Plan

1. Receptacle symbols and identification of 220 volts.

a. Electric range
b. Water heater
c. Air conditioners
d. Heat pumps
e. Clothes dryer

01_WILSON_TXT.indd 139

6. All lighting with proper symbols.

7. Switches with circuits.
8. Special symbols, such as telephone, broadband,
satellite, security, and fire systems.
9. Electrical schedule, if necessary.

1/10/11 2:22 PM

Design ScenarioLighting and Electrical Plans

The main objective to this chapter is to provide electrical symbols and examples of their use. There is no clear
step-by-step method to specifying electrical; therefore,
referencing drawings and legends is the best way for the
designer to learn symbols and their usage. Make sure all
areas of the electrical and ceiling plan are included. (See
Figures 11.311.7.)

{11.3} below
Commercial reflected
ceiling plan. (Illustration
credit: Sheila Flener)
{11.4} opposite
Lighting schedule.
(Illustration credit: Sheila Flener)

01_WILSON_TXT.indd 140

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CHAPTER 12

KITCHEN AND BATH DESIGN

After reading this chapter, you will be able to understand

145

In most peoples
vocabularies, design

and create elevation and sections of kitchens and baths,

means veneer. Its interior

decorating. Its the fabric of

complete with fixtures and furniture. This includes the

the curtains of the sofa. But

to me, nothing could be fur-

application of increasing scale plans and elevations,

ther from the meaning

of design. Design is the

anthropometrics, proxemics, and human scale (adults,

fundamental soul of a
human-made creation that

children, and infants).

ends up expressing itself in

successive outer layers of the

INTRODUCTION TO KITCHEN DESIGN

product or service.

The kitchen is the most complex room

for maximum efficiency when working

in a house, in part because it contains

in the kitchen. The preparation zone

large amounts of equipment along with

focuses on the refrigerator and food

dining facilities. This is the one area

prep area. The washing zone is de-

where people constantly encounter

signed around the sink and dishwash-

and work with each other for extended

ing area. The third zone is the cooking

periods of time. The kitchen should be

area that requires maximum clearances

designed for a level of efficiency while

and a central location to distribute food.

focused on safety. The design of this

These three zones should create an un-

space should be developed according

broken triangle with all sides adding to

to the needs of the users. Because it

less than 26 feet. (See Figure 12.2.) The

is the most expensive per-square-foot

next area of importance in the kitchen

portion of the home, the design must

is storage. Designers should always be

{12.1} opposite top

maximize many features.

concerned with storage in a kitchen, not

The three kitchen work

only for food storage, but for kitchen

zonesthe pre, washing,

The kitchen is designed around

STEVE JOBS, FOUNDER

AND CEO, APPLE

and cooking zones.

three main work areas: preparation,

tools and small appliance storage as

washing, and cooking zones. (See Fig-

well. Being able to carefully organize

{12.2} opposite bottom

ure 12.1.) These three zones create the

these spaces to allow for easy accessi-

The work triangle with

work triangle, which is a zone designed

bility is critical to a functional design.

maximum distances noted.

01_WILSON_TXT.indd 145

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Kitchen floor plan.

{12.11e}
01_WILSON_TXT.indd 161

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162
Kitchen and Bath Design

{12.12}
Levels of comfort according
to the space bubble by
Edward T. Hall. (Illustration
credit: Sheila Flener)

01_WILSON_TXT.indd 162

ANTHROPOMETRICS,
PROXEMICS, AND ERGONOMICS

interaction in the book The Hidden

The study of humans and comfort

zones as intimate, personal, social,

levels has provided designers many

and public. (See Figure 12.12.) Design-

avenues to create a higher standard of

ing and planning workspaces revolves

living. Humans have a wide variety of

around distances and the activities that

cultural living conditions, which gives

take place.

the designer opportunity to refine their

Anthropometrics is the study of

designs. The study of proxemics is the

physical and psychological comfort lev-

understanding of space as it is used in

els. The use of anthropometrics is what

specific cultures. Designing for people

determines what space is needed for

and their specific needs is the goal of

certain activities. The research defines

a designer. The understanding of per-

typical human heights, widths, and

sonal space and distances of comfort is

postures for the design of ergonomics.

critical in most designs. In residential

(See Figure 12.13.)

design, most people understand the

Ergonomics is the study of people

need for personal space and how a

and their working conditions. The

house functions. Generally, houses are

information is collected to provide data

designed for a distinct family interact-

for the design of seating and other

ing with each other. In nonresidential

furniture. (See Figure 12.14.) Ergonomic

spaces, the criteria changes because

design has benefitted people through

the comfort level involves no family

the development of office furniture

and friends. Edward Hall bases his

to improve productivity and comfort

designs around four zones of human

levels.

Dimension. This breaks down the four

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CHAPTER 13

PRODUCT DESIGNING:
CASE GOODS, LIGHTING,
FURNITURE, AND SMALL FIXTURES

After reading this chapter, you will be able to design

What works good is better

167

than what looks good.

small products that complement the design of a project.

Because what works

good lasts.

Case goods, fireplaces, equipment, and details are the

RAY EAMES, ARCHITECT,

GRAPHIC AND INDUSTRIAL

focus of the chapter.

DESIGNER, FILMMAKER

BASIC PRODUCT DESIGN PROCESS

of the reduction of sharp corners. They

When developing a building design,

give the space a sense of flowing. De-

many items are custom built to fit the

signs with a radius give the sensation

situation. Many designers find solu-

that they are leading you to a destina-

tions by designing custom pieces for a

tion. (See Figure 13.1.) When a simple

project. These custom pieces show the

form has been identified, clarify that it

creative nature of designers. Product

fits the composition of the building. Will

design was traditionally industrial

this form be out of place with the theme

design , but is quickly being overtaken

of the space? Will this element contra-

by interior designers. Because most

dict other elements and principles of

interior designers are specialist in space

the space?

planning, it is only natural to find solu-

tions in furniture and product design

sign portion of a project is the detailing.

that accent and improve an interior.

Many details in the construction of a

Interior designers are designing the

building may be new concepts in build-

furniture and fixtures to complement

ing design. It may simply be a creative

their own designs as well as meet a cli-

use of a material that is not traditionally

ents needs.

used in construction such as a steel ex-

terior panel in the kitchen for notes and

The design process is dependent on

The other side of the industrial de-

the individual; however, one method

magnets. This is because some stain-

is to approach the idea with simple

less steel refrigerators are nonmag-

shapes. How do those simple shapes in-

netic. With detail design, many items

{13.1} opposite

teract with the space? Round forms are

need to be custom-made and require

Radius designed bar area.

comfortable for most people because

an engineers or architects approval.

(Illustration credit: Sheila Flener)

01_WILSON_TXT.indd 167

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(See Figure 13.4.) The cabinet has the

overall dimensions and detail notations.
These notations determine what materials will be used and color specifications.
The details on the front view describe
all the components. Cabinets are considered a furniture piece, and the designer must remember that individuals
of different heights will be using them.
Always research the furniture type and
sizes that are required for the end user.
The product will need to be creative yet
functional.

Lighting is an area where designers

find themselves creating new products

171

because there is no product available

fixture may need to be created to fit a
space. Designers need to ask questions
before going too far with a lighting
design: will the object be functional? Is
it too complex for a local fabricator to

{13.4} opposite

build? Many designers design electri-

The materials provide not only the structure,

cal fixtures to make sure they create a

but also the decorative elements of a design.

specific look for the space. The other

(Illustration credit: Sheila Flener)

issue is the size of the object. Will it

{13.5} right

overwhelm a space, or is it too small

A simple light fixture based on wrapping

to be effective. Designers have a good

metal and tucking into a slot for support.

sense of scale and find that lighting

product design can be based on simple
geometric shapes and matching an
existing light base. (See Figure 13.5.)

01_WILSON_TXT.indd 171

Product Designing: Case Goods, Lighting, Furniture, and Small Fixtures

to fit the space. In specialty design, a

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{13.6}
An enlarged detail describing a radiant floor heating system.
Labeling helps identify materials at small scales.

Detail design for construction is im-

portant when trying to achieve a speci-

172
Product Designing: Case Goods, Lighting, Furniture, and Small Fixtures
01_WILSON_TXT.indd 172

fied custom look. Basic measurements

are important to the details and the
actual construction. (See Figure 13.6.)
When a draftsperson is drawing the design, all facets that make it unique need
to be labeled. (See Figures 13.713.9.)

{13.7} left
A detail that describes the shape and bracket
type for a column and rafter connection.
{13.8} bottom left
A mobile kitchen island designed to move
from kitchen to dining area.
{13.9} bottom right
A leg detail of the mobile kitchen island in 13.8.

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CHAPTER 14

PROJECTION DRAWINGS
ON A 2-D SURFACE

After reading this chapter, the student will be able to

All of the environment should

175

express a higher, more-

create a basic perspective and axonometric drawing.

ordered, broadly-complete
dedication to the well-

PROJECTION DRAWINGS

designed.

Projection drawings are three-dimen-

ings. (See Figure 14.2.) This chapter is

JOHN MASSEY, GRAPHIC-DESIGN

sional (3-D) representations of two-di-

focused on the practical application of

PIONEER AND EDUCATOR

mensional (2-D) drawings. This drawing

drawing perspectives, not the theory.

type is the main method of conveying

The focus is the step-by-step application

the intended design. Three-dimensional

that allows the user to create sketches

images are the most true to life and

and proportional 3-D drawings.

easiest for clients to understand. The

two main types that designers use are

drawings, start by learning basic terms.

perspective and axonometric drawings.

Perspective drawings can frustrate the

Perspective drawing distorts the image

beginner, so start with a simple one-

towards a vanishing point, and axono-

point perspective of a room. This will

metric provide a measurable image. (See

help you grasp the terminology and the

Figure 14.1.) Simple projection drawings

step-by-step technique used to cre-

are the clearest images to create and

ate the framework of the drawing. The

refine. Complex drawing can be confus-

following definitions are helpful when

ing to clients and expensive to create.

learning the perspective framework.

This chapter addresses the simple and

informative type of drawings.

To understanding perspective

Station point: The point which a person

{14.1} opposite top

views the space

A perspective drawing focuses

on the vanishing point and is

PERSPECTIVE DRAWINGS

Vanishing point: A point on the horizon

Perspective drawings are used as a

line where parallel lines converge

planning and presentation tool. The

Horizon line: The line that is at eye level

{14.2} opposite bottom

Ground line: Where the ground plane

a sense of space because the

meets the picture plane

image is created as if someone

drawings show a realistic view of the

design to a client. Perspectives are tools
used to increase the understanding of

drawn out toward the viewer.

Perspective drawings provide

is viewing the space from a

three-dimensional space by studying

Picture plane: The surface where the

stationary point. (Illustration

how a building relates to its surround-

drawing is projected

credit: Jordan Bartek)

01_WILSON_TXT.indd 175

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An isometric drawing initially ap-

space with the ceiling removed. This

pears complex because of the three-

is the principle behind an isometric

dimensional form, but the drawing

drawing. Clients can visualize them-

type is the simplest to construct after

selves within the space because they

the framework is started. The major

see the plan simply extruded up to

obstruction most beginners deal with

the ceiling height. Door and windows

is learning that all lines need precise

headers begin at 6'-8". Exact win-

measurement to accurately complete

dow sizes can then be measured up

the frame. Incorrect measurements

to the 6'-8" mark. (See Figure 14.12.)

lead to frustration and poor design.

The final component is wall material.

Understanding the basics eases the

Drawing the walls to correct width will

process, such as learning the height

simplify the process. If the wall thick-

of the ceiling. Normal ceilings start at

ness is correct, the wall heights will

8 feet. Imagine looking down into a

intersect correctly.

179
Projection Drawings on a 2-D Surface

{14.12}
Windows and door are measured from a standard height.
Residential door height is 6-8.

01_WILSON_TXT.indd 179

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Steps to drawing an isometric area

as follows.
1. Complete the floor plan and
window schedule.
2. Place the floor plan at a 45-degree angle. Using the 45-degree
triangle, align the edge with a
corner of the drawing. Make
sure the corner is aligned perfectly. (See Figure 14.13.)
3. Draw a line from the outside
corners up 8 feet; then connect
all the corners with a line using
the 45-degree triangle. (See

180

Figure 14.14.)

Projection Drawings on a 2-D Surface

4. With the outside walls in place,

continue with the interior walls.
{14.13}
Using the plan, tape down the
drawing at a 45-degree angle.

Make sure all wall thicknesses

are correct for the wall type.
(See Figure 14.15.)
5. Erase all lines hidden behind
walls. (See Figure 14.16.)
6. Add doors and windows. (See
Figure 14.17.)
7. Add kitchen and bath cabinetry.
(See Figure 14.18.)
8. Poch all objects cut through.

{14.14}
Draw the lines up from the
corners to the ceiling height.

01_WILSON_TXT.indd 180

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CHAPTER 15

PRESENTATION DRAWINGS

After reading this chapter and completing the scenario,

Architecture should speak of

for timelessness.
FRANK GEHRY, ARCHITECT

basic design presentation. Layout skills will be based

on presentation and working drawings. The goal is to

Presentation Drawings

its time and place, but yearn

a beginning designer will possess an understanding of

185

organize and present information in a logical format

for presentation and delivery to a client.
COMMUNICATION OF
DRAWING TYPES
The presentation of drawings is the

symbols are used that apply to all fields

main conveyance of information to

of construction, architecture, and interior

a client. Creating a presentation that

design. Using standard symbols while

is informative and interesting is the

developing a creative design is one of the

designers objective. Convincing a client

goals of the scenario method. By using a

that the design will meet their needs is

methodical process when designing, and

achieved through quality drawings and

by drawing designs in standard sizes,

a knowledgeable presentation. After the

much of the work is completed and only

presentation drawings are approved, a

needs refinement. Drawing residential

set of working drawings or construction

floor plans and elevations in inch

documents are created.

is easy for contractors to understand

because the measurement is a residential

What Is a Set of Working Drawings?

standard. Drawing kitchen and bath plans

Working drawings are the documents

and elevations at inch is also standard.

that are created for the actual construc-

For the various contractors involved in

tion of a structure. They are designed

the construction process, standard mea-

to be read by the various subcontrac-

surements make the process of drawing

programming

tors and laborers; therefore, standard

working documents uniform.

development.

01_WILSON_TXT.indd 185

{15.1} opposite
This board is a
presentation with

1/10/11 2:23 PM

187
Presentation Drawings

client; it will allow and encourage the

{15.3}

ments, the standard order is based on

When creating construction docu-

creation of presentations specifically

This composite drawing has

the Uniform Drawing System (UDS).

for clients. Most people discover that a

a mixture of perspective and

The UDS reduces confusion and allows

simple, comprehensible presentation

multiple disciplines to work on a stan-

works best for the majority of clients.

dard set of drawings. The initial letter

Complex composite drawings with

increase the quality of the pre-

represents the different disciplines:

overlapping images are perfect for

sentation. Hand drawing with

A-Architecture, C-Civil, S-Structural, P-

presenting to designers. A composite

ink on mylar.

Plumbing, and E-Electrical. This system

drawing is a presentation drawing that

of clear identification crosses disci-

combines multiple drawing types with

plines and countries.

images merging onto each other. It is

plan drawings at various

scales. Computer-generated
titles have been added to

a graphic system used to create one

What Is a Presentation Drawing?

massive image, and it is the predomi-

A presentation drawing is designed to

nant form of presentation with digital

sell a project to potential clients. Design

methods. The merging of drawings can

students are taught various methods

be accomplished with manual methods;

to creating presentation drawings, lay-

however, the level of refinement may

outs, and boards. Most involve creative

be lacking when compared to a digital

methods that are graphically attractive

presentation. (See Figure 15.3.) A single

and convey the intent of the design to

drawing that is graphic, but can be

the audience. Always understand the

added to, is the design scenario method

01_WILSON_TXT.indd 187

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{15.4}
Hand-drawn images that
were scanned and arranged
with photo editing software.

188
Presentation Drawings
01_WILSON_TXT.indd 188

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