9. Routing process In details with examples.

Routing- giving the path.

The primary functions of a router are to:

Determine the best path to send packets

Forward packets toward their destination ( )

The router uses its routing table to determine the best path to use to forward a packet. When the
router receives a packet, it examines the destination address of the packet and uses the routing
table to search for the best path to that network. The routing table also includes the interface to
be used to forward packets for each known network. When a match is found, the router
encapsulates the packet into the data link frame of the outgoing or exit interface, and the packet
is forwarded toward its destination.

10. Switching process in details with examples.

Process Switching
With process switching the IP forwarding looks something like this
1. The router receives a frame and immediately checks the FCS(frame check sequences). If it
encounters a bad FCS, the frame is discarded and the process ends.
2. If the FCS is good, the router extracts the packet from the frame and discards the frame header
and trailer

3. The router examines the packet destination and checks the forwarding table for
the most specific prefix that matches the destination of the IP packet. The FIB
(Forwarding Information Base)will tell the router what the next hop router and
interface is. It can use this information to determine the layer2 information required
to generate a new frame. At this step, any other processor required functions are
also executed (NAT, QOS, etc).
4. The router updates the TTL on the layer 3 packet and regenerates the IP checksum of the packets.
5. The router uses the information it gathered in step 3 to build a new layer 2 header and trailer to
encapsulated the packet. The packet is then sent long its way out the appropriate interface.
So thats basically what happens each and every time a packet comes enters the router. As you might
expect, sending every packet to the processor for it to make a decision on where to forward it can be
rather tedious. Not only can it take longer, but you are putting a greater strain on the router CPU and
memory.

11.ACL theory and practice with examples..

An ACL is a series of IOS commands that control whether a router forwards or drops packets based on information
found in the packet header.
When configured, ACLs perform the following tasks:

Limit network traffic to increase network performance.

Provide traffic flow control.

Provide a basic level of security for network access.

Filter traffic based on traffic type.

Screen hosts to permit or deny access to network services.

Inbound ACLs(CHECK ACL,ROUTING(GIVING PATH)) - Incoming packets are processed before they are
routed to the outbound interface. An inbound ACL is efficient because it saves the overhead of routing lookups if
the packet is discarded. If the packet is permitted by the tests, it is then processed for routing. Inbound ACLs
are best used to filter packets when the network attached to an inbound interface is the only source of the
packets needed to be examined.

Outbound ACLs(ROUTING(GIVING PATH),CHECK ACL ) - Incoming packets are routed to the outbound
interface, and then they are processed through the outbound ACL. Outbound ACLs are best used when the
same filter will be applied to packets coming from multiple inbound interfaces before exiting the same outbound
interface.
STANDARD ACLs

Extended ACLs

Numbering and Naming ACLs

EXAMPLE

12.NAT theory and practice with examples.

PRIVATE IPV4 ADDRESS

10.0.0.0 10.255.255.255 ( (CIDR) :

255.0.0.0 /8)

172.16.0.0 172.31.255.255 ( (CIDR) :

255.240.0.0 /12)

192.168.0.0 192.168.255.255 ( (CIDR) :

255.255.0.0 /16)

Network Address Translation (NAT) is designed for IP address conservation. It enables private IP
networks that use unregistered IP addresses to connect to the Internet. NAT operates on a router, usually
connecting two networks together, and translates the private (not globally unique) addresses in the
internal network into legal addresses, before packets are forwarded to another network.
NAT includes four types of addresses:

Inside local address

Inside global address

Outside local address

Outside global address

https://static-course-assets.s3.amazonaws.com/RSE503/en/index.html#11.1.1.5
Static,Dynamic

Static NAT translations have one-to-one mapping between local and global addresses. Users can
also configure static address translations to the port level, and use the remainder of the IP address
for other translations

Dynamic NAT uses a pool of public addresses and assigns them on a first-come, first-served basis. When an
inside device requests access to an outside network, dynamic NAT assigns an available public IPv4 address
from the pool.

EXAMPLE
static

dynamic

13.Difference between star and bus topologies.

The Bus Topology

All computers are attached to a single cable in the topology, which
is the easiest way to create a physical layout of a network.

When computers are communicating on a network with this topology, all computers
see the data on the wire but only the addressed computer will actually accepts the
data.

Disadvantage : If the any of the connection breaks down, the signal will bounce back
and forth, which result entire network break down. It is difficult to move and change
since they are all link up together. It has very little fault tolerance (ONE fault can stop
the whole network from working. It's difficult to troubleshoot.
Advantage : It is very simple to install. Comparatively cheaper than others. Also, it
uses less cables
The Star Topology
Star topology is different than bus topology. Star topology, each computer is
connected to a central point from a dedicated cable. The central point is a device
called hub. Although this topology uses more cable but failure only occurs on one
cable. Usually this only affects one portion of the network.

Disadvantage : Installation fee may cost higher since more cables are used. Single
point failure, the hub.
Advantage : It can be reconfigured quickly. Single wire failure won't bring down the
whole network. It is easier to troubleshoot when comparing to Bus topology.

14.Difference between logical and physical topologies.

Logical topology
This arrangement consists of virtual connections between the nodes of a network
independent of their physical layout.

Physical Topology
The physical topology is an arrangement of the nodes and the physical
connections between them.
The representation of how the media is used to interconnect the devices is the
physical topology

15.Explain what cables are used in ethernet, fastEthernet, and gigabitEthernet.

19. Describe different ethernet cable types.
Cables: copper,fiberoptic

Distance

Bandwidth

Voice Channels

Copper

2.5 km

1.5 Mb/s

24

Fiber

200 KM

2.5+ Gb/s

32,000 +

Straight,crossover

Straight Cable(same color)

1)Connect a computer to a switch/hub's normal port.
2) Connect a computer to a cable/DSL modem's LAN port.
3) Connect a router's WAN port to a cable/DSL modem's LAN port.
4) Connect a router's LAN port to a switch/hub's uplink port. (normally used for expanding
network)
5) Connect 2 switches/hubs with one of the switch/hub using an uplink port and the other
one using normal port

Crossover Cable(different color)

1) Connect 2 computers directly.
2) Connect a router's LAN port to a switch/hub's normal port. (normally used
for expanding network)
3) Connect 2 switches/hubs by using normal port in both switches/hubs.

Hub

Switch

Router

Workstation

Hub

Crossover

Crossover

Straight

Straight

Switch

Crossover

Crossover

Straight

Straight

Router

Straight

Straight

Crossover

Crossover

Workstation

Straight

Straight

Crossover

Crossover

An Ethernet crossover cable is a type of Ethernet cable used to connect computing devices
together directly. It is most often used to connect two devices of the same type: e.g. two computers
(via network interface controller) or two switches to each other. By contrast,patch cables or straight
through cables are used to connect devices of different types, such as a computer to a network
switch or hub.
Ethernet over twisted pair technologies use twisted-pair cables for the physical layer of
an Ethernet computer network

T568A termination

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Fast Ethernet is a term of Ethernet in computing networking, stands for carrying on the traffic
at the rate of 100 Mbit per second.

LAN
Ethernet
FDDI
Fast Ethernet
ATM
Gigabit Ethernet
10 Gigabit Ethernet

Bandwidth
10 Mb/s
100 Mb/s
100 Mb/s
55, 155 Mb/s
1,000 Mb/s (1 gigabit/s)
10 Gb/s

Gigabit Ethernet is another term of Ethernet in computing network, for carrying on the traffic at
the rate of 1000 Mbit per second.

17.Explain full process of DR/BDR/DROTHER election process with example.

The solution to managing the number of adjacencies and the flooding of LSAs on a multiaccess network is the DR.
On multiaccess networks, OSPF elects a DR to be the collection and distribution point for LSAs sent and received. A
BDR is also elected in case the DR fails. The BDR listens passively to this exchange and maintains a relationship
with all the routers. If the DR stops producing Hello packets, the BDR promotes itself and assumes the role of DR.
All other non-DR or BDR routers become DROTHER (a router that is neither the DR nor the BDR)

https://static-course-assets.s3.amazonaws.com/ScaN503/en/index.html#5.1.2.3
figure 2 play !
DR/BDR elections only occur in multiaccess networks and do not occur in point-to-point networks.
Because the routers are connected over a common multiaccess broadcast network, OSPF has automatically elected
a DR and BDR. In this example, R3 has been elected as the DR because its router ID is 3.3.3.3, which is the highest
in this network. R2 is the BDR because it has the second highest router ID in the network
R1 is not the DR or BDR, but is a DROTHER with a default priority of 1.

https://static-course-assets.s3.amazonaws.com/ScaN503/en/index.html#5.1.2.4
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16.Explain full process of neighbour adjecency between OSPF routers with example.
When an OSPF router is initially connected to a network, it attempts to:

Create adjacencies with neighbors

Exchange routing information

Calculate the best routes

Reach convergence

OSPF progresses through several states while attempting to reach convergence:

Down state

Init state

Two-Way state

ExStart state

Exchange state

Loading state

Full state

18.Describe full process of encapsulation(from 7 to 1) and decapsulation (from 1 to 7).

Data encapsulation is the process that adds additional protocol header information to the data
before transmission
When sending messages on a network, the protocol stack on a host operates from top to bottom. In the
web server example, we can use the TCP/IP model to illustrate the process of sending an HTML web
page to a client.
The application layer protocol, HTTP, begins the process by delivering the HTML formatted web page
data to the transport layer. There the application data is broken into TCP segments. Each TCP segment
is given a label, called a header, containing information about which process running on the destination
computer should receive the message. It also contains the information that enables the destination
process to reassemble the data back to its original format.
The transport layer encapsulates the web page HTML data within the segment and sends it to the
internet layer, where the IP protocol is implemented. Here the entire TCP segment is encapsulated within
an IP packet, which adds another label, called the IP header. The IP header contains source and
destination host IP addresses, as well as information necessary to deliver the packet to its corresponding
destination process.
Next, the IP packet is sent to the network access layer where it is encapsulated within a frame header
and trailer. Each frame header contains a source and destination physical address. The physical address
uniquely identifies the devices on the local network. The trailer contains error checking information. Finally
the bits are encoded onto the media by the server network interface card (NIC).
This process is reversed at the receiving host, and is known as de-encapsulation

20.Describe switch forwarding methods in details with example.

http://learn.acadnet.ro/ccna-rs/3/course/module1/1.2.1.3/1.2.1.3.html
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1. IPv6 address types in details.

https://technet.microsoft.com/en-us/library/cc757359(v=ws.10).aspx

2. IPv6 address types in details.

http://www.bradreese.com/how-to-subnet-a-network.pdf
3. Write all available subnet mask values and explain why only they can be used

http://www.tcpipguide.com/free/t_IPDefaultSubnetMasksF
orAddressClassesABandC.htm
4. Describe OSI Transport layers responsibilities.

Transport layer is the fourth layer in OSI Reference Model. It responds to service requests from
Session layer and issues service requests to Network layer. Transport Layer is responsible for
delivering messages between hosts. In Transport layer, data travels in the form of segments.
Transport layer is responsible for creating an end to end connection between source IP and the
destination IP. For establishing this end to end connection, Transport layer is using two major
protocols TCP and UDP. TCP is connection oriented protocol where UDP is connection less
protocol. So by using TCP we can create an end to end reliable connection between source and
destination hosts. Transport layer is called host-to-host transport layer in TCP/IP model.

DUTIES OF TRANSPORT LAYER

Major duties of Transport layer are:

Creating an end-to-end connection between hosts in different network,
Error recovery,
Flow control,
Ensuring complete data transfer in TCP
Congestion avoidance

The end to end connection is established in Transport layer with the help of stateful protocol
TCP. It offers reliable delivery of data to the destination host. Transport Layer is also responsible
for error recovery and is responsible for the resending of data segments which had error. This
feature is provided by TCP. Flow control is the process of ensuring where the amount of data
sending to the destination is affordable by it. Without flow control a faster source might flood
destination with so much information. To accomplish it we are using many techniques like
windowing.
The transport layer provides:
Message segmentation: accepts a message from the (session) layer above it, splits the
message into smaller units (if not already small enough), and passes the smaller units down to
the network layer. The transport layer at the destination station reassembles the message.
Message acknowledgment: provides reliable end-to-end message delivery with
acknowledgments.
Message traffic control: tells the transmitting station to "back-off" when no message buffers are
available.
Session multiplexing: multiplexes several message streams, or sessions onto one logical link
and keeps track of which messages belong to which sessions (see session layer).
5. Describe in details Segment header.
http://www.omnisecu.com/tcpip/tcp-header.php
Header Length: 4 Bit field which shows the number of 32 Bit words in the header. Also known as
the Data Offset field. The minimum size header is 5 words (binary pattern is 0101).
Data Offset: Specifies the number of 32-bit words of data in the TCP header. In other words, this
value times four equals the number of bytes in the header, which must always be a multiple of
four. It is called a data offset since it indicates by how many 32-bit words the start of the data is
offset from the beginning of the TCP segment.

6. Explain what is port number of OSI Transport layer and show their classifications with
explanation.
Port Addressing
Identifying the Conversations
Consider the earlier example of a computer simultaneously receiving and sending e-mail,
instant messages, web pages, and a VoIP phone call. The TCP and UDP based services keep
track of the various applications that are communicating. To differentiate the segments and
datagrams for each application, both TCP and UDP have header fields that can uniquely identify
these applications. These unique identifiers are the port numbers. In the header of each
segment or datagram, there is a source and destination port. The source port number is the
number for this communication associated with the originating application on the local host. The
destination port number is the number for this communication associated with the destination
application on the remote host. Port numbers are assigned in various ways, depending on
whether the message is a request or a response. While server processes have static port
numbers assigned to them, clients dynamically choose a port number for each conversation.
When a client application sends a request to a server application, the destination port contained
in the header is the port number that is assigned to the service daemon running on the remote
host. The client software must know what port number is associated with the server process on
the remote host. This destination port number is configured, either by default or manually. For
example, when a web browser application makes a request to a web server, the browser uses
TCP and port number 80 unless otherwise specified. This is because TCP port 80 is the default
port assigned to web-serving applications. Many common applications have default port
assignments. The source port in a segment or datagram header of a client request is randomly
generated. As long as it does not conflict with other ports in use on the system, the client can
choose any port number. This port number acts like a return address for the requesting
application. The Transport layer keeps track of this port and the application that initiated the
request so that when a response is returned, it can be forwarded to the correct application. The
requesting application port number is used as the destination port number in the response
coming back from the server. The combination of the Transport layer port number and the
Network layer IP address assigned to the host uniquely identifies a particular process running
on a specific host device. This combination is called a socket. Occasionally, you may find the
terms port number and socket used interchangeably. In the context of this course, the term
socket refers only to the unique combination of IP address and port number. A socket pair,
consisting of the source and destination IP addresses and port numbers, is also unique and
identifies the conversation between the two hosts. For example, an HTTP web page request
being sent to a web server (port 80) running on a host with a Layer 3 IPv4 address of
192.168.1.20 would be destined to socket 192.168.1.20:80. If the web browser requesting the
web page is running on host 192.168.100.48 and the Dynamic port number assigned to the web
browser is 49152, the socket for the web page would be 192.168.100.48:49152.
The Internet Assigned Numbers Authority (IANA) assigns port numbers. IANA is a standards
body that is responsible for assigning various addressing standards.
There are different types of port numbers:
Well Known Ports (Numbers 0 to 1023) - These numbers are reserved for services and
applications. They are commonly used for applications such as HTTP (web server) POP3/SMTP
(e-mail server) and Telnet. By defining these well-known ports for server applications, client
applications can be programmed to request a connection to that specific port and its associated
service.

Registered Ports (Numbers 1024 to 49151) - These port numbers are assigned to user
processes or applications. These processes are primarily individual applications that a user has
chosen to install rather than common applications that would receive a Well Known Port. When
not used for a server resource, these ports may also be used dynamically selected by a client
as its source port.
Dynamic or Private Ports (Numbers 49152 to 65535) - Also known as Ephemeral Ports, these
are usually assigned dynamically to client applications when initiating a connection. It is not very
common for a client to connect to a service using a Dynamic or Private Port (although some
peer-to-peer file sharing programs do).

7. What is AUTO-MDIX in switching

MDI to MDI connection with Ethernet crossover cable
To connect two ports of the same configuration (MDI to MDI or MDI-X to MDI-X) with a 10 or
100 Mbit/s connection (10BASE-T or 100BASE-TX), an Ethernet crossover cable is needed to
cross over the transmit and receive signals in the cable, so that they are matched at the
connector level. The confusion of needing two different kinds of cables for anything but
hierarchical star network topologies prompted a more automatic solution.
Auto MDI-X automatically detects the required cable connection type and configures the
connection appropriately, removing the need for crossover cables to interconnect switches or
connecting PCs peer-to-peer. As long as it is enabled on either end of a link, either type of cable
can be used. For auto MDI-X to operate correctly, the data rate on the interface and duplex
setting must be set to "auto". Auto MDI-X was developed by Hewlett-Packard engineers Daniel
Joseph Dove and Bruce W. Melvin.[2] A pseudo-random number generator decides whether or
not a network port will attach its transmitter, or its receiver to each of the twisted pairs used to
auto-negotiate the link.[3][4]
When two auto MDI-X ports are connected together, which is normal for modern products, the
algorithm resolution time is typically < 500 ms. However, a ~1.4 second asynchronous timer is
used to resolve the extremely rare case (with a probability of less than 1 in 51021) of a loop
where each end keeps switching.[5]
Subsequently, Dove promoted auto MDI-X within the 1000BASE-T standard[5] and also
developed patented algorithms for "forced mode auto MDI-X" which allow a link to be
automatically established even if the port does not auto-negotiate.[6] This may or may not be
implemented on a given device, so occasionally a crossover cable may still be necessary when
connecting auto MDI-X to MDI-X (hub or switch), especially when autonegotiation is
deactivated.[7]
Newer routers, hubs and switches (including some 10/100, and all 1 gigabit or 10 gigabit
devices in practice) use auto MDI-X for 10/100 Mbit connections to automatically switch to the
proper configuration once a cable is connected.
Gigabit and faster Ethernet links over twisted pair cable use all four cable pairs for simultaneous
transmission in both directions. For this reason, there are no dedicated transmit and receive
pairs, and consequently, crossover cables are never required for 1000BASE-T communication.
[8] The physical medium attachment sublayer (PMA) provides identification of each pair and

usually continues to work even over cables where the pairs are unusually swapped or crossed.
[9]
Q: What is Auto-Sensing MDI/MDIX?
A: Auto-Sensing MDI/MDIX means that every port on the switch will automatically detect
the Ethernet cable type being used (straight-through or crossover) and adjust to make a
link over that cable. This means that the days of having to figure out which cable to use
are gone. This is a massive improvement over previous hubs and switches where this
functionality was only available on one hub/switch port through the manual operation of
a mechanical switch (MDI/MDIX switch or Uplink switch).
8. Describe MAC address flooding attack in details with example.
http://howdoesinternetwork.com/2011/mac-address-flooding
9. Describe DHCP snooping attack in details with example.
Overview of DHCP Snooping
DHCP snooping is a security feature that acts like a firewall between untrusted hosts and
trusted DHCP
servers. The DHCP snooping feature performs the following activities:
Validates DHCP messages received from untrusted sources and filters out invalid messages.
Rate-limits DHCP traffic from trusted and untrusted sources.
Builds and maintains the DHCP snooping binding database, which contains information about
untrusted hosts with leased IP addresses.
Utilizes the DHCP snooping binding database to validate subsequent requests from untrusted
hosts.
Other security features, such as dynamic ARP inspection (DAI), also use information stored in
the
DHCP snooping binding database.
DHCP snooping is enabled on a per-VLAN basis. By default, the feature is inactive on all
VLANs. You
can enable the feature on a single VLAN or a range of VLANs.
The DHCP snooping feature is implemented in software on the route processor (RP). Therefore,
all
DHCP messages for enabled VLANs are intercepted in the PFC and directed to the RP for
processing.
http://www.astorinonetworks.com/2011/06/28/going-deep-with-dhcp-snooping/

10. Describe VLAN types in details with example.

What is VLAN
VLAN is a logical grouping of networking devices. When we create VLAN, we actually break
large broadcast domain in smaller broadcast domains. Consider VLAN as a subnet. Same as
two different subnets cannot communicate with each other without router, different VLANs also
requires router to communicate.
Advantage of VLAN

VLAN provides following advantages:Solve broadcast problem

 Reduce the size of broadcast domains

Allow us to add additional layer of security
Make device management easier
Allow us to implement the logical grouping of devices by function instead of location
Which three statements accurately describe VLAN types?
An 802.1Q trunk port, with a native VLAN assigned, supports both tagged and untagged traffic.*
A management VLAN is any VLAN that is configured to access management features of the
switch.*
After the initial boot of an unconfigured switch, all ports are members of the default VLAN.*
http://www.slideshare.net/irisdan/vlan-types
http://computernetworkingnotes.com/ccna-study-guide/vlan-basic-concepts-explained-withexamples.html
11. What is VLAN tagging? Exaplain and show example.

Why and how are Ethernet Vlans tagged?

If you have more than one VLAN on a port (a "trunk port"), you need some way to tell which
packet
belongs
to

which VLAN on the other end. To do this you are "tagging" a packet with a VLAN tag (or VLAN
header if you like). In reality a VLAN tag is inserted in the Ethernet frame like this:

The 802.1Q (dot1q, VLAN) tag contains a VLAN-ID and other things explained in the 802.1Q
Standard. The first 16 bits contain the "Tag Protocol Identifier" (TPID) which is 8100. This also
doubles as the EtherType 0x8100 for devices that don't understand VLANs.
So a "tagged" packet contains the VLAN information in the Ethernet frame while an "untagged"
packet doesn't. A typical use case would be if you have one port from a router to a switch which
multiple customers are attached to:

In this example customer "Green" has VLAN 10 and Customer "Blue" has VLAN 20. The ports
between switch and customers are "untagged" meaning for the customer the arriving packet is
just a normal Ethernet packet.
The port between router and switch is configured as a trunk port so that both router and switch
know which packet belongs to which customer VLAN. On that port the Ethernet frames are
tagged with the 802.1Q tag.
https://www.bluecoat.com/sites/default/files/documents/files/VLAN_Tagging.1.pdf

12. Explain how to summarize IPv6 addresses and show example.
Summarizing IPv6 prefixes is similar to IPv4 summarization, the big difference is that IPv6 uses
128 bit addresses compared to 32 bits for IPv4 and IPv6 uses hexadecimal addresses.
In this lesson, Ill explain how to create IPv6 summaries and well walk through some examples
together.
Example 1
Lets start with a simple example:
2001:DB8:1234:ABA2::/64
2001:DB8:1234:ABC3::/64
Lets say we have to create a summary that includes the two prefixes above. Each hextet
represents 16 bits. The first three hextets are the same (2001:DB8:1234) so we have 16 + 16 +
16 = 48 bits that are the same so far. To find the other bits that are the same we only have to
focus on the last hextet:
ABA2
ABC3

Well have to convert these from hexadecimal to binary to see how many bits are the same:
ABA2 1010101110100010
ABC3 1010101111000011
I highlighted the bits in red that are the same, the first 9 bits. The remaining blue bits are
different. To get our summary address, we have to zero out the blue bits:
AB80 1010101110000000
When we calculate this from binary back to hexadecimal we get AB80. The first three hextets
are the same and in the 4th octet we have 9 bits that are the same. 48 + 9 = 57 bits. Our
summary address will be:
2001:DB8:1234:AB80::/57
Thats how you can create a summary address for IPv6.
13. Explain how to summarize IPv4 addresses and show example.
example 1
Network Summarization Example
Networks to be summarized:
172.16.3.0/24
172.16.4.0/24
172.16.5.0/24
172.16.6.0/24
172.16.7.0/24
172.16.8.0/24
172.16.9.0/24
Step 1. Find the interesting octet
The first step in summarizing a list of networks is to identify the first octet where the decimal
value is not the same.
In this example, the first octet for all networks is 172. No difference there. The second octet is
16 for every network in the list. Again, no difference either. The third octet is where we see
different values, which is what well call the interesting octet. That is where we need to focus our
attention.
Step 2. Convert the interesting octet values to binary
172.16.3.0/24 > 172.16.00000011.0/24
172.16.4.0/24 > 172.16.00000100.0/24
172.16.5.0/24 > 172.16.00000101.0/24
172.16.6.0/24 > 172.16.00000110.0/24
172.16.7.0/24 > 172.16.00000111.0/24
172.16.8.0/24 > 172.16.00001000.0/24
172.16.9.0/24 > 172.16.00001001.0/24
Step 3. Identify the common bits and convert to decimal
00000011
00000100
00000101
00000110
00000111
00001000
00001001

The common bits in the third octet are shown in red above. Now we simply need to add trailing
zeros to the end and convert it to decimal. This gives us the summary network address.
172.16.00000000.0 > 172.16.0.0 = Summary Address
Step 4. Count the number of leading common bits to find the mask
To find the summary mask, we need to count the number of bits from left to right until they no
longer match. We already determined that in our example the first and second octets match,
each with 8 bits. The third octet contains four matching bits (in red). Combined, this gives us a
mask of 20 (8+8+4).
172.16.00000000.0 > 10101100.00010000.00000000.00000000 (20 leading common bits)
172.16.0.0/20 = Summary Address
This was a simple summary example, but the same process will work for any networks. If you
have other IP summary questions or need more examples, feel free to leave a comment below.
example 2
Lets say we want to create the most optimal summary for the following 4 networks:
192.168.0.0 / 24 subnet mask 255.255.255.0
192.168.1.0 / 24 subnet mask 255.255.255.0
192.168.2.0 / 24 subnet mask 255.255.255.0
192.168.3.0 / 24 subnet mask 255.255.255.0
Lets convert these network addresses to binary:
192.168.0.0 11000000
10101000
00000000
00000000
192.168.1.0 11000000
10101000
00000001
00000000
192.168.2.0 11000000
10101000
00000010
00000000
192.168.3.0 11000000
10101000
00000011
00000000
Now we have to look how many bits these network addresses have in common. The first and
second octets are the same, so thats 16 bits.
Lets zoom in on the third octet:
00000000
00000001
00000010
00000011
The first 6 bits of the third octet are the same. Now we have enough information to create our
summary address.
8 + 8 + 6 = 22 bits
Our summary address will be 192.168.0.0 /22 (subnet mask 255.255.252.0).
Now you have seen how to do this in binary, lets do it in decimal. Theres a simple trick you can
use to calculate this summary.
As you can see we have 4 networks, or when we speak in blocks its a block of 4. Heres a
formula you can use:
256 number of networks = subnet mask for summary address.
For example: 256 4 networks = 252

The subnet mask will be 255.255.252.0

Another way to look at it is by using the CIDR notation. You know a /24 is a block of 256
addresses. Using a /23 means you have 2 x 256, and a /22 means you have 4 x 256.
Lets look at another example. Lets say we want to summarize the following networks:
172.16.0.0 / 16
subnet mask 255.255.0.0
172.17.0.0 / 16
subnet mask 255.255.0.0
172.18.0.0 / 16
subnet mask 255.255.0.0
172.19.0.0 / 16
subnet mask 255.255.0.0
172.20.0.0 / 16
subnet mask 255.255.0.0
172.21.0.0 / 16
subnet mask 255.255.0.0
172.22.0.0 / 16
subnet mask 255.255.0.0
172.23.0.0 / 16
subnet mask 255.255.0.0
Lets look at it in binary first. Ill write down the second octet since the first one is the same for all
network addresses:
16
00010000
17
00010001
18
00010010
19
00010011
20
00010100
21
00010101
22
00010110
23
00010111
The first 5 bits for all these addresses are the same. The first octet had 8 similar bits so thats 8
+ 5 = 13 bits.
The summary address will be 172.16.0.0 /13 (subnet mask will be 255.248.0.0).
Calculating in binary like this works but its slow. Lets use our trick for this:
256 number of networks = subnet mask for summary address.
So thats 256 8 = 248. The subnet mask will be 255.248.0.0
We can also find it by just looking at the CIDR notations:
172.16.0.0 /16 is one network.
172.16.0.0 /15 are two networks.
172.16.0.0 /14 are four networks.
172.16.0.0 /13 are eight networks.
Thats a lot faster than looking at it in binary.

14. Describe in details how IPv6 simplification works and show example of how to simplify
IPv6 address.
IPv6 addresses are 128 bit binary numbers (represented in hexadecimal format), which are so
lengthy and difficult handle in our day-to-day life. Consider a situation where you need to ping to

an IPv6 address 2001:0db8:0000:000b:0000:0000:0000:001A to check the network connectivity.

Think about the pain in typing all those IPv6 address hexadecimal characters in any shell
prompt.
Somehow we need to shorten and simplify IPv6 addresses to use it with more ease in our dayto-day life. IPv6 addresses often contain consecutive zeros.
We can further simplify shorten and compress IPv6 Addresses using following methods.
Consider the IPv6 Address 2001:0db8:0000:000b:0000:0000:0000:001A as an example.
Omit leading zeros: For simplifying and shortening lengthy IPv6 Address, we can omit the
leading zeros in any 16-bit IPv6 Address blocks.
For example, in IPv6 address 2001:0db8:0000:000b:0000:0000:0000:001A the leading zeros
are marked as 2001:0db8:0000:000b:0000:0000:0000:001A.
After removing the leading zeros, the IPv6 Address quoted above can be written as
2001:db8:0:b:0:0:0:1A
Compress consecutive hexadecimal fields of zeros using Double colon: IPv6 addresses can
be further simplified by using double colons (::) in place of a series of consecutive hexadecimal
zeros.
For above example 2001:db8:0:b:0:0:0:1A, we have a series of three consecutive fields of
hexadecimal zeros as marked 2001:db8:0:b:0:0:0:1A.
We can further simplify and shorten the above IPv6 Address as 2001:db8:0:b::1A.
Note that compressing and shortening a series of consecutive fields of hexadecimal zeros in an
IPv6 Address is possible ONLY once. If you compress a series of consecutive fields of
hexadecimal zeros twice in an IPv6 Address, it will be impossible to identify how many zeros
and compressed in each double colon (::).

15. Compare IPv4 and IPv6 headers.

There are many differences between IPv4 header and IPv6 header. Following images are IPv4
header and IPv6 header respectivly.
IPv4 datagram header

IPv6 datagram header

Following are the main differences and comparison between IPv4 header and IPv6 header.
IPv6 header is much simpler than IPv4 header.
The size of IPv6 header is much bigger than that of IPv4 header, because of IPv6 address
size. IPv4 addresses are 32bit binary numbers and IPv6 addresses are 128 bit binary numbers.
In IPv4 header, the source and destination IPv4 addresses are 32 bit binary numbers. In IPv6
header, source and destination IPv6 addresses are 128 bit binary numbers.
IPv4 header includes space for IPv4 options. In IPv6 header, we have a similar feature known
as extension header. IPv4 datagram headers are normally 20-byte in length. But we can include
IPv4 option values also along with an IPv4 header. In IPv6 header we do not have options, but
have extension headers.
The fields in the IPv4 header such as IHL (Internet Header Length), identification, flags are not
present in IPv6 header.
1. Time-to-Live (TTL), a field in IPv4 header, typically used for preventing routing loops, is
renamed to it's exact meaning, "Hop Limit".

1.Write commands that will create VLAN 10, VLAN20, VLAN30 and write commands that assign them to interfaces fa0/1, fa0/2, and fa0/3 respectively.

Switch1.
Switch1(config)#vlan 2
Switch1(config-vlan)#name Support
Switch1(config-vlan)#exit
Switch1(config)#vlan 3
Switch1(config-vlan)#name Marketing
Switch1(config-vlan)#end
Switch1(config)#int fa0/1
Switch1(config-if)#switchport mode access
Switch1(config-if)#switchport access vlan 3
Switch1(config-if)#exit
Switch1(config)#int fa0/5
Switch1(config-if)#switchport mode access
Switch1(config-if)#switchport access vlan 3
Switch1(config)#interface range fastEthernet 0/3 - 4
Switch1(config-if-range)#switchport mode access
Switch1(config-if-range)#switchport access vlan 2
2.Explain what is Native VLAN, what for it is used, is it possible to change it (if yes, then demonstrate how).

Normally a Switch port configured as a trunk port send and receive IEEE 801.q VLAN tagged Ethernet frames.

If a switch receives untagged Ethernet frames on its Trunk port, they are forwarded to the VLAN that is configured
on the Switch as native VLAN. Both sides of the trunk link must be configured to be in same native VLAN.

Consider the below example. The trunk link connecting between the Switches, omnisecu.com.SW1 and
omnisecu.com.SW2 are connected using a Hub. Some computers are also connected to the Hub. Hubs and
computers are not aware of tagging protocols and the Ethernet frames originating from Hubs are untagged Ethernet
frames.

It is not usual for a Switch port configured as a trunk port to receive untagged Ethernet frames. But it will happen if you are using Cisco VOIP
phones in your network.
What for it is used?

We need it for compatibility with devices unfamiliar with 802.1q encapsulation. For example, you need through a
Wi-Fi bridge pass vlan 3, and one of them is a management vlan. If the Wi-Fi-module do not understand standard
802.1q, then you can manage them only if the vlan configured as native vlan on both sides.(
, 802.1q. , Wi-Fi
3 , . Wi-Fi-
802.1q, , , native vlan
.)
Change
sw(config)#int fa0/20
sw(config-if)#switchport trunk native vlan 2

3. Describe in details 802.1Q protocol with example.

IEEE 802.1Q is the networking standard that supports virtual

LANs (VLANs) on an Ethernetnetwork. The standard

frames and the accompanying procedures to be used
by bridges and switches in handling such frames. The standard also contains provisions for a quality of
service prioritization scheme commonly known as IEEE 802.1p and defines the Generic Attribute Registration
Protocol.
defines a system of VLAN tagging for Ethernet

Configure trunk 802.1Q

SW2(config-if)#switchport trunk encapsulation dot1q

4. Show example how to implement ip address, subnet mask and default gateway configurations into switch so that youll be able to configure it by using
TELNET protocol.

Switch>enable
Switch#configure terminal
Switch(config)#enable secret password
Switch(config)#service password-encryption
Switch(config)#line vty 0 4
Switch(config-line)#password telnetpw
Switch(config-line)#login
Switch(config-line)#exit
Switch(config)#int vlan 1
Switch(config-if)#ip add 10.0.0.1 255.0.0.0
Switch(config-if)#no shutdown
Switch(config-if)#exit
Switch(config)#ip default-gateway 10.0.0.1

42.
Static routing is a form of routing that occurs when a router uses a manually-configured
routing entry, rather than information from a dynamic routing traffic. Unlike dynamic
routing, static routes are fixed and do not change if the network is changed or
reconfigured. Static routing and dynamic routing are not mutually exclusive. Both
dynamic routing and static routing are usually used on a router to maximise routing
efficiency and to provide backups in the event that dynamic routing information fails to
be exchanged. Static routing can also be used in stub networks, or to provide a gateway
of last resort.
A single IPv4 static summary route can be used to replace multiple static routes when
those routes can be summarized with a common prefix length. The configuration of a
summary static route is similar to the configuration of other IPv4 static routes.
Static routing can be used to define an exit point from a router when no other routes are
available or necessary. This is called a default route.
Multiple static routes can be summarized into a single static route if:

The destination networks are contiguous and can be summarized into a single
network address.

The multiple static routes all use the same exit interface or next-hop IP address.
Summary static routes can be used to help minimize the number of static routes in the
routing table. Using summary static routes can also make management of a large number
of static routes easier and less prone to errors. Floating static routes can be used as a
backup route for another static route or a dynamic routing protocol

43.
Static routing allows routing tables in specific routers to be set up by the network
administrator. Dynamic routing use Routing Protocols that dynamically discover network

destinations and how to get to them. Dynamic routing allows routing tables in routers to
change if a router on the route goes down or if a new network is added.
Includes:

Discovery of remote networks

Maintaining up-to-date routing information

Choosing the best path to destination networks

Ability to find a new best path if the current path is no longer available
There are three basic types of routing protocols.
Distance-vector Routing Protocols: Distance-vector Routing Protocols use simple algorithms

that calculate a cumulative distance value between routers based on hop count.

Example: Routing Information Protocol Version 1 (RIPv1) and Interior Gateway Routing
Protocol (IGRP)
Link-state Routing Protocols: Link-state Routing Protocols use sophisticated algorithms that
maintain a complex database of internetwork topology.
Example: Open Shortest Path First (OSPF) and Intermediate System to Intermediate System
(IS-IS)
Hybrid Routing Protocols: Hybrid Routing Protocols use a combination of distance-vector
and link-state methods that tries to incorporate the advantages of both and minimize their
disadvantages.
Example: Enhanced Interior Gateway Routing Protocol (EIGRP), Routing Information
Protocol Version 2 (RIPv2)

44-45
The classful routing protocols, RIPv1 and IGRP, are legacy protocols and are only used
in older networks. These routing protocols have evolved into the classless routing
protocols, RIPv2 and EIGRP, respectively. Link-state routing protocols are classless by
nature.
The biggest distinction between classful and classless routing protocols is that classful
routing protocols do not send subnet mask information in their routing updates.
Classless routing protocols include subnet mask information in the routing updates.
For example, IPv4 routing protocols are classified as follows:

RIPv1 (legacy): IGP, distance vector, classful protocol

IGRP (legacy): IGP, distance vector, classful protocol developed by Cisco

(deprecated from 12.2 IOS and later)

RIPv2: IGP, distance vector, classless protocol

EIGRP: IGP, distance vector, classless protocol developed by Cisco

OSPF: IGP, link-state, classless protocol

IS-IS: IGP, link-state, classless protocol

BGP: EGP, path-vector, classless protocol

46.

RIPng
Same as IPv4
Based on RIPv2
Distance vector, max. 15 hop, split-horizon, ...
Its an IPv6 only protocol
In a dual-stack environment, running RIP, youll )need RIP (IPv4) and
RIPng (IPv6
IPv6 related functionality
Uses IPv6 for transport
For RIP updates, uses multicast address FF02::9 Updates are sent on
UDP
port
521
RIPng stands for Routing Information Protocol Next Generation. This is an

Interior Routing Protocol and is a Distance Vector Protocol. RIPng has

been

upgraded to support IPv6.

OSPFv3 = OSPF for IPv6
Based on OSPFv2
Topology of an area is invisible from outside the area LSA flooding is
bounded by area
SPF calculation is performed separately for each area
All areas must have a connection to the backbone
Open Shortest Path First version 3 is an Interior Routing Protocol which is
modified to support IPv6. This is a Link-State Protocol and uses Djikrastas
Shortest Path First algorithm to calculate best path to all destinations.
BGPv4
Exterior Gateway Protocol
Connect separate routing domains that contain independent )routing
policies (AS
Carries sequences of AS numbers indicating path
Supports the same features and functionality as IPv4 BGP
Multiple addresses families: IPv4, IPv6, unicast, multicast
BGP stands for Border Gateway Protocol. It is the only open standard
Exterior Gateway Protocol available. BGP is a Distance Vector protocol
which takes Autonomous System as calculation metric, instead of the
number of routers as Hop. BGPv4 is an upgrade of BGP to support IPv6
routing.
Protocols Changed to Support IPv6: ICMPv6,DHCPv6,DNS

47.OSPF 3 VS OSPF 2

48.The routing traffic from one VLAN to another VLAN is called

InterVLAN routing. Interconnection of vlans.

49.
The following types of IPv4 and IPv6 static routes will be discussed:
Standard static route
Both IPv4 and IPv6 support the configuration of static routes. Static routes are useful
when connecting to a specific remote network.
Default static route
A default static route is a route that matches all packets. A default route identifies the
gateway IP address to which the router sends all IP packets that it does not have a
learned or static route for. A default static route is simply a static route with 0.0.0.0/0 as
the destination IPv4 address. Configuring a default static route creates a Gateway of
Last Resort.
Summary static route
To reduce the number of routing table entries, multiple static routes can be summarized
into a single summary static route if:

The destination networks are contiguous and can be summarized into a single
network address.

The multiple static routes all use the same exit interface or next-hop IP address.
Floating static route
Another type of static route is a floating static route. Floating static routes are static
routes that are used to provide a backup path to a primary static or dynamic route, in
the event of a link failure. The floating static route is only used when the primary route is
not available.
To accomplish this, the floating static route is configured with a higher administrative
distance than the primary route. Recall that the administrative distance represents the
trustworthiness of a route. If multiple paths to the destination exist, the router will
choose the path with the lowest administrative distance.

50.A public IP address is the address that is assigned to a computing

device to allow direct access over the Internet. A web server, email
server and any server device directly accessible from the Internet are
candidate for a public IP address. A public IP address is globally
unique, and can only be assigned to an unique device
A private IP address is the address space allocated by InterNIC to allow
organizations to create their own private network. There are three IP blocks (1
class A, 1 class B and 1 class C) reserved for a private use. The computers,
tablets and smartphones sitting behind your home, and the personal computers
within an organizations are usually assigned private IP addresses. A network

printer residing in your home is assigned a private address so that only your
family can print to your local printer.
When a computer is assigned a private IP address, the local devices sees this
computer via it's private IP address. However, the devices residing outside of
your local network cannot directly communicate via the private IP address, but
uses your router's public IP address to communicate. To allow direct access to a
local device which is assigned a private IP address, a Network Address

Translator (NAT) should be used.

Addresses Range:
51. Cold Start
All routing protocols follow the same patterns of operation. When a router powers
up, it knows nothing about the network topology. It does not even know that there
are devices on the other end of its links. The only information that a router has is
from its own saved configuration file stored in NVRAM.
After a router boots successfully, it applies the saved configuration. If the IP
addressing is configured correctly, then the router initially discovers its own
directly connected networks.
It called Cold Start
52.
RIPv1 is a distance vector routing protocol. It uses local broadcasts IP address 255.255.255.255
to share routing information. These updates are periodic in nature, occurring by default and sent
after every 30 seconds. To prevent packets from circulating around in a loop forever, RIP places
a hop count limit on packets of 15 hops.
RIPv2 is a hybrid routing protocol with routing enhancements built into it. It uses multicasts IP
address 224.0.0.9 instead of broadcasts for sending updates of routing information. RIPv2
supports triggered updates. When a change occurs in network, RIPv2 router immediately

propagates its routing information to its connected neighbours. RIPv2 is a classless protocol and
it supports classful and variable-length subnet masking (VLSM). RIPv2 supports authentication
of RIPv2 update messages (MD5 or plain-text). Authentication helps in confirming that the
updates are coming from authorized sources.
RIPng is a distance vector protocol and works basically the same way as RIP but has some
differences from RIP to support IPv6 address format.
RIPng sends an update to its connected routers after every 30 seconds. It sends updates to the
IPv6 multicast group FF02::9 using port 521 by default.

53.
. OSPF
V detalyah obyasnyaetsya tut: https://www.youtube.com/watch?
v=_Iktarf8RXM
ili tut: http://optlabserver.sce.carleton.ca/POAnimations2007/DijkstrasAlgo.html
54.OSPF sends packets to neighbors to establish and maintain
adjacencies, send and receive requests, ensure reliable delivery of
Link-state advertisements (LSAs) between neighbors, and to describe
link-state databases. Link-state databases are generated from all the
LSAs that an area router sends and receives. The link-state database is
then used to calculate the shortest-path spanning tree, using the
Shortest Path First (SPF) algorithm
Hello
Hello messages are used as a form of greeting, to allow a router to discover other
adjacent routers on its local links and networks. The messages establish
relationships between neighboring devices (called adjacencies) and
communicate key parameters about how OSPF is to be used in the autonomous
system or area.
Database Description
Database Description messages contain descriptions of the topology of the
autonomous system or area. They convey the contents of the link-state database
(LSDB) for the area from one router to another. Communicating a large LSDB
may require several messages to be sent by having the sending device
designated as a master device and sending messages in sequence, with the
slave (recipient of the LSDB information) responding with acknowledgements.
Link State Request
These messages are used by one router to request updated information about a
portion of the LSDB from another router. The message specifies exactly which
link(s) about which the requesting device wants more current information.
Link State Update

These messages contain updated information about the state of certain links on
the LSDB. They are sent in response to a Link State Request message, and also
broadcast or multicast by routers on a regular basis. Their contents are used to
update the information in the LSDBs of routers that receive them.
Link State Acknowledgment
These messages provide reliability to the link-state exchange process, by
explicitly acknowledging receipt of a Link State Update message.
56.There are three tables in OSPF
1.
OSPF Neighbor table
Neighbor table contains the information of all connected OSPF routers. In OSPF
neighbor table OSPF have the information of neighbor status, IP address,
timers, interfaces DR\BDR status, router-ID of connected OSPF router etc.
router#show ip ospf 1 neighbor
2.
OSPF Topology table
In OSPF process each router have full road map of its entire area and this the
one of difference between link state routing protocols and distance vector
routing protocols that in Link state every router have complete understanding
of their entire area. All such information in OSPF is stored in OSPF topology
table. The difference between OSPF and EIGRP topology table is that EIGRP
only know about it connected neighbor where as OSPF has full road map of
entire area.
router#show ip OSPf 1 database
3.
OSPF Routing table
Routing table has best routes for reaching different networks. OSPF use the SPF
for calculation of best path in OSPF process. You can check the routing on a
CISCO router by following commands:
Router#show ip route
Router#show ip route ospf
Router#show ip route ospf 1
57-58
Route Types
In the Cisco CCNA you will need to be able to identify the following types of
routes in the routing table:
Level 1 route - is a network route, a default route, or a supernet route. It is also
called an ultimate route.
Level 2 route - is a subnetted route with a greater than classful subnet mask, it
is also a called a child route.
Parent route - is a classful route, but it is not an ulltimate route. A parent route
has subnetted child routes. If there are no child routes there is no parent route.
Parent routes do not have an exit interface or next hop IP address. A parent route
is also called a level 1 route.

 Child route - A child route is a subnetted route, where the subnet mask is
greater than the classful subnet mask (eg. /27 versus /24). A child route is a level
2 route.
Ultimate route - an ultimate route is a route that has an exit interface or a next
hop IP address.
Default Route - also known as a "gateway of last resort," is a route configured
to the 0.0.0.0 /0 network and mask. This route does not have to qualify or "match"
the destination network therefore it is a match for all destinations.
Network Route - is a level one, ultimate route with an exit interface.

61. Show example of using static NAT, provide configurations of example.

NAT is a process used to translate network addresses.
NATs primary use is to conserve public IPv4 addresses.
NAT is usually implemented at border network devices, such as firewalls or
routers.
NAT allows the networks to use private addresses internally, only translating
to public addresses when needed.
Devices within the organization can be assigned private addresses and
operate with locally unique addresses.
When traffic must be sent or received to or from other organizations or the
Internet, the border router translates the addresses to a public and globally
unique address.

Benefits of NAT
Conserves the legally registered addressing scheme
Increases the flexibility of connections to the public network
Provides consistency for internal network addressing schemes
Provides network security
Disadvantages of NAT
Performance is degraded
End-to-end functionality is degraded
End-to-end IP traceability is lost
Tunneling is more complicated
Initiating TCP connections can be disrupted
Comparing NAT and PAT
NAT translates IPv4 addresses on a 1:1 basis between private IPv4 addresses
and public IPv4 addresses.
PAT modifies both the address and the port number.
NAT forwards incoming packets to their inside destination by referring to the
incoming source IPv4 address provided by the host on the public network.
With PAT, there is generally only one or a very few publicly exposed IPv4
addresses.
PAT is able to translate protocols that do not use port numbers, such as ICMP;
each one of these protocols is supported differently by PAT.
NAT Terminology

Inside network is the set of devices using private addresses

Outside network refers to all other networks
NAT includes four types of addresses:

Inside local address

Inside global address
Outside local address
Outside global address

Static NAT uses a one-to-one mapping of local and global addresses.

These mappings are configured by the network administrator and remain
constant.
Static NAT is particularly useful when servers hosted in the inside network
must be accessible from the outside network.
A network administrator can SSH to a server in the inside network by pointing
the SSH client to the proper inside global address.

Configuring Static NAT

There are two basic tasks to perform when configuring static NAT translations:
Create the mapping between the inside local and outside local addresses.

Define which interfaces belong to the inside network and which belong to the
outside network.

62. Show example of using PAT, provide configurations of example.

Configuring PAT: Address Pool

Configuring PAT: Single Address

Analyzing PAT

63. Show example of using dynamic NAT, provide configurations of

example.
Dynamic NAT
Dynamic NAT uses a pool of public addresses and assigns them on a firstcome, first-served basis.
When an inside device requests access to an outside network, dynamic NAT
assigns an available public IPv4 address from the pool.
Dynamic NAT requires that enough public addresses are available to satisfy
the total number of simultaneous user sessions.
Configuring Dynamic NAT

Analyzing Dynamic NAT

64. Describe differences between routing lookup for standart static

routing and recursive
static routing.
https://static-course-assets.s3.amazonaws.com/RSE503/en/index.html#6.1

65. Explain in details how OSPF neighbor adjecencies established.

Link-State Operation

If a neighbor is present, the OSPF-enabled router attempts to establish a neighbor

adjacency with that neighbor

LSAs contain the state and cost of each directly connected link.

Routers flood their LSAs to adjacent neighbors.

Adjacent neighbors receiving the LSA immediately flood the LSA to other directly
connected neighbors, until all routers in the area have all LSAs.

Build the topology table based on the received LSAs.

This database eventually holds all the information about the topology of the
network.
Execute the SPF Algorithm.

From the SPF tree, the best paths are inserted into the routing table.
OSPF Type 1 packet = Hello packet:
Discover OSPF neighbors and establish neighbor adjacencies.
Advertise parameters on which two routers must agree to become neighbors.
Elect the Designated Router (DR) and Backup Designated Router (BDR) on
multiaccess networks like Ethernet and Frame Relay.
Establish Neighbor Adjacencies

DR and BDR election only occurs on multi-access networks such as

Ethernet LANs.
OSPF DR and BDR

Synchronizing OSPF Database

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66. Describe how routers can be configured (provide all variants) with
routerid
in OSPF process.

Each OSPF router selects a router ID (RID) that has to be unique on your network. OSPF stores
the topology of the network in its LSDB (Link State Database) and each router is identified with
its unique router ID , if you have duplicate router IDs then you will run into reachability issues.
Because of this, two OSPF routers with the same router ID will not become neighbors but you
could still have duplicated router IDs in the network with routers that are not directly connected
to each other.
OSPF uses the following criteria to select the router ID:
1.Manual configuration of the router ID.
2.Highest IP address on a loopback interface.
3.Highest IP address on a non-loopback interface.
Lets start an OSPF process:
R1(config)#router ospf 1
R1(config-router)#exit
Now we can check what router ID it selected:
R1#show ip protocols | include Router ID
Router ID 11.11.11.11
It selected 11.11.11.11 which is the highest IP address on our loopback interfaces. Lets get rid of
the loopbacks now:
R1(config)#no interface loopback 0
R1(config)#no interface loopback 1
Take a look again at the router ID:
R1#show ip protocols | include Router ID
Router ID 11.11.11.11
Its still the same, this is because the router ID selection is only done once. You have to reset the
OSPF process before it will select another one:
R1#clear ip ospf process
Reset ALL OSPF processes? [no]: yes
Lets see if this makes any difference:
R1#show ip protocols | include Router ID
Router ID 192.168.11.1
67. Explain extended ACL logic, show example

Packet Filtering
Packet filtering, sometimes called static packet filtering, controls access to a
network by analyzing the incoming and outgoing packets and passing or
dropping them based on given criteria, such as the source IP address,
destination IP addresses, and the protocol carried within the packet.
A router acts as a packet filter when it forwards or denies packets according
to filtering rules.
An ACL is a sequential list of permit or deny statements, known as access
control entries (ACEs).

Extended ACLs can filter on:

Source address
Destination address
Protocol type (example: IP, ICP, UDP, TCP, etc.)
Port numbers
Locate extended ACLs as close as possible to the source of the traffic to be filtered.
An extended ACL can be edited using:
Method 1 - Text editor
Method 2 Sequence numbers
The access-list global configuration command defines an extended ACL with numbers in the
range of 100 to 199 and 2000 to 2699. The ip access-list extended name is for an extended
access list.
68. Describe in details switchpor security with example.

Port security limits the number of valid MAC addresses allowed on a port. Secure MAC
addresses can be configured in a number of ways:
*Static secure MAC addresses
*Dynamic secure MAC addresses
*Sticky secure MAC addresses
Configuring Dynamic Port Security

Verifying Port Security Sticky

RS2 Chapter 2 https://static-courseassets.s3.amazonaws.com/RSE503/en/index.html#2.1

69. Describe TCPs three way handshake and four way termination.
Three-Way Handshake
Establishes that the destination device is present on the network
Verifies that the destination device has an active service and is accepting
requests on the destination port number that the initiating client intends to
use for the session
Informs the destination device that the source client intends to establish a
communication session on that port number
TCP Three-Way Handshake Step 1
Step 1: The initiating client requests a client-to-server communication session with
the server

Step 2: The server acknowledges the client-to-server communication session and

requests a server-to-client communication session.

Step 3: The initiating client acknowledges the server-to-client communication

session.

TCP Session Termination

RS1 Chapter 7
70. Explain Flow Control mechanism of OSI Transport layer.

Flow control is a function for the control of the data flow within an OSI layer or between
adjacent layers. In other words it limits the amount of data transmitted by the sending transport
entity to a level, or rate, that the receiver can manage.
Flow control is a good example of a protocol function that must be implemented in several layers
of the OSI architecture model. At the transport level flow control will allow the transport
protocol entity in a host to restrict the flow of data over a logical connection from the transport
protocol entity in another host. However, one of the services of the network level is to prevent
congestion. Thus the network level also uses flow control to restrict the flow of network protocol
data units (NPDUs).
The flow control mechanisms used in the transport layer vary for the different classes of service.
Since the different classes of service are determined by the quality of service of the underlying

data network which transports the transport protocol data units (TPDUs), it is these which
influence the type of flow control used.
Thus flow control becomes a much more complex issue at the transport layer than at lower levels
like the datalink level.
Two reasons for this are:
Flow control must interact with transport users, transport entities, and the network service.
Long and variable transmission delays between transport entities
TCP Flow Control Congestion Avoidance

71. Describe OSI Application layer protocols in details.

The application layer is the seventh layer of the OSI model and the only one that directly
interacts with the end user. The application layer provides many services, including: Simple
Mail Transfer Protocol; File transfer; Web surfing; Web chat; Email clients; Network data
sharing; Virtual terminals; Various file and data operations
The application layer provides full end-user access to a variety of shared network services for
efficient OSI model data flow. This layer has many responsibilities, including error handling and
recovery, data flow over a network and full network flow. It is also used to develop networkbased applications. Makes sure that the other party is identified and can be reached; If
appropriate, authenticates either the message sender or receiver or both; Makes sure that
necessary communication resources exist (for example, is there a modem in the sender's
computer?); Ensures agreement at both ends about error recovery procedures, data integrity, and
privacy; Determines protocol and data syntax rules at the application level; It may be convenient
to think of the application layer as the high-level set-up services for the application program or
an interactive user. More than 15 protocols are used in the application layer, including File
Transfer Protocol, Telnet, Trivial File Transfer Protocol and Simple Network Management
Protocol.

72.Explain what is Bandwidth, Goodput and Throughput

73. Describe ARP protocol.

Address Resolution Protocol (ARP) is a protocol for mapping an Internet Protocol address (IP
address) to a physical machine address that is recognized in the local network. For example, in
IP Version 4, the most common level of IP in use today, an address is 32 bits long. In
an Ethernet local area network, however, addresses for attached devices are 48 bits long. (The
physical machine address is also known as a Media Access Control or MAC address.) A table,
usually called the ARP cache, is used to maintain a correlation between each MAC address and
its corresponding IP address. ARP provides the protocol rules for making this correlation and
providing address conversion in both directions.
How ARP Works
When an incoming packet destined for a host machine on a particular local area network arrives
at a gateway, the gateway asks the ARP program to find a physical host or MAC address that
matches the IP address. The ARP program looks in the ARP cache and, if it finds the address,
provides it so that the packet can be converted to the right packet length and format and sent to
the machine. If no entry is found for the IP address, ARP broadcasts a request packet in a
special format to all the machines on the LAN to see if one machine knows that it has that IP
address associated with it. A machine that recognizes the IP address as its own returns a reply
so indicating. ARP updates the ARP cache for future reference and then sends the packet to the
MAC address that replied.
ARP Purpose

Sending node needs a way to find the MAC address of the destination for a
given Ethernet link

The ARP protocol provides two basic functions:

Resolving IPv4 addresses to MAC addresses

Maintaining a table of mappings

ARP Functions/Operation

ARP Table

Used to find the data link layer address that is mapped to the destination IPv4 address.

As a node receives frames from the media, it records the source IP and MAC address as a
mapping in the ARP table.

ARP Request

Layer 2 broadcast to all devices on the Ethernet LAN.

The node that matches the IP address in the broadcast will reply.

If no device responds to the ARP request, the packet is dropped because a frame cannot
be created.

Note: Static map entries can be entered in an ARP table, but this is rarely done.

ARP Role in Remote Communication

If the destination IPv4 host is on the local network, the frame will use the MAC address
of this device as the destination MAC address.

If the destination IPv4 host is not on the local network, the source uses the ARP process
to determine a MAC address for the router interface serving as the gateway.

In the event that the gateway entry is not in the table, an ARP request is used to retrieve
the MAC address associated with the IP address of the router interface.

Removing Entries from an ARP Table

The ARP cache timer removes ARP entries that have not been used for a specified period
of time.

Commands may also be used to manually remove all or some of the entries in the ARP
table.

ARP Tables on Networking Devices

How ARP Can Create Problems

Mitigating ARP Problems

http://static-course-assets.s3.amazonaws.com/IntroNet50ENU/module5/index.html#5.2.1.1

74. Describe Ethernet in details.

Ethernet
One of the most widely used LAN technologies
Operates in the data link layer and the physical layer
Family of networking technologies that are defined in the IEEE 802.2
and 802.3 standards
Supports data bandwidths of 10, 100, 1000, 10,000, 40,000, and
100,000 Mbps (100 Gbps)
Ethernet Standards
Define Layer 2 protocols and Layer 1 technologies
Two separate sub layers of the data link layer to operate Logical link
control (LLC) and the MAC sublayers

LLC and MAC Sublayers

LLC
Handles communication between upper and lower layers.
Takes the network protocol data and adds control information to help deliver
the packet to the destination.
MAC
Constitutes the lower sublayer of the data link layer.
Implemented by hardware, typically in the computer NIC.
Two primary responsibilities:
Data encapsulation
Media access control
MAC Sublayer

Data encapsulation
Frame assembly before transmission and frame disassembly upon reception
of a frame.
MAC layer adds a header and trailer to the network layer PDU.
Provides three primary functions:
Frame delimiting Identifies a group of bits that make up a frame,
synchronization between the transmitting and receiving nodes.
Addressing Each Ethernet header added in the frame contains the physical
address (MAC address) that enables a frame to be delivered to a destination
node.
Error detection Each Ethernet frame contains a trailer with a cyclic
redundancy check (CRC) of the frame contents.
MAC
Responsible for the placement of frames on the media and the removal of
frames from the media
Communicates directly with the physical layer
If multiple devices on a single medium attempt to forward data
simultaneously, the data will collide resulting in corrupted, unusable data
Ethernet provides a method for controlling how the nodes share access
through the use a Carrier Sense Multiple Access (CSMA) technology
Media Access Control
Carrier Sense Multiple Access (CSMA) process
Used to first detect if the media is carrying a signal
If no carrier signal is detected, the device transmits its data
If two devices transmit at the same time - data collision

CSMA/Collision Avoidance (CSMA/CA) media access method

Device examines the media for the presence of data signal - if the media is
free, the device sends a notification across the media of its intent to use it
The device then sends the data.
Used by 802.11 wireless networking technologies
Ethernet Encapsulation
Early versions of Ethernet were slow at 10 Mb/s.
Now operate at 10 Gb/s per second and faster.
Ethernet frame structure adds headers and trailers around the Layer 3 PDU to
encapsulate the message being sent.
Ethernet II is the Ethernet frame format used in TCP/IP networks.

Ethernet Frame Size

Ethernet II and IEEE 802.3 standards define the minimum frame size as 64
bytes and the maximum as 1518 bytes
Less than 64 bytes in length is considered a "collision fragment" or "runt
frame
If size of a transmitted frame is less than the minimum or greater than the
maximum, the receiving device drops the frame

At the physical layer, different versions of Ethernet vary in their method for
detecting and placing data on the media

The figure displays the fields contained in the 802.1Q VLAN tag
Introduction to the Ethernet Frame

Preamble and Start Frame Delimiter Fields

Used for synchronization between the sending and receiving devices.
Length/Type Field
Defines the exact length of the frame's data field; describes which protocol is
implemented.
Data and Pad Fields
Contains the encapsulated data from a higher layer, an IPv4 packet.
Frame Check Sequence Field
Used to detect errors in a frame with cyclic redundancy check (4 bytes); if
calculations match at source and receiver, no error occurred.
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75. What is CIDR and VLSM? Describe in details.
CIDR replaced the classful network assignments and address classes (A, B, and C)
became obsolete. Using CIDR, the network address is no longer determined by the
value of the first octet. Instead, the network portion of the address is determined by

the subnet mask, also known as the network prefix, or prefix length (i.e., /8, /19,
etc.).
CIDR is just a notation or reptesentation of subnet mask in decimal number.
Example: CIDR value for 255.255.255.0 is /24"

Classless Inter-Domain Routing

CIDR and Route Summarization

Static Routing CIDR Example

With VLSM the subnet mask length varies depending on how many bits have been
borrowed for a particular subnet, thus the variable part of variable-length subnet
mask. As shown in Figure 2, VLSM allows a network space to be divided into unequal
parts.
VLSM subnetting is similar to traditional subnetting in that bits are borrowed to
create subnets. The formulas to calculate the number of hosts per subnet and the
number of subnets created still apply. The difference is that subnetting is not a
single pass activity. With VLSM, the network is first subnetted, and then the subnets
are subnetted again. This process can be repeated multiple times to create subnets
of various sizes.

VLSM allows the use of different masks for each subnet:

After a network address is subnetted, those subnets can be further subnetted.

VLSM is simply subnetting a subnet. VLSM can be thought of as sub-subnetting.

Individual host addresses are assigned from the addresses of "sub-subnets".

76. Describe Private and Public IPv4 addresses in details, what

mechanism is used to bound them?

public IP address are unique. Public IP addresses that are publicly accessible from the Internet.
Most of the address in the IP address range are public IP addresses. A host using a public IP
address can be accessed by any other host in the internet.
private IPv4 address space is not big enough to uniquely address all the devices that must be
connected to the Internet. Network private addresses are described in RFC 1918 and are to
designed to be used within an organization or site only. Private addresses are not routed by
Internet routers while public addresses are.
10.0.0.0 - 10.255.255.255 pref 8
172.16.0.0 - 172.31.255.255 pref 12
192.168.0.0 - 192.168.255.255 pref 16
NAT is mechanism that bounds private and public adresses. NAT allows the networks to use
private addresses internally, onlytranslating to public addresses when needed.
77. Describe Static route in details with Summary route and float
static routing.
Static routing provides some advantages over dynamic routing, including:
Static routes are not advertised over the network, resulting in better security. Static routes use
less bandwidth than dynamic routing protocols, no CPU cycles are used to calculate and
communicate routes. The path a static route uses to send data is known.
Static routing has the following disadvantages: Initial configuration and maintenance is timeconsuming. Configuration is error-prone, especially in large networks. Administrator
intervention is required to maintain changing route information.Does not scale well with growing
networks; maintenance becomes cumbersome.Requires complete knowledge of the whole
network for proper implementation.
Static routing has three primary uses: Providing ease of routing table maintenance in smaller
networks that are not expected to grow significantly. Routing to and from stub networks. A stub
network is a network accessed by a single route, and the router has no other neighbors. Using a
single default route to represent a path to any network that does not have a more specific match
with another route in the routing table. Default routes are used to send traffic to any destination
beyond the next upstream router.
Floating static routes are static routes that are used to provide a backup path to a primary static or
dynamic route, in the event of a link failure. The floating static route is only used when the
primary route is not available. To accomplishthis, the floating static route is configured with a
higher administrative distance than the primaryroute.
https://static-course-assets.s3.amazonaws.com/RSE503/en/index.html#6.1.1
78. Describe Dynamic routing protocols classification in details.
Dynamic Routing

Dynamic routing performs the same function as static routing except it is more robust. Static
routing allows routing tables in specific routers to be set up in a static manner so network routes
for packets are set. If a router on the route goes down the destination may become unreachable.
Dynamic routing allows routing tables in routers to change as the possible routes change. There
are several protocols used to support dynamic routing including RIP and OSPF.
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79. Describe VLAN in details including port roles.
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80. Write configurations of new router with as following:
a. change routers name to R1
b. configure ip address 144.11.12.156/27 on GigabitEthernet0/0 and turn
interface on
c. configure encrypted password for Priveleged executive mode as
SuperDuperPassword
d. write command that will show all interfaces configuration in brief

e. copy configurations to nvram

A.
router>enable
router# configure terminal
router(config)#hostname R1
B.
R1(config)# interface g0/0
R1(config)# ip address 144.11.12.156 255.255.255.224
R1(config)# no shutdown
C.
R1(config)# enable secret SuperDuperPassword
R1(config)#

D.
R1#show ip interface brief
E.
R1#copy running-config startup-config

81 Configure new router with SSH configurations, that will use interface
GigabitEthernet0/0 with ip address 123.123.123.123/23 and domain name
sdu.edu.kz

Enable SSH

On router:
#enable
#line console 0
#password cisco
#login
#line vty 0 15
#Password cisco
#login
#service password-encryption
#int g0/0
#ip address 123.123.123.123 255.255.254.0
#no sh
#exit
#ip domain-name sdu.edu.kz
#crypto key generate rsa
#1024
#username admin secret cisco
#line vty 0 4
#transport input telnet ssh
#login local
#end
On Pc:
PC>ssh l admin 123.123.123.123
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=sOHNje1Xd-M
82 Describe Hierarchy in the Borderless Switched Network in details.

Hierarchy in the Borderless Switched Network

Creating a borderless switched network requires that sound network design principles
are used to ensure maximum availability, flexibility, security, and manageability. The
borderless switched network must deliver on current requirements and future required

services and technologies. Borderless switched network design guidelines are built upon
the following principles:

Hierarchical: Facilitates understanding the role of each device at every tier,

simplifies deployment, operation, and management, and reduces fault domains
at every tier

Modularity: Allows seamless network expansion and integrated service

enablement on an on-demand basis

Resiliency: Satisfies user expectations for keeping the network always on

Flexibility: Allows intelligent traffic load sharing by using all network resources

These are not independent principles. Understanding how each principle fits in the
context of the others is critical. Designing a borderless switched network in a hierarchical
fashion creates a foundation that allows network designers to overlay security, mobility,
and unified communication features.
Each layer can be seen as a well-defined, structured module with specific roles and
functions in the campus network.

83 Describe Access, Distribution, and Core Layers switches roles.

Hierarchical Network Design

This model divides the network functionality into three distinct layers.

The access layer represents the network edge, where traffic enters or exits the campus
network. Traditionally, the primary function of an access layer switch is to provide
network access to the user. Access layer switches connect to distribution layer switches,
which implement network foundation technologies such as routing, quality of service,
and security.
The distribution layer interfaces between the access layer and the core layer to provide
many important functions, including:

Aggregating large-scale wiring closet networks

Aggregating Layer 2 broadcast domains and Layer 3 routing boundaries
Providing intelligent switching, routing, and network access policy functions to
access the rest of the network
Providing high availability through redundant distribution layer switches to the
end-user and equal cost paths to the core

The core layer is the network backbone. It connects several layers of the campus
network. The core layer serves as the aggregator for all of the other campus blocks and
ties the campus together with the rest of the network. The primary purpose of the core
layer is to provide fault isolation and high-speed backbone connectivity.
84 Describe in details spanning tree port roles and how they are selected.

Redundancy increases the availability of the network topology by protecting the network
from a single point of failure, such as a failed network cable or switch. When physical
redundancy is introduced into a design, loops and duplicate frames occur. Loops and
duplicate frames have severe consequences for a switched network. The Spanning Tree
Protocol (STP) was developed to address these issues.

STP Operation
Spanning Tree Algorithm: Root Bridge

Root - A forwarding port that is the best port from non-root bridge to root
bridge

Designated - A forwarding port for every LAN segment

Alternate - An alternate path to the root bridge. This path is different from
using the root port

Backup - A backup/redundant path to a segment where another bridge port

already connects

Disabled - Not strictly part of STP, a network administrator can manually

disable a port

85 Explain how spanning tree algorithm works.

Select a root bridge. The root bridge of the spanning tree is the bridge
with the smallest (lowest) bridge ID. Each bridge has a configurable priority
number and a MAC address; the bridge ID is the concatenation of the bridge
priority and the MAC address (E.g., the ID of a bridge with priority 32768 and
mac 0200.0000.1111 is 32768.0200.0000.1111). The bridge priority default is
32768 and can only be configured in multiples of 4096. When comparing two
bridge IDs, the priority portions are compared first and the MAC addresses
are compared only if the priorities are equal.
Determine the least cost paths to the root bridge. After the root bridge
has been chosen, each bridge determines the cost of each possible path
from itself to the root. The calculation is done by comparing the 'root path
cost' of the BPDUs that each bridge gets on each of its ports. The root
bridge sends BPDUs with path cost equal to zero, and once a non-root
bridge gets a BPDU it increments the path cost by adding the cost of the
incoming link and propagate it on the network. The port that gets the BPDU
with the smallest path cost (e.g., connecting the switch to the least-cost
path) then becomes the root port (RP) of the bridge
Disable all other root paths. Any active port that is not a root port or a
designated port is a blocked port (BP).
Modifications in case of ties. The above rules over-simplify the situation
slightly, because it is possible that there are ties, for example, the root bridge
may have two or more ports on the same LAN segment, two or more ports
on a single bridge are attached to least-cost paths to the root or two or more

bridges on the same network segment have equal least-cost paths to the
root.

86 Explain in details what is PVST, provide example.

PVST+ - This is a Cisco enhancement of STP that provides a separate 802.1D
spanning tree instance for each VLAN configured in the network. The speed of
convergence is similar to the original STP. Creating an instance for each VLAN
increases the CPU and memory requirements, but allows for per-VLAN root bridges. The
separate instance supports PortFast, UplinkFast, BackboneFast, BPDU guard,
BPDU filter, root guard, and loop guard.

PortFast causes a port to enter the forwarding state almost immediately by

dramatically decreasing the time of the listening and learning states. PortFast
minimizes the time it takes for the server or workstation to come online.
The STP PortFast BPDU guard enhancement allows network designers to
enforce the STP domain borders and keep the active topology predictable.
87 Explain function of HSRP, provide example.

The ability of a network to dynamically recover from the failure of a device acting as a
default gateway is known as first-hop redundancy.

Hot Standby Routing Protocol (HSRP) is a Cisco proprietary redundancy

protocol for establishing a fault-tolerant default gateway

88 Show configurations of HSRP protocol.

Router1>enable
#conf t
#Int g0/0
#standby 1 ip 10.1.1.10
#standby track 1 decrement 20
#standby 1 priority 110
Router2>enable
#conf t
#Int g0/0
#standby 1 ip 10.1.1.10
#standby track 1 decrement 20

#standby 1 priority 100

Resources
https://www.google.kz/webhp?sourceid=chromeinstant&ion=1&espv=2&ie=UTF-8#q=hsrp%20configuration
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=BdctfuQ-Ri0

89 Explain PAgP, LACP in details, provide example.

EtherChannels can be formed through negotiation using one of two protocols, PAgP or
LACP.
When enabled, PAgP also manages the EtherChannel. PAgP packets are sent every 30
seconds. PAgP checks for configuration consistency and manages link additions and
failures between two switches. It ensures that when an EtherChannel is created, all ports
have the same type of configuration.

LACP is part of an IEEE specification (802.3ad) that allows several physical ports to be
bundled to form a single logical channel.
LACP allows a switch to negotiate an automatic bundle by sending LACP packets to the
peer. It performs a function similar to PAgP with Cisco EtherChannel. Because LACP is
an IEEE standard, it can be used to facilitate EtherChannels in multivendor
environments.
LACP was originally defined as IEEE 802.3ad. However, LACP is now defined in the
newer IEEE 802.1AX standard for local and metropolitan area networks.
LACP provides the same negotiation benefits as PAgP. LACP helps create the
EtherChannel link by detecting the configuration of each side and making sure that they
are compatible so that the EtherChannel link can be enabled when needed. The figure
shows the modes for LACP.

90 Show configurations of PAgP protocol.

SW1#config t
SW1(config)#interface range f0/1 - 2
SW1(config-if)#channel-group 5 mode desirable
SW1(config-if)#channel-protocol pagp

SW1(config-if)#end

SW2#config t
SW2(config)#interface range f0/1 - 2
SW2(config-if)#channel-group 5 mode desirable
SW2(config-if)#channel-protocol pagp
SW2(config-if)#end

SW1#show etherchannel summary

Resources

http://www.omnisecu.com/cisco-certified-network-associate-ccna/how-toconfigure-etherchannel-port-aggregation-protocol-pagp-in-cisco-switch.php
https://www.freeccnaworkbook.com/workbooks/ccna/configuring-etherchannelutilizing-pagp
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=eB8tLp6hLcY
91 Multi-area OSPF in details.
When a large OSPF area is divided into smaller areas, this is called multiarea OSPF.
Multiarea OSPF is useful in larger network deployments to reduce processing and
memory overhead.
Multiarea OSPF requires a hierarchical network design. The main area is called the
backbone area (area 0) and all other areas must connect to the backbone area. With
hierarchical routing, routing still occurs between the areas (interarea routing); while many
of the tedious routing operations, such as recalculating the database, are kept within an
area.

Resources
https://static-course-assets.s3.amazonaws.com/ScaN503/en/index.html#6.1.1.2

92 Write configurations of OSPF security with MD5.

Donna(config)#interface fastEthernet 0/0

Donna(config-if)#ip ospf message-digest-key 1 md5 MYPASS
Donna(config-if)#ip ospf authentication message-digest

Mary(config)#interface fastEthernet 0/0

Mary(config-if)#ip ospf message-digest-key 1 md5 MYPASS

Mary(config-if)#ip ospf authentication message-digest

Donna(config)#router ospf 1
(config-router)#area 0 authentication message-digest
https://networklessons.com/ospf/how-to-configure-ospf-md5-authentication/

93 Describe EIGRP protocol in details.

Enhanced Interior Gateway Routing Protocol (EIGRP) is an advanced distance

vector routing protocol developed by Cisco Systems.
EIGRP includes features of both link-state and distance vector routing protocols.
However, EIGRP is still based on the key distance vector routing protocol
principle, in which information about the rest of the network is learned from
directly connected neighbors.
Unlike RIP, EIGRP does not send periodic updates and route entries do not age
out.
The term bounded refers to the propagation of partial updates that are sent only
to those routers that the changes affect. This minimizes the bandwidth that is
required to send EIGRP updates.
EIGRP uses Reliable Transport Protocol (RTP) for the delivery and reception of
EIGRP packets.

94 EIGRP metric calculation, provide example

By default, EIGRP uses the following values in its composite metric to calculate
the preferred path to a network:

Bandwidth - The slowest bandwidth among all of the outgoing

interfaces, along the path from source to destination.

Delay - The cumulative (sum) of all interface delay along the path (in
tens of microseconds).

The following values can be used, but are not recommended, because they
typically result in frequent recalculation of the topology table:

Reliability - Represents the worst reliability between the source and

destination, which is based on keepalives.

Load - Represents the worst load on a link between the source and
destination, which is computed based on the packet rate and the
configured bandwidth of the interface.

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95 EIGRP DUAL Concept in details with example.

EIGRP uses the Diffusing Update Algorithm (DUAL) to provide the best loop-free path and
loop-free backup paths.

DUAL uses several terms, which are discussed in more detail throughout this section:

Successor

Feasible Distance (FD)

Feasible Successor (FS)

Reported Distance (RD) or Advertised Distance (AD)

Feasible Condition or Feasibility Condition (FC)

EIGRP uses convergence algorithm DUAL. Convergence is critical to a network

to avoid routing loops.
The DUAL algorithm is used to obtain loop-freedom at every instance throughout
a route computation. This allows all routers involved in a topology
change to synchronize at the same time. Routers that are not affected by the
topology changes are not involved in the recomputation. This method provides
EIGRP with faster convergence times than other distance vector routing
protocols.

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96 Describe Cisco Enterprise Architecture.

The Cisco Enterprise Architecture divides the network into functional components while
still maintaining the core, distribution, and access layers. As the figure shows, the primary
Cisco Enterprise Architecture modules include:

Enterprise Campus
Enterprise Edge
Service Provider Edge
Remote

Enterprise Campus
The Enterprise Campus consists of the entire campus infrastructure, to include the access,
distribution, and core layers. The access layer module contains Layer 2 or Layer 3 switches to
provide the required port density.
Enterprise Edge
The Enterprise Edge consists of the Internet, VPN, and WAN modules connecting the enterprise
with the service provider's network.
Service Provider Edge
The Service Provider Edge provides Internet, Public Switched Telephone Network (PSTN), and
WAN services.

97 What is Frame Relay, how it works?

Frame Relay is a high-performance WAN protocol that operates at the physical
and data link layers of the OSI reference model. Unlike leased lines, Frame
Relay requires only a single access circuit to the Frame Relay provider to
communicate to the same with other sites connected provider. The capacity
between any two sites can vary.
Frame Relay sends information in packets called frames through a shared
Frame-Relay network. Each frame contains all the information necessary to route
it to the correct destination. So in effect, each endpoint can communicate with
many destinations over one access link to the network. And instead of being
allocated a fixed amount of bandwidth, Frame-Relay services offer a CIR
(committed information rate) at which data is transmitted. But if traffic and your
service agreement allow, data can burst above your committed rate.

98 What is PPP, how it works?

PPP - Provides router-to-router and host-to-network connections over
synchronous and asynchronous circuits. PPP works with several network layer
protocols, such as IPv4 and IPv6. PPP uses the HDLC encapsulation protocol,
but also has built-in security mechanisms such as PAP and CHAP.

There are many advantages to using PPP including the fact that it is not
proprietary. PPP includes many features not available in HDLC:

The link quality management feature, as shown in the figure, monitors

the quality of the link. If too many errors are detected, PPP takes the link
down.
PPP supports PAP and CHAP authentication. This feature is explained
and practiced in a later section.

99 PPP PAP and CHAP authentications.

Authentication - Peer routers exchange authentication messages. Two
authentication choices are Password Authentication Protocol (PAP) and
Challenge Handshake Authentication Protocol (CHAP).

PAP is a very basic two-way process. There is no encryption. The

username and password are sent in plaintext. If it is accepted, the
connection is allowed.
CHAP is more secure than PAP. It involves a three-way exchange of a
shared secret.
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100

What is NTP, how it works?

The Network Time Protocol (NTP) is used to synchronize time across

devices, which is especially important when trying to compare log files
from different devices.

# ntp update-calendar
# show ntp associations
Syslog messages that are generated by the network devices can be
collected and archived on a syslog server. The information can be used
for monitoring, debugging, and troubleshooting purposes. The
administrator can control where the messages are stored and displayed.
Syslog messages can be timestamped for analysis of the sequence of
network events; therefore, it is important to synchronize the clock across
the network devices with a Network Time Protocol (NTP) server.
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