CHAPTER

06

LED

Features

P. 175

Structure

P. 175

Operating principle

P. 176

Characteristics

P. 177

How to use

P. 180

Applications

P. 182

LED

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LED
LEDs (light-emitting diodes) are opto-semiconductors that convert electrical energy into light energy. LEDs offer the advantages of low
cost and a long service life compared to laser diodes.
LEDs are broadly grouped into visible LEDs and invisible LEDs. Visible LEDs are mainly used for display or illumination, where LEDs
are used individually without combination with photosensors. Invisible LEDs, however, are mainly used in combination with photosensors
such as photodiodes or CCDs.
As visible LEDs, HAMAMATSU provides red LEDs used in combination with photosensors for applications such as optical switches.
These red LEDs have high emission power that allows photosensors to generate a large photocurrent when they detect the LED light. As

invisible LEDs on the other hand, HAMAMATSU offers infrared LEDs. These red LEDs and infrared LEDs are used in a wide range of
applications including optical switches, optical communications, analysis, and CCD lighting.

LED

Advances in crystal growth technology and process technology led us to develop high-output, long-life LEDs (operable for ten years or
longer under the optimal drive conditions). In the crystal growth process, we have established vapor phase epitaxial growth technology in
addition to conventional liquid phase epitaxial growth, so that an even wider range of products can now be designed. In wafer processes,
we have a flexible system that supports small lot production as well as mass production. Assembly processes and inspection processes are
part of a system that delivers high reliability with the same level of quality control for both small and large volume production.
HAMAMATSU LEDs
Type

Infrared LED

Red LED

174

Applications

High output

Optical switches
Triangulation measurement

High-speed response

Optical rangefinders
Optical fiber communications

Current confinement type

Optical switches
Optical fiber communications

Collimated light

Encoders

Long wavelength

Moisture & gas detection

Optical switches

VICS specifications
(integrated with photosensor)

VICS (Vehicle Information and Communication System) on vehicle

High output

Optical switches
Barcode readers

Narrow directivity

Optical switches

RC (resonant cavity) type

Optical fiber communications

1. Features

1. Features

2. Structure

2. Structure

High emission luminance, small product variations

The LED chips are manufactured starting from an LED wafer

Our LEDs exhibit small variations in luminance between

containing internal PN junctions, which is then subjected to

products of the same LED type, which are mostly about

processes including diffusion and vapor deposition, and is

-20 to +30%.

finally diced into chips. In the LED wafer, PN junctions are

Wide-ranging product lineup

PN junctions can be made from the same material, but using

The vapor phase epitaxial growth technology we have

different materials makes it possible to create LEDs with high

established allows us to offer a broad product lineup ranging

emission efficiency. For example, in structures where the GaAs

from red LEDs to long-wavelength band infrared LEDs. We

active layer is sandwiched between clad layers of GaAlAs, both

are also aiming at developing new devices that will emit

P-clad layer and N-clad layer are in a heterojunction, so this

light at even longer wavelengths.

is called the double-heterostructure. In this type of structure

High reliability through meticulous process control

HAMAMATSU mainly manufactures LEDs for optical
switches and communications, etc. where high reliability
is essential (we do not make visible LEDs for display
applications). To maintain high reliability we implement

first of all formed by vapor or liquid epitaxial growth. These

the injected electrons and holes are confined in a highly dense

state by heterobarriers [Figure 2-1], where the electrons and
holes have a high probability of recombining, so light emission
efficiency will be high.

6
[Figure 2-1] Double-heterostructure

LED

meticulous process control. We also offer LEDs for use

in vehicles where durability against high temperatures, high
humidity, and temperature cycling is required.
Custom devices available
HAMAMATSU also makes LEDs to custom specifications,
including catalog products with modified specifications.
We are also able to handle production from a relatively
small quantity since all processes from wafer growth to final
inspection are carried out in-house.

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Next, gold electrodes are vapor-deposited on the upper and

lower surfaces of the LED wafer and are subjected to a high
temperature to form alloys that provide ohmic contacts between
the gold and semiconductor. The electrodes on the chip upper
surface are then etched away, leaving only the minimum
required sections for extracting light with high efficiency.
LED chips are usually die-bonded to a gold-plated metal base
or a silver-plated lead frame and electrically connected by gold
wire to wire leads. The gold wire is resin-coated or sealed with
a cap for protection.
Figure 2-2 shows the LED chip mounted on a metal base.
[Figure 2-2] LED chip mounted on metal base

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LED
To enhance radiant power, some LEDs use a metal base with a
concave area which serves as a reflector, and the LED chip is

3. Operating principle

mounted in that area [Figure 2-3].

When a forward voltage is applied to an LED, the potential

[Figure 2-3] Reflector structure

barrier of the PN junction becomes smaller, causing movement

of injected minority carriers (electrons in the N-layer, holes in
the P-layer) [Figure 3-1]. This movement results in electronhole recombination which emits light. However, not all carriers
recombine to emit light (emission recombination), and a type of
recombination not emitting light (non-emission recombination)
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also occurs. The energy lost by recombination is converted into

light during emission recombination but is converted into heat
during non-emission recombination.
[Figure 3-1] LED energy levels with forward voltage applied

6
LED
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Light generated by electron-hole recombination travels in

various directions. Light moving upward can be extracted from
the upper surface of the chip with relatively high efficiency.
Light moving sideways can also be converted to effective light
with relatively high efficiency by using a reflector to reflect
the light forward. In light moving downward, if there is a
GaAs substrate with a narrower band gap than the emission
wavelengths, then light absorption will occur there. So, in
liquid phase epitaxial growth, the GaAs substrate is sometimes
etched away in the wafer process. In vapor phase epitaxial
growth, however, the GaAs substrate cannot be removed
because the epitaxial layer is too thin. To cope with this, a
light-reflecting layer is formed beneath the emission layer to
suppress light absorption in the GaAs substrate [Figure 3-2].
[Figure 3-2] Cross section of LED having light-reflecting layer

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When a light-reflecting layer is formed over and under the

emission layer, the emitted light reflects repeatedly between
the upper and lower light-reflecting layers, causing a weak
resonance. This resonance light can be extracted from the
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2. Structure

upper side of the LED chip by setting the reflectance of the

upper light-reflecting layer lower than that of the lower light-

3. Operating principle

4. Characteristics

4. Characteristics

reflecting layer. An LED with this structure is called the RC

(resonant cavity) type LED. The cross section of an RC type
LED is shown in Figure 3-3.

Radiant flux (total light amount)

Radiant flux is the amount of light obtained by measuring all

[Figure 3-3] Cross section of RC type LED

light emitted from an LED. Radiant flux is generally measured

using an integrating sphere, but a simple measurement can be
made by using a jig with a reflector (mirror).
[Figure 4-1] Radiant flux measurement method

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6
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LED

Light emitted from an LED is not a single wavelength, so

the amount of light of each wavelength must be measured
and integrated to obtain an exact radiant flux value. In most
cases, however, the photodiode photocurrent is measured and
converted into a light level based on the photodiode spectral
response at the peak emission wavelength. This method is close
to that of actual LED usage, so measuring the radiant flux by
this method does not cause any significant problems.

Radiant intensity
Radiant intensity is a measure for indicating the intensity of
light emerging from the front of the LED. This is obtained by
converting results measured at a small solid angle into a value
per unit solid angle, and is expressed in W/sr units. In the case
of small solid angles, if we let the photodiode active area be S,
and the distance from the LED to the photodiode be r, the
solid angle can be expressed by equation (1).
= S/r2 ............ (1)

For example, when a photodiode with an active area of 0.12

cm is placed at a position 30 cm away from the LED, the solid
angle will be nearly equal to 1.26 10-5 sr. If the amount of
light measured is 1 W, then the radiant intensity Ie is given by
equation (2).
Ie =

1 10-6 W
80 mW/sr ............ (2)
1.26 10-5 sr

Radiant intensity is useful for indicating the optical power that

is measured in front of an LED with lens. Radiant intensity is
the power per unit solid angle, and so is not dependent on the
distance.
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06

LED
in the LED, resulting in detrimental effects such as lower

Irradiance
As with radiant intensity, irradiance is a measure for indicating
the intensity of light emerging from the front of an LED.
Irradiance is obtained by converting the results measured in a
small area into a value per unit area and is expressed in units of
2

output power, shifts in the peak emission wavelength, and LED

degradation.

Radiant flux vs. forward current characteristics

W/cm .

The radiant flux vs. forward current characteristics show

For example, when a photodiode with an active area of 0.12

a nearly linear line. So if the radiant flux is measured at

cm is placed at a position 30 cm away from the LED and the

a certain current value, the approximate radiant flux for a

amount of light measured is 1 W, then the irradiance Ee is

different current value can be easily estimated. However, if

expressed by equation (3) using the photodiode active area

the temperature of the emission section increases due to the

which is 0.011 cm2.

ambient temperature and heat generated from the LED itself,

Ee =

then the radiant flux decreases and saturation can be observed

1 W
91 W/cm2 ............ (3)
0.011 cm2

in the characteristic graph. In pulsed operation, the saturation

state varies according to the pulse width and duty ratio.

Irradiance is the power per unit area and so is inversely

proportional to the square of the distance from the LED. But

[Figure 4-3] Radiant flux vs. forward current (L2656 series)

this inversely proportional relationship is lost if the photodiode

is too close to the LED because the LED emission section is

not a point light source.

LED

The irradiance values listed in our datasheets are measured

by placing a photodiode with an active area of 1 1 cm at a
position 2 cm away from the LED. These values can be used
as a guide for finding the amount of light passing through an
external lens.

Forward current vs. forward voltage characteristics

LEDs have forward current vs. forward voltage characteristics
similar to those of rectifier diodes. The characteristic curves of
individual LED types differ depending on the element structure

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and other factors [Figure 4-2].

Directivity

[Figure 4-2] Forward current vs. forward voltage

Directivity indicates to what extent the light emitted from an

LED broadens. At HAMAMATSU, this directivity is measured
with the following procedure using the measuring device
shown in Figure 4-4.
An LED is set on the turntable in the dark box.
(Position of emission area: center of turntable)
The turntable is rotated through 180 to make the front of
the LED first face -90, and then make it face +90 (see
Figure 4-4).
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Light emitted from the LED is detected with the photodiode

while the turntable is rotated.

As Figure 4-2 shows, compared to an ordinary LED, the lowresistance LED requires a lower forward voltage (VF) in order
to flow the same amount of forward current.
In general, using an LED with a lower forward voltage allows
easier circuit design. An LED with a higher forward voltage
will consume more power even when operated at the same
current value. This will cause a subsequent temperature rise
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4. Characteristics

[Figure 4-4] Directivity measurement setup (inside dark box)

[Figure 4-6] Emission spectrum (L2656)

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Directivity is expressed in percent with the peak value being

100% and plotted on a graph as shown in Figure 4-5. To
indicate the directivity by numerical value, a full width at half
maximum or FWHM (angle at which the light output is half
the maximum output) is used. Since directivity is normally

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symmetrical, the full width at half maximum is represented as a

plus or minus percentage like 10%.
To achieve high resolution in the directivity measurement,

Response speed and cut-off frequency

An LED emits light at a response speed which causes a delay

in Figure 4-4) must be small. So the distance from the LED

in the light emission waveform relative to the input current

to the photodiode is set as long as needed, and the photodiode

waveform. The LED response speed is expressed in terms of

used must have a small active area. Radiant intensity can also

rise time and fall time of the light emission waveform produced

be obtained from the photodiode output when the turntable is

when a square-wave pulse current is made to flow in the LED.

positioned at 0.

This rise time is the time required for the response to rise from

6
LED

the angle from the LED toward the photodiode active area (

10% to 90% of the peak of the light emission waveform, and

[Figure 4-5] Directivity (L1915-01)

the fall time is the time required to fall from 90% to 10%.
The cut-off frequency also indicates the LED time response.
When sine waves in DC current flowing through an LED
reach a high frequency, the LED emission response cannot
follow up on this change so the amplitude of the emission
waveform becomes small. The cut-off frequency is defined as
the frequency at which the amplitude of the emission waveform
decreases to 1/2 (-3 dB) of the initial level [Figure 4-7]. The
cut-off frequency (fc) is expressed by equation (4) if the rise
time (tr) and fall time (tf ) are equal.
fc =

0.35 ............
(4)
tr

[Figure 4-7] Frequency characteristic (L8013)

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Emission spectrum
An LEDs peak emission wavelength is determined by the
epitaxial wafer material. It is approx. 940 nm for GaAs and 660
to 900 nm for GaAlAs (depending on the Al mixed crystal ratio).
Unlike laser diodes, LED emits light over a wide spectral range.
The extent to which the emitted spectrum broadens is expressed
in a full width at half maximum (FWHM) [Figure 4-6]. LED
emission spectra vary with the ambient temperature and the
heat while conducting power, and shift to the long wavelength
side as the temperature increases.
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06

LED
ends of resistance RL is 0.6 V, and a current of 20 mA (0.6/

5. How to use

30 = 0.02 A) flows through the LED. The desired LED drive

current can be set by changing the RL value.

DC drive
The most common method for using LEDs in applications such

Pulse drive

as optical switches is to provide a constant forward current

The simplest pulse drive method is to supply a pulse generator

flow. In this method, care should be taken not to allow the

output directly to both ends of the LED. However, the current

forward current to exceed its absolute maximum rating for

capacity is usually insufficient in this method, so a transistor

the LED. If the ambient temperature of the LED is likely to

as shown in Figure 5-3 must be used. During pulse drive, the

be high, then allowable forward current versus the ambient

current value must never exceed the absolute maximum ratings.

temperature must be taken into account.

[Figure 5-3] Example of pulse drive circuit

[Figure 5-1] Example of DC drive circuit

6
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LED

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Figure 5-1 shows the simplest circuit example. To make a

When driving the LED in high-speed pulse mode, a high-speed

constant current of 20 mA flow in this circuit, first set the

drive circuit is required. Figure 5-4 shows a high-speed pulse

variable resistor R to a maximum value and then apply the

drive circuit.

voltage. Next, gradually reduce the resistance of the variable

resistor until the current reaches 20 mA while watching the

[Figure 5-4] Example of high-speed pulse drive circuit

ammeter. If not using a variable resistor, then the resistance

value should be calculated. For example, if the LED forward
voltage is 1.4 V while the forward current is 20 mA, then the
resistance R is given by: R = (5.0 V - 1.4 V)/0.02 A = 180 .
So a 180 resistor should be used here.
In the circuit shown in Figure 5-1, the forward current varies
slightly according to fluctuations in the LED forward voltage.
To prevent these fluctuations, a constant current circuit using
an op amp is useful. Figure 5-2 shows a simple constant current
circuit utilizing an op amp.
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[Figure 5-2] Example of constant current circuit using op amp

In Figure 5-4, the LED turns on when the input is at the high
level. The forward current (IF) which flows through the LED
can be given by: IF = (Vs/2 - VB)/R3 [with this circuit example,
IF = (5/2 - 0.5)/40 = 0.05 A]. The response speed of this circuit
is determined by the response speed of Tr1 and Tr2. It will
be about 20 MHz if 2SC1815 is used and about 100 MHz if
2SC4308 is used.

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In Figure 5-2, a reference voltage of 0.6 V is applied to the

normal-phase input terminal (+) of the op amp and the potential
of the reverse-phase input terminal (-) becomes nearly equal
to this reference voltage potential. So the voltage drop at both
180

Degradation
When an LED is used for long periods of time, its performance
degrades. Degradation usually appears as a decrease in
output power or fluctuations in the forward voltage. These
degradations are probably due to crystal dislocations and shifts
caused by heat generation in the emission section. These can be

5. How to use

observed as dark lines or dark spots.

is exceeded. Calculation results from equation (6) should

Degradation also occurs from external stress. If the LED is

therefore be used only as a reference. These are unlikely to

driven with stress applied to the LED chip, its performance

match the actual degradation particularly at low temperatures

will degrade drastically. This stress might also be caused by

where stress degradation cannot be ignored.

mechanical distortion on the package, so use plenty of caution

when mounting the LED.

Method for calculating the degradation rate

In general, the LED light output (P) decreases exponentially
with operating time as expressed in equation (5).
P = Po exp (- t) ............ (5)
Po : initial light output
: degradation rate
t : operating time

The degradation rate in equation (5) depends on the element

materials, structure, and operating conditions, etc. and is
usually assumed as shown in equation (6).
= o IF exp (-Ea/k Tj) ............ (6)
degradation constant (inherent to LED)
operating current [A]
activation energy [eV]
Boltzmann's constant [eV/K]
temperature of light-emitting layer [K]

LED

o :
IF :
Ea :
k :
Tj :

In equation (6), IF is added to the Arrhenius equation which

relates to the emission layer temperature, based on the view
that dislocations and shifts in the crystal are caused not only
by lattice vibrations due to temperature but also by the energy
from non-emission recombination.
The emitting layer temperature (Tj) is expressed by equation (7).
Tj = (Rth IF VF) + Ta ............ (7)
Rth: thermal resistance [C/W]
VF : forward voltage [V]
Ta : ambient temperature [K]

By using equations (5), (6), and (7), the degradation rate under
other conditions can be figured out from the life test data
measured under certain conditions. For example, if we have life
test data measured at 50 mA DC for up to 3000 hours, then
can be found from equation (5). Based on this and equation
(5), the extent of degradation after 3000 hours of operation
under the same conditions can be estimated. To calculate the
life data of the same LED operated under different conditions,
o should be obtained by substituting Tj found from equation
(7) into equation (6) together with obtained previously. After
o is obtained, substituting the objective test conditions into
equation (6) gives the degradation rate .
The activation energy (Ea) usually used is 0.5 to 0.8 eV, and
the thermal resistance ranges from about 300 to 350 C/W for
TO-18 and TO-46 packages.
Equation (6) takes only the degradation from heat into account
and does not give any consideration to stress degradation and
the mode of breaking that might occur if the specified rating
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CHAPTER

06

LED

[Figure 6-2] Concept drawing when collimated LED is used

6. Applications
Encoders
To meet FA (factory automation) equipment demands for highspeed and high-precision nano-level control, high-resolution
rotary encoders are now being produced that are capable of
angular detection down to 16 millionths of a single rotation.
A rotary encoder uses a fixed slit plate and a rotating slit disk,
both with slits formed at a fine pitch. The passage and blockage
of LED light created by the relative movements of the slits are
detected with photodiodes to find the angle. Those photodiodes
are positioned in complex patterns for high-precision detection,
so the LED must illuminate the photodiodes uniformly.

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If poorly collimated light is used, some problems arise. For

example, a portion of light is blocked at positions where the
light should completely pass through slits [left drawing in

Optical switches

LED

Figure 6-1]. This lowers the signal amplitude so detection

Optical switches are used for detecting the presence or absence

performance drops. Another problem is that light leakage

of objects without making direct contact with them. In a

occurs at positions where light through a rotating slit should be

transmission type optical switch, an LED and a photodiode are

blocked by the fixed slit plate [right drawing in Figure 6-1].

arranged facing each other across the path of the object, and the

To prevent these problems, high-precision encoders must use

photodiode detects an object when it interrupts the LED light.

a collimated LED that emits collimated light uniformly with

In a reflective type optical switch, an LED and a photodiode are

small convergence and dispersion. These collimated LEDs

arranged on the same side, and the photodiode detects an object

in most cases use an LED chip having a current confinement

when it reflects the LED light back to the photodiode.

structure with a small light emission diameter. However, chips

with this current confinement structure are likely subject to

[Figure 6-3] Transmission type optical switch

a problem called sudden death where rapid degradation

occurs. HAMAMATSU collimated LEDs do not use a current
confinement structure chip, but deliver a high degree of parallel
light by using an optimally shaped lens and ensure high
reliability.
[Figure 6-1] Concept drawing when poorly collimated LED is used
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[Figure 6-4] Reflective type optical switch

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In optical switch applications, red LEDs are sometimes used

to make the optical axis easy to align or to indicate the sensing
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6. Applications

status. The brightness visible to the human eye and the light

[Figure 6-6] Barcode reader (pen type)

output measured with a photodiode might not always match

each other. So HAMAMATSU provides red LEDs that emit
light on the 670 nm wavelength which is easy to see and also
delivers a large light output.
Near infrared LEDs with a large output are used in many fields
including security applications requiring invisible light. When
used with a large projection lens, these LEDs can emit a light
beam more than 100 meters. HAMAMATSU also provides
LEDs using a reflector structure [Figure 2-3, shown earlier in
this chapter] that also makes effective use of light emitted from
the side of the chip, allowing a large amount of light into the
projection lens (incident angle: approx. 60).
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Optical switches that contain distance information are

increasingly being used. This type of optical switch uses a PSD

LEDs are also used in raindrop sensors for automobile

or two-element photodiode that detects the position of a light

windshield wipers. In these sensors, a photodiode detects LED

spot, in order to detect an object if it enters a particular distance

light reflecting back from the windshield glass. If a raindrop

range. Here, no detection error will occur even if an object

lands on the surface of the windshield, the light reflectance of

passes through the back of the detection area.

the windshield glass will decrease, causing the light level on

LED

[Figure 6-5] Optical switch system holding distance information

the photodiode to lower. The amount of rain can in this way be

detected.
[Figure 6-7] Raindrop sensor

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Light sources for object detection

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LEDs are also used in recent years as light sources for grain
sorting machines, etc. Though heat is emitted from an LED
during operation, it is small compared to that from incandescent
lamps so LED heat has almost no effect on the grains during
sorting.
Infrared LEDs and red LEDs are used as an auxiliary light
source for CCD cameras. Contact type barcode readers mainly
use multiple red LEDs. Pen type barcode readers use a single
set consisting of an LED and photodiode.

Distance measurement
LEDs are also used in optical rangefinders that make use of
a phase difference to measure distance. Optical rangefinders
employ a principle that measures the distance by means of the
phase difference that occurs while light travels to and returns
from the target point. High-speed response LEDs must be used
since high-speed modulation is required to increase the distance
measurement accuracy.

Optical communications
HAMAMATSU high-speed and high-power LEDs are
used for POF (plastic optical fiber) communications (see
Chapter 3, Photo IC) and VICS (Vehicle Information and
Communication System), etc.

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