Lab session # 1

To find diameter of solid pins using Vernier calliper

APPRATUS:
Vernier calliper, Digital Vernier calliper, solid pins

FIGURE:

Theory:
A caliper (British spelling also calliper) is a device used to measure the
distance between two symmetrically opposing sides. A caliper can be as
simple as a compass with inward or outward-facing points. The tips of the
caliper are adjusted to fit across the points to be measured, the caliper is
then removed and the distance read by measuring between the tips with a
measuring tool, such as a ruler. They are used in many fields such as
metalworking, mechanical engineering, gunsmithing, handloading,
woodworking, woodturning and in medicine.

TYPES OF CALLIPER:
1 Vernier calliper
2 Dial calliper
3 Digital caliper

1 Vernier calliper :
Vernier caliper, instrument for making very accurate linear measurements
introduced in 1631 by Pierre Vernier of France. It utilizes two graduated

scales: a main scale similar to that on a ruler and an especially graduated

auxiliary scale, the Vernier that slides parallel to the main scale and
enables readings to be made to a fraction of a division on the main scale.
Vernier calipers are widely used in scientific laboratories and in
manufacturing for quality control measurements.

Parts of a Vernier caliper:

1 Outside large jaws: used to measure external diameter or width of
an object
2 Inside small jaws: used to measure internal diameter of an object
3 Depth probe: used to measure depths of an object or a hole
4 Main scale: scale marked every mm
5 Vernier scale gives interpolated measurements in fractions of an inch
6 Retainer: used to block movable part to allow the easy transferring of
a measurement
The Vernier calipers give a direct reading of the distance measured with high
accuracy and precision. They are functionally identical, with different ways of
reading the result. These calipers comprise a calibrated scale with a fixed
jaw, and another jaw, with a pointer, that slides along the scale. The distance
between the jaws is then read in different ways for the three types.
The simplest method is to read the position of the pointer directly on the
scale. When the pointer is between two markings, the user can mentally
interpolate to improve the precision of the reading. This would be a simple
calibrated caliper; but the addition of a Vernier scale allows more accurate
interpolation, and is the universal practice; this is the Vernier caliper.

Vernier can measure internal dimensions (using the uppermost jaws in the
picture at right), external dimensions using the pictured lower jaws, and in
many cases depth by the use of a probe that is attached to the movable
head and slides along the centre of the body. This probe is slender and can
get into deep grooves that may prove difficult for other measuring tools.
The Vernier scales may include metric measurements on the lower part of
the scale and inch measurements on the upper, or vice versa, in countries
that use inches. Vernier calipers commonly used in industry provide a
precision to 0.01 mm (10 micrometres), or one thousandth of an inch. They
are available in sizes that can measure up to 1,829 mm (72 in).
How to use Vernier Caliper:

The Vernier caliper is an extremely precise measuring instrument; the

reading error is 1/20 mm = 0.05 mm.

Close the jaws lightly on the object to be measured.

If you are measuring something with a round cross section, make sure
that the axis of the object is perpendicular to the caliper. This is
necessary to ensure that you are measuring the full diameter and not
merely a chord.

Ignore the top scale, which is calibrated in inches.

Use the bottom scale, which is in metric units.

Notice that there is a fixed scale and a sliding scale.

The boldface numbers on the fixed scale are centimeters.

The tick marks on the fixed scale between the boldface numbers are
millimeters.

There are ten tick marks on the sliding scale. The left-most tick mark
on the sliding scale will let you read from the fixed scale the number of
whole millimeters that the jaws are opened.

In the example above, the leftmost tick mark on the sliding scale is
between 21 mm and 22 mm, so the number of whole millimeters is 21.

Next we find the tenths of millimeters. Notice that the ten tick marks
on the sliding scale are the same width as nine ticks marks on the fixed
scale. This means that at most one of the tick marks on the sliding
scale will align with a tick mark on the fixed scale; the others will miss.

The number of the aligned tick mark on the sliding scale tells you the
number of tenths of millimeters. In the example above, the 3rd tick
mark on the sliding scale is in coincidence with the one above it, so the
caliper reading is (21.30 0.05) mm.

If two adjacent tick marks on the sliding scale look equally aligned with
their counterparts on the fixed scale, then the reading is half way
between the two marks. In the example above, if the 3rd and 4th tick
marks on the sliding scale looked to be equally aligned, then the
reading would be (21.35 0.05) mm.

On those rare occasions when the reading just happens to be a "nice"

number like 2 cm, don't forget to include the zero decimal places
showing the precision of the measurement and the reading error. So
not 2 cm, but rather (2.000 0.005) cm or (20.00 0.05) mm.

2 Dial caliper:

Instead of using a Vernier mechanism, which requires some practice to use,

the dial caliper reads the final fraction of a millimeter or inch on a simple
dial.
How to use dial calliper:
In this instrument, a small, precise rack and pinion drives a pointer on a
circular dial, allowing direct reading without the need to read a Vernier scale.
Typically, the pointer rotates once every inch, tenth of an inch, or 1
millimeter. This measurement must be added to the coarse whole inches or
centimeters read from the slide. The dial is usually arranged to be rotatable
beneath the pointer, allowing for "differential" measurements (the measuring
of the difference in size between two objects, or the setting of the dial using
a master object and subsequently being able to read directly the plus-orminus variance in size of subsequent objects relative to the master object).
The slide of a dial caliper can usually be locked at a setting using a small
lever or screw; this allows simple go/no-go checks of part sizes.

3 Digital calliper:

A refinement now popular is the replacement of the analog dial with an

electronic digital display on which the reading is displayed as a single value.
Rather than a rack and pinion, they have a linear encoder. Some digital
calipers can be switched between centimeters or millimeters, and inches. All
provide for zeroing the display at any point along the slide, allowing the
same sort of differential measurements as with the dial caliper. Digital
calipers may contain some sort of "reading hold" feature, allowing the
reading of dimensions even in awkward locations where the display cannot
be seen.
Specifications:

Ordinary 6-in/150-mm digital calipers are made of stainless steel, have a

rated accuracy of 0.001 in (0.02mm) and resolution of 0.0005 in (0.01 mm).
The same technology is used to make longer 8-in and 12-in calipers; the
accuracy for bigger measurements declines to 0.001 in (0.03 mm) for 100
200 mm and 0.0015 in (0.04 mm) for 200300 mm.
Battery of calliper:
Many digital calipers are inexpensive and perform reasonably well. One point
worth noting is battery current when they are turned off. Many calipers do
not stop drawing power when the switch is in the off position; they shut down
the display but continue drawing nearly as much current. The current may be
as much as 20 microamperes, which is much higher than many established
brands. Sometimes calipers may not work properly when the battery voltage
has dropped relatively little; silver cells, preferably selected from a datasheet
to have a constant voltage for most of their life, may give a much longer
usable life than alkaline button cells (e.g., SR44 instead of LR44).
Interfacion with computer:
Increasingly, digital calipers offer a serial data output to allow them to be
interfaced with a dedicated recorder or a personal computer. The digital
interface significantly decreases the time to make and record a series of
measurements, and it also improves the reliability of the records. A suitable
device to convert the serial data output to common computer interfaces
such as RS-232, Universal Serial Bus, or wireless can be built or purchased.
With such a converter, measurements can be directly entered into a
spreadsheet, a statistical process control program, or similar software.
Like dial calipers, the slide of a digital caliper can usually be locked using a
lever or thumb-screw.
Modification:
Some digital calipers contain a capacitive linear encoder. A pattern of bars is
etched directly on the printed circuit board in the slider. Under the scale of
the caliper another printed circuit board also contains an etched pattern of
lines. The combination of these printed circuit boards forms two variable
capacitors. The two capacitances are out of phase. As the slider moves the
capacitance changes in a linear fashion and in a repeating pattern. The
circuitry built into the slider counts the bars as the slider moves and does a
linear interpolation based on the magnitudes of the capacitors to find the
precise position of the slider. Other digital calipers contain an inductive linear
encoder, which allows robust performance in the presence of contamination
such as coolants. Magnetic linear encoders are used in yet other digital
calipers.

Comparison:
Each of the above types of calipers have their relative merits and faults.
Vernier calipers are rugged and have long lasting accuracy, are coolant
proof, are not affected by magnetic fields, and are largely shock proof. They
may have both centimeter and inch scales. However, Vernier calipers require
good eyesight or a magnifying glass to read and can be difficult to read from
a distance or from awkward angles. It is relatively easy to misread the last
digit. In production environments, reading Vernier calipers all day long is
error-prone and is annoying to the workers.
Dial calipers are comparatively easy to read, especially when seeking exact
center by rocking and observing the needle movement. They can be set to 0
at any point for comparisons. They are usually fairly susceptible to shock
damage. They are also very prone to getting dirt in the gears, which can
cause accuracy problems.
Digital calipers switch easily between centimeter and inch systems.They
can be set to 0 easily at any point with full count in either direction, and can
take measurements even if the display is completely hidden, either by using
a "hold" key, or by zeroing the display and closing the jaws, showing the
correct measurement, but negative. They can be mechanically and
electronically fragile. Most also require batteries, and do not resist coolant
well. They are also only moderately shockproof, and can be vulnerable to
dirt.
Calipers may read to a resolution of 0.01 mm or 0.0005 in, but accuracy may
not be better than about 0.02 mm or 0.001 in for 150 mm (6 in) calipers,
and worse for longer ones.

Least count:
It is the smallest reading which can be measured by Vernier scale.
smallest reading onmain scale
Least count = no . of divisions on vernier scale
In case of Vernier calliper it is 0.1 or 0.05 mm

Zero error:

When the jaws are closed and if the reading is 0.10 mm, the zero error is
referred to as +0.10 mm. The method to use a Vernier scale or caliper with
zero error is to use the formula "actual reading = main scale + Vernier scale
(zero error)", thus the actual reading is 19.00 + 0.54 (0.10) = 19.44 mm
The method to use a Vernier scale or caliper with zero error is to use the
formula "actual reading = main scale + Vernier scale (zero error)". Zero
error may arise due to knocks that cause the calibration at the 0.00 mm
when the jaws are perfectly closed or just touching each other. Positive zero
error refers to the fact that when the jaws of the Vernier caliper are just
closed, the reading is a positive reading away from the actual reading of 0.00
mm. If the reading is 0.10 mm, the zero error is referred to as +0.10 mm.
Negative zero error refers to the fact that when the jaws of the Vernier
caliper are just closed, the reading is a negative reading away from the
actual reading of 0.00 mm. If the reading is 0.08 mm, the zero error is
referred to as 0.08 mm.

Precautions:

A caliper must be properly applied against the part in order to take the
desired measurement. For example, when measuring the thickness of a
plate a Vernier caliper must be held at right angles to the piece. Some
practice may be needed to measure round or irregular objects
correctly.

Accuracy of measurement when using a caliper is highly dependent on

the skill of the operator. Regardless of type, a caliper's jaws must be
forced into contact with the part being measured. As both part and
caliper are always to some extent elastic, the amount of force used
affects the indication. A consistent, firm touch is correct. Too much
force results in an under indication as part and tool distort; too little
force gives insufficient contact and an over indication. This is a greater
problem with a caliper incorporating a wheel, which lends mechanical
advantage. This is especially the case with digital calipers, calipers out
of adjustment, or calipers with a poor quality beam.

Simple calipers are uncalibrated; the measurement taken must be

compared against a scale. Whether the scale is part of the caliper or
not, all analog calipersVerniers and dialsrequire good eyesight in
order to achieve the highest precision. Digital calipers have the
advantage in this area.

Calibrated calipers may be mishandled, leading to loss of zero. When a

calipers' jaws are fully closed, it should of course indicate zero. If it
does not, it must be recalibrated or repaired. It might seem that a
Vernier caliper cannot get out of calibration but a drop or knock can be
enough. Digital calipers have zero set buttons.

Vernier, dial and digital calipers can be used with accessories that
extend their usefulness. Examples are a base that extends their
usefulness as a depth gauge and a jaw attachment that allows
measuring the center distance between holes. Since the 1970s a clever
modification of the moveable jaw on the back side of any caliper allows
for step or depth measurements in addition to external caliper
measurements, in similar fashion to a universal micrometer.

Procedure:

Take a Vernier calliper, press its jaws against each other find the zero
error.

Take pins and place them between jaws of anlouge Vernier calliper

Note the reading of main scale and Vernier scale

Repeat the process for digital calliper.

Comments:

Vernier calliper is a device used to measure diameter of solid pins.

It is very useful for an engineer to analyze the measurements of a solid

round body

Measurements up to 0.05 mm can be taken from it.